An urban environment influenced by cycling by Lukas Polikevičius

An urban environment influenced by cycling Lukas Polikevicius

University of Strathclyde Department of Architecture BSc (Hons) Architectural Studies Dissertation Urban environment influenced by cycling. Lukas Polikevicius Reg No.: 201212536 Supervisor: Mike Grant

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bicycles. Or rather people on bicycles. A symphony of human powered movement across the cityscape.â&#x20AC;?- Mikael Colville-Andersen, 2010

Declaration AB 420 Dissertation 2016/17 BSc Honours Architectural Studies BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study MArch/Pg Dip Advanced Architectural Design MArch Architectural Design International

Declaration â&#x20AC;&#x153;I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.â&#x20AC;? Name: Signed: Date:

Lukas Polikevicius

Contents Abstract

Introduction

1.History

Bicycle Bicycle path Cycling community Overview of cycling in Netherlands 2.Cycling Strategy

Cycling in Europe Development of strategy in UK 3.Design

Requirements for bicycle friendly city General design tools

Designing a city for the people Macro infrastructure design Micro infrastructure design 4.Cycling In Glasgow

5.Conclusion

Bibliography

List of figures

104

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Abstract First cities were formed 7000 years ago. During recent period of time our perception of an urban environment has changed. Cities are becoming out of proportion large scale, and the size of a human being is ignored. Streets and roads that are growing wider to accommodate cars, motorways are slashing through cities to help transport large portions of goods from point A to B. Humans are being erased from the picture of the city, and there is no wrong in saying that the cities should be designed to a certain scale. At the moment urban fabric is being engineered to make it function, forgetting the individual, who, in the end, has to fit the space and be comfortable within it. In one of his many talks Mikael Collville-Andersen argues that that cycling could be way forward designing more ‘people- friendly’ city, or as he refers to it –‘A life sized city’, a place where a human being doesn’t feel alien. Cycling has been around for centuries. A recreational activity, a healthy and an ecological way of transportation, a sport and a subculture that draws in likeminded people to share their experiences. It has been an inseparable part of the urban environment too, but recent shift towards more car centric urban planning and previously mentioned issues of a city being too big for a human being suggests looking at cycling as a way of designing a city. The written work will focus on the subject of cycling as a tool of making a city more suitable for a human being. The research is based on history of cycling and social movements based on cycling that made some parts of Europe more bicycle friendly than the others. One of the main subjects to be investigated is cycling habits in bicycle friendliest cities in Europe. The issue is that the cities are becoming overcrowded, which causes daily traffic

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

jams and difficulty traveling in the city. Cycling could solve these problems, but appropriate infrastructure design is necessary to achieve that. This work will look into strategies adopted by European Union countries and UK.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 1 Amount of space required to transport the same amount of passengers by a bicycle, car and by the bus.

INTRODUCTION

Introduction Purpose of research Uncontrolled growth of urbanism is causing long term damage to the everyday life environment of the human being. If compared two images of the same city, for instance hundred years ago and today, the first thing we would notice is the change of the scale of the city: large buildings, wide and overpopulated streets. One would argue that is a product of economic growth and could only mean the success, though there’s consequences to these changes. The human being doesn’t feel comfortable within an environment like that, and if cities are going to keep growth at this pace human will eventually become just an insignificant cog within a large scale urban machine. To address the issue, there is no need do anything drastic to the existing urban fabric. Cycling could be considered as one of possible ways to prevent cities from becoming foreign places for people. With correct infrastructure cycling is a fast, cheap and convenient way to travel within the city, in many occasions even faster than public transport or car. In this way cycling helps to ‘shrink’ the city to more appealing size. Flash Eurobarometer of quality of life in European cities is released each year by European Commission to present a survey on how happy people are in major cities across Europe. (Martin, 2017) Out of top twenty happiest cities in Europe, twelve have well developed cycling infrastructure, whilst the rest eight cities are working hard on improving. One could argue there is a direct relation to happiness of people and cycling.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Cycling is beneficial for every part involved. Environment gets healthier outlook by reduction of CO2 emissions, city is benefitting financially from public transport prices and spending less money on large scale infrastructure projects for cars and the people are getting healthier and happier.

INTRODUCTION

Problem definition The way urban environment was being built has changed throughout the history, influenced by politics, economic growth or social experiences. The way city is perceived and being shaped for future generations shows a decreasing inclusion of a human being within an urban fabric. The city is becoming less of a place for personal comfort, rather an end product of an all-round growth. Studies of theoretical physicists Luis Bettencourt and Geoffrey West reveal, negative variables of urban life, such as crime and disease have exactly the same mathematical equation as when city grows in scale. This tells us that it is impossible to get the economic growth without a parallel growth in the spread of subjects we would like to avoid. (Lehrer, 2010) According to West, large cities around the world share the concept of super-linear scaling: â&#x20AC;&#x153;In order to sustain growth, you need to continuously innovate and you need to do it at a faster and faster rate. So that the time between major innovations gets shorter and shorter, and the pace of life has to necessarily get faster and faster to sustain that growth.â&#x20AC;? In plain view cycling is viewed as the means of transportation, though in this work cycling is discussed as a tool to design a city, where a person would feel welcome. An advocate for cycling Mikael Collville-Andersen says by simply building more roads- more cars will emerge. An opposite example for bicycle could be applied in the Netherlands, where widely spread bicycle infrastructure made cycling feasible and popular mode of transportation.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 2 In the 1960s planners viewed the car as the travel mode of the future, and swaths of the city were destroyed to make way for motorised traffic.

INTRODUCTION

Research motivation and objective Since cycling is a tool to make an urban environment more liveable, the dissertation will look into details of what makes cycling possible in the city, what action are ought to be taken to build a bicycle friendly urban environment. Seeing Glasgow as relatively small city in scale, it is not quite clear why cycling is not prioritised as a main means of transportation in the city just yet. The main objective is to conduct a thorough research on history, cycling strategies and design tools that make up cycling infrastructure in various places in the world.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Chapter one: History Bicycle Bicycle path Cycling community Overview of cycling in Netherlands

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 3 A sketch of a bicycle by Gian Giacomo Caprotti.

HISTORY

Bicycle The invention of the two wheeled, steerable, human propelled machine, or simply a bicycle dates back to as early as 1493. A sketch by Gian Giacomo Caprotti (a pupil of Leonardo Da Vinci’s) was produced, however it is little known of the authenticity of the drawing (Lessing, 1998, p.49-56). The earliest design and commercially successful production of the bicycle is known to be the year 1860, created by the French, which sparked a trend and a craze for bicycles during 1860-1880. During this period “the safety bicycle” was introduced, which meant a serious shift in the way the public viewed a bicycle. It became an everyday way of transportation rather than a dangerous toy for sport. The design had all the basics for the bicycle we see today: a rear wheel drive, front wheel steering, rubber tires and a hollow section tube steel frame. Throughout the history of cycling since the first invention what is the foundation for today’s bicycle three types of bicycles emerge as main chapters for evolution of bicycle.

Draisine The first historically verifiable invention by German Baron Karl von Drais. By direct translation the name meant “running machine” (German Laufmaschine). The design was patented in 1818 and as a British bike historian Serena Beeley argues, the device was a starting point for later bicycle design. (Hoefer, 2006) Although the design of an invention was primitive,

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 4 Drawing of an original draisine made -to-measure with staff messenger. (left) Fig. 5 A man riding a victorian penny-fathing bicycle. (right)

HISTORY

it resembled a bicycle we see today; the two wheels in line connected by a wooden frame, with a steering mechanism, though there was no drivetrain, so the upright seated riders pushed themselves forward with their feet. The designer was granted an early type of patent for this invention, but the velocipede never made much money, the privileges for the patent expired five years later and the concept was shortly adopted by a number wagon builders. (Hoefer, 2006)

Penny-farthing A milestone in the evolution of a bicycle design is an invention of a high-bicycle by a Frenchman EugĂ¨ne Meyer. The device was the first one to have all the basic features used in the modern bicycle: the rubber tires, pedals and a hollow section steel frame. (Hadland and Lessing, 2014) Since the rear wheel drivetrain wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t invented yet, the size of front wheel with direct attachment of the pedals was used. The main driving force for the invention of the high-bicycle was the desire to make the bike faster, thus increasing its appeal for sporting. British engineers and mechanics came up with few crucial changes in wheel and frame design, making the bicycle much lighter and faster. (Hoefer, 2006)

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 6 Advertisement for 1885s the Rover Safety Bicycle.

HISTORY

Safety bike As much as the high-bicycle was a step in the right direction it was still a dangerous and an impractical device that needed much improvement. Designed as a replacement for penny farthing device called safety bike emerged from a workshop of an English engineer Harry John Lawson in 1877. The device introduced a rear wheel drive and the same size wheels, which made it easier to ride and more accessible for everyone. The shape and the design of a bicycle have not changed much since the invention of the device, it has evolved, though the idea stayed the same. It could be argued that simplicity of design and bicycle being practical were driving force for the success of the bicycle in later history.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 7 Cyclists on the A24 bike path, the 1930s arterial road north of Dorking.

HISTORY

Bicycle path

A bicycle path is a vital part of the bicycle infrastructure. It comes in different shapes and forms: a painted lane sharing the same road with the other vehicles, a separate track parallel to the road or a standalone cycle path through fields, parks or forests. The need of a place for cyclists within the traffic became obvious as the motorised vehicle industry began to boom in the early 1930s and the same roads for cyclists turned out to be unsafe. Interestingly enough, the pedestrians and car traffic has and always have had a clear separation between the two when cyclists, seems to be stuck awkwardly somewhere in-between, without a certain place within the traffic. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motorists assume that the roads were built for cars, more than a century ago, even though first to fund flat roads were cyclist communities (Reid, 2013). By the end of 19th century, the railways and steam operated locomotives were taking off really well as a type of transportation, which lead the coaching trade slowly die off. (the Guardian, 2011). The roads were left almost unused and in decreasing condition, cyclists were the first vehicle operators back then to go on journeys from town to town. The hard flat surfaced roads are relatively new. Asphalt became widespread road surface around 1930 and bicyclist organizations are to thank for it. Improvements on the roads were first paid for by them. This fact was ignored, as 2 million motorists wanted to drive faster, and Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 12 million cyclists were in the way (Reid, 2013).

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 8 Three men using newly-opened cycle path alongside A40 between Hanger Lane and Greenford.

HISTORY

A satirical verse in Punch magazine of 1907 summed up this attitude from some drivers: “The roads were made for me; years ago they were made. Wise rulers saw me coming and made roads. Now that I am come they go on making roads – making them up. For I break things. Roads I break and Rules of the Road. Statutory limits were made for me. I break them. I break the dull silence of the country. Sometimes I break down, and thousands flock round me, so that I dislocate the traffic. But I am the Traffic.” (Punch magazine, 1907) Although the bicycle paths have been around for some time in the Netherlands and some other parts of Europe before 1934, that year marks the opening of the first bicycle path in England. A section of two and a quarter miles of rough concrete pathway alongside the A40 in west of London connecting Hangar Lane to Greenford Road in Ealing. The bicycle path received only a ‘frigid welcome’. Most cyclists were concerned that such innovations marked an attempt by, then a minority, motorists, to push everyone else off the roads. The act of completely removing cyclists off the roads and separating them from rest of the traffic was conceived as a slight controversy and not accepted by the majority of cyclists. Today having separate cycle pathways seems natural and the only way forward. Chris Peck, at cyclists’ organization the CTC has been looking over the organization’s archives pointed out: “I’m afraid that in 1934 the CTC was dead against cycle tracks of all kinds, even this one. We were still very much of the mind that we should try and recapture the roads from the motorists, so the construction of cycle tracks was seen as

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

HISTORY

defeat. Indeed, the CTC suggested an alternative, “motorways” – built only for cars – leaving the rest of the road network for cyclists to continue to use. The CTC eventually got its wish: the motorways were built and led to a flood of more cars onto the old roads, making them even more hostile for cyclists.” This move was necessary since the article form 1937 records that year 1324 cyclists were killed on the roads within UK and 11 alone in London a week before opening the lane. (The Guardian, 2009) Michael Cavenett talks about the issues of the UK not becoming more like the Netherlands, considering both nations having similar culture backgrounds, economic states, climate, and the geography isn’t that far apart. “Interestingly, our two nations have a fairly similar history of cycle use up to a point, with bikes being the predominant mode of transport in both countries before World War II, yet falling into widespread decline during the 1950s and 1960s as the popularity of the car increased.”- Michael Cavanett, London Cycling Campaign. The similarities continue up until the 1970s. Since then, the Dutch decided to plan their cities for the cyclists, whilst UK urban planning is more in favour of the motorists. Today the Dutch approach to cycling in the city is taken as an example to create or improve cycling infrastructure around the world. “The Netherlands’ problems were and are not unique, their solutions shouldn’t be that either.”- David Hembrow, How the Dutch got their cycling infrastructure. (Hembrow, 2011) In the 2014 British architect Norman Foster has unveiled his concept to build a network of elevated pathways above London’s railways to create safe car-free cycling routes. The idea has caused an argument within Lon-

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 9 Cartoon from Northampton Chronicle and Echo, reprinted in CTC Gazette, April 1935. (left) Fig. 10 Construction of Pasadena cycle way. (right)

Fig. 11 Aerial view of the “Bicycle snake” in Copenhagen.

HISTORY

don communities. The concept is ideal for cyclists of any kind, though it shows a complete removal of them from any other traffic. The architect calls it ‘cycling utopia’. (The Guardian, 2014) This is not the first attempt to place cyclists on the elevated paths. In the USA during the 1890 first elevated cycle highway was starting to appear between Pasadena and Los Angeles. It was started by an initiative of single person, wealthy resident of Pasadena, who happened to be a passionate cyclist. The intention for a pathway was a fast and an uninterrupted route from Pasadena to Los Angles, for thousands of cyclists, over the train tracks, roads and junctions. The reality of the project was far different from the imagined. At the beginning only a mile and a half was built out of nine planned and the project was stopped shortly after the start. Partial reason for that, was legal objections lodged by a railroad magnate Henry E. Huntington, whose main argument for scraping the project was that his rail business is being taken away. (Reid, 2013) The idea is in functional order in the city Copenhagen, where the bridge called “The Bicycle Snake” was built. The structure has improved a connection along the harbour, on the elevated surface, past first floor windows of the offices (Oline Frandsen, 2015). Another example is a structure called Hovenring built nearby Eindhoven, a city in Netherlands. The structure represents a circular bridge that connect 8 cycle paths from 4 different directions and ‘hovers’ above a busy car junction and is used by the cyclists only. (www.hovenring.com) It could be argued that cycling is relatively new phenomenon compared to how long we had the cities for, and only seems natural that it is still finding its place within traffic, although cars have only been around for almost a century, to put in perspective- a fifth of the time bicycles have been around.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Although convenience of a car and the needs of ‘growth’ (speed, economy in urban scale) made it appealing to the public, thus increasing construction of the roads for cars.

Fig. 12 Aerial view of the the “Hovenring” near Einghoven.

HISTORY

Cycling community Although, cyclist community or bicycle culture as such doesn’t not seem to be a thing in most bicycle friendly cities (Copenhagen, Amsterdam,etc.), since it’s natural for people to cycle, it is an occurring matter seen in less bicycle friendly cities. People, unknowingly form groups based on their activity, perhaps to make them feel safer. Few different angles exist the way cyclists are seen by the public; the way people who don’t cycle view cyclists and the way cyclists classify other cyclists amongst themselves. Eben Weiss in his book “Bike Snob: Systematically & Mercilessly Realigning the World of Cycling” describes general ‘tribes’ of cyclists that appear in daily traffic within urban environment. Four basic typologies emerge: The triathlete/ fit cyclist These cyclists are most likely to be seen on a road racing bike, dressed in the sporting clothing. It seems as if they are being sponsored to race by the look of a branding on their clothes, which is most likely not. Usually fast and focused—as if they’re training for an upcoming event or triathlon. Usually seen in the traffic before 9am and after 5pm (Abiera, 2011). The reason other cyclists might not like this type of rider is because they don’t appear to enjoy what they’re doing and they don’t appear to know the other traffic participants exist. This typology reflects on the idea that’s not existent in the most bicycle-friendly cities. Ruth Oldenziel, professor, lecturer, and researcher at the Eindhoven University of Technology, in one of the interviews for “Cycle chic” blog talks about bicycle culture in different countries, the

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 13 Actor Kevin Bacon on a set of a 1986 movie “Quicksilver”.

HISTORY

side effects of it and how such a subject is not present as a term in Netherlands or Denmark because it’s a natural way of getting around in the city (Cycling Cities, 2016). An urban cyclist The type of cyclist that will cycle because, maybe, it might be a matter of fashion. Oppositely to earlier mentioned fit cyclist type, the urban cyclist kind of cyclists, are most likely to spend most of their free time on the bicycle and will not wear brightly coloured sportswear. More recent trend seems to be emerging is the interest of doing stunts with a fixed gear bike. It becomes a tool for socializing with other cyclists without having to ride all the time (Weiss, 2010). Messenger Bicycle messengers continue to exist , even though there’s an increase of irrelevance and a constantly shrinking demand for their job, less use of paper means they have disappearing matters to deliver. This type of cyclists is romanticized more than any other in the 1986 movie “Quicksilver” that immortalized messengers’ persona. Interestingly, despite being on the wane, Messengers are at the peak of their stylistic importance, as evidenced by their influence on urban cyclists all over the world. This type of cyclist is all about business—focused, on a mission, and will get the most honks from other cars compared to the rest. (Weiss, 2010) “They are like ninjas—move quickly, don’t look back, and are disciplined in the art of slicing and dicing through traffic where green lights mean “go”, yellow light means “go faster”, and red lights are only “suggestions.” They

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

ride to make money and the faster you go, the more money you might make. â&#x20AC;&#x153;-Jeffrey Abiera

HISTORY

Recreational cyclist The type of cyclist that will get the bicycle out on the road on weekly basis, most likely Sunday for a ride around town, without a destination. These cyclists are easily spotted because of a big smile on their faces. They’re so happy because of the childhood memories they’re reliving, cycling was that first taste of freedom growing up. The bikes they ride look fresh, stock, and right out of the shop. (Jeffrey Abiera, http://blog.theclymb.com) It is a common image within an urban environment seeing other cyclists together in a group, just because they might be sharing the same interest in cycling. The existence of cycling as an activity that one adopts as a hobby and not as a tool for travelling in certain cities means that bicycle is not realised as a form of transportation just yet and there’s room for improvement. In most bicycle friendly places on earth such as Denmark or Netherlands such a subject described as a “bicycle culture” does not exist, reasons being simply cycling is the easiest way of getting around, fast, cheap and with minimal effort.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 14 Destruction of Rotterdam by the nazis on 14 May 1940.

HISTORY

Overview of cycling in Netherlands Cycling in the Netherlands is an ubiquitous way of transportation for more than past 40 years. With 36 % of the people choosing bicycle as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. (Quality of transport, 2014). These numbers peak in cities like Amsterdam and Hague, where 70 % of journeys are made by a bicycle, and having larger number of bicycles than city habitants. (BBC News, 2013) Noticeable mark in the Dutch cycling history is the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;70s. After the WW2 the nation had to rebuild its shattered country from ground up. Though the Dutch proclaimed neutrality as soon as the war broke out, Adolf Hitler ordered it to be invaded anyway. Shortly after, city of Rotterdam was bombed and Dutch forces surrendered completely. (Warmbrunn, 1972) Not long after the war ended Dutch government, which was in exile in London, returned to the Netherlands in 1945. The government, while in London, had created plans which would speed the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s challenging industrial and economic reconstruction (W. Anderson, 2010). Before the WW II the economy was mainly based on a mix of agriculture and industry, the need for a fast recovery after the war pushed the country further towards strong industrialization. Not long after metal working, shipbuilding and oil industries started to flourish. Dutch became a wealthy nation upon discovering the natural gas resources in their land, average income rose by 44% during 1948-1960 and by the 1970 it was up by 222%. (Bicycle Dutch, 2011) This meant the people could afford more expensive goods, and especially onwards from 1957, there were many more cars on the streets. The pedestrianized city squares were turned into the roads for cars and car parks, the buildings

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 15 Protest against cars in 1970s Amsterdam.

HISTORY

were demolished to make way for new roads and old bicycle infrastructure was removed for the same reason. The authorities were making room for the car in every possible way, and the average daily distance travelled by the Dutch went from 3.9 kilometres in 1957 to 23.2 in 1975. (Bicycle Dutch, 2011) The seventies means a lot to Dutch cycling culture. It was the time oil shortage crisis struck the country and extensive use of cars have killed or injured more people every year. Majority of deaths were children under the age of 14. These events pressured for the campaign called “stop the Child Murder” (“Stop de Kindermoord”) to start. The campaign and protests successfully influenced the Dutch government to re-emphasize building of the segregated cycle paths, and to make money available to pay for them. This resulted in both a rise in cycling and a reduction in cyclist deaths, reversing the previous trend. It has been a success not only for child cyclists, but for all cyclists, and indeed for the population as a whole. (Hembrow, 2011) A mixture of circumstances led to the success of cycling in the Netherlands, they have come a long way to achieve what is today most bicycle friendly place on earth. As earlier mentioned, conditions that took place in Holland during the 50s and 70s led to a more human friendly urban design, unavoidably cycling was considered as the best way for transportation in the process. Although the factors that launched cycling boom few decades ago, are not present or relevant today, cycling is still popular in Dutch cities and rural areas. Not a one reason could be singled out for the popularity of cycling, many factors reinforce each other.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig. 16 A still frame from a 1972 documentary “De Pijp” shows how car populated streets were during that time.

Fig. 17 The same street as shown in figure 16 has a totally different outlook today.

HISTORY

Bicycle-friendly infrastructure The Dutch have continuous cycle paths and cycle tracks that are connected into network, which is vital for any, not just cycling infrastructure for a successful beginning that is well maintained and lit, clearly signposted and in most cases gives cyclists a priority at the junctions with roads. Best example to represent the change that bicycle infrastructure brought to the country is a small neighbourhood in the middle of Amsterdam called Pijp. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s been noted that the whole Dutch cycling revolution started here 40 years ago. (Zee, 2015) in 1970 the neighbourhood had a population density five times of Amsterdam average. Most of the inhabitants were children, to whom the only place to play was outside, on the street, a place mostly occupied by cars. A dangerous place at that time, with the speeding cars, that caused a protest to break out to achieve a safer street with fewer cars. (Wagenbuur, 2013) Things have changed in the streets of inner city of Pijp. What used to be four lane car road, at the moment is a one way street, with bicycle track running both directions, or completely pedestrianised promenade flooded with flowers and trees. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a peaceful and calm place with children drawing with chalk on the pavements. (Laker, 2015) Although cycling infrastructure is much more than just creating peaceful atmosphere in single neighbourhood, it shows how strong of a change could bring to an urban environment a removal of the cars. Geography Well-developed cycling infrastructure is working hand in hand with geographical terrain of Netherlands. The country is relatively flat which makes

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

HISTORY

cycling a minimum effort transport. This situation makes cycling more appealing to public, especially in Netherlands, with relatedly high density of population, most of the cycling journeys are not just on a really flat surface, they tend to be short and more direct than car journeys. Training The Dutch cycle everywhere and schoolchildren are no exemption. Each year in April, around 200,000 children take a “Verkeersexamen” (a traffic test). The training is necessary since 75% of children cycle to school daily, and 85% who live in 5 kilometre radius around school. (Wagenbuur, 2010) The practical test, for example that takes place in the city of Utrecht, a child taking a test has to ride 3.7 miles through normal traffic while being monitored. During the test a child is faced with a number of different situations that most likely to happen on daily cycling routine. From different perspective, motorists when taking driving lessons are taught to be extra cautious of cyclists. The Dutch have an action called ‘the Dutch reach’. What that means is the driver reaches to open the door with the hand which is on the opposite side of a door, which makes the driver get a glimpse over the shoulder of what is going on behind and if it’s safe to open the door, if any cars or cyclists are approaching. (Morris, 2017) To summarize, the success for a bicycle friendly city could not be defined by a single reason. It could be said that it is a combination of circumstances that had to occur at certain point during history and there is no set equation for it. Every city in the world might have different conditions that would allow for cycling to thrive.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Chapter two: Cycling strategy Cycling in Europe Development of strategy in the UK

BN vehicle miles by cycle

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.18 Diagram representing cycle use in billion vehicle miles, 1949-2015 (GB).

CYCLING STRATEGY

Cycling is seeing a renaissance in many places across Europe, although not every country benefit from this revival in the same way. While in the Netherlands 36 % of the population uses the bicycle as their primary mode of transport, in some countries cycle usage drops to as low as 1 %.

Cycling in Europe One of the reasons cycling is so successful in some cities is the convenience of it, it is just as fast as the cars within urban environment and it is cheap, not to mention the beneficial factors of health and ecology. And the specific reason cycling is still the most preferable way of traveling in Copenhagen or Amsterdam is the size of a city. Most of the journeys made by bicycle are within the urban perimeter. The governments play a major role when it comes to making the cities more bicycle friendly. It is the funding and implications of laws and policies. There are no set standards for cycling in the European countries overall, although growing number of European Union countries have applied the national policies for cycling. (KĂźster, 2015) After examining the cycling policy documents published by majority of European countries it becomes clear that the smaller countries (population and area wise) have much more developed cycling strategy and aiming for a higher number in modal share within coming years, compared to larger countries such as France or UK. (Ecf.com, 2015) Although most of the major cities within these countries are implying their own cycling policies. It is crucial for governments to publish such documents for bicycle development, to make cycling visible for public, appealing and a subject worth

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

investing funds. Having the national strategies is important, it is the basics and a starting point for successful cycling infrastructure. They are also boosting cycling related areas on national level such as a cycling tourism, physical activity, and education.

Development of strategy in the UK During the first half of the twentieth century cycling was dominating as a mass mode of transportation in the UK. Cycling levels peaked in the 1949, when 24 billion kilometres were covered by bike, representing 37% of all traffic. (Golbuff and Aldred, 2012) Statistics indicate that from 1951 to 2008 there was a sudden decrease in miles done by bicycle, although since 2008 there was a slight increase. Oil crisis that was one of the reasons for the flourishing of Dutch cycling, did not elude UK, though it didn’t work the same way as it did in the Netherlands. Several well-known environmental and transportation organizations formed during the 70s, including Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, London Cycling Campaign, Sustrans (then Cyclebag), Campaign for Better Transport (then Transport 2000), as well as the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution Meanwhile, The Cycle and Motor Cycle Association, having existed since 1890, split due to ‘diverging needs’, giving birth to the Bicycle Association (Bicycle Association, 2010). These institutions and campaigns are the essence for today’s existing cycling policy in the UK. Protests against “motorized city” in Denmark and the Netherlands were seen as power to unleash political desire to decrease the number of cars on the streets and declining rates of cycling, and a beginning a shift towards more integrated planning approach. UK Government response to public pressure,

CYCLING STRATEGY

then and in the years that soon followed, erred on the side of caution, hesitant to promote a mode of transport perceived as unsafe, a ‘problem to be dealt with’ . In a 1977 study for the Department of Transport on the potential of cycling in the UK, Waldman found that ‘apart from hilliness and bad weather’, ‘fears about safety [were] a major deterrent’. Actions are taking place across Europe to seize the benefits of cycling, many countries are still struggling to imply cycling as major way of transportation. Although, the implied strategies and policies are still relatively new and it will take time to see the results of them, for instance it took 40 years of practice in Denmark to get where it is at the moment with cycling.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Chapter three: Design Requirements for bicycle friendly city General cycling infrastructure design tools Designing a city for the people Macro infrastructure design Micro infrastructure design

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

DESIGN

Requirements for bicycle friendly city A bicycle makes sense in the city. Rising modernization, growing population and increasing pollution in cities need modern mobility solutions to help counteract these issues. Moving around on a bicycle could offer results. (Wired, 2017) City councils, that are in, many cases, the homes for planning departments, that are responsible for road and street layouts in the cities, bicycle friendliness is dependent on people who work there and their views towards a bicycle. Practice adopted by Copenhagen, Paris or Amsterdam where urban planning departments are working closely with consultants highly experienced in designing cities best fit for cyclists, after all, people in those councils tend to cycle to work as well. In autumn 2016 mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo banned cars in large section of the River Seine’s quayside. This action received a backlash from pro-car advocates and some suburban mayors, but that didn’t stop the mayor from further actions to make Paris more bicycle friendly. By the year 2018, Paris will have car-free westward by a kilometre more, installed a guided bus lane, and transformed the spaces that are currently used by the cars into a two-way bicycle path. (O’Sullivan, 2017) Recently, more major cities in Europe are making such bold moves to increase cycling. Similar plans are drawn up for the main street in Madrid, London’s Oxford Street will ban cars, buses and taxis starting in 2020 (Press Association, 2016), cars also will be banned from Unter den Linden(Berlin, Germany) by the year 2019. (O’Sullivan, 2017)

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

One of the main obstacles UK is faced with preventing from increase of cycling is lack of funding. In 2016 plans were revealed for £300m investment for cycling. That might sound like a large amount of money, it only makes £1.4 for a person a year, in comparison of £10 for a person in previous commitment. For a comparison, Netherlands is about £22 investment per person for a year. (Geffen, 2017) The lack of investments into cycling infrastructure outlines more specific issues preventing people from cycling daily. Without proper funding the quality of existing lanes is decreasing and new, separate from other traffic, lanes are not created. Then a city is left with loose, not connected cycling network, where cyclists are either squeezed on the side of the road by cars or pedestrians. In 1970 an idea ‘vehicular cycling’ was started by an American industrial engineer John forester, that encouraged the concept of bicycle an equal vehicle on the road along with cars, that will follow the same traffic laws. (Forester, 1993)

General cycling infrastructure design tools A baseline guidance for any bicycle infrastructure design is broken down into 5 points. Each point represents the fundamental requirements a cyclist is in need for when using a cycle path. Safety- establish most dangerous areas where cyclists are most likely to get into an accident. Good infrastructure design should help to make cycling safer and address negative perceptions about safety, particularly when it comes to moving through junctions. Space for cycling is important but a

DESIGN

narrow advisory cycle lane next to a narrow general traffic lane and guardrail at a busy junction is not a safe offer for the majority of cyclists. Directness- routes must continuous, without obstacles, delays and diversions, and planned holistically as part of a network. Even though cycle paths are existing in many cases, they tend to cross main roads or join the main road at some joint along the way, in which case cyclist has no priority against other traffic participants, unless there signs or traffic lights state differently. Comfort- cycle path surfaces and transitions should be comfortable, smooth and well maintained. Cycle path is most likely to be on the side of the main road, and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a big chance the cycle path is separated from the carriageway with just a curb. That area is more than often a place for clutter to gather, water puddles to appear or street drainage openings to be in place. Coherence- infrastructure should be consistent and understandable to everyone using it without too much effort. Cyclists are often put into position they shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be, just because of infrastructure arrangements put together around motorists. Adaptability- infrastructure should be designed the way it will still be in use decades later, suitable for growing cyclist numbers. Where streets have been engineered primarily for use by motor vehicles, as is often the case with one-way systems and gyrators, it is difficult to make infrastructure for cycling that is legible and adaptable.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

DESIGN

The principles could be adopted by any city within the UK, since they’re tackling universal problems. Boris Johnsons’, a former mayor of London, work on cycling in the city is arguably of importance beyond London: assuming the separated lanes can be shown to work in the capital, it could act as a catalyst for other cities. (The Guardian, March 2016). The politician was met with some controversy and opposition, for his views on the bicycle and ideas on taking space from cars to give it to cyclists. Although a lot has been improved in London for cycling, it still fails to appear on Copenhegenize index, a ranking system for world top cycling cities. Amsterdam with population of over 800 thousand people, counts 519 thousand bicycle trips daily, when London with over 8 million people meets the same numbers for daily bicycle trips as Amsterdam. (www.copenhagenize. eu November 2015).

Designing a city for the people A cycling advocate and urbanist Mikael Colville- Andersen, who is also a founder of the ‘Copenhagenize Design Company’, argues that cities ought to be designed for people and not engineered, the way they are at the moment. The company is running a series of research projects investigating ‘desire lanes’ for cyclists to help improve the way cyclists move in the city. The phrase Desire Line, or Desire Path, was first mentioned in a book called ‘The Poetics of Space’ (1958) by the French philosopher Gaston Bachelard. It describes the human tendency of carving a path between two points. It is afterwards responsibility of urban planners and governments to either abide or ignore the human being.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.19 Temporary bicycle lane (desire lane) in Copenhagen.

Fig.20 The same temporary lane from figure 19 turned into permanent bicycle track.

DESIGN

A perfect example of a desire lane is one particular bicycle lane in Copenhagen, near the busiest bicycle street NĂ¸rrebrogade. What city council discovered was, that a couple of thousands of cyclists a day tend to cut the corner off the bicycle lane, across the pavement, in order to get to a parallel street, to avoid the rush hour traffic. City council could have had someone standing there handing out fines, because that kind of behaviour isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t legal, or they could have built a fence at the certain point. Instead, the council for city of Copenhagen put a temporary bicycle track there and surveyed behaviour of the cyclists. Few weeks later the temporary painted lane became permanent bicycle track. The infrastructure was put in place based on a few hundred people behaviour and moving habits. This type of designing street layout is a way forward for a healthy city design, being adopted by more countries worldwide.

Macro infrastructure design An infrastructure design as a whole, describing interconnected cycle path networks, and cycle paths connecting towns located far between each other, cycle highways and government plans to make major changes to the city street layouts to allow for more cycling, in many cases making cycling safer. As mentioned earlier, if building more roads for cars brings more motorised vehicles, having this principle in mind, making more space for cycling should bring more bicycles to use.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.21 A view of cycle superhighway near Copenhagen.

DESIGN

Connected bicycle network A back bone to every infrastructure in any city. For cycling to grow, it is vital for cycle paths to be connected with each other, creating a network, which makes cycling effortless and more straight forward. Coming back to one of the earlier mentioned infrastructure design tools, route directness- is a crucial role in bigger picture of the bicycle infrastructure in the city. The best way to describe it is a comparison between cycling network in Amsterdam and around it and Glasgow. Even though Amsterdam is carved with canals and roads, not to mention pedestrians wandering each direction, they manage to keep a coherent and continuous cycle network within and outside of the city. The cycle paths in Glasgow have a tendency to appear out of nowhere and disappear the same way. For instance, if the roads for the cars would be laid out without connecting with each other it would cause some major issues. Although cycle paths within the city might not be creating a cycling network, the network outside urban areas is well developed. There are 14,000 miles of signed cycle tracks within The National Cycle Network in UK, of which around 2000 miles are within Scotland. The Network creates opportunities for long distance cycling and community links to encourage everyday journeys. (Sustrans, 2016) Bicycle superhighways As important as cycling network, the cycle highways are a way forward, connecting different towns, within the reasonable distance, that wouldn’t cost much effort to cycle. Leading country in taking this subject seriously is Denmark. The first bicycle highways were built there, after failing to introduce the “congestion charge”. In 2007, city leaders in Copenhagen started to

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

DESIGN

look for a solution for an automobile congestion in the city centre. The aim was to do what London and Stockholm did: create a â&#x20AC;&#x153;congestion chargeâ&#x20AC;? on cars entering the city. Habitants in towns around the Copenhagen were not thrilled about the idea of extra cost for going to work by a car, shortly after protests started, the project was scraped. Government in Copenhagen, instead of having a congestion toll decided to challenge the issue totally different way- encourage cycling. The idea was a success for a project of total 28 routes with 470 kilometres of cycle paths, eleven of them will be ready by the end of 2018. (Zinck, 2014) Bicycle superhighways should be built to increase speed and safety. The whole reason for the bicycle superhighways is to create better conditions for commuter cyclists, and encourage more people to choose a bicycle over a car. This way of traveling is improving health, environment and saves time. (Web.archive.org, 2012) Restricted car traffic in the cities One of the most effective ways to get people to use a bicycle on daily basis is banning the cars in the cities central areas or at least restricting cars in the same areas during peak times. There are few places on earth with car free areas within cities, but few of them exist and they should be looked at as a perfect example for a way of planning a healthy city. One of these cases, where cycling is the only sensible way to get around is city of Ferrera in Italy. Cars are prohibited within the city boundaries because of narrow ancient streets. Starting in the year 1991 city planners started looking back at their forgotten cycling history and developed better facilities for daily cyclists. To make the city of Ferrara even more appealing for cyclists, a 130 kilometre cycle path (one of the longest in the world) connecting city centre with

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.22 A view of Bilbao main street after removing few lanes of motorized vehicle traffic.

Fig.23 A view of Gran Via, main street of Madrid.

DESIGN

eastern sea coast of Italy. (Visitporiver.it, 2012) This type of cycling is purely for tourism reasons, although it’s still a reasonable advocacy for cycling. Few other cities turning their back on the cars to find cycling a more appropriate method for getting around. That might happen for environmental reasons or cities being too crowded with cars, nevertheless, cycling is way forward. Great example is Madrid, whose current mayor Manuela Carmena promised that by the year 2019 main avenue Gran Via will allow bicycle, bus and taxi traffic only. At the moment street is a blaringly busy, six-lane road, carving the city in half. Appearance-wise, the street is rather closer to a New York’s Broadway, than a heart of Mediterranean country. Even the idea is met with a strong headwind, coming from shopkeeper located within the street arguing the business will be taken away. Though it’s not the first time this kind of practice is applied in Spain, successfully, a street with very same name in the heart of city of Bilbao. Pavements have been extended into the roadway to leave just two lanes for buses, taxis, and Bicycles. These plans for Madrid are mainly for the environmental reasons, since air quality is decreasing rapidly. (O’sullivan, 2017) Mayor of London Sadiq Khan in 2016 proposed a five star rating system for the heavy goods vehicles based on the driver’s level of vision from the cab, and only those trucks with a rating of at least three stars would be allowed into the city by 2024. The main reason behind these changes is nine cyclists and sixty-six pedestrians killed in the capital last year. (BBC, 2016) The main issue with the trucks in the city is that they tend to overtake cyclists in the bicycle lane and make a left turn, without noticing a cyclist, which causes fatalities. Safety campaigns urge cyclists to stay away from the near side of the trucks. (Walker, 2016)

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.24 A bicycle track with physical separation from motorized vehicle road in Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Fig.25 A bicycle track separated from the road with a curb and on street parking.

DESIGN

Banning cars in the cities are proven successful tool to increase cycling. Even though, every city might have a different agenda for their car prohibition, such as pollution problems in Madrid, safety reasons in London or appealing fast travel on a bicycle in Copenhagen, they all end up with same outcome- rise in numbers of the cyclist citizens on the streets. In an overview, macro infrastructure design sets foundations for cycling, which leads in later stages for it to grow.

Micro infrastructure design From an urban design perspective all design aspects are important, macro design- the entire infrastructure design, micro design is just as important. Once the main infrastructure issues are solved, there are little tweaks to be made to the whole infrastructure scheme, making cycling more appealing and safer. Separated cycle tracks on roads Most vital element in the cycling infrastructure, the element that makes up the base for infrastructure is a bicycle track. A separated bicycle track is exclusively for cyclists, located parallel to the road or in many cases within the road, separated from motor vehicle traffic with a vertical element. The vertical element to separate the track from the rest of the traffic could be a curb, raised median, on-street parking or bollards. Different pavement colour/ texture separates the cycle track from the pavement. (National Association of City Transportation Officials, 2017)

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.26 Green wave LED lights in Copenhagen.

Fig.27 Speed sensors for green wave embedded in light poles.

DESIGN

Separated cycle tracks creates safer conditions for cycling, which makes cycling more appealing to wider spectrum of society. Green wave First introduced and designed for motorized vehicles to reduce CO2 emissions and fuel consumption, control the speed of traffic within the urban areas. Usually three or more traffic lights are coordinated to create a continuous traffic flow over several junctions in one direction. First green wave for bicycles was introduced in Copenhagen in the 2007, on the busiest bicycle track in Western Europe on the street called NĂ¸rrebrogade. (Hembrow, 2011) Since then, the concept has spread to other major arteries of the city. The traffic lights are coordinated the way that if the cyclists ride at the speed of 20 km/h, they will manage to pass through green lights all the way into the city in the morning rush hour. On the ground, along both edges of the cycle track LED lights indicate if the cyclist going to make the next green light at the intersection: if the LED line is green, means the cyclist is going at the right speed to hit a green light at the next traffic light. Red LED light means a cyclist is most likely to miss the next green light and needs to speed up. Since 2007 the number of cyclists using the cycle track daily have doubled. (Andersen, 2014) It could be the convenience the green wave is creating that makes Copenhageners get on the bike every day or a mixture of little bicycle friendly details that pushes people use their bicycle, but one thing is clear- dealing with cycling in urban planning department of Copenhagen is next level in comparison with the rest of the world.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

DESIGN

Dutch intersection design Noticeable infrastructure design feature is the concrete island placed between the bicycle lane the right road lane, at each corner of intersection. This attribute forces a cyclist to appear in the driver’s sight, who must go on the other side of the island to make a turn, disabling the driver from going into the bike lane. First time the intersection was introduced outside the Europe was in Davis, California. (The Huffington Post, 2016) This little but powerful detail adds an important link between cycle paths and makes cycling much safer. From another perspective, this design feature wouldn’t work without smart traffic lights where needed or prioritizing cycle traffic. Pushed back stop line for cars at the traffic light Introduced by Copenhagenize Design Company for the city of Copenhagen, now this little detail in infrastructure starts to appear in more places around Europe. At the traffic light, that is controlling traffic flow of cars and bicycles same direction at the same time, a stop line for bicycles is slightly further (closer to traffic light) than a stop line for cars. In UK this kind of feature is called ‘Advanced Stop Lines’ (ASL). By providing an area for cyclists to wait for a green light makes cyclists in this area more easily visible to the motorists. (Metropolitan Police, 2010) Thermal cameras at traffic lights This significant design feature is becoming wildly popular when creating separate cycling infrastructure with independent, cyclist only traffic lights. The camera will observe when the cyclists enters the detection zone and monitor the number of cyclists at the traffic light, if several cyclists are waiting, the green light phase on traffic light will stay on for extended time. (The

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.28 Biltstraat Utrecht 1953, red is marking the cycle path going around bus stop.

Fig.29 A good example of modern cycle track and bus stop position.

DESIGN

Times, 2015) If several cameras are used within the same system, in line, could work as a radar to switch upcoming traffic lights to green phase for a smooth and uninterrupted ride. Rumble strips Thick paint or carved asphalt strips, running on the side perpendicular to cycle path, and mostly placed on both sides of cycle path and often to separate road for cars from a cycle path, when physical segregation is unavailable. The feature is burrowed from motor highways, to warn drivers when one of the wheels reach an edge of the road. This little design detail makes safer environment for cyclists when riding near busy road traffic and gives physical feedback to let a cyclist know, when reaching an edge of a cycle path. Bus stop islands Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a disturbing interaction within urban and suburban areas: sometimes it feels like an uncomfortable, out of sync dance between cyclists and buses going the same direction. In many cases, cyclists will have to leave the bicycle lane, to overtake the bus, which is making one of its stops, only to be passed by seconds later by the same bus. (Goodyear, 2015) It is an issue, and has been for decades, the first to tackle it were the Dutch. In the 1953 in the city of Utrecht first bus stop islands appeared. (Wagenbuur, 2013) By simply placing a bus stop between a bicycle track and road traffic the uncomfortable and disturbing choreography of a bicycle and a bus is fixed. Within the bus stop island safety precautions are taken to avoid the bus passengers getting off the bus and cyclist collisions, appropriate signage,

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.30; 31; 32; 33 Pictured Copenhageners reaching for support at the traffic lights.

DESIGN

texture of paving letting people know they are crossing a cycle path. On more busy roads barriers are put in place to avoid large numbers of people stumbling onto bicycle tracks. Handrail balustrades at traffic lights Another small, but really powerful detail coming from a heart of a Danish cycling city Copenhagen- handrail balustrades at the traffic lights, for the cyclists to rest without getting off the bike while waiting for a green light. This feature is not for safety or quality reasons. It’s simply a detail making cycling more convenient. Referring back to desire lanes in Copenhagen, when the government is listening to the citizens creating lanes to accommodate the needs for particular few individuals. The need for the handrail appeared after starting to notice wear and tear marks on the objects near the traffic light such as light poles, electrical stations, rubbish bins or the barriers for pedestrians. Mikael Colville-Andersen in his blog post in http://www.copenhagenize.com/ describes this perfectly: ’ The metal is rubbed smooth on precisely one side of the post from all the cyclists’ hands that lean up against it. Just like the tummies of so many Buddhas.’ Bicycle friendly public transport One of the issues that makes cycling less appealing to the public is cycling long distances. Taking a bicycle on a bus or a train is becoming a standard in the Europe, mostly its free, but certain places such Netherlands or Denmark, where cycling is so popular, there’s a price on a ticket for bicycle too. City of Guangzhou in the southern region of China took even a bigger step forward

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.34 Inside of the Tokyo underground parking garage.

Fig.35 Overpopulation of the bicycles in the streets of Amsterdam.

DESIGN

for this matter. It is the economic hub China’s southern coast and fastest growing cities in the world. It has been modernising rapidly in last three decades and until recently streets were overrun with the traffic congestion. In the 2010 the city made major changes to reclaim space for people. What used to be a constant traffic jam on Zhongshan Avenue is now a part of The Guangzhou BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) that carries 800,000 passengers a day. It also has integrated public bicycle sharing system. Bicycle parking Providing bicycle parking is an essential part of bicycle infrastructure. Main purpose of well-designed bicycle parking is the security of a bike, and the convenience depending on the amount of bicycle parking spaces within the area. It might not seem like an issue in the UK, but bicycle parking is becoming scarce in the cyclist mecca Amsterdam. The biggest issue is the number bicycles in the city center. Inner Amsterdam is densely populated with the buildings and the streets are often quite narrow, which doesn’t help when the bicycles are chained up randomly on every handrail, tree or a lamp post. It became a major issue and the city authorities had to remove 73,000 wrongly parked bicycles. To counteract the problem city has planned to build a 7,000-space bicycle garage under former bay of Ij that forms current waterfront of Amsterdam. (O’Sullivan, 2015) Amsterdam has the plans for underground bicycle parking still on the drawing boards, when the city of Tokyo in Japan already achieved automated underground bicycle parking system back in 2006. It’s called ECO-cycle and its’ developer Giken Ltd. claims that 204 bicycles could be stored in 11 meter deep underground garage. Automated system is stacking bicycles that takes 13 seconds to bring back up to the surface. The system is much needed in the city as Tokyo lack

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.36 An active solar power bicycle path in Netherlands.

Fig.37 Cycle path sheltered by solar power panels in South Korea.

DESIGN

of the space and depends heavily on the use of public transport. (Davidson, 2014) Energy from solar power generating cycle paths Since cycle paths are covering a large amount of land in some countries, why not put them to more use than they are doing serving as cycle path? There are barely any limits to an innovativeness of a human being shows a cycle path stretch that connects Amsterdam suburbs of Krommenie and Wormerveer, in 2014 saw an installation of solar panels for 70 meters of cycle path. The panels were funded by local authorities, costing around ÂŁ2.4 million. The path is composed of crystalline silicone solar cells, embedded in concrete and covered with a translucent layer of tempered glass. A slight tilt and smooth surface helps to keep the dirt off, to guarantee full exposure to the sunlight. (Oltermann, 2014) Revisiting a cycle path to investigate a year later after it has opened for public, researchers came to a conclusion that not just the new cycle path attracted more than extra 150,000 riders a year, but it surpassed the expectations for how much energy it is producing. (Huntington, 2015) In 2015 authorities of South Korea have taken collaboration of solar power and cycling even further. An existing 20 mile cycle track connecting cities of Daejeon and Sejong has been covered by solar panels that not only generates power but creates a shelter for cyclists from the weather. (Alter, 2015) Bicycle sharing systems First major bicycle sharing system was introduced by a number of activists in the Amsterdam back in the 1965. It was called White Bikes and the way it

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Fig.38 A delivery boy with an early model of a cargo bike.

Fig.39 A pod for 4 cargo bike parking in Copenhagen.

DESIGN

worked was the person after using the bike would leave it behind unlocked for another user to be taken. Not long after it started the campaign was stopped because most of the bicycles were stolen or damaged. It took 30 years for another major sharing system to appear in the Europe. In the 1995 City of Copenhagen launched a program called City Bikes. It allowed users access sturdy bicycles at various locations within the city, via coin-operated system. Although the system was a clear improvement upon previously mentioned Amsterdam bicycle sharing system, stolen bicycles and vandalism could not be avoided. Although throughout the year’s bicycle sharing system appeared and disappeared as quickly, there was never a big move towards this idea worldwide until 2010. With cities like Guangzhou in China, Mexico City or Buenos Aires launched successful bicycle sharing systems, and London having 6000 bicycles for the public use. In 2015 the number of bicycles within sharing systems globally reached 1 million. (The Real Story Behind the Global Bike-Share Boom, 2017) Cargo bikes Not so much of an infrastructure feature, but a design piece to make cycling more of an everyday thing for public. In one of his talks Mikael Colville-Andersen calls cargo bikes as ‘bicycle-SUVs’ (SUV- suburban utility vehicle). Often car is better way of transporting goods, bicycle becomes inferior in this case. Although recently Copenhagen saw a rise of cargo bikes used by city habitants. To summarize, infrastructure design could be used as a tool to shape the city. As mentioned earlier, cyclists appear to emerge somewhere in-between car traffic and pedestrian areas, which is not the way forward and it is not the way to design a place for cyclists. Infrastructure design should be viewed as separate matter, not the way it is at the mo-

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

ment: squeeze cyclists anywhere there is space within existing transport infrastructure. If it was made possible to create an infrastructure for motorized vehicles it shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be a difficulty to create one for the bicycles.

CYCLING IN GLASGOW

Overview of cycling in Glasgow Scotland has a well-developed cycling infrastructure when it comes to cycling as a leisure or touristic activity. The land is carved with inter-connected national bicycle path network. (Visitscotland.com, 2017) Also a number of campaigns are largely promoting cycling, such as “Cycle to work scheme” or “Pedal for Scotland”. The campaigns help bring funds necessary for building bicycle infrastructure and give a jump-start on, what seems to be a move towards a bicycle friendly country. Although cycling in rural areas of Scotland is popular amongst people residing in Scotland and people who are visiting, cycling in urban areas appears to be a neglected subject. City of Glasgow, on the other hand, shows a significant rise in cycling rates in recent years. A strategic plan by the city council has been put in order for the years 2016-2025 shows a commitment of the government to make the city a better place for living for its residents. Research from the Glasgow Centre for Population Health shows that cycling levels in Glasgow grew by 69% between 2001 and 2011, above the national average of 11%. Glasgow is the top performing Council in Scotland for growth in cycling to work or study from 2001 to 2011. The city is certainly moving the right direction regarding the bicycle infrastructure design and the approach of making bicycle friendly city, though within the social layers of the community there still is a clear partition between cyclist and a person who doesn’t use a bicycle. Earlier mentioned cycling community should not be present within urban environment, as Mikael Colvile- Andersen suggests, the bicycle should be viewed and used as a tool. To describe the lack of a bicycle culture in Copenhagen he refers to

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

CYCLING IN GLASGOW

a bicycle as a ‘vacuum cleaner’: ‘We all have a vacuum cleaner, we’ve all learned how to use it and we all use it. But we don’t go around thinking about our vacuum in the course of a day. Only when the bag is full do we roll our eyes and sigh. Kind of like when our tire is flat/ chain is loose and we chuck our bike into the bike shop. We don’t have a ‘stable’ of vacuum cleaners. We don’t buy vacuum cleaning clothes from our LVS or wave at other ‘avid’ vacuum cleaning ‘enthusiasts’ on the street. The relationship to our bicycles is the same as to our vacuum cleaners. They’re both merely incredibly effective and useful tools for making our daily lives easier.’ - Mikael Colvile- Andersen (Andersen, 2010) Glasgow bicycle network is connecting various important areas of the city via number of bicycle only or shared pathways. Most recent and prominent project been realized in Glasgow is ‘South-West cycle way’. The cycle path is 2 kilometres long with multiple business, leisure and travel destinations along the way. As well as providing a link to the Tradeston Footbridge, the route also links into existing cycle routes along the River Clyde. The cycle path is a move towards a right direction in terms of infrastructure design with little details that could be noticed in the Dutch cities: the eye level traffic light for cyclists, handrail balustrades at traffic lights, pushed back stop line for cars or even bus stop islands. This cycle path plays an important role within the city infrastructure as a perfect example what city council should be looking for in the future. It connects two important districts with a single cycle path, whereas few years back the only way to cycle between the neighborhoods were dangerous and inconvenient.

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

CONCLUSION

Conclusion This chapter is dedicated for dissertation summary and the review of research findings. First chapter serves as an introduction to cycling scene, also reflects on importance of the subject within urban environment, as it stand today and as it was throughout the history and what changes the subject went through socially and politically to stay relevant to this day. The chapter also gives a certain purpose for the research, to discover the importance of cycling for the urban environment. The second chapter presents a review of what is being done by governments to make cycling more popular amongst society, which leads to research of cycling infrastructure design presented in chapter three. Chapter four is a review of cycling in Glasgow and what is being done to make the city bicycle friendly. The study suggests that cycling is becoming more popular within an urban environment, thanks to bicycle friendly thinking of governments, and rising cyclist numbers in recent years proves that cycling is being brought back to the city after being almost omitted from the urban equation for last decades. History has proven, even though cities went through many changes, technological and industrial revolutions, bicycle has always been there, just as a society we need to find a reason to use it, since it serves a really specific purpose. It could be argued that cycling is a solution for multiple issues in the city, though it is rather more complicated

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Bibliography Abiera, J. (2011). 6 Types of Urban Cyclists. [online] The Clymb. Available at: http://blog.theclymb.com/tips/6-types-urban-cyclists/ [Accessed 16 Nov. 2016]. Alter, L. (2015). Bike lane down center of Korean highway is covered with solar panels. [online] TreeHugger. Available at: http://www.treehugger. com/bikes/bike-lane-down-center-korean-highway-covered-solar-panels. html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2017]. Andersen, M. (2010). Vacuum Cleaner Culture. [online] Copenhagenize. com. Available at: http://www.copenhagenize.com/2010/06/vacuum-cleaner-culture.html [Accessed 13 Feb. 2017]. Association, P. (2016). London’s Oxford Street to be pedestrianised by 2020. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ uk-news/2016/jul/14/londons-oxford-street-to-be-pedestrianised-by-2020 [Accessed 5 Jan. 2017]. BBC News. (2013). Why is cycling so popular in the Netherlands? - BBC News. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23587916 [Accessed 8 Dec. 2016]. BBC, (2016). Lorries face London ban ‘to protect cyclists’ - BBC News. [online] BBC News. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-37515940 [Accessed 7 Jan. 2017].

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BICYCLE DUTCH, (2011). The Netherlands is well known for its excellent cycling infrastructure. How did the Dutch get this network of bicycle paths?. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuBdf9jYj7o&t=298s [Accessed 7 Dec. 2017]. Cathcart-Keays, A. (2017). Where is the most cycle-friendly city in the world?. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2016/jan/05/where-world-most-cycle-friendly-city-amsterdam-copenhagen [Accessed 6 Feb. 2017]. Cyklo Strategie, (2013). Czech National Cycling Development Strategy 2013 – 2020. [online] Available at: http://www.centralmeetbike.eu/palio/ html.wmedia?_Instance=centralmeetbike&_Connector=palio&_ID=819&_ CheckSum=294407903 [Accessed 17 Jan. 2017]. The Real Story Behind the Global Bike-Share Boom. (2017). [online] CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/city-makers-connections/bikeshare/ [Accessed 22 Feb. 2017]. Denmark - on your bike. (2014). 1st ed. Transportministeriet. Forester, J. (1993). Effective cycling. 1st ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Geffen, R. (2017). A Cycling and Walking ‘Investment’ Strategy with woefully little investment | Cycling UK. [online] Cyclinguk.org. Available at: http:// www.cyclinguk.org/blog/roger-geffen/cycling-walking-investment-strategy-woefully-little-investment [Accessed 12 Jan. 2017].

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Golbuff, L. and Aldred, R. (2012). Cycling policy in the UK A historical and thematic overview. [online] London. Available at: http://rachelaldred.org/ wp-content/uploads/2012/10/cycling-review1.pdf [Accessed 8 Jan. 2017]. Goodyear, S. (2015). How ‘Floating’ Bus Stops Help Keep Bike Riders Safe. [online] CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/commute/2015/05/ toward-the-peaceful-coexistence-of-buses-and-bikes/394217/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017]. Gov.uk. (2013). Government approves low-level lights to boost cyclists’ safety - Press releases - GOV.UK. [online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/ government/news/government-approves-low-level-lights-to-boost-cyclists-safety [Accessed 14 Feb. 2017]. the Guardian. (2011). 19th century cyclists paved the way for modern motorists’ roads | Carlton Reid. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian. com/environment/bike-blog/2011/aug/15/cyclists-paved-way-for-roads [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016]. Hembrow, D. (2011). How the Dutch got their cycling infrastructure. [Blog] Bicycle Dutch. Available at: https://bicycledutch.wordpress. com/2011/10/20/how-the-dutch-got-their-cycling-infrastructure/ [Accessed 2 Dec. 2016]. Hembrow, D. (2011). Stop the Child Murder. [Blog] A view from the cycle path. Available at: http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2011/01/stopchild-murder.html [Accessed 4 Nov. 2016].

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hoefer, C. (2006). A Short Illustrated History of the Bicycle: The Hobby Horse: 1817 - Karl Drais and his running machine. [online] Crazyguyonabike.com. Available at: https://www.crazyguyonabike.com/doc/ page/?page_id=40616 [Accessed 9 Jan. 2017]. The Huffington Post. (2016). They’ve Invented An Ingenious New Type Of Intersection That Can Save Lives. [online] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/dutch-junction_us_56a0260be4b0d8cc1098b7b3 [Accessed 14 Feb. 2017]. Huntington, S. (2017). Looking at the Dutch Solar Bike Path After One Year. [online] Triple Pundit: People, Planet, Profit. Available at: http://www. triplepundit.com/2016/01/looking-at-the-dutch-solar-bike-path-after-oneyear/ [Accessed 6 Feb. 2017]. Küster, F. (2015). National cycling policies | ECF. [online] Ecf.com. Available at: https://ecf.com/what-we-do/cycling-all-policies/national-cycling-policies [Accessed 12 Jan. 2017]. Laker, L. (2015). What I learnt from a month cycling in the Netherlands. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2015/oct/22/what-i-learnt-from-a-month-cycling-in-thenetherlands [Accessed 20 Feb. 2017]. Lessing, H. (1998). The evidence against Leonardo’s bicycle. 1st ed. Lehrer, J. (2010). A Physicist Turns the City Into an Equation. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/19/magazine/19Urban_West-t.html [Accessed 12 Jan. 2017].

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Martin, W. (2017). The 17 happiest cities in Europe. [online] Business Insider. Available at: http://uk.businessinsider.com/european-commission-data-european-cities-with-happy-people-2016-8?r=US&IR=T/#17-amsterdam--52very-satisfied-41-satisfied-one-of-just-a-handful-of-capital-cities-on-thislist-amsterdam-is-known-for-its-beautiful-canals-museums-and-the-factthat-everyone-rides-a-bike-maybe-that-is-why-they-are-all-so-happy-1 [Accessed 2 Feb. 2017]. Morris, H. (2017). The Dutch Reach: How opening your car door like the Dutch could save someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life. [online] The Telegraph. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/the-dutch-reach-how-openingcar-door-like-the-dutch-could-save-lives-cycling/ [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. National Association of City Transportation Officials, (2017). Cycle Tracks - National Association of City Transportation Officials. [online] National Association of City Transportation Officials. Available at: http://nacto.org/ publication/urban-bikeway-design-guide/cycle-tracks/ [Accessed 10 Feb. 2017]. Oline Frandsen, I. (2015). The Bicycle Snake - Danish Architecture Centre. [online] Dac.dk. Available at: http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/copenhagen-x-galleri/cases/the-bicycle-snake/ [Accessed 3 Dec. 2016]. Oltermann, P. (2014). Worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first solar cycle lane opening in the Netherlands. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ environment/2014/nov/05/worlds-first-solar-cycle-lane-opening-in-thenetherlands [Accessed 6 Feb. 2017].

100

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O’SULLIVAN, F. (2017). Paris Pushes Its Car-Free Streets Plan Even Further. [online] CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/commute/2017/01/ paris-car-ban-seine-anne-hidalgo/512534/ [Accessed 12 Jan. 2017]. O’sullivan, F. (2017). Madrid Will Ban Cars on Its Gran Vía. [online] CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/cityfixer/2017/01/madrid-will-bancars-from-its-main-street/512246/ [Accessed 11 Feb. 2017]. Police, M. (2010). Advanced Stop Lines - Metropolitan Police Service. [online] Content.met.police.uk. Available at: http://content.met.police.uk/ Article/Advanced-Stop-Lines/1400018009433/1400018009433 [Accessed 14 Feb. 2017]. Quality of transport. (2014). 1st ed. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Reid, C. (2013). Roads were not built for cars. 1st ed. Reid, C. (2013). Roads Were Not Built For Cars | California Cycleway was scuppered by cars (street-cars, that is, not motor-cars). [online] Roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com. Available at: http://www.roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/californiacycleway/ [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Sustrans. (2016). About the network. [online] Available at: http://www. sustrans.org.uk/scotland/national-cycle-network/about-network [Accessed 7 Feb. 2017]. Wagenbuur, M. (2013). Amsterdam children fighting cars in 1972. [online] BICYCLE DUTCH. Available at: https://bicycledutch.wordpress. com/2013/12/12/amsterdam-children-fighting-cars-in-1972/ [Accessed 20 Feb. 2017].

101

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Walker, P. (2009). 75 years after the UK’s first cycle lane opened, the same debates rage on. [Blog] The Guardian Bike Blog. Available at: https:// www.theguardian.com/environment/green-living-blog/2009/dec/14/cycling-ethical-living# [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017]. Walker, P. (2016). Thousands of lorries to be banned from London for cyclist safety. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/ uk-news/2016/sep/30/lorries-face-london-ban-plans-improve-safety-cyclists [Accessed 14 Feb. 2017]. Wainwright, O. (2014). Norman Foster unveils plans for elevated ‘SkyCycle’ bike routes in London. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2014/jan/02/ norman-foster-skycycle-elevated-bike-routes-london [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017]. Warmbrunn, W. (1972). The Dutch under German occupation. 1st ed. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. W. Anderson, M. (2010). The Dutch Economy: A History of the Dutch Economy since WWII. [Blog] Michael W. Anderson’s Blog. Available at: https:// andersonmwa.wordpress.com/2010/02/01/the-dutch-economy-a-historyof-the-dutch-economy-since-wwii-2/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2017]. WIRED, T. (2017). The 20 Most Bike-Friendly Cities on the Planet. [online] WIRED. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2015/06/copenhagenize-worlds-most-bike-friendly-cities/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017]. Web.archive.org. (2012). The project | Cykelsuperstier. [online] Available at:

102

BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://web.archive.org/web/20120417181135/http://www.cykelsuperstier.dk/project# [Accessed 13 Feb. 2017]. Zee, R. (2015). How Amsterdam became the bicycle capital of the world. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/05/amsterdam-bicycle-capital-world-transport-cycling-kindermoord [Accessed 20 Feb. 2017]. Zinck, A. (2014). How the Danish Cooperated to Build a Bicycle Superhighway. [online] CityLab. Available at: http://www.citylab.com/commute/2014/11/how-the-danish-cooperated-to-build-a-bicycle-superhighway/382982/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2017].

103

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

List of figures Figure 1 Amount of space required to transport the same amount of passengers by a bicycle, car and by the bus. (Press office City of Munster) Available: http://ktang.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Kathryn-Tang-politics+-2010-10-traffic-capacity.jpg Figure 2 In the 1960s planners viewed the car as the travel mode of the future, and swaths of the city were destroyed to make way for motorised traffic. (Fotocollectie Anefo/Society for the Nationaal Archief ) Available: < https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/05/amsterdam-bicycle-capital-world-transport-cycling-kindermoord#img-3> Figure 3 A sketch of a bicycle by Gian Giacomo Caprotti. (1493) Available: < https://portolanero.neocities.org/Atlanticus_Folio_133v.jpg> Figure 4 Drawing of an original draisine made -to-measure with staff messenger by Wilhelm Siegrist (1817) Available: < https://theschwinnlady.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/image28. jpg> Figure 5 A man riding a victorian penny-fathing bicycle photography by Pete Kelly (2007) Available: < https://www.saatchiart.com/art/Photography-Penny-Farthing/206925/1201870/view>

104

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Figure 6 Advertisement for 1885s the Rover Safety Bicycle. Available: < http://timerime.com/en/event/1205480/The+Rover+Safety+Bicycle/> Figure 7 Cyclists on the A24 bike path, the 1930s arterial road north of Dorking. Available: < http://www.roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Dorking1930sA24.jpg> Figure 8 Three men using newly-opened cycle path alongside A40 between Hanger Lane and Greenford. Topical Press Agency (1934) Available: < http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/cycling-in-londonfascinating-historic-photos-offer-a-glimpse-of-capitals-two-wheeledpast-10414339.html> Figure 9 Cartoon from Northampton Chronicle and Echo, reprinted in CTC Gazette. (1935) Available: <https://ciudadciclista.wordpress.com/2011/01/03/reino-unido-1934-ciclistas-contra-la-segregacion/> Figure 10 Construction of Pasadena cycle way. (1897) Available: < http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2319942/The-abandoned-1897-plans-bicycle-route-Pasadena-downtown-nearly-got-built. html>

105

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Figure 11 Aerial view of the “Bicycle snake” in Copenhagen. Available: < http://international.kk.dk/files/bicycle-snake> Figure 12 Aerial view of the the “Hovenring” near Einghoven. ipv Delft & Helibeeld.nl Available: < http://cdn2.world-architects.com/images/CmsPageElementImage/75/71/18/589c5bc4c33040698a3b15fc0ab566b6/589c5bc4c33040698a3b15fc0ab566b6.png> Figure 13 Actor Kevin Bacon on a set of a 1986 movie “Quicksilver”. Photograh by Len Hekel (1986) Available: < http://ridesabike.com/post/51564656162/kevin-bacon-ridesa-bike> Figure 14 Destruction of Rotterdam by the Nazis on 14 May 1940. Available: < https://endellionbarge.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/rotterdam-destruction-wwii-picture-at-coolhaven.jpg> Figure 15 Protest against cars in 1970s Amsterdam. Available: < http://lcc.org.uk/pages/holland-in-the-1970s> Figure 16 A still frame from a 1972 documentary “De Pijp” shows how car populated streets were during that time. (1972) Available: https://bicycledutch.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/amsterdam1972.jpg Figure 17 The same street as shown in figure 16 has a totally different outlook today. Screenshot of Google street view.

106

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Figure 18 Diagram representing cycle use in billion vehicle miles, 19492015 (GB). Author image, data taken from: <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/524261/annual-road-traffic-estimates-2015.pdf> Figure19 Temporary bicycle lane (desire lane) in Copenhagen. Photograph by Mikael Colville-Andersen (2009) Available: < https://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/3403423701> Figure 20 The same temporary lane from figure 19 turned into permanent bicycle track. Photograph by Mikael Colville-Andersen (2011) Available: < https://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/5987192198> Figure 21 A view of cycle superhighway near Copenhagen. Photograph by David Arditti (2013) Available :<http://3.bp.blogspot.com/kLDOm6V0aAo/UZzbt6zrE0I/ AAAAAAAACNM/d2mVOc647s8/s1600/CopenhagenCycleSuperhighway2. jpg> Figure 22 A view of Bilbao Main Street after removing few lanes of motorized vehicle traffic. (2015) Available: < http://www.cynthiaygonzalo.wedsiting.com/22881/qu-haceren-bilbao> Figure 23 A view of Gran Via, main street of Madrid. Photography by Manuel MartĂn Vicente (2004)

107

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Figure 24 A bicycle track with physical separation from motorized vehicle road in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Photograph by Mikael Colville-Andersen (2011) Available: < http://www.copenhagenize.com/2011/09/ljubljana.html> Figure 25 A bicycle track separated from the road with a curb and on street parking. Available: < https://sadiqgulma.com/2016/07/18/why-bike-lanes-in-abujamay-not-be-the-worst-idea/protected-bike-lane/> Figure 26 Green wave LED lights in Copenhagen. Photograph by Sofie Amalie Klougart (2014) Available: < https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/09/business/energy-environment/copenhagen-lighting-the-way-to-greener-more-efficient-cities. html> Figure 27

Photograph by Erik Refner (2014)

Available: < https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/09/business/energy-environment/copenhagen-lighting-the-way-to-greener-more-efficient-cities. html> Figure 28 Biltstraat Utrecht 1953, red is marking the cycle path going around bus stop. (1953) Available: < https://bicycledutch.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/biltstraat1953.jpg>

Figure 29 A good example of modern cycle track and bus stop position.

108

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Available: < http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-WQD2IfAud00/VbksR8cmfaI/ AAAAAAAAAIg/bvLwBG1OOI8/s1600/first-eastbound-bus-cs2-stop-bypass.jpg> Figure 30; 31; 32; 33 Pictured Copenhageners reaching for support at the traffic lights. Photograph by Mikael Colville-Andersen (2008) Available: < http://www.copenhagencyclechic.com/2008/07/red-light-posture-series.html> Figure 34 Inside of the Tokyo underground parking garage. Still frame of Youtube.com video (2015) Available: < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ym7juWamiWY> Figure 35 Overpopulation of the bicycles in the streets of Amsterdam. Photograph by Matthijs Rouw (2007) Available: < https://www.flickr.com/photos/matthijs/520592405/> Figure 36 An active solar power bicycle path in Netherlands. Available: < http://www.sunisthefuture.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/ Solar-Bikepath-Netherland2-pri.org_.jpg> Figure 37 Cycle path sheltered by solar power panels in South Korea. Still frame of Youtube.com video (2015) Available: < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuYsYLqjUtU>

Figure 38 A delivery boy with an early model of a cargo bike. H. F. Davis/

109

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

Topical Press Agency (1925) Available: < http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/cycling-in-londonfascinating-historic-photos-offer-a-glimpse-of-capitals-two-wheeledpast-10414339.html#gallery> Figure 39 A pod for 4 cargo bike parking in Copenhagen. Photograph by Mikael Colville-Andersen (2009) Available: < https://www.flickr.com/photos/16nine/4121313787>

110

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

111

AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCED BY CYCLING

112