Portfolio grammar 2

Liceo Secretarial Bilingüe Lourdes Castillo 6° Secretariado

GRAMMAR THIRD UNIT

Beatriz de Barrios Code: 1 09/08/2016

Index

 Voice and Mode of Verbs  Using Infinitives, Participles and Gerunds  Using Verbs  Using Predicates  Using Adverbs  Conjuctions  Writing Sentences 1 & 2

COMMENT: I really enjoyed this period; I think that by the end I was able to solve all my doubts concerning Grammar. Besides that, I think I got to you more and I will always remember you.

Voice and Mode of Verbs

USING THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE: When the subject names the doer of an act, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject names the receiver of an action, the verb is in the passive voice. The subject of a passive verb is acted upon.

The passive forms of a verb use the proper tenses of the helping verb be, followed by the perfect participle of the verb. Review the forms of that helping verb.

Present Past Future Present perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect

Am are is Was were Shall be Will be Have been Has been Had been Shall have been Will have been

In the present and past tenses the passive voice, as well as the active, has progressive forms.

Present Present Progressive Past Past Progressive Future Present perfect Past perfect Future Perfect

Active It breaks It is breaking It broke It was breaking It will break It has broken It had broken It will have broken

FIRST PRINCIPAL PART USED FOR (1) Present Tense, Active Voice I see He sees (2) Future Tense, Active Voice I shall see He will see SECOND PRINCIPAL PART USED FOR (1) Past Tense, Active Voice Only I saw He saw THIRD PRINCIPAL PART USED FOR (1) Present Perfect Tense, Active Voice I have seen, He has seen (2) Past Perfect Tense, Active Voice I had seen, He had seen

Passive It is broken It is being broken It was broken It was being broken It will be broken It has been broken It had been broken It will have been broken

MODE OF VERBS: Verbs have one other property besides tense and voice. That property is mode (also referred to as mood). The word mode comes from the Latin word modus, which means manner. When we refer to the mode of a verb, we mean the manner in which the action or state of being is expressed or is to be regarded. There are three modes-indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

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The indicative mode is used to make statements and to ask questions.

The town lies just south of Northampton

The imperative mode is used only in the second person of the present tense. It is used to give commands or to make requests. The subject (you) is generally omitted.

-

Lie down at once.

Lay the book on the table.

Begin immediately USING INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, AND GERUNDS

The infinitive is so called because it is a verb form that is not limited in person or number.

The sign of the infinitive is to, which generally precedes the infinitive: to speak, to excel, to refer, to compel. Sometimes,, however, the to is understood-not expressed- especially after such verbs as see, make, let, help.

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Mr. Haynes saw him walk away.

Please let me go now.

USING INFINITIVES: The infinitive may be used in several grammatical constructions.

(1) As the subject of a sentence.

- To sell good merchandise at fair prices is our policy.

(2) As the predicate complement of a verb.

- Our policy is to sell good merchandise at fair prices.

(3) As the modifier of a verb.

- We cordially invite you to visit our factory.

ACTIVE VOICE

PRESENT To see To lay To break

PERFECT To have seen To have laid To have broken PASSIVE VOICE

PRESENT To be seen To be laid To be broken

PERFECT To have been seen To have been laid To have been broken

Only transitive verbs-those that take objects-have passive forms.

The perfect tense of the infinitive may be used only to express action that was completed at the time denoted by the main verb of the sentence.

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Mr. White is said to have visited the factory last week.

WHEN A PRONOUN IS USED AS THE OBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE: Like all other verb forms, the infinitive may take an object. The object of an infinitive must be in the objective case. If a pronoun is used as the object of an infinitive, that pronoun must be objective.

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The General Manager is planning to visit Mr. Watson and her next week.

AN IMPORTANT DISTICTION: The infinitive to be calls for special attention.

When a pronoun is used as the predicate complement of to be, that pronoun must be nominative.

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I should certainly like to be he.

USE INFINITIVES LOGICALLY: Sentences which begin with an infinitive phrase should be worded in such way that the infinitive phrase logically modifies the subject of the sentence.

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To get the benefit of this low price, you should mail your order to reach us

by February 10.

USING PARTICIPLES:

Participles, like infinitives, are used in the active voice and in the passive voice.

ACTIVE VOICE PRESENT PARTICIPLE Believing Seeing Knowing

PERFECT PARTICIPLE Having believed Having seen Having known

PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT PARTICIPLE Being seen Being written Being done

PAST PARTICIPLE Seen Written Done

PERFECT PARTICIPLE Having been seen Having been written Having been done

USE PARTICIPLES LOGICALLY: When you begin a sentence with a participle, make sure to word the sentence in such way that the participle logically modifies the subject of the sentence.

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Going over the report more carefully, the committee discovered several mistakes.

USING GERUNDS: A gerund is a verb form that is exactly like the present participles; that is it ends with ing.

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Walking is excellent exercise.

Mr. King enjoys walking.

WHEN A PRONOUN MODIFIES A GERUND: You will often have occasion to write a sentence in which a noun or a pronoun is used to modify a gerund. Such a noun must be in the possessive case.

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The Hilton Company is eminently fair in all its dealings.

Isn’t there some danger of his getting lost?

USING VERBS

Verbs are words used to express action or being or state of being.

The most common use of a verb is as the predicate of a sentence.

The particular word which is the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. Often the simple subject has a modifier or modifiers.

- The sales of the Lorton Company increased.

- Construction of new plants and factories dropped.

The simple subject with all its modifiers is called the complete subject. The predicate of every sentence is singular of plural depending on whether the simple subject is singular or plural.

The simple predicate of a sentence is the verb or verb phrase which expresses action or being. The simple predicate with its modifier or modifiers is called the complete predicate.

- The sales of the Lorton Company increased considerable.

- Construction of new plants and factories dropped during that period.

VERBS MAY BE DIVIDED INTO THREE GROUPS (1)

TRANSITIVE VERBS: is one that requires an object to complete its meaning. The action denoted by a transitive verb takes effect on the object. The action of a transitive verb goes over to its object.

   

Railroads carry freight.

Salesmen sell merchandise Mr. Higgins addressed me.

The office manager wants you and me.

The object of a transitive verb must always be in the objective case. Be sure, therefore, to write the objective forms of the personal pronouns; when those pronouns are used as the objects of transitive verbs. Be sure to write whom when this pronoun is used as the object of a transitive verb.

(2)

Intransitive Verbs: Expresses action or state of being without any object. It may, be followed by a word or a phrase which limits the action or describes the state of being but such a word is not the object of the verb.

Many verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. It is the use to which a verb is put in a sentence that determines its nature.

 

Business increased by leaps and bounds.

This merchandise sells readily in territory.

this

TRANSITIVELY

  (3)

The new superintendent increased the output of the factory.

The Southern Lumber Company sells a variety of products.

Linking Verbs: is an intransitive verb which may never be used as a transitive verb; hence a linking verb is always intransitive-it never takes an object.

To connect or link the subject of the sentence with the word that follows the verb which is the predicate of the sentence. It denotes that its subject is the same in identity as something else.

The most commonly used linking verb is be in its various forms, such as am, are, is, was, were, shall be, will be, has been, have been, must have been.

   

The The The The

speaker was I. callers were Miss Fry and she. writer of the letter is she. speakers will be Mr. Langdon and I.

The pronoun it is often used as the subject of a linking verb.

   

It It It It

is I. was we. is she. could have been he.

The word which is linked to the subject of a sentence in which one of these linking verbs is the predicate must be an adjective. An adjective used in this way is called a predicate adjective.

IT describes some quality of the subject to which it is connected by the linking verb.

A linking being.

verb,

  

then,

expresses

simply

condition

or

state

The bell sound clear.

The bell sounds clearly through the night.

The alarm bell rings out wildly.

of

SUMMARY: A transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning. A personal pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb must be in the objective case.

- You may address me at 701 First Avenue.

- You should teach Miss Fleming and her.

A linking verb connects or links the subject of the sentence with the word that follows the predicate.

USING PREDICATES The predicate of a sentence must agree with its subject in number and in person. If the subject is singular, the predicate must be singular too. If the subject is in the third person, the predicate must be in the third person.

(1) Always make the predicate agree in number with the actual, or simple, subject of the sentence. Sometimes a singular subject is followed by a phrase which contains a plural noun or nouns.

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A large supply of automobile accessories is available at our Market Street branch.

(2) The predicate agrees with its subject in number-not with the noun which is used as the complement of an intransitive verb.

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The amount stated is the proceeds of the sale.

(3) Sometimes a sentence is so worded that he subject comes after the predicate. In such a sentence determine the simple subject and make the predicate agree with it.

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Among those elected as directors of the Jackson Company is Mr. George W. Langdon.

(4) When the subject is a third-person singular noun or pronoun, be sure to use doesn’t-not don’t.

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Doesn’t Mr. King have charge of this plant?

Mr. Hancock doesn’t know what recommendation to make.

(5) The following words and phrases are singular and hence take singular predicates.

One No one Anyone Any one -

Anybody Everyone Every one Everybody

Each Neither Either

Every one of the girls knows what she is to do.

(6) Some sentences are introduced by the word there. In such sentences the subject comes after the predicate. If that subject is singular, the predicate must be singular. If the subject is plural, the predicate must be plural.

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There is no news of importance.

(7) The words none and some may be singular or plural. If the meaning is singular, the predicate must be singular. If, however, the meaning is plural, the predicate must be plural. When none or some is followed by an of-phrase.

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None of the employees were late.

None of the money has been spent.

(8) A compound subject is one that consists of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by and, or, nor. When singular members of a compound subject are joined by and, the predicate must be plural because the subject is plural.

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A telegram and an air mail letter were sent.

A secretary and treasurer was elected at the last meeting.

(9) When either or both singular members of a compound subject joined by and are preceded by each or every, the predicate must be singular.

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Every box and carton was carefully packed.

(10) When two third-person singular members of a compound subject are connected by or or nor, the predicate must be singular.

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One or the other if the branch managers has written this memorandum.

(11) When the members of a compound subject joined by or or nor differ in person or number, the predicate agrees with the nearer of the two members of the compound subject.

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Either Mr. King or the district managers have made an investigation.

(12) Remember that the number of a subject is determined by its meaning not by its form.

(13) An amount considered as a unit, whether written in figures or spelled out in words, is a single sum and hence, when used as the subject of a sentence.

(14) When meaning of a collective noun used as the subject of a sentences is singular.

(15) A company or corporation name which ends with and Company is singular.

USING ADVERBS A word is used as an adverb when it modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb limits or defines the meaning of the word which it modifies.

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Mr. Easton calls regularly on our customers in Jacksonville.

He has been extraordinarily successful in his work.

FORMING ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES: Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives.

ADJECTIVES Advantageous Courteous Familiar Grievous Similar

ADVERBS Advantageously Courteously Familiarly Grievously Similarly

Adjectives that end with e are formed into adverbs by adding ly. The e is usually retained.

ADJECTIVES Definite Like

ADVERBS Definitely Likely

Live Loose Scarce

Lively Loosely Scarcely

Note carefully these exceptions: due, duly; true, truly; whole, wholly.

Adjectives that end with e preceded by l drop the e and add y only, thus: considerable, considerably; forcible, forcibly; noticeable, noticeably.

Adjectives that end with y preceded by a consonant are formed into adverbs by changing the y to I and adding ly.

ADJECTIVES Busy Extraordinary Happy Necessary Temporary

ADVERBS Busily Extraordinarily Happily Necessarily Temporarily

Adjectives that end with al add ly to form adverbs. The adverbs thys have two l’s before the y ending.

ADJECTIVES Accidental Confidential Cordial Equal Special

ADVERBS Accidentally Confidentially Cordially Equally Specially

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS: Adverbs, like adjectives, may be compared.

One-syllable and two syllable adverbs may form the comparative by adding er and the superlative by adding est, thus: soon, sooner, soonest; early, earlier, earliest.

AVOID THIS ERROR: A common error in speaking and writing is the use of an adjective instead of the corresponding adverb to modify a verb, and adjective, or another adverb.

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You will receive all future issues regularly.

The Cranston Company does business on a strictly cash basis.

GOOD AND WELL: Good is always and adjective; well may be used either as an adverb or as an adjective. Use well as an adjective to mean in good health.

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The meal tasted good.

The newly mown hay smells good.

BAD: use the adjective bad rather than the adverb badly after a linking verb to describe a condition.

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The situation looks bad for us.

MOST AND ALMOST: Most may be used as an adjective or as a noun; almost is an adverb. Use almost to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

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Almost all people have such experiences.

We have examined almost every machine on the market.

AVOID THE DOUBLE NEGATIVE: A double negative consists of two words which both express the idea of not.

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Mr. Marks says that he doesn’t know anybody.

His voice could scarcely be heard over the telephone.

CONJUNCTIONS A conjunction is a word that is used to join together to connect words, phrases, or clauses. Simple sentences and compound sentences. Simple is a sentence that contains only one clause. Compound is one which consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction separated by a semicolon.

An important distinction. Dusting between a compound sentence and a simple sentence that has a compound predicate.

Subordinate conjunctions and subordinate clauses: Subordinate means lower or inferior importance. Is one which connects a clause of less grammatical importance.

Complex Sentences: A sentences that contains a subordinate clause is a complex sentence. 1. Relative and adverbial. Relative is one which modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adverbial clause, is one which modifies a verb Relative- Restrictive and nonrestrictive. Restrictive is one that limits the meaning of the noun. Nonrestrictive is one which simply adds another thought to the sentence.

TWO KINDS OF CONJUCTIONS: 1. Coordinate and subordinate. Coordinate means equal in importance.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS who, which, and that have the same forms for both singular and plural.

The subordinate conjunction than and the conjunctive phrase as well as are sometimes used to connect a pronoun with a preceding main clause.

LIKE AND AS: Like must be used as a verb or as a preposition, but not as a conjunction. Use the preposition like when you can substitute similar to.

PROVIDE AND PROVIDING: Providing is the present participle of provide.

Avoid the use of providing as a conjunction.

INTERJECTIONS: Interjection is a word that is used to express strong feeling or emotion. Sometimes a group of words is used as interjection.

STUDY 22 WRITING SENTENCES

Classified according to their meaning, sentences fall into four groups: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

1. Declarative sentence is one that states a fact or makes an assertion. Its end punctuation is the period.

2. Imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or makes a request. Its punctuation is also a period.

3.

Interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. Its end punctuation is the question mark. An interrogative sentence, no matter how long it is, calls for the use of the question mark at the end.

4. Exclamatory sentence is one that expresses strong emotion. Its end punctuation is the exclamatory point. Avoid the overuse of exclamatory sentence.

The Comma Fault: The sentence is the unit of writing. Each sentence must be punctuated as a sentence. One of the worst characteristic of ships hold writing is the “comma fault.” The writer who is addicted to the comma fault does not recognize sentences when he sees them or when he writes them.

The Period Fault: A sentence expresses a complete thought. A phrase or a clause that does not express a complete thought should not be written as though it were a sentence. Writing a subordinate clause, for example, as though it were a complete sentence is another characteristic of slipshod writing. This error is called the “period fault.”

Vary the Construction of the Sentence Your Write. Variety, we are told, is the spice of life. It is also the mark of effective writing. The trained writer varies the kinds of sentences he uses. A paragraph that consists entirely of simple sentences sounds childish; such a paragraph is almost unbearable monotonous.

Make Your Sentences Clear. The first commandment in all writing is clearness. In order to write clearly, you need to have in your mind a clear understanding of the thoughts you want to convey to your reader.

You need to analyze your thoughts in order to determine what is more important and what is less important.  There are certain specific devices for obtaining clearness in writing with which you should be familiar and which you should apply in your own writing.

Words that are grammatically necessary to make the meaning clear should not be omitted.

Do not omit the article before the second noun and succeeding nouns in a compound expression.

Never omit the pronouns I and We when they should be used as subjects of sentences.

When you write a complex sentence which includes a relative clause beginning with which, make sure that the relative pronoun which refers to a specific antecedent in the main clause. The relative pronoun should not refer vaguely to an idea. You ought to be able to say to yourself, “Here is the relative pronoun which and here is its antecedent.”

 The demonstrative pronouns this and that should not be used in an indefinite way. Sometimes you may insert an appropriate noun after this or that; in other cases it is desirable to recast the sentence.  The reader naturally asks himself, “This what?” The pronoun this does not refer to any specific antecedent in the first clause of this compound sentence.  In case you want to keep the compound sentence form, you may write the sentence thus: Example: We now carry a much larger variety of styles and designs; this fact makes it possible for you to find just what you want.

STUDY 23 WRITING SENTENCES (CONTINUED)

The placing of the phrase and subordinate clauses in a sentence is important. Expressions which are grammatically related should be brought as closely together as possible.

Sentences which contain participial modifiers will bear watching. Be sure in the first place, to word the sentence in such a way that the participial phrase logically modifies the subject of the sentence.

Watch the placement of participial phrases. Ludicrous errors are often made when a participial phrase is removed from the word it modifies.

Looking into the distance, we saw a thick cloud of smoke.

Avoid Dangling Participles. Many sentences are made awkward by the addition of dangling participial phrases which do not definitely modify a specific word. Such phrases are sometimes introduced by thus.

Faulty: The shipment did not reach us until March 16, thus causing a delay in our manufacturing processes were delayed.

The So Habit. Another characteristic of slipshod writing is the “so habit”. That weak kind of writing characterizes this sentence:  Faulty: The shipment arrived too late, so we could not accept it.  Improved: As the shipment arrived too late, we could not accept it.

Avoid also the use of and so or also to join a clause or a phrase to a preceding clause.

Faulty: Mr. Brown has had wide experience in this field, and so, I believe he can help us greatly.

Statements Permanently True. Remember that the predicate in a subordinate clause which makes a statement that is permanently true must be in the present tense. In slipshod writing the predicate in such a clause is often “attracted” to the tense of the verb in the main clause.

The Principle of Parallel Construction. Two or more elements that perform the same function in a sentence should be parallel in their grammatical construction.

I intended to get in touch with you personally or to write you.

Notice that in the correct sentence two infinitive phrases to get and to write are used; hence the principle of parallel construction is observed.

Coherence in Sentence Construction. In writing a sentence, keep to the same point of view throughout. The careless writer often makes an unnecessary change of subjects in the clauses of a compound sentence.

Sometimes you can bring the subjects into harmony; at other times you may express the thought by a complex sentence may express the thought by a complex sentence in which one idea is put into a subordinate clause.

Clearness in writing is obtained by observing such principles of unity and coherence as you have now studied. Good writing has one other characteristic, which is called emphasis.

The most important parts of a sentence are the beginning and the end.

Reserve those preferred positions for important words.

Put

parenthetical words and phrases into the body of the sentence rather than at the beginning or at the end.

Example: We are glad to tell you, in reply to your letter of February 10, that the shipment was made today.

Remember, finally, that you learn to write by writing. In all your writing criticize yourself unmercifully.

Make sure that in writing every sentence, you apply the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis which you have studied.