Guidelines cct ccs

Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine Prepared by the Grant contract No. DCI/ENV 2010/243-865 “Low-Carbon Opportunities for Industrial Regions of Ukraine (LCOIR-UA)�

Implemented by the Donetsk National University (Ukraine) and Funded by the European Union

Donetsk - 2013

GENERAL INFORMATION: Name of beneficiary of grant contract: Donetsk National University Name and title of the Contact person: Mykola Shestavin, Leading Researcher Name of partners in the Action: N/A Title of the Action: “Low-Carbon Opportunities for Industrial Regions of Ukraine (LCOIR-UA)�

Contract number: DCI/ENV 2010/243-865 Start date and end date of the reporting period: January 1, 2011 to October 31, 2013 Target country and regions: Ukraine, five Eastern Regions: Donetsk oblast, Dnipropetrovsk oblast, Zaporizhzhya oblast, Luhansk oblast and Kharkiv oblast Final beneficiaries and target groups: Final Beneficiaries is Ministers of Education and Science of Ukraine.

Target groups of selected industrial regions (Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Luhansk and Kharkiv oblasts) are: Regional governments and local authorities; Administrative and technical staff of regional energy and industrial companies; Representatives of regional educational and scientific communities; Students and graduates of natural sciences and economics departments of universities.

Country in which the activities take place: Ukraine

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TABLE of CONTENTS: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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PART I. NATIONAL and REGIONAL CONTEXT

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1.1. REVIEW of EXISTING POLICY CLIMATE and ENVIRONMENT 1.1.1. Evaluation of Climate Policy in Ukraine 1.1.2. Ukraine’s Environmental Policy 1.1.3. Energy Policy of Ukraine 1.1.4. Critical comparison of “Green Growth” and “Carbon Footprint” theories

7 7 11 14

1.2. REVIEW SERIES on TECHNICAL ASPECTS of CCT and CCS 1.2.1. CO2 emissions from power plants, steel, chemical-recovery, chemical and cement plants, refineries, etc.

1.2.2. CO2 emissions in the process of biological wastewater treatment 1.2.3. Methods for capturing CO2 during fossil fuel combustion 1.2.4. Methods for CO2 capture from the air 1.2.5. Prospects for development of solar and wind energy in Ukraine 1.2.6. Geology of the target regions of Ukraine 1.2.7. The problems of geological storage of CO2 1.2.8. Methods of analytical and biological monitoring of leaks underground storage of CO2 1.3. REVIEW of EXISTING LAWS 1.3.1. Ukrainian legislation in the field of climate change 1.3.2. The current Ukrainian legislation, which has an indirect relationship to the field of climate change REVIEW of SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS of the IMPLEMENTATION of CCT and CCS 1.4.1. Carbon intensity in countries with economies in transition 1.4.2. Energy efficiency in the regions of Ukraine 1.4.3. Quote trading schemes for greenhouse gas emissions 1.4.4. The Kyoto protocol mechanisms 1.4.5. Joint implementation projects in Ukraine 1.4.6. Green Investment Scheme in Ukraine 1.4.7. The cost of implementation of CO2 capture and storage technologies 1.4.8. Methods of analysis of public opinion on CCS introduction

17 25 26 29 31 33 38 53 61 64 70 70 74

1.4.

1.5. REVIEW of UKRAINIAN STAKEHOLDERS 1.5.1. National governmental bodies 1.5.2. Regional state authorities and local self-government bodies 1.5.3. Higher educational institutions and research institutes 1.5.4. Energy and industrial enterprises 1.5.5. Non-governmental organizations and mass media

78 78 80 83 84 86 89 92 95 107 107 109 111 114 116

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1.6.

RECOMMENDATIONS to the IMPLEMENTATION of PERSPECTIVES CCT and CCS 1.6.1. The potential of sources of CO2 emissions 1.6.2. The potential of CO2 storage reservoirs 1.6.3. The criteria of the process of CO2 storage 1.6.4. The options of process of pressurization and storage CO2 1.6.5. Recommendations on the allocation of plots of CO2 storage 1.6.6. Recommendations for future work on the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies

118 118 119 123 125 126 128

CONCLUSIONS ON PART I

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PART II. EVALUATION: CAPACITY GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

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2.1. TARGET for INTRODUCTION of TECHNOLOGY CCT and CCS 2.1.1. Creating a Database Target 2.1.2. Populating the Database

131 131 138

2.2. CO2 GEOLOGICAL STORAGE 2.2.1. Creating a GIS CO2 Storage 2.2.2. Determination of CO2 Storage 2.2.3. Identification of possible ways of the CO2 transportation

142 143 145 147

2.3. EVALUATION of POTENTIAL SITES for CO2 STORAGE 2.3.1. Range Case Studies 2.3.2. Classification Based on the Geology, the Socio-Economic and Environmental Problems of Risk 2.3.3. Recommendations for Actual CCS 2.3.4. Selecting the direction of reducing carbon dioxide emissions 2.3.5. Quenching of gas flares by pulsed high speed liquid jets 2.3.6. Device for capture pollutants and carbon dioxide at the crossroads of the city streets to clean the air from car exhaust

148 148

2.4. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 2.4.1. Reduction of CO2 emission from electric arc furnaces 2.4.2. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by forming the secondary ecosystems on lands changed as a result of human impact 2.4.3. Material recycling and long-term storage of CO2 in the form of magnesium carbonate 2.4.4. Analysis of the feasibility of biomonitoring programs of CO2 leakages from the storage facilities, located in the eastern regions of Ukraine 2.4.5. Assessment of the possibilities of optimizing the placement of underground CO2 storage and of ensuring their monitoring using the complex of geophysical methods 2.4.6. Porosity determination of rocks, which are prospective for the geological storage of CO2, according to the data of X-ray tomography on the synchrotron CONCLUSIONS ON PART II

148 148 149 156 160 168 168 172 177 182 187 190 194

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY During the reporting period a considerable amount of work has been realized within the project on studying the problems and processes of implementation of Clean Coal Technologies (CCT) and Carbon Capture and Storage technologies (CCS) in the eastern regions of Ukraine.

In accordance with the objectives of the Activity I “NATIONAL AND REGIONAL CONTEXT”, reports on national and regional context of CCT and CCS implementation have been prepared. In particular, the existing policy and legislation on climate change and environment has been analyzed, the impact of CCT and CCS technologies on socio-economic situation of the country and the regions has been estimated, and the technical aspects of possible implementation of CCT and CCS activities in Ukraine have been assessed.

Within the Activity II “EVALUATION: CAPACITY GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)” a geographic information system (GIS) for the use on a desktop computer and in the Internet was developed. GIS of CO2 sources in 5 target regions, GIS of perspective sites for CO2 geological storage, as well as combined GIS for identifying possible ways of transporting CO2 from clusters to storage sites have been created. Based on these results, the Recommendations on the implementation of carbon capture and storage technologies in the eastern Ukraine are proposed.

To achieve the objectives of the Activity III “SHARING KNOWLEDGE” several organizational, educational and discussion events have been conducted within the project, during which the informational materials on introduction of CCT and CCS technologies were disseminated, the information brochure prepared by the European network of excellence on the geological storage of CO2 (CO2GeoNet) was translated into Ukrainian language, educational courses for undergraduate and graduate students on issues of climate change and the use of CCT and CCS technologies have been developed and tested. An Interactive Scientific-Methodological Center for Low-Carbon Open Innovation Relay in Ukraine (Center LCOIR-UA) established within the project, is one of the main results of the project allowing interactive communication during roundtables with participants from any country of the world, as well as performing a live broadcast of roundtable meetings via the main page of the project website.

The project is being realized by the team of 31 experts: staff employed at the Donetsk National University as well as other Ukrainian universities and other organizations and agencies. The work was carried out both on a fee basis. In the implementation of the project was attended by 3 Doctors of sciences, 9 PhDs and 4 graduate students. Also 15 Ukrainian experts, of which 1 Professor and 8 PhDs, participated in the project activities on a voluntary basis without remuneration. In addition, 7 experts from the European scientific and public organizations (France, Italy, Lithuania, Norway, Poland and United Kingdom) work were involved as unofficial partners of the project.

The project results have been published in 28 scientific papers in the Ukrainian and foreign editions, represented at 21 regional, national and international conferences, seminars and exhibitions, where it was presented 4 posters and 16 presentations. Seven events were organized and held within the project: a kick-off meeting, an educational session, an optional courses of lectures for students and graduate students, an Internet-conference, a webinar and 2 round tables in the form of “live” and “virtual” participation. The 72 presentations on various aspects of the project were developed and presented at these events.

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PART I. NATIONAL and REGIONAL CONTEXT Ukraine is currently ranked 6th in Europe 1 in volumes of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which are considered to have the greatest impact on the already ongoing global climate change. However, in Ukraine carbon dioxide is not officially a harmful pollutant, so the attitude of state authorities to emissions, as well as one of enterprises and society is neutral (or indifferent). In fact, Ukraine has joined a number of international agreements that regulate the amount of CO2 emissions, but they are only used to attract investments through the sale of quotas for CO2 emissions under the Kyoto Protocol.

Enterprises (business sector) consider the prospects of CCT and CCS implementation in Ukraine as economically unjustified because of the additional costs and the lack of mechanisms to recover these costs. This means that the incentives for implementation of CCT and CCS technologies, at least in the energy sector, should be developed at the national level.

Such incentives can be both negative (a tax on CO2 emissions), and positive (national or international funding of CCT and CCS implementation process).

In order to assess the opportunities and obstacles in deployment of CCS and CCT technologies in Ukraine, the review of open information sources was performed: - The existing policy of Ukraine on CO2 emissions and environmental protection was analyzed, potential and lacking incentives for introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine were defined and Ukraine's participation in the political initiatives of the European Union and the United Nations in the energy, industry and climate change was discussed; - Variety of technologies relevant to CCT and CCS technologies were analyzed, in particular technologies for reducing of CO2 emissions at power plants and industrial enterprises, methods of CO2 emissions from wastewater, methods of capturing CO2 during burning of fossil fuels; scheme for CO2 capture from the air, the prospects of development of solar and wind energy, the geological structure in the target regions of Ukraine, the problems of geological storage of CO2; analytical methods and biological monitoring of leaks from underground storage of CO2, etc; - The laws of Ukraine concerning implementation of CCT and CCS were reviewed: on atmosphere, on water, on clean technologies, on environment, on energy, on mineral resources (coal, oil and gas), etc; - Based on the case studies showing foreign experience of CCT and CCS implementation, the emerging economic and social problems and their solutions were considered through the use of emissions trading schemes, joint implementation, the clean development mechanism, as well the methods for estimating costs of introducing CCT and CCS and public opinion formation were analyzed; - Ukrainian stakeholders which are interested (or could be potentially interested) in the implementation of CCT and CCS were defined: ministries and other state bodies, local selfgovernment bodies and local state authorities, universities, research institutes, centers and laboratories, oil and gas companies , energy and industrial companies - issuers of CO2, the transport sector as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, suppliers of equipment and technology, etc.

- Based on the analysis of the above information recommendations for potential implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the eastern regions of Ukraine have been developed.

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Trends in global CO2 emission: 2012 Report. – Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 2012. – 40 pp.

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1.1. REVIEW of EXISTING POLICY CLIMATE and ENVIRONMENT Ukraine is one of the countries that have signed and ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, and has committed not only to protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of mankind, but also to perform its individual responsibilities within the Convention and the Protocol. In particular, Ukraine has committed to implement policies and measures on climate change combating, taking into account the actual social and economic conditions in the country, covering all emitting and absorbing sources of greenhouse gases (GHG) 2 .

1.1.1. Evaluation of Climate Policy in Ukraine Policy measures to combat climate change, even having an economically beneficial effect, create complex political and economical issues. Elaboration of internal policies is stipulated by the type of political system of the country – democratic or authoritarian – as well as by relative influence of groups lobbying either low-carbon or carbon-intensive ways of industry development, the role of independent media and civil society organizations, political and economic preferences of the public.

1.1.1.1. Climate laws, institutions and indexing A new global index of climate laws, institutions, and measures (CLIM Index) 3 is designed to compare internationally the quality parameters of national climate policies, realize an empirical assessment of political factors determining public policies, and identify possible differences in relationship between these factors and the results of policies to combat climate change among the countries with economies in transition (marked with a dark background at Figure 1.1.1).

Figure 1.1.1: Results of CLIM Index

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National Cadastre for Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Ukraine for 1990-2010 years. - Kiev: State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine, 2012. - 729 pp. (in Russian) 3 Special Report on Climate Change: the Low Carbon Transition. – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2011. – 80 pp.

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According to the analysis results, the level of country’s democratization itself is not a major factor in climate policy realization. Instead, the significant and positive factor in implementation of policies to combat climate change is the public awareness concerning the climate change issues, while carbon-intensive industries having considerably influential positions act as a major deterrent, regardless of the country’s level of democratization and its state apparatus capacity.

CLIM Index components are structured according to a standardized layout of national communications 4,5 , which has been designed to cover the most important aspects of the policies and measures to mitigate the climate change consequences. Thus, the index consists of 12 variables grouped based on the following four key aspects of public policy: - International cooperation. How quickly the government of a country has ratified the Kyoto Protocol and whether it formed the institutional background to participate in flexible mechanisms and implement the projects in Joint Implementation (JI) or Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

- National legislation regulating the climate issues. It includes the general legislation acts and statistics in the sphere of combating climate change, institutions involved in combating climate change at different levels (ministries, independent committees, etc.).

- Branch fiscal or regulatory measures, estimated figures. This includes estimated figures and regulations functioning in each of the sectors listed in the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

- Multi-sectoral fiscal or regulatory measures. This includes issues such as taxation of carbon emissions and the use of Emissions Trading Schemes (ETS).

Thus, CLIM Index allows a comparative analysis of the scope and quality of laws, policies, measures and institutions in the area of climate change mitigation in 95 countries. The index includes all EBRD countries and EU member countries, all the major developing countries, many of the least developed countries and small island states, which account for 91% of global emissions and 73% of world population.

As seen from Figure 1.1.1, Ukraine is holds the 39th position, having certain advantages in implementation of climate change policy compared to other countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. The remarkable result of this rating is that some of the developed countries (USA – 45th, Canada – 49th, Australia – 55th) occupy lower positions compared to Ukraine. All EU Member States (except Estonia, holding the 40th position) occupy the leading positions in this list. This is due to the fact that many European countries have adopted national programs to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, which include 6 : - Increased use of renewable energy sources (wind, solar, biomass), as well as combined production of heat in power plants; - Improving energy efficiency in buildings, industry and household appliances; - Reduction of CO2 emissions in newly produced cars; - Measures to reduce emissions in the manufacturing industry; - Measures to reduce emissions from landfills.

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Second National Communication of Ukraine on Climate Change: Prepared in accordance with Ukraine's commitments to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. - Kiev: Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, etc., 2006. – 83 pp. (in Russian) 5 Third, Fourth and Fifth National Communication of Ukraine on Climate Change: Review the implementation of Articles 4 and 12 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Article 7 of the Kyoto Protocol. Kiev: Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, etc., 2009. - 367 pp. (in Russian) 6 European Environment Agency - http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/climate/policy-context Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The climate and energy package of EU documents was adopted in 2009 to implement the goal of “20-20-20”, endorsed by EU leaders in 2007 – by 2020 greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced by 20% compared to 1990 while the share of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency should be increased by 20%.

The basis of this package includes four parts of a complementary legislation: 1. Review and strengthening of the EU emissions trading system (ETS): a single Europewide limit on emissions in 2013, with a linear annual reduction until 2020 and after it; the gradual replacement of the free distribution of quotas at auctions, as well as expansion of the system to new sectors.

2. “Strengthening Network Solutions” for emissions from sectors not included in the EU ETS, such as transport, housing, agriculture and waste. Each Member State will be required to achieve obligatory targets for national emission restrictions by 2020. In general, according to these national objectives emissions will be reduced by 10% in the EU non-ETS sector by 2020 compared to 2005 level.

3. Matching the national targets for renewable energy which will allow to reduce the EU's dependence on energy imports and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

4. The legal framework for promoting the development and safe use of CCS technologies.

1.1.1.2. Key actors in Ukraine with veto power During the last decade Ukraine has experienced two major changes in the constitutional system of division of political power functions, which resulted in radical change of positions held by actors with veto power in the political system. Before the “orange revolution” in 2004 Ukraine was a republic with strong presidential power, where the president acted as the main decision maker and the most powerful actor with veto power.

Since 2006, when the changes in the Constitution come into force, Ukraine has become a presidential-parliamentary republic, in which the legislative authorities acquired a number of executive functions, while the Government and Parliament became influential independent players with veto power and greater influence.

However, the boundary between the political rights of the legislative and executive authorities was very indefinite in the new constitution, leading to emergence of many veto players in all branches of government, including the judiciary branch, which was used by competing political elites as a mechanism to veto newly adopted decisions.

After Viktor Yanukovych was elected as President in February 2010 and the pro-presidential government was formed, these overlapping constitutional powers have become of less political importance, as both the executive and legislative branches of government have the same political agenda.

In September 2010, the Constitutional Court acknowledged the changes to the Constitution made in 2004 as unconstitutional, that resulted in return to the regime of strong presidential power existing before the “orange” revolution.

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All of these interdependencies between key actors in the sphere of combating climate change in Ukraine, are shown in Figure 1.1.2, where two levels are represented: international and domestic. Also colored arrows indicated the ways of influencing the climate policy of the ecological community and the mass media. Carbon-intensive business and new low-carbon industries currently only interact with the political structures of state power, without taking into account the opportunities to promote their priorities in civil society and the mass media.

At the same time a significant financial impact of carbon-intensive business on mass-media is observed.

Figure 1.1.2: The relationship between the main actors of climate policy in Ukraine 1.1.1.3. Mass media and civil society organization Ukrainian mass media are characterized by a high level of pluralism, especially since the “orange” revolution, mainly act freely, without interference from the state. Despite the fact that the oligarchic relations sometimes result in extreme forms of politicization of some media, the latest do not necessarily serve the state or political leaders of the country.

Similarly, after the “orange” revolution civil society organizations, including environmental NGOs 7 , quickly became an instrument of action for the Ukrainian society. Thus, they serve as real channels for disseminating the information about the climate change risks and the need for measures aimed at mitigation of their consequences to be taken by the Government of Ukraine as a tool to assist in the fight against climate change.

1.1.1.4. Informing the public on climate change issues In Ukraine, there is an unusually high level of awareness of dangers posed by climate change, 78% of the population say that they are familiar to some extent with climate change issues, while almost two-thirds of the respondents are concerned that climate change could adversely affect their lives. Sample surveys conducted in 80 countries found out that curious combination of high levels of public awareness and relatively low population assessments according to CLIM Index testify to the strongest condemnation of this area of public policy: only 3% of Ukrainians are satisfied with their government’s attitude towards the climate change issues.

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The Working Group of Environmental NGOs on Climate Change – http://climategroup.org.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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1.1.1.5. Lobbyists of carbon-intensive industries Lobbyists of carbon-intensive industries in Ukraine are very powerful. Financial-industrial groups working in steel, coal, petrochemical and refining industries have a great influence on the change of government, primarily through the financial support of political parties and their political campaigns and by appointing their subordinates to public posts, as well as through the media owned by them. Although these actors do not have the same veto powers as their counterparts in Russia, who periodically use them, they nevertheless have an influence – sometimes restricting – on the choice of the next government ant its policies in the area of combating climate change.

1.1.2. Ukraine’s Environmental Policy Sustainable development in Ukraine can only be achieved through: - Creating the necessary conditions for restructuring and reduction of human impact on the environment to a science-based level of, - Maintaining the vital functions of the biosphere, - Restoring natural ecosystems to a level ensures their permanence, - Sustainable use of natural resources through creation of a system of guarantees for sustainable utilization and conservation of natural resources for future generations based on observance of national interests, - Participation in shaping the global ecological safety system involving active co-operation with all countries and international organizations in order to preserve the biosphere – the human environment.

In the absence of an effective management system in the sphere of environmental protection, and in view of very slow structural reforms and modernization of technological processes, economic growth leads to high levels of pollution and support of old inefficient approaches to the use of energy and natural resources, requires a substantial improvement of the efficiency of public environmental policy 8 .

Environmental policy is the basis of sustainable development, which requires a single, coherent and balanced environmental policy at national level, focusing on preservation and restoration of natural resources as the main priority of the state in the near and distant future.

Environmental policy should be based on a holistic assessment of economic resources available for life maintaining and society development, as well as ecological resources for functioning and reproduction of the natural habitat not only for human beings but also for all living creatures of the biosphere.

1.1.2.1. Environmental Safety Strategy of Ukraine in the context of international experience The current political process is characterized by the degree of international community awareness of the new challenges and threats to global civilization development. Currently, there is a clear tendency of expansion of the security concept with account not only the political, military, economic, but also cultural, civilization and environmental aspects.

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National Environmental Policy of Ukraine: Assessment and Development Strategy. - Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, the United Nations Development Programme, the Global Environment Facility, 2007. - 186 pp. (in Ukrainian)

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In the face of strong integration processes and growing interdependence, political and economic decisions of individual countries have a significant impact on the global community. Environmental issues become geopolitical ones, affecting the processes of political decision-making at global level. In such conditions, politics and environment are becoming the causal chain, interdependent factors of a global perspective.

The first steps in creation of protection mechanisms from environmental threats have already been done at the international level. Several activities were realized under the UN aegis, including: - At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 the declaration “Agenda for XXI Century” was adopted; - At the Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention in Kyoto in 1997 the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, setting out the obligations of developed industrial countries to limit emissions of GHG in order to avoid a dangerous violation of the climate system; - As the result of the summit in Johannesburg in 2002, the “Declaration on Sustainable Development” was adopted. It identifies the key objectives for strengthening the foundation of sustainable development, economic, social and environmental components. One of the ways to overcome the global environmental security issues is to change patterns of consumption and production, ensuring the protection and rational use of the natural resource base.

Moving away from the traditional “resource and consumer-oriented” strategy requires a change in behavior of society, the development of new concepts of governmental management, entrepreneurial activity, change in methodology for assessing the role and importance of ecosystems in human and societal life. However, in the system of public administration there is a cost-based approach to the use of natural resources, the environment and its ecosystems. The integrated value of nature as a medium of human life, the life of society is not yet recognized by society. This is evidenced by the lack of a national strategy for sustainable development, integrated assessments of country’s natural potential of the country, the program of specific actions to strengthen the natural foundations of human life and the life of society in the environment.

The process of Ukraine's transition from the practice of environmental activities to environmental policy is underway 9 . The most notable recent steps in this direction was the adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On Basic Principles (Strategy) of the State Environmental Policy of Ukraine for the period till 2020” 10 (in December 2010) and a National Action Plan for Environmental Protection of Ukraine for the period from 2011 to 2015 11 with funding of 4,2 billion UAH (on May 20, 2011).

According to this strategy the following tasks will be carried out (for atmospheric air) for achieving the Goal 2 - Improving the environmental situation and increasing environmental safety:

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From the Practice of Environmental Protection to Environmental Policy in Ukraine: Ways and Problems. Kyiv: National Institute for Strategic Studies, 2011. - 31 pp. (in Ukrainian) 10 Law of Ukraine “On the Fundamentals (Strategy) of the State Environmental Policy of Ukraine for the Period till 2020”. - http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2818-17 (in Ukrainian) 11 National Action Plan for Environmental Protection of Ukraine for the Period from 2011 to 2015. http://www.kmu.gov.ua (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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- Reduction in emissions of common pollutants: - issued by stationary sources – by 10 percent in 2015 and by 25 percent in 2020 in relation to the base level; - issued by portable sources – according to Euro-4 standard in 2015 and Euro-5 in 2020.

- Setting the targets for the content of hazardous substances in the air, including heavy metals, non-methane volatile organic compounds, weighed dust particles (less than 10 microns in diameter) and persistent organic pollutants in order to take them into account when establishing technical standards for emissions from stationary pollution sources; - Optimizing the structure of the energy sector of national economy by increasing the use of energy sources with low carbon dioxide emissions by 10 percent in 2015 and 20 percent in 2020, as well as ensuring the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with the declared by Ukraine international obligations under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; - Defining by 2015 the basic principles of the state policy on adaptation to climate change, development and step-by-step implementation of the national action plan on climate change mitigation and prevention of human impact on climate change for the period up to 2030, including in the framework of the Kyoto Protocol mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, joint initiative projects and projects of targeted environmental (green) investments.

Issues of CCT and CCS technologies implementation are not mentioned in the strategy, although they may be related to the “energy sources with low carbon emissions” and “prevention of human influence on climate change”. The objectives of Ukraine’s environmental policy are harmonized with the basic documents of the EU and the new global “green” line declared by the UN. They should facilitate the recovery of the world economy, save and create jobs, protect disadvantaged groups, ensure sustained economic growth and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, end the extreme forms of poverty. In the medium term, the implementation of the UN course should lead to reduction of dependence from carbon emissions and prevent the destruction of ecosystems - the main risks on the way to sustainable development.

1.1.2.2. Prospects of environmental policy - a strategy of the UN “green growth” The new strategy, developed by the United Nations, promotes economically attractive environmental policy of “green” growth, grounded in the following documents: - “TOWARDS GREEN GROWTH” – OECD, 2011 12 ; - “Towards “Green” Economy” – Report for UNEP, 2011 13 ; - “Green Industry”. – Path to resource conservation and reduction of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Prospects and problems of sustainable industrial growth – UNIDO, UN, 2011 14 ;

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TOWARDS GREEN GROWTH - OECD 2011 - http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/34/12/48029513.pdf Towards “Green” Economy. Report for UNEP http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/GER_synthesis_ru.pdf 14 Green Industry. Path to resource conservation and reduction of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Prospects and problems of sustainable industrial growth (2011) UNIDO, United Nations, 2011. – http://www.unido.org 13

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- “Millennium Development Goals”. – Ukraine, 2010 15 ; - “Global a New Green Course. Report UNEP” - United Nations Environment Programme.

“Green Economy” initiative, 200916 .

Strategic principles of the UN economically attractive environmental policy envisages investment of 2% of the world GDP to the “greening” of the economy, or “ecological transformation of the economy” in order to change the nature and direction of public and private capital flows to reduction of carbon emissions and efficient use of resources.

The introduction of “green economy” as a mechanism for achieving environmental policy of sustainable development has several key directions: 1) The direction “without depleting resources”: - Recoverable energy resources; - Re-use of materials; - Organic farming, which spends a minimum of energy, does not use artificial means of protection and feeding of plants, and genetically modified organisms.

2) Optimization direction: - Energy efficiency in production and housing; - Reducing the use of cars; - Reduction of calorie content in food stuffs; - Reduction in water consumption; - Regeneration of forests and reserved areas.

3) Social direction: - Family planning and birth rate at the reproduction level; - Principle of equality in distribution of limited resources; - Solving the issues of land allocation and land use planning; - Introduction of new agricultural technologies; - System of financial regulation that guarantees the basic needs of most people.

4) Management direction: - Changing the definition of a state’s welfare and success – GDP indicator should be supplemented with indicators of natural services and biodiversity conservation; - Introduction of a carbon tax on imported goods; - Global security system with intervention in the affairs “countries that did not succeed”; - Investment in institutionalism, optimization of the system of governance and decisionmaking.

1.1.3. Energy Policy of Ukraine In energy consumption Ukraine is highly dependent on energy import 17 . It receives about 45% of the required energy from abroad that is why energy makes about 17% of the total Ukrainian import.

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Millennium Development Goals. – Ukraine, 2010. (in Ukrainian) http://www.mfa.gov.ua/data/upload/publication/uno/ua/47997/mdgs_ukraine_2010_report_ukr.pdf 16 Global a New Green Course. Report UNEP. March 2009. – http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy 17 Rosenberger K. Policy of Ukraine in the field of energy. - Kyiv: Konrad Adenauer Foundation in Ukraine, 2012. - 30 pp. (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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A look at the consumption of primary energy shows that the share of regenerative energy sources is very small (about three percent), even getting smaller. Currently most of the primary energy consumption is covered by gas (36%) and coal (26%), followed by oil (18%) and nuclear power (17%), ranking third and fourth.

Coal plays an important role in the field of electricity generation. According to the Ministry of Energy and Coal Industry of Ukraine, its share in the country's electricity production in 2011 amounted to 43.7% (41.5% in 2010). According to government plans, this figure should remain stable or increase slightly until 2030.

The development of nuclear energy in 2011 amounted to 46.5% (47.4% in 2010). By 2030, this share is expected to grow to 52%. Only 5.6% of electricity was produced in 2011 by hydropower stations, while the share of hydropower decreased by 0.7% in comparison with the previous year.

Serious dependence of the Ukrainian economy and households on natural gas and the resulting considerable dependence of Ukraine on Russian gas leads to a significant reduction of the country’s energy security. The share of natural gas in total energy consumption of Ukraine is one-third, which is significantly more than in the EU (25%). In 2011, Ukraine imported a total of 45 billion cubic meters of natural gas, 90% of which was delivered by the Russian company “Gazprom”.

1.1.3.1. “Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2030” Given the ever-rising price of natural gas, and trying to become more independent from Russian gas, the Ukrainian government searches for the alternative energy resources. The “Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2030” 18 declared in 2006, can be considered as the first attempt by the government to understand the problems in the energy sector and to identify possible solutions.

The strategy contains different directions, including: 1. Reducing Ukraine's dependence on energy import: - Increase in own gas production from the current 20 billion cubic meters to 28-29 billion; - Increase in coal production and conversion of power plants from gas to coal; - Reduction of the annual natural gas consumption from the current 55-60 billion cubic meters to 45-48 billion cubic meters in 2020-2030; - Construction of new nuclear power plants and extension of the life of currently operating nuclear power plants; - Increase in uranium mining.

2. Regional diversification of energy imports by increasing the participation of Ukraine in the projects for extraction of raw materials abroad (Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Kazakhstan, the Middle East) and increasing of gas supplies in the amount of up to 12 billion cubic meters by 2030.

3. Increase in use of renewable energy sources (increase of their share in total energy consumption from current three to six per cent).

18

Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated March 15, 2006 № 145-p “On Approval of the Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2030” / Supreme Council of Ukraine (in Ukrainian) http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/145-2006-%D1%80 Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Thus, the energy strategy envisages, on the one hand, a change of energy mix by reducing gas consumption and growth of nuclear and coal components, and, on the other, the diversification of sources of supply of natural gas. The urgent need to conserve energy or increase in the use of alternative sources are of a secondary importance in the document.

The Updated Strategy 19 envisages climate change combating through the introduction of: - In the electricity and thermal energy: - Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of produced energy by increasing the efficiency of power plants; - In the production and consumption of petroleum products: - Reduction of pollution in the production of oil through modernization of equipment and controlling the processing phase (steam flow, the pressure level in gas turbines, etc.), increasing the efficiency of the current process (reduction of heat loss, replacement of heating elements, the use of cogeneration mechanisms etc.), and application of carbon capture and storage technologies.

1.1.3.2. Review of the energy policy of Ukraine in 2012 Ukraine's energy policy is at a crossroads, with both challenges in the energy sector, and a significant untapped potential. The country has a unique opportunity to make an energy revolution to modernize its energy sector, reform its local energy markets, create jobs and spur the economic growth.

All this, in turn, will contribute to energy security, economic diversification and sustainable development. This will require a radical and rapid transformation of energy policy and consumption.

Ukraine in the near future will be able to get rid of its dependence on natural gas import by significant increase in domestic gas extraction, both natural and non-traditional, developing the potential of biomass and increasing energy efficiency. Also there is a great potential for investment in modernization of coal, electricity and heat generating industries of Ukraine, as well as in the sector of heat and gas transportation.

Ukraine has also a great potential for energy efficiency and energy conservation, especially in the industrial and residential sectors. However, this potential remains largely untapped and underestimated in the modern energy policy. By prioritizing the energy efficiency measures, Ukraine could receive significant savings of energy resources, especially natural gas.

This will require a regulatory framework, which will open the way for private and public funding, along with the simultaneous and gradual elimination of subsidies for natural gas for households and centralized heating systems. Such subsidies are unsustainable and hinder investments. Moreover, in the long term, Ukraine could benefit from redirecting funds that are currently spent on these subsidies to the financial mechanisms, promoting the use of energy efficiency potential of the country.

19

Updates Energy Strategy of Ukraine to 2030: Draft document for public comment. – Kyiv: Ministry of Energy and Coal Industry of Ukraine. - June 7, 2012 (in Ukrainian) http://mpe.kmu.gov.ua/fuel/doccatalog/document?id=222032 Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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This transition should be based on a comprehensive strategy, including exploitation of domestic energy resources, infrastructure modernization, expanding approaches to improving energy efficiency, promoting efficient market reforms and good governance. The latter implies the fair administrative procedures, transparent use of budget funds, effective competition, which is guaranteed by the independent regulatory and anti-monopoly authorities, as well as effective measures against corruption and conflict of interest. Radical improvement of the business environment is needed, which would provide a significant level of investment required.

There are signs that the Ukrainian energy policy is evolving towards promotion and development of domestic resources and strengthening the foundations of the energy market in accordance with the requirements of the European Union. Adoption and full implementation of the provisions of the Treaty on establishing the Energy Community may provide Ukraine with competitive, transparent and predictable market conditions, which will help attract investment and improve efficiency in the energy sector. Although many steps have already been carried out, there is still room for improvement and reform.

International Energy Agency 20 makes such recommendations relating to the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine, in the direction of: CLIMATE CHANGE: - Setting clear goals and allocating budgetary resources to support the modernization of the electricity sector in order to reduce emissions of both greenhouse gas emissions and local pollutants, and increase the overall efficiency of the economy of Ukraine.

- Building ultra supercritical power plants, coal-fired, ready to capture CO2 in the future when there will be the need to adopt in Ukraine more stringent measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

1.1.4. Critical Comparison of “Green Growth” and “Carbon Footprint” Theories Comparing the results of implementation in different countries of “Green Growth” and “Carbon Footprint” theories shows the validity of the conclusions put forward in the almost forgotten report by the Club of Rome “Limits to Growth”. Modern development of the economy, energy sector and environment is based on the conclusions stated in the report by Nicholas Stern “The Economics of Climate Change” and the research conducted by McKinsey and Company, who propose a switch towards the “green” economy through implementation of low-carbon technologies in all spheres of human activity.

These technologies can provide sustainable economic growth, but in case of their large-scale implementation in the countries of the world the problem is that they do not actually take account of “carbon and ecological footprint” at all the production stages – from manufacturing to exploitation.

Some case studies of implementation of renewable energy technologies and the technologies for CCS are used to demonstrate a contradiction between economic growth and environmental (climatic) consequences of their implementation.

20

UKRAINE 2012: Guideline and Recommendations - Overall Energy Policy. - International Energy Agency, 2012. - 42 pp.

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It is proposed to switch to open innovation principles in order to involve the whole mankind into solving the issues of climate stabilization. The necessity of returning to the paradigm of “limits to growth in all spheres of human activity” as an alternative way of human development is substantiated.

1.1.4.1. Defining “Green Growth” and “Carbon Footprint” concepts In most countries of the world the issues of climate change adaptation and mitigation have become recently the top priority of the economic development. In order to realize the transition of national economies to this model, the strategies of the so-called “green” economy based on the idea of “Green Growth” 21 are developed.

According to them, the paradigm of development is the maximum profit and free competition, while the direction of development is upgrading or creating of new enterprises through introduction of low-carbon technologies that allows minimizing the impact on the environment and climate.

In parallel, the idea of “Carbon Footprint” 22 for enterprises, cities, communities, families and individuals is developed, allowing to estimate the contribution of any activity (both individual and collective) to global warming by calculating the greenhouse gas emissions that are released to the atmosphere in the result of this activity. While such calculations are approximate, they show an overall picture of the impact of a particular person, event or production on global climate.

So far, these two ideas have been developing in parallel without overlapping on specific issues of economic development of the countries: industrialists are reporting on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions at their plants, while environmental activists are trying to prove the increase of emissions having only indirect evidence of their value. The role of the government in this process should be to obtain real data from enterprises, process them and make them public.

Similar studies of global development models were conducted in the 70's of the past century and their conclusions were enunciated in almost forgotten reports by the Club of Rome “Limits to Growth” 23 and “Beyond the Limits of Growth” 24 , where the following basic parameters were considered: economic growth and population growth in conditions of limited natural resources.

Conclusions about the need to change the paradigm of development in order to prevent the predicted “collapse” in fact were ignored by politicians who only introduced the new term “sustainable development” while continuing making every effort to ensure an economic growth (currently – a “green growth”) of their countries.

21

Inclusive Green Growth: The Pathway to Sustainable Development. - The World Bank, Washington, 2012. 174 pp.

22 Bagchi D., Biswas S., Narahari Y., Suresh P., Lakshmi L.U., Viswanadham N., Subrahmanya S.V. Carbon Footprint Optimization: Game Theoretic Problems and Solutions. - ACM SIGecom Exchanges, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2012. - P. 34-38.

23 Meadows D.H., Meadows D.L., Randers J., Behrens III W.W. The Limits to Growth. - Universe Books, 1972.

- 205 pp.

24 Pestel E. Beyond the Limits to growth: a report to the Club of Rome. - Universe Books, 1989. - 191 pp.

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This policy has led to the emergence of the global climate change problem, which is currently being solved using the old economic methods highlighted in the report by Nicholas Stern “The Economics of Climate Change” 25 and research by McKinsey and Company 26 , offering a transition to “green” economy through the introduction of low-carbon technologies in all spheres of human activity.

1.1.4.2. The study of contradictions Low-carbon technologies are practically all technologies, the application of which will result in reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as compared to technologies previously used in the industry. But these new technologies often lead to an increase in production costs, which influences a consumer (directly – through increased prices, or indirectly – though obtaining of subsidies from the state). Implementation of low-carbon technologies on a voluntary basis could hardly be realized (as most companies follow the dominant paradigm of maximizing their profits), therefore the state typically uses two methods to intensify the “green” growth: - a fiscal one, introducing a tax on excessive greenhouse gas emissions or excessive consumption of energy, resources, etc.; - an incentive one, introducing subsidies for implementation and benefits for the use of such technologies.

It is almost impossible to predict social and economic consequences for a particular country due to the uncertainty of private business reaction on these intensification methods. Some studies of this reaction have been performed in Europe in recent years. For example, the change in private employment in relation to a 1%-increase in tax on energy consumption was studied 27 .

It turned out (Figure 1.1.3) that the average employment change was -0.1% (overall decrease in employment), while the maximum reduction of -1.5% is expected in air transport, followed by a lesser extent of reduced employment in production of office equipment, building constructions, electrical and radio equipment, cars, etc. However, employment increased to +0.75% in production of textiles, apparel, wood products, metal, plastic, cement, etc. A comparison of the dependence between the value of greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 1.1.4) in various sectors of activity and the added value from the number of people employed in this sector, performed in 27 OECD countries 28 , indicates a trend according to which the industries being the major source of greenhouse gas emissions – energy, metal and chemical plants – are moved out the countries.

These enterprises are transferred to third countries, where there is no strict legislation on the volume of greenhouse gas emissions and a cheap labor force exists. A transport sector, which is one of the main pollutants, is forced to upgrade in the direction of “green” vehicles, because there is no way to change its location. As a result, unemployment is increasing in these countries, while the third countries become “the main culprits” of air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change.

25

Stern N. / The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. - Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007. - 662 pp.

26 Impact of the financial crisis on carbon economics: Version 2.1 of the Global Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve. - USA: McKinsey and Company, 2010. - 14 pp.

27 Commins N., Lyons S., Schiffbauer M., Tol R.S.J. Climate policy and corporate behaviour. - The Energy Journal, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2011. - P. 51-68.

28 Towards Green Growth. - OECD Publishing, 2011. - 146 pp.

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Figure 1.1.3: Average change in employment by sectors in relation to a 1%-increase in energy taxes

Figure 1.1.4: Sectoral employment and intensity of СО2 emissions in the sectors

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Global emissions of carbon dioxide increased by 3% in 2011, reaching an all-time high of 34 billion tones in 2011. With a decrease in 2008 and a 5% surge in 2010, the past decade saw an average annual increase of 2.7%. The top 5 emitters are China (29%), the United States (16%), the European Union (EU27) (11%), India (6%) and the Russian Federation (5%), followed by Japan (4%) 29 .

In China, average per capita CO2 emissions increased by 9% to 7.2 tones CO2. Taking into account an uncertainty margin of 10%, this is similar to per capita emissions in the European Union.

Such public policy can provide a temporary stable economic growth, but in case of large-scale implementation of these technologies, the problem is that they do not actually take account of “carbon and ecological footprint” at all the production stages – from manufacturing (the majority of components are manufactured in third countries) to exploitation.

1.1.4.3. Case studies: Renewable energy sources A number of case studies dedicated to introduction of Renewable Energy Sources30,31,32 is used to show a contradiction between economic growth and environmental (climate) impact of their implementation. Widespread use of these technologies is expected to reduce CO2 emissions in 2050 by 21%, which, along with introduction of other low-carbon technologies will reduce by 2050 the expected volume (without the use of low-carbon technologies) of CO2 emissions of 62 Gt/year by 14 Gt/year (Figure 1.1.5), which corresponds to half of the CO2 emissions in 2005 33 .

Figure 1.1.5: СО2 emission depending on implementation of low-carbon technologies

29

Trends in global CO2 emission: 2012 Report. – Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 2012. – 40 pp.

30 IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (Eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2012. - 1075 pp.

31 Evaluating Policies in Support of the Deployment of Renewable Power. - Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: IRENA Secretariat, 2012. - 24 pp.

32 Renewable Energy Jobs and Access. - Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates: IRENA Secretariat, 2012. - 80 pp.

33 Energy Technology Perspectives 2008: Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. - International Energy Agency, 2008.

- 646 pp.

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What it is not taken into account is the fact that development of wind energy needs considerable expenditures of cement (for supports) and metal (power and electrical constructions), as well as transportation over long distances. All of these procedures of creating wind turbines require a considerable amount of energy and resources that is taken into account when determining the value of the facilities, but not included in the reports concerning the replacement of traditional power generation capacities.

It is necessary to introduce the concept of “resource payback” by analogy with the concept of financial return on investment projects, which will characterize the period of wind turbine work, needed to compensate for the greenhouse gases that were released to the atmosphere during its manufacture, transportation, installation and commissioning.

Similar concepts can be applied to other sources of renewable energy: solar energy of all kinds, geothermal and hydro power, etc. It is also possible to use an already introduced concept 34 of an “environmental footprint”, consisting of three components: - Ecological footprint, measured by the area of contaminated land taken out of agricultural, municipal and domestic use; - Carbon footprint – the volume of greenhouse gas emissions, and other pollutants; - Water footprint – volume of contaminated water unfit for human use and production.

The ecological footprint can also be divided into the so-called material footprints: - Mineral footprint, meaning the removal of metals, non-fuel minerals, building materials, etc from the land; - Chemical footprint is the production of biopolymers, petrochemical products and other chemical products; - Energy footprint – the use of renewable energy sources (wind, sunlight, underground heat, etc.), fossil fuels, minerals, fuels and other energy sources.

And if all of these footprints are considered together, their convergence will result in socioeconomic footprint, which is directly related to the man: his employment, health and population. And this is actually a repetition of well-known models of global development, realized in other terms, and the solution of these models under different scenarios provides the prospect of global climate change 35 .

1.1.4.4. Case studies: Carbon capture and storage A similar situation exists in the sphere of widespread adoption of CCS technologies 36,37,38 , which should lead to a 19% reduction of CO2 emissions in 2050 from the expected (without the use of low-carbon technologies) CO2 emissions volume of 62 Gt/year.

34

Anderson D.J. A Communications and Outreach Perspective / Critical Elements for New Energy Technologies: An MIT Energy Initiative Workshop Report, April 29, 2010. - Massachusetts Institute of technology, USA, 2010. - P 138-142.

35 Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report // Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, A. (Eds.). - IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2007. - 104 pp.

36 IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage [B. Metz, O. Davidson, H. de Coninck, M. Loos and L. Meyer (Eds.)]. - Cambridge University Press, UK, 2005. - 431 pp.

37 Technology Roadmap – Carbon Capture and Storage. - International Energy Agency, 2010. - 52 pp.

38 The Global Status of Carbon Capture and Storage: 2012. - Canberra, Australia: Global CCS Institute, 2012. 218 pp.

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Introduction of CCS technologies will rise the price of electricity by an average of 30% (energy footprint), as well as will leave uncertain at the moment “ecological footprint” – as a result of land use for transporting and geological storage of CO2, and “chemical footprint” associated with the use of various chemical methods for CO2 capture.

These implications of CCS technologies deployment require careful research when choosing a source where CO2 will be captured and specific sites for CO2 geological storage.

1.1.4.5. The role of intellectual property The important role in solving the problems caused by climate change belongs to the international system of intellectual property protection, which often prevents the transfer of low-carbon technologies to developing countries 39 , 40 , 41 .

Developing countries are currently becoming the main producers of “dirty” products, as far as the developed countries raised highly their standards of quality of life; as a result important, but “dirty” productions are transferred to third countries where there are no strict rules for environmental protection.

Such operations bring more profit to owners of these “dirty” industries and they are not interested in their voluntary modernization, which requires significant financial costs.

Also the modernization of “dirty” technologies used by local entrepreneurs in developing countries is hampered by the international system of intellectual property protection, when the transition to any “clean” technology requires the acquisition of intellectual property rights (even non-exclusive).

Using the principles of “open innovations” in deployment of low-carbon technologies in developing countries can contribute to solution of global climate problems. If all the known (patented) low-carbon technologies are provided the status of open innovations, this will be the main tool for solving the problems of climate stabilization.

1.1.4.6. Recommendations for development prospects Today’s global challenges pose new problems before the mankind, which in its development have approached or already crossed the “point of no return”. One of the important problems is the prospect of global climate change, which can lead to acute political and socio-economic conflicts both within any state and between the countries.

39

Cannady C. Access to Climate Change Technology by Developing Countries: A Practical Strategy. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva, Switzerland, Issue Paper No. 25, 2009. 44 pp.

40 Rimmer M. Intellectual Property and Climate Change: Inventing Clean Technologies. - Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011. - 495 pp.

41 Krishna R.S. Role of Open Innovation Models and IPR in Technology Transfer in the Context of Climate Change Mitigation / Diffusion of Renewable Energy Technologies: Case Studies of Enabling Frameworks in Developing Countries - Technology Transfer Perspective Series [J. Haselip, I. Nygaard, U. Hansen, E. Ackom (Eds.)]. - UNEP Riso Centre, Denmark, 2011. - P. 147-158.

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All attempts undertaken currently within the old social values have not resulted in any decrease in volumes of greenhouse gases – they continue to grow on a global scale, although some states have managed to reduce CO2 emissions over the last 10 years.

A variety of low-carbon technologies have currently been developed and partially implemented, and in case of their large-scale deployment they could solve the problem of halving CO2 emissions in 2050 compared to 2005. But this is prevented by the international copyright protection system, which should be restructured according to the principles of “open innovations” in order to promote the diffusion of low-carbon technologies to developing countries.

Adoption of the post-Kyoto agreement which is currently being discussed would hardly lead to significant reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases on a global scale as the agreement is based on the principles of obtaining profits in any situation; therefore, it is necessary to find new (old) principles of influencing the consumer society, which is based on consumption growth (even if the growth is “green”). The initiatives of the public to limit consumption of all resources and provide the level of a personal life at “average”, and then at “minimum” level should be welcomed and supported. Such limitations will have to meet a lot of resistance from the “middle class” and the so-called “high society”, whose members are striving for unlimited consumption.

Time has come to return to the paradigm of the “limits to growth in all spheres of human activity” as an alternative path of human development with provision of economic conditions for climate stabilization. The main direction of economic development of countries, regions, enterprises and households should be the problem of reducing “carbon footprint” in all economic, social and personal activities.

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1.2. REVIEW SERIES on TECHNICAL ASPECTS of CCT and CCS Currently, one can observe a real climate change which is caused mainly by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), from stationary sources. This was substantiated and solutions to emerging problems were proposed in the very first reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 42 . Similar trends and prospects of the world development are observed in the recent IPCC reports and the reports of other competent international organizations 43 .

After rigorous economic research of issues related to climate change, it was concluded that intensive implementation of new CCS technologies in the energy sector around the world as the main instrument to counteract an already ongoing processes of global climate change is highly needed 44,45 .

CCS technologies have already been developed and implemented at different levels: research, demonstration and industrial. The prospects of their development till 2050 are defined according to which the use of CCS technologies will allow to achieve reductions in CO2 emissions by 50% in 2050 instead of their increasing by 130% compared to 2005 level 46,47,48 .

However, Ukraine is not performing work on “sequestration of CO2, which is released during the combustion of carbon-containing fuels for a long-term storage, for example in geological formations” 49 . Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2030 50 adopted in 2006, does not plan in the near future the activities aimed at the research, development and deployment of CCS technologies in the energy sector of Ukraine.

It is therefore important now to evaluate the possible scenarios of CCS implementation in the Ukrainian energy sector and, in particular, at the enterprises of the eastern regions, where the main energy and industrial capacities of Ukraine emitting large amounts of greenhouse gases are concentrated, and deep geological formations, apparently suitable for long-term storage of supercritical CO2 are located 51 .

42

Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies. – World Meteorological Organization / United Nations Environment Program: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1990. – 332 pp.

43 World Development Report - 2010: Development and Climate Change. - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, 2010. – 40 pp. (in Russian) 44 Stern N. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. – Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007. – 662 pp.

45 Impact of the financial crisis on carbon economics: Version 2.1 of the Global Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve. – McKinsey and Company, 2010. – 14 pp.

46 Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Carbon Capture and Storage / Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary. - IPCC, 2005. - 58 pp. (in Russian) 47 Technology Review for Carbon Capture and Storage: Opportunities, obstacles, and economic aspects of the role, recommended to the UNECE. - United Nations / Economic Commission for Europe / Committee on Sustainable Energy (ECE/ENERGY/2006/5), 2006. - 27 pp. (in Russian) 48 Technology Roadmap – Carbon capture and storage. – International Energy Agency, 2010. – 52 pp.

49 National Cadastre for Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Ukraine for 1990-2010 years. - Kiev: State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine, 2012. - 729 pp. - See P. 90. (in Russian) 50 Ukraine's Energy Strategy 2030 / Approved by Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine dated March 15, 2006 No. 145-p. - 129 pp. (in Ukrainian).

51 Bespalova S.V., Shestavin N.S. / Assessment of the Opportunities Implementation of Low-Carbon Open Innovation in the Industrial Regions of Ukraine // Problems of Ecology and Environmental Protection in the Region of Anthropogenic: Collection of Scientific Papers – Donetsk: Donetsk National University Publishing, 2012. – No. 1 (12). – P. 10-25. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Performing such studies and subsequent technological developments and their implementation at the energy enterprises will allow Ukraine to make a worthy contribution to the solution of global climate change problems. This section describes the key details of the Reviews of information sources in scientific and technical fields related to CCT and CCS. 1.2.1. CO2 Emissions from Power Plants, Steel, Chemical-Recovery, Chemical and Cement Plants, Refineries, etc.

In the early 90-ies Ukraine was second in Europe in volumes of CO2 emissions; while in 2009 it held the seventh position, and in 2011 – the sixth position (Figure 1.2.1) and has a tendency to gradual increase of volumes, while the majority of countries have set a target for reducing CO2 emissions in the next decade 52 .

Germany Great Britain Italy France Poland Ukraine Spain

Figure 1.2.1: CO2 emission trends in Europe in 1990-2011 Based on the statistics of Ukraine in 2010 53 , more than 83% of CO2 emission volumes come from stationary sources (Figure 1.2.2), when CO2 emissions from private housing sector are not taken into account, which is different from IPCC statistical requirements (Fig. 1.2.3).

Such a difference in the requirements for statistical data regarding CO2 emissions from various sources and the difference in the lists of CO2 emission sources has led to the situation when Ukraine lost the status of compliance with the Kyoto Protocol requirements.

In 2012, a new version of the National Cadastre for Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Ukraine for 1990-2010 54 with the account of IPCC requirements was prepared, and the status is now restored. 74% of CO2 emissions produce power, metallurgical and chemical enterprises. In further studies, these enterprises will be taken into account.

52

Trends in global CO2 emission: 2012 Report. - Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 2012. - 40 pp.

Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine for 2010 / Edited by O.G. Osaulenko. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2011. - 560 pp. (in Ukrainian) 54 National Cadastre for Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Ukraine for 1990-2010 years. - Kiev: State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine, 2012. - 729 pp. (in Russian) 53

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4 5

7 6 8 9

10 1 3

2

Figure 1.2.2: CO2 emissions from stationary and mobile sources of pollution by types of economic activity in 2010, in tons, according to official statistics of Ukraine: 1. Automobile transport 2. Air, rail, maritime and industrial machinery transportation 3. Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water 4. Production of metals and fabricated metal products 5. Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products

6. Chemical and petrochemical industry 7. Transport and communication 8. Production of non-metallic mineral products 9. Manufacture of food products, including beverages and tobacco 10. Other economic activities

3Â 4

7 5

2Â

6 8

9 10 11 1Â

12

Figure 1.2.3: CO2 emissions from stationary sources by types of economic activity in 2010, in tons, according to the data of the National Cadastre Anthropogenic Emissions: 1. Electricity and heat 2. Private residential sector 3. Ferrous metallurgy 4. Other branches of industry and construction 5. Manufacture of solid fuels and other energy industries 6. Chemical industry

7. Commercial sector and governmental bodies 8. Food processing industry 9. Petroleum refining 10. Non-ferrous metallurgy 11. Agriculture, forestry and fishing 12. Other sources previously unrecorded

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CO2 emission source categories that are adopted in statistical reports of Ukraine differ significantly from IPCC categories. Therefore, the National inventory of anthropogenic emissions represents slightly different data, in particular, in category 1.A.1.a – Production of electricity and heat: CO2 emissions from combustion of all fuels amount to 94,404 tons, and in category 1.A.4.b – Private residential sector – 40,962 tons, and in category 1.A.2.a – ferrous metallurgy – 38,378 tons, in other categories – less than 10,000 tons. To avoid these differences in future, IPCC categories should be introduced in the forms of statistical reports of enterprises.

1 2

3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Figure 1.2.4: CO2 emissions from stationary sources in the regions of Ukraine in 2010 in Mt according to official statistics: 1. Donetsk oblast 2. Dnipropetrovskoblast 3. Zaporizhzhya oblast 4. Lugansk oblast 5. Kharkiv Oblast 6. Kyiv oblast 7. Ivano-Frankivsk oblast 8. Kiev city 9. Vinnytsya oblast

10. Odessa oblast 11. Cherkasy oblast 12. Poltava oblast 13. Lviv oblast 14. Khmelnytsk oblast 15. Chernivtsi oblast 16. Nikolaev oblast 17. Sumy oblast 18. Autonomous Republic of Crimea

19. Rivne oblast 20. Ternopil oblast 21. Zhytomyr oblast 22. Kirovograd oblast 23. Volyn oblast 24. Kherson oblast 25. Sevastopol City 26. Zakarpattya oblast 27. Chernihiv oblast

If considering the distribution of CO2 emission volumes by the regions of Ukraine 55 (Figure 1.2.4), five regions can be distinguished with CO2 emissions exceeding 10 million tons per year (shown in dashed lines).

55

Environment of Ukraine: Statistical Yearbook - 2010 / Edited by N.S. Vlasenko. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2011. - 205 pp. (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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In these regions (Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Luhansk and Kharkiv) the largest thermal power plants (TPP), which are accounted for in the National Cadastre Anthropogenic Emissions – Zaporizhzhya, Zmeevska, Zuevska, Krivorizhska, Kurahovska, Luhanska, Pridneprovska, Slavianska, Starobeshevska and Vuglegirska. – are concentrated.

Figure 1.2.5: Methods for CO2 capturing when burning fossil fuels and in other industrial processes Based on the information materials from more than 50 sources, including websites of the Global CCS Institute 56 , European Zero Emissions Platform 57 and other specialized web sites, the emission processes and methods for CO2 capture in power, metallurgical and other industrial processes were analyzed (Figure 1.2.5).

1.2.2. CO2 Emissions in the Process of Biological Wastewater Treatment Climate change and increase in temperature are mainly caused by high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Wastewater treatment results in formation of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide as a result of anaerobic decomposition of organic substances under the action of bacteria at wastewater treatment plants and installations for waste disposal 58 .

Quick introduction of renewable energy sources, fuel substitution and energy efficiency will allow to achieve significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. But there are other measures including sectoral improvements – from increased use of public transport and more fuel-efficient cars to improvements in areas such as waste water treatment, agriculture and waste management.

56

Global CCS Institute - http://www.globalccsinstitute.com European Zero Emissions Platform - http://www.zeroemissionsplatform.eu 58 Luchina A.Y., Beskrovnaya M.V. / Application Possibility of Process ANAMMOX for Reductions of CO2 Emissions from Biological Wastewater Treatment // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 45-49. (in Russian) 57

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Usually, the greenhouse gas emissions from waste water are estimated in the following areas 59 : - Domestic waste water; - Industrial waste water; - Sewage as a result of human activity.

According to estimations, the share of emissions in the agriculture, at coal mines and landfills will change by less than 1% from 2010 to 2020 with regard to global emissions of methane, or about 7-10% in each sector of the economy (Figure 1.2.6). It is expected that methane emissions produced by hydro-treating plants will grow by almost 12%. Methane emissions in oil and gas industry will increase from 2010 to 2020 by approximately 35%, increasing the projected growth of global anthropogenic methane emissions by 3% or even more per year 60 .

- Solid waste - Industrial waste - Domestic waste water - Waste of human activity - Waste incineration

Figure 1.2.6: Emissions of greenhouse gases (in % of CO2-equivalent) by categories of wastes in 2010 in Ukraine: Figure 1.2.6 shows the percentage of greenhouse gas emissions by source category in 2010 in Ukraine. The largest contribution to the total emission of greenhouse gases is made by solid waste received from landfills. The second place is occupied by domestic sewage 61 .

In 1977, the famous Austrian biophysicist E. Broda on the basis of thermodynamic calculations predicted the existence of autotrophic bacteria that can oxidize ammonium nitrite or nitrate in anoxic conditions 62 . This process was observed in Rotterdam (the Netherlands) in a pilot denitrification plant in which ammonium disappeared while molecular nitrogen N2 was formed. The new method was named «ANaerobic AMMonium OXidation» (ANAMMOX).

59

National report on greenhouse gas emissions in Ukraine in 2003. Volume 1. – Kiev: The Ministry of Environmental Protection of Ukraine, 2005. - 168 pp. (in Russian) 60 Global mitigation of non-CO2 greenhouse gases. – Washington: United States Environmental Agency, 2006. 438 pp. – http://www.docstoc.com/docs/7845160/Global-Mitigation-of-Non-CO2-Greenhouse-Gases 61 Bereznitskaya M.V. Calculation emissions from “waste” for national greenhouse gas inventory / M.V. Bereznitskaya, L. Dmytrenko // Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference “Cooperation for Waste Issues”.

– Kharkov, 2006. – P. 272..

62 Broda E. Two kinds of lithotrophs missing in nature // Z. Allg. Mikrobiol. – 1977. – V. 17 (6). – P. 491-493.

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Compared to classical techniques, application of modern biotechnologies using ANAMMOX bacteria enables to decrease the oxygen consumption from 25% to 60%, reduce or even eliminate the need to add organic carbon, reduce the amount of sludge, significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce investment in the construction of reactors and improve the efficiency of ammonia removal to about 90%. Among the important advantages of this technology there are reduction of CO2 emissions by 85-90% compared to traditional methods, and the relative cheapness 63 .

Using ANAMMOX technology results in saving of 2.2 kWh per each kilogram of removed nitrogen compared to conventional nitrification-denitrification. For possible reduction of CO2 emissions at waste water treatment plants it is recommended to install the following equipment: 1. System of anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge (new construction or modernization of the existing aerobic treatment systems); 2. Biogas recovery systems in the existing open anaerobic lagoons; 3. New centralized facilities for aerobic treatment or covered lagoons; 4. Systems for capture and flaring of gas in a torch or methane systems (for example, the production of electricity on the site, or any other use for heating purposes).

1.2.3. Methods for Capturing CO2 During Fossil Fuel Combustion It is difficult to predict now which of the carbon capture technologies included in the review will be widely used in future deployment of CCT in the next 10 years. However, the need for modernization of existing large fleet of Coal-Fired Power Plants (CFPP) suggests a strong interest to the technologies of carbon capture after combustion using aqueous solutions of amines.

This point of view is also shared by the authors of studies related to the development of new solvents based on compositions of amines, as well as technological solutions to reduce energy consumption in the production process and slowing the degradation of solvent. Highly important is the degree of carbon capture technology integration in the operating cycle of CFPP, as well as general optimization of equipment and technological process, including the boiler, turbine, air preparation system and a carbon capture complex.

Capturing of carbon dioxide using amines has been used in industry since the 1930s. Initially, the technology was used for purification of natural gas. Thus, there is a need to adapt existing solutions to the conditions of the CFPP operating cycle, rather than invent a completely new technology. This explain why this technology of carbon capture after combustion using amine has advantages compared to other more advanced CCTs such as burning in oxygen.

However, under these conditions, such factors as low concentration of CO2 in the exhaust gases, solvent degradation under the action of oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen oxides should be taken into account. The energy losses of 30% for CO2 capture and compression, which may occur if using conventional methods of carbon capture after combustion, are recognized as excessively high which results in the expected increase in the cost of equipment to be used in construction of new CFPPs which can reach 80-85% in case of using this approach.

63

Effects of aerobic and microaeribic conditions on anaerobic ammonium-oxidazingng (ANAMMOX) sludge / M. Strous, K. Gerven, U.J. Kuenen [et al.] // Applied and Environmental Microbiology. – 1997. – V. 63. – P. 2446-2448.

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These deficiencies are of great importance due to the large increase in volumes of CO2 capture in CFPP compared to the volumes already existing in the industry. The development of new compositions of solvents based on amines can give a significant contribution to optimization of CO2 capture after combustion in CFPP, reduce additional energy losses and the cost of electricity. Another important parameter for optimization is to find a compromise between the degree of CO2 capture and the cost of energy and reagents. An additional problem is the corrosion of the equipment components that are in contact with solvent.

CFPP outgoing gases contain 3-15% of CO2 in volume. In the known processes using aqueous solutions of amines for carbon capture, such as natural gas purification and hydrogen production, the partial pressure of CO2 is significantly higher than in CFPP exhaust gases; also there is no substantial problems with degradation of amine solvent under the action of oxygen, which content in the outgoing gases of different power plants may be within 5-15%, as well as impurities of sulfur oxides and nitrogen.

Low partial pressure of CO2 puts monoethanolamine (MEA) at the first place among the known amine solvents in terms of its applicability to capture CO2 from the CFPP outgoing gases. Reaction with MEA is fast, but is characterized by high power consumption, limited output and serious problem of corrosion. Oxygen in the outgoing gases leads to the degradation of the amine solvent, while the resulting oxidation products do not only cause the corrosion of components, but also reduce the overall performance of the installation. The solution to this problem could be the introduction of inhibitors to the amine solvent.

Another approach is to reduce the impact of oxygen on solvent through optimization of physical characteristics of the process. In particular, there are oxygen-tolerant technologies of CO2 capture, in which oxygen is removed from the amine solvent saturated with CO2 through a pressure relief at a moderate temperature of 60-90 oĐĄ. In such circumstances, the need for use of solvent oxidation inhibitors is eliminated.

Another possible solution is displacement of oxygen. Nitrogen oxygen or a part of captured and compressed CO2 can be used as a displacing gas. Displacing gas flow rate and the height of the reactor column can be optimized so that the oxygen content at the output does not exceed 0.5ppm. Thus, there are already existing effective technological capacities to capture CO2 after combustion of coal in existing CFPP without changing the key components of the process, such as the preparation of fuel, boiler, etc.

However, in case of designing new CFPP, important question arises – to what extent is it rational to switch to other, less common and developing technologies of coal and other solid fuels combustion. Such technologies include, for example, combustion in oxygen, in a pressurized fluidized bed and intracyclic gasification. The results of research, as well as examples of the trial operation of such facilities provide a basis for predicting that the share of these technologies will increase in the near future. Also their additional features, such as organization carbon negative production of electricity with introduction of biomass in the fuel mixture. However, the success of these innovations depends on the solution of a number of related issues, such as: - For combustion of solid fuels in fluidized bed under pressure there is essential problem of protection of gas turbine blades from solid particles and corrosive agents containing in the working gas. The optimistic news if the fact that, simultaneously with removal of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, the working gas of the CFPP is also depurated from residual solids; Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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- For installations using combustion in oxygen, it is necessary to achieve a significant reduction of energy losses in the process of air separation. Traditional cryogenic technology can not be applied here, but there is a hope for successful implementation of membrane filters; - For implementing the technology of carbon capture before combustion, which is actually a combination of hydrogen production and its subsequent use as a fuel, either an adaptation of gas turbines for reliable operation on fuel with a high hydrogen content, or replacement of a heat engine with fuel cells as terminal parts of the technological chain in electricity production is needed.

The latter concept seems to be prospective in case if the technologies for efficient hydrogen accumulation and storage will be developed and widely used and if hydrogen will be produced based on alternative energy sources and used as a universal intermediate energy carrier.

However, taking into account the progress in the development of powerful secondary energy sources (rechargeable lithium batteries, as well as metal-oxygen and redox batteries with electrolyte flow), it is not clear whether hydrogen would be demanded in this capacity.

Definitely, one can confidently predict the replacement of internal combustion engines with secondary sources of energy in transport sector, causing the need to increase the installed capacity of the stationary CFPP. 1.2.4. Methods for CO2 Capture from the Air A significant contribution to climate change is made by fugitive emissions of aerosols, fine dust and greenhouse gas emissions from low sources, which include: industrial emissions of aerosols from industrial shops, raising dust from the construction and industrial sites, streets and roads, blowing of dust from the surface of mine waste heaps and quarries, concentration of the exhaust gases from motor vehicles at cross-roads in cities, as well as emissions from volcanoes, smoke from forest fires etc.

To combat the effects of fugitive emissions, measures are taken in the immediate vicinity of the low-emission sources or the source itself is provided with appropriate filters, and, if possible, the neighborhood area is cleaned up and decontaminated from the already discharged hazardous substances. In some cases, further propagation and dissemination of emissions is controlled, as well as its deposition is fixed and studied which is followed by removal of consequences at the infected territory. Usually the fugitive emissions are not effected during their propagation, that is in the process of their movement in the atmosphere.

At the same time, in case of such situations in the aquatic environment (e.g., the elimination of oil spills from tankers and wells usually starts from the source of contamination and the adjacent territory, on the open water, and ends at the polluted shore) struggle with the effects of contamination is realized at all stages of pollutants spreading. This situation is reflected in the international strategy of combating global climate change (Kyoto Protocol is the main mechanism to limit greenhouse gas emissions through its impact at stationary sources of emissions) and in the priorities of scientific and technological development of the European Union (in the EU 7th Framework Programme for Research and Technological development in the areas of “Energy” and “Environment, including Climate Change” focuses on research and development of measures to mitigate climate change by implementing CCS).

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Currently, the main means of combating air pollution is the equipment installed on the sources of organized (planned) and fugitive (planned or emergency) emissions. Fugitive emissions are considered as unforeseen events, the consequences of which could be significant or insignificant for the environment and the population. Thus, the decision on eliminating the consequences of fugitive emissions is generally deferred to the next manmade or natural disaster.

We can assume that environmental sciences should not only study the human impact on nature, but also to counter this effect; a strategy to respond to fugitive emissions from low sources consists of the following active elements 64 : - Control measures in case of expected (planned) emissions; - Control measures in case of unexpected (natural and man-made) emissions; - Stationary means of active influence on the expected emissions close to their sources; - Mobility devices for active impact on unintentional emissions located maximally close to their sources and the way of their dissemination; - Preventive active influence on the atmosphere to preserve and improve the environment.

At least, there is a limited number of items that can be used in the framework of a special service after the work on design, manufacture and testing is done. Introduction of these elements will allow implementing the measures to reduce the impact of natural and man-made phenomena, energy and industrial accidents, forest fires, urban smog and concentration of combustion gas from vehicles on the atmosphere, removal of carbon dioxide and other harmful components from it. Development and implementation of such a strategy will not only reduce the risk of harmful impact on the atmosphere from facilities located throughout the country, but will also allow to minimize the consequences of natural and man-made disasters in other countries in order to promote global sustainable development.

Let’s consider the possible application of this strategy to the air quality problems that arise in large cities (for example, in the city of Donetsk in Ukraine) in connection with air pollution emissions from low sources, including the appearance of smog. “Smog” is a combination of English words smoke and fog and the term was first used more than 100 years ago to describe the yellow mixture of smoke produced by burning of large quantities of coal, and fog in London. In the 1950s it began to be used to describe foggy or smoky conditions in the atmosphere, related with pollution, including the type of a smog observed in Los Angeles, Detroit, New York and appearing in climatic conditions which are very different from those under which fogs traditionally appear. There are two types of smog: - Associated with air pollution by transport, containing nitrogen oxides, and - Associated with pollution of the atmosphere with soot or smoke containing sulfur dioxide.

A necessary component in the process of formation of the first type of smog (Los Angeles smog) is photochemical reactions, in the second case (the London smog) photochemical reactions may be involved in formation of smog, but their participation is not mandatory. On the basis of observations of the state of air pollution in the Soviet times 65 and now 66 , one can

64

Shestavin M. Strategy of Active Reacting Towards Pollution of Environment Caused by Non-Organised Emissions into the Atmosphere from Low Sources // Global Jean Monnet Conference. - Brussels: European Commission, 2007. - 3 pp.

65 Bezuglaya E.Yu., Rastorgueva G.P., Smirnova I.V. What does industrial city breathe with: Monograph. – Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1991. – 255 p.

66 Report on the state of the environment in the city of Donetsk in 2006-2007. - Donetsk, Donetsk City Council, 2008. – 108 p.

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argue that two types of smog can be formed in Donetsk: a factor of industrial emissions is constantly present, automobile exhaust gases contribute to the formation of Los-Angeles-type of smog in summer while the coal heating of houses in private sector provokes formation of a London-type smog in winter 67 .

Significant contribution to the formation of smog is made by adverse weather conditions (during the year repeatability of light winds totals 30%) and temperature inversions (rising inversion prevents dispersal of emissions from high sources - the steel industry and power plants, while surface inversion contributes to the accumulation of harmful substances entering the atmosphere from low emission sources - cars, mines and waste heaps), the annual frequency of which is about 20%, and increases up to 40% in winter. In summer the air pollution is often increased due to waste heaps (over 30 of 125 waste dumps are burning) and vehicle emissions, which increase from year to year.

The maximum concentration of nitrogen dioxide in Donetsk is usually observed in summer.

Therefore, in summer strong surface inversions at night and clear sky at the daytime form the conditions for photochemical reactions and formation of smog. And in connection with climate change taking place in Donetsk and resulting quite dramatic increase of the average summer temperature and reduction of the average winter temperature, the likelihood of Los Angeles smog in summer and London smog in winter is increased.

The presence of smog in the city can lead to damage of material objects (metal corrosion, aging of polymeric materials, damage to buildings and structures, etc.), degradation of the biosphere and deterioration of human health. Smog is particularly dangerous for children, the elderly people and people with heart and lung diseases, bronchitis, asthma, emphysema.

Smog can cause shortness of breath, respiratory affection and standstill, headaches, coughing, as well as inflammation of the mucous membranes of eyes, nose and throat, decreased immunity. Smog often causes the increase in number of hospitalizations, remissions and deaths from respiratory and heart diseases. But doctors do not officially fix the direct connection between smog and the diseases.

It is therefore necessary to introduce statistics in Donetsk calculating the days with the presence of smog, which is determined according to the standard criteria (for example, like in Toronto (Ontario, Canada) 68 , where in 2007 there were 29 days with smog in the city and 39 - in the province. Thus, it is officially recognized that every year in Toronto 1,700 people die prematurely from diseases caused by smog, and about 6,000 people get to hospitals with the diseases connected with presence of smog in the city.

Especially, health problems of the city population and visitors worsen in periods of mass sports events. For example, in China in 2008 before the Summer Olympic Games special measures were taken to combat smog: several days before the games all the enterprises in Beijing were stopped, the entry of road transport to the city center was limited etc, but air pollution has decreased significantly only after heavy rain.

67

Shestavin M.S. Photochemical fog - smog: dependence on climate change, the impact on public health and means of capture // Problems of adaptation to climate change in the Donetsk region of Ukraine: Materials of the Roundtable of the World Bank. - Donetsk: Donetsk National University, 2010. - P. 34-37.

68 Toronto Smog Report Card 2007: The Year of Uncertainty. - Toronto: Toronto Environmental Alliance, 2007.

- 17 pp.

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Similar measures were taken in India before the Commonwealth Games, which were held in New Delhi in summer of 2010. The city government bought the large vacuum cleaners Model Citta from the Italian firm 69 (Figure 1.2.7a), which were installed on the busy streets of the city and provided purification of air (up to 10 cubic meters of air per hour each) from dust and other harmful substances.

These installations are currently working in some Italian cities (within CAPTURE project 30 units were installed), under support of the National Association of Italian Municipalities, and in Rome there is an experimental mobile unit installed inside the bus (Figure 1.2.7b), which runs the most troubled streets and purifies the air on them.

This method of dealing with smog can be attributed to a strategy of proactive response to environmental pollution 70 , which has been developed to address the problems with the object “Shelter” at the fourth unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant 71 , and is now beginning to materialize in various independent projects which are considered represent geo-engineering means of exposure on natural atmospheric phenomena 72 . Some of these means are under development and testing phase, for example:

a)

b)

Figure 1.2.7: Installations for direct air purification from pollutants in New Delhi (a) and Rome (b) - “Artificial trees” 73,74 (Figure 1.2.8a), which should replace the billboards on U.S. roads to clean air, capture CO2, along with other greenhouse gases and harmful vehicle emissions. The effectiveness of these devices will depend on wind direction and speed, which is a significant drawback. Now, the new project is proposed in which the air is supplied to the installations from the atmosphere, which includes significant additional energy costs compared to the original version;

69

SystemLife s.r.l. - http://www.systemlife.eu Shestavin M. Strategy of Active Reacting Towards Pollution of Environment Caused by Non-Organised Emissions into the Atmosphere from Low Sources. - Brussels: Global Jean Monnet Conference 2007. - 3 pp.

71 “Sarcophagus” today and tomorrow / Bar'yakhtar V.G., Bitsky A.A., Borovoj A.A., et al. // Preprint Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Cybernetics at Glushkov, No. 92-28, 1992. - 16 pp. (in Russian) 72 Clark W.C., Crutzen P.J., Shellnhuber H.J. Science for Global Sustainability: Towards a New Paradigm / / CID Working Paper No. 120. - Cambridge, MA: Science, Environment and Development Group, Center for International Development, Harvard University, 2005. - 28 pp.

73 Lackner K.S., et al. The urgency of the development of CO2 capture from ambient air // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, US, No. 109 (33), 2012. - P. 13156-13162.

74 Global Research Technologies, LLC - http://www.grtaircapture.com 70

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- “Wind wall” 75,76 (Figure 1.2.8b) is being constructed in Canada and will consist of more than one hundred powerful stationary fans, directs the flow of air in the system for CO2 capture. This arrangement requires significant financial costs at the phase of both construction and operation.

a)

b)

Figure 1.2.8: “Artificial trees” (а) and “Wind wall” (b) projects

a)

b)

c)

Figure 1.2.9: Projects by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich and Climeworks Ltd

75

Holmes G., Keith D.W. An air-liquid contactor for large-scale capture of CO2 from air // Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 370, 2012. - P. 4380-4403.

76 Fox T. Capturing CO2 from the air // Carbon Capture Journal. – Issue 22, 2011. – P. 15-17.

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- “Spray hangar” (Figure 1.2.9a), “Solar scrubber” (Figure 1.2.9b) and “Air Collector” (Figure 1.2.9c), developed by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich and Climeworks Ltd. 77 , which is a subsidiary of ETH company involved in commercialization of patented and highly efficient technologies for CO2 capture from the air.

1.2.5. Prospects for Development of Solar and Wind Energy in Ukraine As can be seen from the analysis of possible ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in different sectors (Figure 1.1.5) wide implementation of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in the national energy sector by 2050 will provide a 21% contribution to the overall reduction in CO2 emissions from 62 Gt to 14 Gt. RES will only make this significant contribution to mitigating climate change when the incentives for their widespread use to generate electricity and provide heating are created. The current share of renewable energy in the world is very small 78 , as shown in Figure 1.2.10, representing the share of primary energy sources in the world production of electricity in 2008.

Figure 1.2.10: Share of primary sources of energy in the global energy production in 2008 However, the successful integration of RES with existing energy systems was achieved in recent years in some countries, including: - Brazil, with more than 50% of transport fuel, which is produced from sugar cane and 80% of its electricity from hydropower; - China, which has two-thirds of the world's total solar water heaters; - In Denmark approximately 20% (7180 GWh) of the total electricity generated in 2009 was derived from wind turbines;

77

Climeworks LTD. - http://www.climeworks.com Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. - IPCC, 2011 - Ottmar Edenhofer, Ramón PichsMadruga, Youba Sokona, Kristin Seyboth, Patrick Matschoss, Susanne Kadner, Timm Zwickel, Patrick Eickemeier, Gerrit Hansen, Steffen Schloemer, Christoph von Stechow (Eds.). - Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.

78

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- Spain, where since 2000 in Barcelona, solar thermal power plant supplies 40% of electricity for all new buildings in the region, as well as; - New Zealand and Iceland, the energy system has been formed during the recent decades, in which most of the electricity comes from hydro and geothermal power plants.

In Ukraine, in 2010, the main source of electricity was nuclear power plants (47%), coal-fired thermal power stations (36%), gas-fired combined heat and power plants (10%) and hydropower stations (7%), while the share of RES is about 0.2% (Figure 1.2.11), which is significantly less compared to the world average index.

Figure 1.2.11: Share of various energy sources in Ukraine in 2010

Figure 1.2.12: Forecast of various energy sources in Ukraine by 2030

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The Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2030 provides for an intensive development of renewable energy sources (Figure 1.2.12) by stimulating the production of electricity from renewable energy sources through introducing a “green tariff”, which is effective from 1 April 2013 according to the Law of Ukraine “On amendments to the Law of Ukraine “On Electric Power Industry” to stimulate the production of electricity from alternative energy sources”79 .

Development of RES in Ukraine in the long term perspective should be based on economic competition with traditional sources with account of potential benefits of renewable energy.

Currently, the cost of renewable energy generation is much higher than one of conventional generation. Therefore, the development of RES requires the use of support mechanisms and incentives (“green tariff”).

It is however expected that the cost of construction of facilities for renewable energy generation will decrease, and provided a quantum leap in technology development, total cost of RES generation (including depreciation and return on invested capital) would be equal to the cost of conventional generation or reach its lowest level.

Given the projected decline in the cost of facilities for RES generation and potential benefits for Ukraine from the development of the industry, the target total power of alternative and renewable energy by 2030 will be at least 10% of the installed capacity, or 5-7 GW, while the volume of production will total 11-16 TWh. These figures may increase in case of quantum leap in development of technologies for construction of RES objects, and due to significant reduction in the total cost of RES generation to the level of conventional generation cost.

Wind power is considered to be the basis for the development of RES in Ukraine in the forecasted period. The ratio of the share of each type of renewable generation in the total volume can vary with changes in capital costs of their building. Today, the development of renewable energy generation in Ukraine is promoted by “green tariff”, which provides costeffective production of electricity from non-conventional and renewable sources. Today, the rates of “green tariff” in Ukraine are sufficient to provide the required return on investments in renewable energy generation facilities. Reduction of “green tariff” coefficients envisaged in the Law corresponds to current forecasts on reducing the cost of construction of facilities for RES generation.

The significant increase in generation of RES may request a review of the mechanism of distribution (between participants - generating companies and companies owning electrical supply networks) of costs of the renovation and construction of transmission and distribution networks required to connect the RES power stations to the energy system. At the same time, increasing amounts of renewable energy will require modernization of networks to switch to the so-called “smart grids”.

According to the scenario of growth of electricity production based on renewable energy sources, operator of the regional power system must ensure the daily load with account of the most efficient and safe use of all types of generation. Based on this scenario, the use of consumer-controllers based on heat pumps, thermal storages and similar technologies could serve as an effective mechanism for regulating the power renewable energy sources (i.e. wind and solar power stations).

79

Law of Ukraine “On Amendments to the Law of Ukraine “On electric power industry” to stimulate the production of electricity from alternative energy sources” No. 5485-VI dated 20.10.2012 (in Ukrainian). – http://www.rada.gov.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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1.2.5.1. Prospects of wind energy development in Ukraine Ukraine has a great potential for wind power development. The most promising for its development are the southern and south-eastern regions of the country, where the average wind speed is more than 5 m/s (Figure 1.2.13). However, this potential is not currently used.

Ukraine lags far behind the global trends.

Figure 1.2.13: Distribution of average wind velocities at the territory of Ukraine 80 In 2009, Ukraine had 12 state-owned wind power plants (WPP) with a total installed capacity of 94 MW, representing only 0.2% of the total generating capacities of Ukraine. WES equipment does not meet modern standards of efficiency, because most of it was produced using old technologies of 80es. Another reason for the low level of installed capacity is the fact that until 2009, when “green tariff” was introduced, there were no incentives for potential investors.

The potential for development of wind power in Ukraine, according to various estimates, could reach 10-15 GW. However, the construction of such number of wind turbines requires significant investments – over 200 billion UAH, which can not be attracted in the current situation.

Based on the experience of the majority of European countries in RES introduction, the target level of installed capacity of wind farms in Ukraine until 2030 will total 3-4 GW, and electricity production will total 7-9 TWh.

80

3TIER – Renewable Energy Risk Analysis. – http://www.3tier.com

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The significant growth of these indices during the same period was only demonstrated by those countries which strategic priority was active RES development and where the level of subsidies in the sector was extremely high.

It is not possible to provide similar amounts of public subsidies to this sector in Ukraine in the near future, so it is necessary to introduce effective mechanisms to encourage investment in wind energy development in Ukraine.

Natural wind potential kWh/m2 per year

Average wind speed (at height of 10 m)

Technically achievable wind potential kWh/m2 per year

V<4,5 m/s V=4,5 m/s V=5,0 m/s

Specific indicators of wind energy potential at different heights

V=5,0 m/s

Figure 1.2.14: Wind energy potential in Ukraine 81 Wind power is distributed unequally across Ukraine (Figure 1.2.14). In the south wind potential is much higher than in the north. The average wind speed in the surface layer on the territory of Ukraine is quite low – 4.3 m/s. Many wind generators start producing industrial current starting with the wind speed of 5 m/s.

Given the fact that they can use wind power at the height of up to 50 m (at certain heights from the surface wind speed increases), the energy potential of the territory of Ukraine is huge amounting to 330 billion kW and exceeding the installed capacity of Ukrainian electrical power stations 6000 times.

Wind conditions of a certain area are defined by the wind energy inventory, which includes various indices of wind speed based on the results of many years of observations: annual and monthly mean wind speeds, wind direction frequency rate during the year, month, day.

81

Atlas of the Energy Potential of Renewable and Alternative Energy Sources in Ukraine: Wind energy, Solar energy, Small rivers, Biomass energy, Geothermal energy, Environment energy, Energy waste energotechnological potential, Energy of unconventional fuels. - Kyiv: Institute of Electrodynamics of NAS of Ukraine, State Committee of Ukraine for Energy Conservation, 2001. - 41 pp. (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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With the reduction of influence of warm and humid Atlantic air masses that come to Ukraine from the north-west, there is a strengthening of continental climate, which generates favorable conditions for the development of wind energy. The wind power potential of the southern and south-eastern areas is also affected by the vigorous movement of air masses from the Black and Azov seas, and besides - the formation of local winds - in the coastal zone of the seas.

The mountain territories of Ukraine, characterized by high wind speeds, should be considered separately.

The most favorable land territories for wind energy use are Crimea, Carpathian Mountains (Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Transcarpathian and Chernovtsy oblasts), the Black Sea and the Azov Sea coast (Odessa, Mykolaiv, Kherson, Zaporizhzhya and Donetsk oblasts), and Luhansk oblast. Area of land, suitable for construction of wind power facilities is estimated at 8 - 9 thous. sq. km. Using 20-30% of these areas and provided that density of the wind farm construction 5-8 MW / sq.km, it is possible to build 8-24 thous. MW and generate 16-48 billion kWh of electricity per year.

2011 was quite successful for the wind energy sector in Ukraine. This year will go down in history as the year of the first private projects of industrial wind power stations (WPS) in Ukraine. Also for the first time in Ukraine there were established modern wind turbines of a megawatt class.

The main catalyst for the development of wind power in Ukraine is the “green” tariff for the sale of electricity generated by wind power, operating in the country since 2009. In 2011, for the first time Ukraine was included in the rating the attractiveness of countries in terms of renewable energy, ranking 32th. The indices are calculated by Ernst and Young for 40 countries. Leaders of the ratings are China, the U.S. and Germany. Ernst and Young specialists have identified Ukraine as a country, which, after the introduction of the “green tariff” in 2009, has shown a steady growth of projects in the field of renewable energy.

Commissioning of the megawatt-class wind turbines opens up new horizons for the development of Ukrainian wind sector, changing the previously adopted ideology, shifting the focus from “the number of installed wind turbines” to “efficiency of a wind turbine and power generation due to the wind”. Entry into Ukraine of international manufacturers of modern wind turbines, such as Vestas, Siemens, GE Wind, Gamesa, Fuhrlander will create a healthy competition at the market and thus attract greater interest to the national wind energy sector from investors.

1.2.5.2. Prospects for the development of solar energy in Ukraine As the result of processing of long-term statistical weather data of solar radiation, specific energy values for solar energy were identified and the energy potential of solar radiation for each of the regions of Ukraine was distributed. Annual average solar radiation coming to 1 m2 of Ukraine’s territory ranges from 1070 kWh/m2 in the northern Ukraine up to 1400 kWh/m2 and higher in Crimea (Figure 1.2.15-16).

Solar energy potential in Ukraine is high enough for widespread introduction of heat- energy, and photo-energy equipment in practically all areas. Term of efficient operation of solarenergy equipment is 7 months in the southern regions of Ukraine (from April to October), and five months in the northern regions (from May to September). Photo-power equipment can be operated effectively throughout the year.

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In the climatic and meteorological conditions of the Ukraine, flat solar collectors, which use both direct and diffuse solar radiation, can be effectively used. Concentrating solar collectors can be quite effective only in the southern regions of Ukraine.

Figure 1.2.15: Global irradiation and solar electricity potential for Ukraine 82 Good standard of equipment for solar thermal power plants which is ready for series production in Ukraine shows that for large-scale introduction and obtaining of significant savings in fuel and energy resources it is necessary only to increase the interest of manufacturers in producing large quantities of this equipment.

Conversion of solar energy into electrical one in Ukraine should be focused primarily on the use of photovoltaic devices. The presence of significant stocks of raw materials, industrial, scientific and technical basis for manufacturing of photovoltaic devices can provide not only the needs of domestic consumers, but also produce more than two-thirds of the products for export. Energy indicators shown at Fig. 1.2.16 for solar radiation are basic for implementation of solar energy equipment, and are recommended to be used by designers of solar energy facilities for choosing the type of equipment (thermal and photovoltaic solar installations) and assessing their optimal power and efficient operation period in particular area.

82

Photovoltaic Geographical Information System / European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Energy and Transport. - http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/ Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Solar energy coming annually to the territory of Ukraine makes about 1.2 MWh/m2, and only less than 1% of this energy belongs to the resources that are economically expedient for use.

According to a study, the possible economic potential for solar power generation in Ukraine is about 4 GW.

General potential (x10 ) 9

Technical potential (x10 ) 7

Expedient economic 5 potential (x10 ) The total annual potential for solar energy, MWh/year

Figure 1.2.16: Potential of solar energy at the territory of Ukraine 83 Taking into account the experience of the European countries with similar levels of solar radiation in implementation of solar power stations (SPS), and given the reduction in the cost of construction of SPS due to the development of technologies, the target level of installed capacity of Ukrainian SPS by 2030 will be 1.5-2, 5 GW and the level of their productivity – up to 2-3,3 TWh per year at the expense of significant drop in the cost of construction of this type of generation.

1.2.5.3. Prospects of energy development based on heat environment Currently, solar energy finds its use in domestic hot water systems, solar distillation of sea and brackish water, water pumping, drying of agricultural products, industrial solar thermal processes, heating and cooling (passive and active constructions), natural lighting, solar refrigeration equipment, heat pumps, integrated photovoltaic systems for electricity production.

Electricity can be produced by direct conversion of sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells or indirect conversion using solar thermal systems.

83

Atlas of the Energy Potential of Renewable and Alternative Energy Sources in Ukraine: Wind energy, Solar energy, Small rivers, Biomass energy, Geothermal energy, Environment energy, Energy waste energotechnological potential, Energy of unconventional fuels. - Kyiv: Institute of Electrodynamics of NAS of Ukraine, State Committee of Ukraine for Energy Conservation, 2001. - 41 pp. (in Ukrainian)

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These solar systems for electricity production include parabolic mirror systems, central radiation receiver, the Stirling engine and the Solar Chimney Power Plant (SCPP) 84,85 .

Let us consider in more detail the principle of SCPP. SCPP is a solar thermal power plant, which uses the principle of the greenhouse (solar air collector) and the effect of buoyancy, which is supported in a tube and is induced by the sun as the convective flow that drives the turbine generator to produce electricity. Traditional SCPP consists of a circular transparent canopies or roofs raised to a certain height above the ground, with a pipe or a tower in the center, as shown in Figure 1.2.17.

Figure 1.2.17: Schematic representation of SCPP 86 principle In the central tube there are one or more turbine generators. Air enters the system from the environment at the point 0 (Figure 1.2.17) along the circumference between the collector roof and the ground. Radiation from the sun enters the collector through the roof and goes to the earth's surface and warms the earth and been reflected it heats the nearby air above the ambient temperature, then the heated to a certain temperature air goes to the output of the collector – point 1 (Figure 1.2.17).

Warm air from the collector moves to the sides and up into the central tube, as a result of buoyancy and pressure difference between the ambient air and the warm air inside the SCPP. The kinetic energy of warm air is converted into electrical energy by means of the turbogenerator.

84

Aja Ogboo Chikere, Hussain H., Al-Kayiem and Zainal Ambri Abdul Karim / Review on the Enhancement Techniques and Introduction of an Alternate Enhancement Technique of Solar Chimney Power Plant // Journal of Applied Sciences, 2011, Vol. 11. - P. 1877-1884.

85 Xinping Zhou, Fang Wang, Ochieng R.M. / A review of solar chimney power technology // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2010, Vol. 14, Issue 8. - P. 2315–2338.

86 Nizetic, S., Ninic N., Klarin B. / Analysis and feasibility of implementing solar chimney power plants in the Mediterranean region. Energy, 2008, Vol. 33. - P. 1680-1690.

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In 1981, the German engineering firm Schlaich Bergermann and Partners (SBP) proposed, designed, built and tested SCPP in Manzanares, Spain (Figure 1.2.18). This SCPP has a collector of 240 m diameter and a pipe 195 m height and 10 m diameter. This is the largest built to date SCPP which is designed to produce 50 kW of power 87 . After the pilot phase, the SCPP prototype provided electricity to a Spanish network in a fully automatic mode from July 1986 to February 1989 for 8611 hours 88 . Rated output power of economically feasible SCPPs is three to four times higher than the result demonstrated by SCPP in Manzanares.

But the result of SCPP operation in Manzanares showed that this concept is a possible alternative to conventional power plants. Based on the results of the experiment on the SCPP in Manzanares and various new model research t is possible to state that the overall efficiency of SCPP is below 2%, which largely depends on the height of the pipe and the collector area.

The losses of heat in the flue gases are inevitable as part of any fuel stove, boiler or oven. In a furnace fuel, air and fuel are mixed and burned to generate heat, and the heat is transmitted to the heating device and its load. When the energy or heat carrier reaches its practical limit, the exhaust gases are discharged from the furnace through a pipe to make way for a new charge of hot combustion gases.

Figure 1.2.18: Appearance of SCPP in Manzanares, Spain These flue gases still contain significant heat which is discharged into the atmosphere in the form of heat. The flue gases produced by thermal power plants, contain more than 50% of the thermal energy of the fuel 89 . The waste heat from the flue gases can be classified according to the source and the flue gas temperature, based on the temperature to which it is are heated: high, medium or low.

87

Fluri T.P. / Turbine layout for and optimization of solar chimney power conversion units // Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering University of Stellenbosch, 2008. – 125 pp.

88 Schlaich J., Rudolf B., Wolfgang S. et al. / Design of commercial solar updraft tower systems - utilization of solar induced convective flows for power generation // J. Solar Energy Eng., 2005. Vol. 127. – P. 117-124.

89 Al-Kayiem H.H., How M.G., Seow L.L. / Experimental investigation on Solar-Flue gas chimney // J. Energy Power Eng., 2009, Vol 3. – P. 25-31.

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Significant economic advantages can be achieved through the use of heat energy from flue gases that are produced under normal circumstances as a heat loss. Use of this heat will reduce the heating of the gas prior to its discharge to atmosphere. Considering the use of flue gas as applied to a hybrid SCPP 90 it was shown that the heated exhaust gases can be used in applications such as combined cycle expansion in turbo systems for solar, biomass and geothermal power plants.

In addition, some of the industries began to recover the energy of waste gases for economic and environmental goals. For instance, in studies of industrial tanks, in addition to burning, natural circulation of water through pipes is used for efficient recovery of boiler steam from the waste heat of flue gases 91 .

Energy recovery in waste water treatment plants reduces operating costs 92 . These studies showed that by optimizing the methane production and energy consumption in different parts of a company, it is possible to get 97% of electricity from waste heat, therefore, the reimbursement of energy generation in combined heat and power was about 35 478 kJ/day.

SCPP has some advantages for power generation, as well as some disadvantages compared to other power systems. Many of these factors have already been mentioned 93,94 .

Advantages: - SCPP uses direct and diffuse radiation; - Building materials (mainly glass and concrete) for SCPP are relatively inexpensive and available; - SCPP requires no renewable fuels to operate and produces no emissions; - SCPP works based on a simple technology, except, perhaps, the turbo-generator; - SCPP does not require water cooling; - SCPP has low maintenance cost; - SCPP has a long life (at least 80 to 100 years); - SCPP for working in the tropics, even in desert areas, where solar radiation is a very reliable source of energy.

Disadvantages: - In order to be economically viable, SCPP is to be built at a very large scale; - Output power from SCPP is not constant throughout the day or year; - Construction of the SCPP requires a large amount of materials and thereby causing logistical problems associated with the availability and transportation of materials; - No structure assessments available to determine the economic viability of SCPP; - The effectiveness of SCPP is still below 2%, and is mainly dependent on the height of the chimney and the area of collector.

90

Romero M. / Waste heat recovery and air pollution control. AIChE Chicago Symposium, 2007. http://www.aiche-chicago.org/symposium07/energy.htm 91 Phubalan K. / Waste Heat Recovery and Treatment of Paper Sludge at in Genting Sanyen // Malaysian Energy Professionals Association, Malaysian., 2004. – 32 pp.

92 Nouri J., Jafarinia M., Naddafi K., et al. / Energy recovery from wastewater treatment plant. // Pak. J. Biol.

Sci., 2006, Vol. 9. – P. 3-6.

93 Pretorius J.P., Kroger D.G. / Critical evaluation of solar chimney power plant performance // Solar Energy, 2006, Vol. 80. – P. 535-544.

94 Pretorius, J.P. / Optimization and control of a large-scale solar chimney power plant // Ph.D. Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 2007. – 154 pp.

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To make solar energy supply much of the electricity needed by the mankind, it is necessary to create effective means for converting energy. For the use of renewable energy and related technologies, such as solar energy systems, these technologies should be simple, reliable and affordable for the less technologically developed countries, which have a lot of “sun” in terms of the potential for solar radiation, but often have limited financial and commodity resources.

They should be based on environmentally friendly production of energy from renewable or recycled resources. The energy produced must be made available to consumers. SCPP meets these conditions, and that is the reason to further develop this form of solar energy until the development and installation of large, economically viable objects takes place. SCPP performance is the result of collector, chimney and turbine efficiency.

A lot of research in mathematical modeling of SCPP collector performance has been done.

The analytical model was developed by Schlaich 95 in 1995. Then some numerical models have been presented Gannon and Backstrom 96 (2000), Hedderwick 97 (2001), Bernardes 98 (2004) and Pretorius and Kroger 99 (2006).

According to Bernardes calculations (2004), the cost of the collector makes more than 50% of the investment value and about 50% of the total operating costs of the system. Therefore, improving the performance of the collector makes a large contribution to the creation of a competitive SCPP as a viable source of commercial electric power 100 .

Analysis of inventions and ideas of hybrid SCPPs, where energy sources are solar energy and flue gases, showed that the performance of the collector can be improved through the use of heat recovery techniques.

Furthermore, in order to predict the overall performance of SCPP, various mathematical models were developed: Haaf et al. 101 (1983), Pasumarthi and Sherif 102 (1998), Pastohr et al.

103 (2003) and Schlaich et al. 104 (2005). These models may differ in their approaches and computational implementation, but they have a very important trend. In all of the above models the output power increases with the height and area of the collector pipe, and they all show a large daily and seasonal fluctuations in power.

95

Schlaich J. / The Solar Chimney - Electricity from the Sun // Ed. Menges, Stuttgart, Germany, 1995. – 17 pp.

Gannon, A.J., Backstrom T.W.V. / Solar chimney cycle analysis with system loss and solar collector performance // J. Solar Energy Eng., 2000, Vol. 122. – P. 133-137.

97 Hedderwick, R.A. / Performance evaluation of a solar chimney power plant // Master Degree Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 2001. – 89 pp.

98 Bernardes M.A.D.S. / Technical, economical and ecological analysis of solar chimney power plants // Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Stuttgart, 2004. – 174 pp.

99 Pretorius J.P., Kroger D.G. / Critical evaluation of solar chimney power plant performance // Solar Energy, 2006, Vol. 80. – P. 535-544.

100 Seow L.L. / Energy recovery by conversion of thermal energy of flue gases to electricity // Undergraduate Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Dept, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia, 2008. – 83 pp.

101 Haaf W., Friedrich K., Mayr G. et al. / Solar chimneys; Part I: Principle and construction of the pilot plant in manzanares // Int. J. Solar Energy, 1983. Vol. 2. – P. 3-20.

102 Pasumarthi N., Sherif S.A. / Experimental and theoretical performance of a demonstration solar chimney model - part I: mathematical model development // Int. J. Energy Res., 1998, Vol. 22. – P. 277-288.

103 Pastohr H., Kornadt O., Gurlebeck K. / Numerical and analytical calculations of the temperature and flow field in the upwind power plant // Int. J. Energy Res., 2003, Vol. 28. – P. 495-510.

104 Schlaich J., Rudolf B., Wolfgang S. et al. / Design of commercial solar updraft tower systems - utilization of solar induced convective flows for power generation // J. Solar Energy Eng., 2005, Vol. 127. – P. 117-124.

96

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In 1995, Schlaich showed that economically viable SCPPs must have a chimney height of 950 meters with a diameter of 115 meters. Then an analytical model of simplified SCPP, and the results of the design, construction and operation were used for creation of a prototype at small scale in Spain. In the result of this analysis, it was found out that the efficiency increases with the chimney height and the area of the reservoir area, so these SCPPs must be large enough to be competitive.

In 1997 Kreetz 105 introduced new elements into SCPP model: water-filled pipes under the roof of the collector for thermal energy storage. In 2004, Bernardes106 explored the possibility of using water-filled tubes on the floor of the reservoir (unit for heat storage), and proved that it would increase the power output of SCPP after sunset.

This technology is shown on Figure 1.2.19. During the day (in the sunlight) the heat from the sun heats the water in the water-filled pipes and heat is stored in water due to the weak heat exchange. At night, when the air begins to cool down in the reservoir, the water in the pipes gives the heat back. A comparison of this technology (water-filled pipes) with the ground showed that the heat exchange between the water in the pipes and the air is much higher than at the ground surface because the heat capacity of water is about five times higher than that of the soil. This helps to smooth consumption of heat and to create hot air to drive turbines and generate electricity for 24 hours.

Figure 1.2.19: Pipes, filled with water for heat storage in SCPP Heat capacity of the storage depends on thickness of water layer / volume of water contained in pipes. In experimental studies of thickness of water layer in pipes from 5 to 20 cm, it was found that the greater the thickness / volume of water, the more heat can be stored for a long time and the energy in the power generation during the day can be smoothed, and also diurnal variations (a power loss and night early in the morning) can be reduces.

105

Kreetz H. / Theoretische Untersuchungen und Auslegung eines temporaren Wasserspeichers fur das Aufwindkraftwerk // Diploma Thesis, Technical University Berlin, 1997. – 79 pp.

106 Bernardes M.A.D.S. / Technical, economical and ecological analysis of solar chimney power plants // Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Stuttgart, 2004. – 174 pp.

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But, as expected, the peak power is reduced to about 50% of normal output without thermal media. This shows that part of the solar energy is absorbed by water in pipes.

In 2007, Hussain proposed hybrid power plants – “Geothermal + SCPP” and “Geothermal + PV + SCPP” - as options for the introduction of potential SCPPs in the southern region of Libya. The technology of these hybrid systems can be described by the following diagram (Figure 1.2.20.): geothermal hot water is pumped and distributed through pipes embedded at the surface of the ground under collector roof - and thus, regardless of the surrounding air an artificial wind (hot air) is created which rotates the turbine.

The hybrid power plant “Geothermal + PV + SCPP” is like a hybrid power plant “Geothermal + SCPP”, but also includes PV as auxiliary energy and inverter that converts the DC power generated by PV, to the alternating current to increase the power generation (Figure 1.2.20).

Figure 1.2.20: Hybrid power: Geothermal energy + PV + SCPP 107 In the two proposed hybrid systems, heat pumps are necessary, but in hybrid power plants “Geothermal + PV + SCPP” there is also a need of photoelectric cells and inverters. The use of heat pumps will increase the operating costs, the expected reduction of energy, and most of the power generated by the hybrid power plant will be consumed by the pumping system.

Pumping system needs constant maintenance and replacement of worn parts. In addition, the hybrid power plant “Geothermal + PV + SCPP” includes PV and inverters, which will increase the total cost of the hybrid power plants, making the initial investment very high.

107

Hussain A. / Hybrid geothermal/solar energy technology for power generation // Higher Institute of Engineering, Libya, 2007. – 4 pp.

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In 2009, Akbarzadeh et al. 108 with colleagues examined the potential benefits of combining SCPP with a pond having large salinity gradient to generate electricity in areas where water is saturated with salt (for example, the northern part of the state of Victoria in Australia).

In their analysis, they found two possible combinations of SCPP with solar pond for electricity generation (Figure 1.2.21). Technology of removing heat from solar ponds by extracting hot brine from water layers, located just below the interface between the layer of the gradient, and the bottom of the convective zone. The pump delivers this brine to a waterair heat exchanger inside SCPP. After the return of its heat, water is returned to the bottom of the solar pond. The surrounding air is heated in a pipe, and moves to the turbine where the energy of moving air is converted by turbine generator into electricity.

Figure 1.2.21: A device for combining SCPP with a solar pond to generate electricity 109 The system uses two types of heat exchangers (heat exchangers of direct and indirect contact).

In Figure 1.2.21, the pipe (A) provides a heat transfer through direct contact. In this process, the hot water from the solar pond is pumped to a certain height in the tube, then the water is sprayed all over the surface area of SCPP, the air in the tube is heated from the hot water, flows up to the turbine by the principle of buoyancy and loses some of its energy at turbogenerator which converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy.

In this process, water is needed to compensate for the evaporation of water by direct contact between air and water. In Figure 1.2.21, the pipe (B) has no direct contact with heat exchangers.

108

Akbarzadeh A., Peter J., Randeep S. / Examining potential benefits of combining a chimney with a salinity gradient solar pond for production of power in salt affected areas // Solar Energy, 2009, Vol. 83. – P. 1345-1359.

109 Akbarzadeh A., Peter J., Randeep S. / Examining potential benefits of combining a chimney with a salinity gradient solar pond for production of power in salt affected areas // Solar Energy, 2009, Vol. 83. – P. 1345-1359.

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In this process, the hot water is pumped and goes into a good conductor, which extracts and transfers the heat from the water to the air inside the solar tube. Air moving with some acquired energy is used to turn a turbine to generate electricity.

The analysis of systems, described above, shows that the efficiency of these systems will mainly depend on the diameter and height of the pipe because the pipe elements act as greenhouse. It should be noted that the efficiency of solar power of SCPP collector depends on collector diameter, pipe height and the efficiency of turbine.

In this case, the diameter is determined by the volume of air that is available for the heating process. Furthermore, the use of pumps affect significantly the amount of electricity generated since some of the electricity generated will be directed to power the pump system.

It is expected that the combination of solar energy, wind energy and thermal energy of the environment will increase the thermal energy available to the collector, and therefore, its performance and the overall performance of SCPP. 1.2.6. Geology of the Target Regions of Ukraine Amongst the spectrum of measures that need to be urgently implemented to mitigate climate change and ocean acidification, CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) can play a decisive role as it could contribute 19% of the CO2 reduction needed by 2050 (Figure 1.1.5). CCS involves capturing CO2 at coal- or gas-fired power stations and industrial facilities (steel mills, cement plants, refineries, etc.), transporting it by pipeline or ship to a storage location, and injecting it via a well into a suitable geological formation for long-term storage (Figure 1.2.22).

Figure 1.2.22: At power plants, the CO2 is captured by separating it out from the other gases.

It is then compressed and transported via pipeline or ship to its geological storage site: deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas fields, unmineable coal seams 110 .

110

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

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CO2 cannot be injected just anywhere underground, suitable host rock formations must first be identified. Potential reservoirs for CO2 geological storage exist throughout the world and offer sufficient capacity to make a significant contribution to mitigating human-induced climate change.

Three main storage options exist for CO2 (Figure 1.2.23): - Depleted natural gas and oil fields – well known due to hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, offer immediate opportunities for CO2 storage; - Saline aquifers – offer a larger storage potential, but are generally not as well known; - Unmineable coal seams – an option for the future, once the problem of how to inject large volumes of CO2 into low-permeability coal has been solved.

Once injected underground into a suitable reservoir rock, the CO2 accumulates in the pores between grains and in fractures, thus displacing and replacing any existing fluid such as gas, water or oil. Suitable host rocks for CO2 geological storage should therefore have a high porosity and permeability. Such rock formations, the result of the deposition of sediments in the geological past, are commonly located in so-called “sedimentary basins”.

In places, these permeable formations alternate with impermeable rocks, which can act as an impervious seal. Sedimentary basins often host hydrocarbon reservoirs and natural CO2 fields, which proves their ability to retain fluids for long periods of time, having naturally trapped oil, gas and even pure CO2 for millions of years.

Figure 1.2.23: CO2 is injected into deep geological layers of porous and permeable rocks (cf. sandstone in left-bottom inset), overlain by impermeable rocks (cf. claystone in left-top inset) that prevent the CO2 from escaping to the surface 111 .

111

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

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Potential CO2 storage reservoirs must fulfill many criteria, the essential ones being: - sufficient porosity, permeability and storage capacity; - the presence of overlying impermeable rock – the so-called “cap rock” (e.g. clay, clay sone, marl, salt rock), which prevents the CO2 from migrating upwards; - the presence of “trapping structures” – in other words features, such as a dome-shaped cap rock, that can control the extent of CO2 migration within the storage formation; - location deeper than 800 m, where pressures and temperatures are high enough to enable the storage of CO2 in a compressed fluid phase and thus maximize the quantity stored; - the absence of drinking water: CO2 will not be injected into waters fit for human consumption and activities.

1.2.6.1. Where to find CO2 storage sites in Europe?

Sedimentary basins are widespread throughout Europe, for example offshore in the North Sea or onshore surrounding the Alpine mountain chains (Figure 1.2.24). Many formations in the European basins fulfill the criteria for geological storage, and are currently being mapped and characterized by researchers. Other European areas are composed of ancient consolidated crust, such as much of Scandinavia, and thus do not host rocks suitable for CO2 storage.

One example of an area with potential for storage is the Southern Permian Basin, which extends from England to Poland (represented on Figure 1.2.24 by the largest ellipse). The sediments have been affected by rock-forming processes that left some of the pore space filled with saline water, oil or natural gas. The clay layers that exist between the porous sandstones have been compacted to low-permeability strata, which prevent fluid ascent.

Figure 1.2.24: Geological Map of Europe showing the location of the main sedimentary basins (red ellipses) where suitable reservoirs for CO2 storage can be found (based on the Geological Map of Europe at 1:5,000,000 scale).

Much of the sandstone formations are located at depths between 1 and 4 km, where pressure is high enough to store CO2 as a dense phase. The salt content in the formation waters increases in this depth interval from about 100 g/l to 400 g/l, in other words, much saltier than seawater (35 g/l).

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Movements in the basin have caused plastic deformation of the rock salt, creating hundreds of dome-shaped structures that subsequently trapped natural gas. It is these traps that are being studied for eventual CO2 storage sites and pilot projects. The issue of CO2 storage in Ukraine remains open as long as it is not considered at the national and regional levels of government, and only the scientific community, which explores these issues on its own initiative or at the expense of international grants on the basis of their financial and resource capabilities, are interested in it. Because of the present Grant Contract does not provide funding for geological research, we restrict our investigation of information materials that are in open access, ranging from geological maps of 1920, 1939, 1957's, and more advanced, and ending with the fundamental works on geology Ukraine 112 and the Donets Basin 113 .

Information from the contemporary scientific publications both in national114 and in foreign 115 journals, which mainly deals with the problems of coal mining, oil and gas on the territory of Ukraine and, in particular, in the eastern regions, which are the target regions of the project, is also taken into account.

Figure 1.2.25: Map of the geological structure of Ukraine

112

Geology of the USSR, Editor P. Antropov, Volume V: Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Part I: Geological description of the platform. Editors V. Ershov & N. Semenenko. - Moscow: State Scientific and Technical Publishing House of Geology and Conservation of Resources, 1958. – 1000 pp. (in Russian) 113 Geology of the USSR, Editor I. Malyshev, Volume VII: Donets Basin, Volume Editor Academician P. Stepanov. - Moscow - Leningrad: State Publishing House of Geological Literature at the Committee for Geology at UPC, 1944. - 901 pp. (in Russian) 114 Matchoulina S.A., Shekhunova S.B. / Basal Sequences of Terrigenous, Carbonate, and Salt-Bearing Formations and Their Role in the Structure of Sedimentary Basins in Relations to Forecast of Economic Minerals // Collection of Scientific Papers of the Institute of Geological Sciences at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2008, 42 (1). – P. 255-261. (in Russian) 115 Sachsenhofer R.F., Privalov V.A., Panova E.A. / Basin evolution and coal geology of the Donets Basin (Ukraine, Russia): An overview // International Journal of Coal Geology, Volume 89, 2012, P. 26–40.

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Field of search and investigation of geological formations in which the conditions of longterm storage of CO2 would be carried out, is marked by red oval in Figure 1.2.25 on the geological map of Ukraine. The selection of this area is mainly caused by the definition of the target regions of the project (eastern regions of Ukraine: Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Luhansk and Kharkiv), where the majority of stationary sources of CO2 are concentrated. And with the economic and technological points of view, to minimize the distance from the source of CO2 to the storage site will be more profitable.

Figure 1.2.26: Generalized map showing the boundaries of the Pripyat Basin and Dnieper Donets Basin geologic provinces (red lines), centerpoints of oil and gas fields (green and red circles, respectively), and the location of geologic cross section A-A’ shown in figure 1.2.27 (green line) 116 . Country boundaries are represented by blue lines.

Special attention was paid to the information on the geological cross-sections (cross sections) on the prospective areas for CO2 storage. For example, in the preparation of estimates of undiscovered oil and gas resources in the Dnieper-Donets Basin Province and Pripyat Basin Province, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus (Figure 1.2.26), which was fulfilled by the US Geological Survey 117 , cross section of rocks with length more than 160 km and a depth of 10 km (Figure 1.2.27), where the prospective areas that satisfy the requirements of long-term storage of CO2 can be selected, have been published.

116

Klett T.R. / Assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources of the Dnieper-Donets Basin Province and Pripyat Basin Province, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, 2010: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet, 2011-3051, 2011. - 2 pp.

117 Klett, T.R., 2011, Assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources of the Dnieper–Donets Basin Province and Pripyat Basin Province, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, 2010: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet, 2011-3051, 2 p.

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Similar information is provided in the American Association of Petroleum Geologists – European Region Newsletter 118 , which analyzes the prospects for the development of oil and gas in Ukraine.

Other cross sections of rocks in the target regions of the project can be found in the article 119 and review 120 in which explores the potential of oil and gas fields in Ukraine, as well as in the report 121 which is devoted to coal geology.

Figure 1.2.27: Geologic cross section for the Dnieper-Donets Basin.

See figure 1.2.26 for location.

Explanation:

1 - Upper Devonian; 2 - Devonian evaporites; 3 - Carboniferous; 4 - Permian; 5 - Triassic; 6 - Jurassic; 7 - Cretaceous; 8 - Cenozoic; 9 - oil accumulation; 10 - gas accumulation; 11 - top of overpressure; 12 - 100° C isotherm; 13 - 0.9 percent vitrinite reflectance isochore; 14 - stratigraphic boundary.

Series of cross sections of rocks across the length of Dnieper-Donets basin and Donbass is presented in the review of Keller and Stephenson (2007) (Figure 1.2.27), and a longitudinal section of the basin is shown in the review of the world's resources of shale gas (Figure 1.2.28-29).

Currently in Ukraine research on the possibilities of shale and other unconventional gas, which assume the drilling of exploration wells to a depth of several kilometers has begun.

Such studies can provide (as a side effect) detailed information about the geological formations suitable for long-term storage of CO2.

In addition, studies to improve the recovery of oil and gas from depleted fields with the use of CO2 injection is planned now.

118

Tari G. / Exploration Country Focus: Ukraine // AAPG ER Newsletter – September 2010. – P. 3-6.

Basin-centered gas evaluated in Dnieper-Donets basin, Donbas foldbelt, Ukraine / Law B.E., Ulmishek G.F., Clayton J.L. et al. // Oil and Gas Journal, 1998, Volume 96, Issue 47. – P. 74-78.

120 Stephenson R., Stovba S. Chapter 16 The Dniepr-Donets Basin / Regional Geology and Tectonics: Phanerozoic Rift Systems and Sedimentary Basins / Editors: David G. Roberts & A.W. Bally // Elsevier BV, 2012, 528 pp. – P. 421-441.

121 Sachsenhofer R.F., Privalov V.A. / Basin Evolution and Coal Geology of the Donets Basin (Ukraine, Russia): Implications for CBM Potential // Presentation at AAPG European Region Annual Conference, Kiev, Ukraine, October 17-19, 2010. – 33 p.

119

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The prospects for recovery of coal bed methane from coal seams that do not have commercial value and are located far from existing mines are considered. This refers to the layers that are very thin over the cross section, or on the steep slope, or are located at depths of over a kilometer.

All of these geological studies were carried out to obtain information about the fields of oil, gas, coal and other minerals, and therefore used to determine the places of storage of CO2 can only initially assess options for geological storage of CO2 in the east of Ukraine. For a reliable determination of CO2 storage sites need new geological studies specific to the problem.

Figure 1.2.27: Series of cross sections of rocks across the length of Dnieper-Donets basin and Donbass 122

122

Keller G. R., Stephenson R. A. / The Southern Oklahoma and Dnieper-Donets aulacogens: A comparative analysis // Geological Society of America Memoirs, 2007, v. 200, P. 127-143.

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Figure 1.2.28: Dnieper-Donets Shale Gas Prospective Area123

Figure 1.2.29: Central Dnieper-Donets Basin Stratigraphic Column.

See figure 1.2.28 for location.

123

World Shale Gas Resources: An Initial Assessment of 14 Regions Outside the United States / U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2011. – 365 pp.

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1.2.7. The Problems of Geological Storage of CO2 When injected in a reservoir, the CO2 fills the rock’s pore spaces, which in most cases are already filled with brine i.e. salty water. As the CO2 is injected, the following mechanisms begin to come into play 124 . The first is considered the most important and prevents the CO2 from rising to the surface. The other three tend to increase the efficiency and security of storage with time.

Microscopic view:

a) The injected CO2, which is lighter than water, tends to rise and is stopped by overlying impermeable rocks.

b) Dense CO2 migrating upwards (light blue bubbles), dissolving and reacting with the grains of the rock, leading to precipitation of carbonate minerals on the grain boundaries (white).

Figure 1.2.30: Processes occurring after CO2 injection into the reservoir

124

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

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1. Accumulation below the cap rock (Structural trapping) As dense CO2 is ‘lighter’ than water, it begins to rise upwards. This movement is stopped when the CO2 encounters a rock layer that is impermeable, the so-called ‘cap rock’.

Commonly composed of clay or salt, this cap rock acts as a trap, preventing the CO2 from rising any farther, and leading to its accumulation directly beneath. Figure 1.2.30a illustrates the upward movement of the CO2 through the pore spaces of the rock (in blue) until it reaches the cap rock.

2. Immobilization in small pores (Residual trapping) Residual immobilization occurs when the pore spaces in the reservoir rock are so narrow that the CO2 can no longer move upwards, despite the difference in density with the surrounding water. This process occurs mainly during the migration of CO2 and can typically immobilize a few percent of the injected CO2, depending on the properties of the reservoir rock.

3. Dissolution (Dissolution trapping) A small proportion of the injected CO2 is dissolved, or brought into solution, by the brine already present in the reservoir pore spaces. A consequence of dissolution is that the water with dissolved CO2 is heavier than the water without, and it tends to move downwards to the bottom of the reservoir. The dissolution rate depends on the contact between the CO2 and the brine. The amount of CO2 that can dissolve is limited by a maximum concentration. However, due to the movement of injected CO2 upwards and the water with dissolved CO2 downwards, there is a continuous renewal of the contact between brine and CO2, thus increasing the quantity that can be dissolved. These processes are relatively slow because they take place within narrow pore spaces. Rough estimates at the Sleipner project indicate that about 15% of the injected CO2 is dissolved after 10 years of injection.

4. Mineralization (Mineral trapping) The CO2, especially in combination with the brine in the reservoir, can react with the minerals actually forming the rock. Certain minerals can dissolve, whereas others can precipitate, depending on the pH and the minerals constituting the reservoir rock (Fig. 1.2.30b).

Estimations at Sleipner indicate that only a relatively small fraction of the CO2 will be immobilized through mineralization after a very long period of time. After 10,000 years, only 5% of the injected CO2 should be mineralized while 95% would be dissolved, with no CO2 remaining as a separate dense phase.

The relative importance of these trapping mechanisms is site specific, i.e. it depends on the characteristics of each individual site. For instance, in dome-shaped reservoirs, CO2 should remain mostly in a dense phase even over very long timescales, while in flat reservoirs such as Sleipner, most of the injected CO2 will be dissolved or mineralized. The evolution of the proportion of CO2 in the different trapping mechanisms for the Sleipner case is illustrated in Figure 1.2.31.

Although CO2 geological storage is now broadly accepted as one of the credible options for mitigating climate change, the safety criteria with respect to human health and the local environment remain to be established before industrial-scale operations can be widely deployed.

Such criteria can be defined as the requirements imposed upon the operators by the regulating authorities to ensure that impacts on local health, safety and the environment (including groundwater resources) are negligible in the short, medium and long term.

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Figure 1.2.31: Evolution of the CO2 in its different forms in the Sleipner reservoir according to flow simulations. CO2 is trapped in supercritical form by mechanisms 1 and 2, in dissolved form by mechanism 3, and in mineral form by mechanism 4.

One key issue of CO2 geological storage is that it should be permanent, and consequently, storage sites are not expected to leak. However, the ‘what if?’ scenario means that the risks must be assessed and the operators required to respect measures that prevent any leakage or anomalous behaviour of the sites. According to the IPCC, the injected CO2 needs to remain underground for at least 1000 years, which would allow atmospheric CO2 concentrations to stabilize or decline by natural exchange with ocean waters, thereby minimizing surface temperature rise due to global warming.

Figure 1.2.32: Example of potential leakage scenarios 125 .

125

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

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Risk assessment then needs to consider less plausible scenarios for future states of the storage, including occurrences of unexpected events. In particular, it is important to envisage any potential leakage pathways, exposure and effects (Figure 1.2.32). Each leakage scenario should be analysed by experts and, where possible, numerical modelling applied, in order to evaluate the probability of occurrence and potential severity.

The safety criteria are essential for the successful industrial deployment of CO2 storage. They have to be adapted to each specific storage site. These criteria will be particularly important for public acceptance, and essential in the licensing process for which regulatory bodies must decide the level of detail for safety requirements.

1.2.8. Methods of Analytical and Biological Monitoring of Leaks Underground Storage of CO2 All CO2 storage sites will need to be monitored for operational, safety, environmental, societal and economic reasons. A strategy has to be drawn up to define what exactly will be monitored and how. Monitoring site performance will be critical to ensure that the principal goal of CO2 geological storage is attained, namely the long-term isolation from the atmosphere of anthropogenic CO2. The reasons for monitoring storage sites are numerous, including: - Operational: to control and optimize the injection process.

- Safety and environmental: to minimize or prevent any impact on people, wildlife and ecosystems in the vicinity of a storage site, and to ensure the mitigation of climate change.

- Societal: to provide the public with the information needed to understand the safety of the storage site and to help gain public confidence.

- Financial: to build market confidence in CCS technology and to verify the stored volumes of CO2 so that they are credited as 'avoided emissions' in future phases of the European Union’s Emission Trading Scheme (ETS).

Monitoring can be focused on various targets and processes in different parts of the site 126 : 1. Plume imaging – tracking of the CO2 as it migrates from the injection point. This provides key data for calibrating models that predict the future distribution of CO2 at the site. Many mature techniques are available, most notably repeat seismic surveys, which have been successfully applied at several demonstration and pilot-scale projects (Figure 1.2.33).

Figure 1.2.33: Seismic imaging to monitor the CO2 plume at the Sleipner pilot before injection (which began in 1996) and after injection (respectively 3 and 5 years later).

126

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

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2. Cap-rock integrity â&#x20AC;&#x201C; necessary to evaluate if the CO2 is isolated within the storage reservoir and to enable early warning of any unexpected upward CO2 migration. This can be especially important during the injection phase of a project, when reservoir pressures are significantly, but temporarily, increased.

3. Well integrity. This is an important issue as deep wells could potentially provide a direct pathway for CO2 migration to the surface. CO2 injection wells plus any observation wells or pre-existing abandoned wells must be carefully monitored during the injection phase and beyond to prevent sudden escape of CO2. Monitoring is also used to verify that all wells have been efficiently sealed once they are no longer required. Existing geophysical and geochemical monitoring systems, which are standard practice in the oil and gas industry, can be installed within or above wells to provide early warning and ensure safety.

4. Migration in the overburden. At storage sites where additional, shallower rock units have properties that are similar to those of the cap rock, the overburden may form a key component in reducing the risk of CO2 escape into the sea or the atmosphere. If monitoring in the reservoir or around the cap rock indicates an unexpected migration through the cap rock, monitoring of the overburden will be necessary.

5. Surface leakage and atmospheric detection and measurement. To ensure that the injected CO2 has not migrated to the surface, a range of geochemical, biochemical and remote sensing techniques is available to locate leaks, assess and monitor CO2 distribution in the soil and its dispersion in the atmosphere or the marine environment.

6. Quantity of stored CO2 for regulatory and fiscal purposes. Although the amount of CO2 injected can be readily measured at the wellhead, quantification in the reservoir is technically very challenging. If leakage to the near-surface occurs, then the amounts being released will have to be quantified for accounting purposes within national greenhouse gas inventories and future ETS schemes.

7. Ground movements and microseismicity. The increased reservoir pressure due to CO2 injection could, in specific cases, increase the potential for microseismicity and small-scale ground movements. Microseismic monitoring techniques and remote methods (surveys from aircraft or satellites) able to measure even tiny ground distortion are available.

A wide range of monitoring techniques has already been applied at existing demonstration and research projects. These include methods that directly monitor the CO2, and those that indirectly measure its effects on rocks, fluids and the environment.

Direct measurements include the analysis of fluids from deep wells or the measurement of gas concentrations in the soil or atmosphere. Indirect methods include geophysical surveys, and monitoring pressure changes in wells or pH changes in groundwater.

Monitoring will be required for storage sites whether they are offshore or onshore. The selection of appropriate monitoring techniques will depend on the technical and geological characteristics of the site and the monitoring aims.

A wide range of monitoring techniques is already available (Figure 1.2.34), many of which are well established in the oil and gas industries; these techniques are being adapted to a CO2 context.

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Figure 1.2.34: A small selection illustrating the range of techniques available to monitor different components of a CO2 storage system 127 For the purposes of biomonitoring in various projects on CCS following aspects of plant responses to increased CO2 concentrations were studied 128 : - change in the spectral characteristics of vegetation due to changes in the ratio of photosynthetic pigments, changes in vegetation index; - long-term response to the of the biocenosis level, changes in the rate of plant growth, the ratio between “forest-grass”; - change in the intensity of photosynthesis, photorespiration; - stomatal reactions of test plants on the various concentrations of CO2 in the air; - transformations in the structure of the mesophyll of leaf blades.

For instance, measurement of spectral reflectance provides a fast and nondestructive method of stress detection in vegetation. In this shallow subsurface CO2 release experiment to simulate CO2 leakage of geologically sequestered CO2, the radiometric responses of plants to elevated soil CO2 concentration were monitored using a spectroradiometer.

Spectral responses included increased reflectance in the visible spectral region and decreased reflectance in the near-infrared region and thus an altered spectral pattern of vegetation.

Visible responses of vegetation include purple discoloration and eventual death of leaves at sites where the soil CO2 concentration was very high. Derivative analysis identified two features (minimum and maximum) in the 575–580 nm and 720–723 nm spectral regions.

The Normalized difference First Derivative Index (NFDI) was defined based on the spectral derivative at the two bands. Four vegetation indices were analyzed with the accumulated soil CO2 concentration to assess the accumulated impact of high soil CO2 concentration on vegetation.

127

What does CO2 geological storage really mean? // CO2GeoNet – The European Network of Excellence on the geological storage of CO2, 2008. - 20 pp.

128 Safonov A.N. The use of plant organisms for diagnostic concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment // Proceedings of the National Ecological Forum “Ecology of Industrial Region”, Volume 2. – Donetsk: State Enterprise “Donetsk Ecological Institute”, 2012. - P. 173-174.

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a)

b)

Figure 1.2.35: a) Schematic diagram of the plant study area at the ZERT field facility for the summer 2009 shallow CO2 release experiment. The transect was divided into 4 stations (S1–S4, shown by circles) with station 1 being on the injection pipe and station 4 approximately 7 meter away from the pipe. Stars indicate the locations of soil CO2 concentration probes (V1–V4). The distance between S1 and V1 was 0.25 m. b) Photographs showing vegetation on 14th of July 2009 and 28th of July 2009. Photographs in the left column show the healthy vegetation before starting the CO2 injection. Photographs in the right column show the decreasing degree of visible stress from station 1 to station 4 after two weeks of the beginning of CO2 injection Results (Figure 1.2.35) show that with increased soil CO2 concentration due to the surface CO2 leakage 129 : 1. The structural independent pigment index (SIPI) increased, indicating a high carotenoid to chlorophyll ratio; 2. The chlorophyll normalized difference vegetation index (Chl NDI) decreased, suggesting a decrease in chlorophyll content with time; 3. Pigment specific simple ratios (both PSSRa and PSSRb) were reduced for stressed vegetation compared to that at the control site, indicating a reduction in both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b; and 4. NFDI was low where plants were stressed. Changes in NFDI during the experiment were 36% and 1% for stressed and control plants, respectively. All four indices were found to be sensitive to stress in vegetation induced by high soil CO2 concentration.

129

Lakkaraju V.R., Zhou X., Apple M.E., et al. / Studying the vegetation response to simulated leakage of sequestered CO2 using spectral vegetation indices // Ecological Informatics. – 5 (2010). – P. 379-389.

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Moreover, hyperspectral plant signatures can be used as a short-term, as well as long-term (100-year timescale) monitoring technique to verify that CO2 sequestration fields have not been compromised 130 . An influx of CO2 gas into the soil can stress vegetation, which causes changes in the visible to near-infrared reflectance spectral signature of the vegetation. For 29 days, beginning on July 9, 2008, pure carbon dioxide gas was released through a 100-m long horizontal injection well, at a flow rate of 300 kg day-1. Spectral signatures were recorded almost daily from an unmown patch of plants over the injection with a ‘‘FieldSpec Pro’’ spectrometer by Analytical Spectral Devices, Inc. Measurements were taken both inside and outside of the CO2 leak zone to normalize observations for other environmental factors affecting the plants.

Figure 1.2.36: Classification of Aerial Hyperspectral Imagery acquired by Resonon Inc. Classification was performed using ENVI Spectral Angle Mapper algorithms. White boxes show locations of areas of apparent plant stress caused by equipment from outside experiments. The red circle indicates location of the subtle fifth zone of plant stress caused by the injected CO2

Figure 1.2.37: Map of log soil CO2 flux, interpolated based on measurements made at the black dots. The blue rectangle represents the CO2 injection well. The red rectangle marks the plant study area. White squares are soil CO2 concentration probes.

Note the two zones of high CO2 flux at the east edge and in the center of the plant study area

Four to five days after the injection began, stress was observed in the spectral signatures of plants within 1 m of the well. After approximately 10 days, moderate to high amounts of stress were measured out to 2.5 m from the well. This spatial distribution corresponded to areas of high CO2 flux from the injection. Airborne hyperspectral imagery, acquired by Resonon, Inc. of Bozeman, MT using their hyperspectral camera, also showed the same pattern of plant stress. Spectral signatures of the plants were also compared to the CO2 concentrations in the soil, which indicated that the lower limit of soil CO2 needed to stress vegetation is between 4 and 8% by volume.

130

Male E.J., Pickles W.L., Silver E.A., et al. / Using hyperspectral plant signatures for CO2 leak detection during the 2008 ZERT CO2 sequestration field experiment in Bozeman, Montana // Environ Earth Sci. – (2010) 60: P. 251-261.

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Figure 1.2.38: The scheme of the cell to study plant responses to CO2 leaks The research team has advanced furthest in the application of biomonitoring to control leaks of CO2 working at the Fundación Ciudad de la Energía (CIUDEN) 131 has extracted 50 cubic metres of upper layer soil from the site of the future CO2 storage pilot plant in Hontomín (Merindad del Río Ubierna, Burgos, Spain). The soil was taken to CIUDEN’s facilities in Cubillos del Sil (León), where it will become part of the PISCO2 Project aimed at developing sustainable biomonitoring tools for safety control of CO2 geological storage.

The PISCO2 project starts its operational phase with 12 cells (16m2 each) filled with soil from both the capture and storage sites. The cells (Figure 1.2.38) are equipped with systems for controlled CO2 injection at different depths and devices for sampling groundwater and gases (CO2, CH4, O2). Continuous monitoring systems measure water content, pH levels and CO2 fluxes, as well as assessing potential microbiological, botanical and geochemical alterations.

The following forward-looking, and possible directions for further research in the natural environment of the eastern regions of Ukraine are determined as a result of studying sources of information on the methods of biomonitoring leakage of CO2 during its storage in geological formations: - phytoindication aspect; - implementation, monitoring screening using plants; - mapping and zoning of territories that provide environmental risk; - establishment of sensitivity thresholds of biological indicators in communities of indigenous species; - diagnostics of transformation of natural landscapes on the example of urban-geosystems; - development of programs for the study of the behavioral strategies of plants in the conditions of the transformed environment of the industrial region, etc.

131

Fundación Ciudad de la Energía. - http://www.ciuden.es

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1.3. REVIEW of EXISTING LAWS Global climate change is one of the most serious environmental problems of the present and is increasingly becoming a cause of negative effects to the environment, economy and society.

Climate change is not only a change in the environment, but also the issue of human rights of millions of people and communities around the world. Recognizing the global importance of the issue of anthropogenic climate change, 194 countries have ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and 187 countries also signed the Kyoto Protocol in addition to it.

Comparative analysis of national legislation in the area of climate change, made by GLOBE International in collaboration with Gratham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and the London School of Economics and Political Science for 33 countries, both developed and developing countries, indicates the presence of Flagship legislation in all these countries, based on which separate laws for different branches and directions are being elaborated. For example, in the U.S. Flagship legislation is the Clean Air Act, in the UK – the Climate Change Act, in Poland – Strategies for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions in Poland until 2020, in Russia – Climate Doctrine of the Russian Federation, etc.

In Ukraine, there is no Flagship legislation, which would become the basis for the further development of legislation in the field of climate change. Recently, there were several attempts to prepare and adopt the relevant laws and government regulations.

Examples are the draft of the Law of Ukraine “On the basis of the state policy in the field of climate change mitigation and adaptation to its change” or the project of the National plan of adaptation to climate change for the period of 2011-2013. However, all of these projects are at the stage of public comment and have not been considered by the Verkhovna Rada and the Cabinet of Ministers.

1.3.1. Ukrainian legislation in the field of climate change In 1996 Ukraine has ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 132 (hereinafter - the Framework Convention), and subsequently, in 2004 - the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention 133 (hereinafter - the Kyoto Protocol), thus undertaking commitments to comply with the provisions of the international treaties.

The main objective of the Framework Convention is to develop a strategy for protection and preservation of the climate system, to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate

132

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Convention ratified by Law of Ukraine from 29.10.1996 No. 435/96-VR) (in Ukrainian). - http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_044 UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE. - UNITED NATIONS, 1992.

– 24 pp. - http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf 133 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto Protocol ratified by Law of Ukraine from 02.04.2004 No. 1430-IV) (in Ukrainian). - http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_801 KYOTO PROTOCOL TO THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE. - UNITED NATIONS, 1998. – 20 pp. - http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Legislation in the field of climate change is both national and international. Given the priority of international laws over national ones, the essential role of regulations in the field of climate change belongs to the international treaties ratified by Ukraine.

As stated in the Article 9 of the Constitution of Ukraine 134 : “International treaties, agreed to be signed by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, are the part of national legislation of Ukraine”.

In addition, Article 19 of the Law of Ukraine “On International Treaties of Ukraine” 135 states: “If an international treaty of Ukraine, which entered into force in accordance with established procedure, establish rules other than those provided for in the relevant act of Ukrainian legislation, the rules of the international treaty prevail”.

Unfortunately, the Convention provisions are not properly fulfilled in Ukraine, mainly due to the lack of appropriate regulation and completeness in implementation of its requirements in the national legislation. So far, Ukraine has an only national legal document - the National Action Plan 136 to implement the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine in 2005, which provides for the following measures: 1. Ensure the improvement of the national system of assessment of anthropogenic emissions and absorption of greenhouse gases by: - Conducting of annual inventory of anthropogenic emissions and absorption of greenhouse gas emissions under permits for greenhouse gases, reporting on the results of state statistical observations, the results of air monitoring, and others; - Providing (2009-2012) the functioning of electronic database on the results of the inventory of anthropogenic emissions and removals of greenhouse gas emissions under the guidelines adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; - Elaborating (December 2009) the procedure of organization and monitoring of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases; Second Convention of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine in 2005, which provides for the following measures: - Conducting (2009-2012) of research aimed at improving the quality of the implementation of the national inventory of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption; - Improving the system (December 2009) of methodological and information support used to determine the volume of greenhouse gas emissions in the sectors of the economy, according to international requirements and displaying the information about this volume based on the results of state statistical observations in reporting and statistical records; - Elaborating (2009-2010) the methodology for determining the amount of greenhouse gases.

134

The Constitution of Ukraine, Law of Ukraine from 28.06.1996 No. 254k/96-VR (in Ukrainian) http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D 1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F 135 Law of Ukraine “On International Treaties of Ukraine” No. 1906-IV from 29.06.2004 (in Ukrainian) http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1906-15 136 National Action Plan for implementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine from August 18, 2005 No. 346 (in Ukrainian). - http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/272-2009-p Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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2. Provide (annually until April 15) the Secretariat of the Framework Convention on Climate Change with the proper reports on the issues of the national inventory of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption.

3. Create (2009-2012 years) favorable conditions for the application of the joint implementation mechanism in Ukraine, spreading among the industrial enterprises of relevant information and support in conducting workshops on the application of the mechanism in the regions.

4. Establish a national system for accounting of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption by: - Providing (2009-2012) of functioning of the National Electronic Registry of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption; - Disclosure (quarterly) of the information from the National electronic register of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption according to the requirements of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; - Preparation and approval (June 2009) of the National Plan for allocation of anthropogenic emissions by sources of greenhouse gases.

5. Elaborate: - Draft Law of Ukraine (June 2009) on regulation of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption; - Drafts (September 2009) of regulations for amending the relevant laws that regulate the issuance of permits for emission of pollutants into the air with account of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases in them; - Drafts (September 2009) of regulations amending the relevant laws that regulate the public accounting of objects performing emissions into the air with account of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.

6. Define (annually before April 1, starting from 2009) forecast indicators of possible volume of sales by Ukraine of assigned units of greenhouse gas emissions in 2010-2012.

7. Provide (2009-2012) the operation and updating of the database on joint implementation projects.

8. To carry out (by the Conference of the Parties) the preparation and publication of national reports on climate change meeting deadlines according to decisions of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

9. Elaborate (December 2010) the National action plan on climate change adaptation with identifying the sources of their funding, as well as recommendations for the development of a action plans for the local authorities.

10. Conduct a training workshop on the preparation of regional action plans for: - Mitigation of climate change for regional executive authorities (April 2009); - Adaptation to climate change for regional executive authorities (June 2010).

11. Elaborate: - National action plan to mitigate the effects of climate change (June 2009); - Regional action plans to mitigate the effects of climate change (September 2009); - Regional action plans for adaptation to climate change (April 2011); - Sectoral action plans for adaptation to climate change (December 2010).

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12. Provide (2009-2012), Ukraine's participation in the conferences of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change meeting the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol and their working groups on the basis of common approaches taking into account national interests.

13. Determine (December 2009) the level of technical capacity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Ukraine until 2020 in order to form its position after 2012.

14. Develop (December 2009) the strategic forecast of climate change, the consequences of this change for different sectors of the economy, as well as for life-support systems of people and ecosystems.

15. Create (September 2009) the database on environmentally friendly technologies and methods used to reduce anthropogenic emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases and increasing their absorption, ensure constant updating of the database and its functioning.

16. Develop (September 2009) a plan for advanced training of specialists of executive authorities on implementation of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.

17. Provide (2009-2012) training of scientific, technical and management personnel responsible for the implementation of the provisions of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.

18. In order to inform the public on climate change and its consequences: - Update (permanently) the information about climate change on the websites of the Ministry of Environment and the National Ecological Investment Agency, in particular on the state of implementation of the requirements of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol; - Create (2009-2012 years) radio and TV shows at national and regional levels on a relevant subject; - Ensure (2009-2012 years) publishing newsletters, flyers and posters; - Provide (monthly) publication of information on the approval of JI projects; - Intensify (2009-2012) the cooperation with international and Ukrainian environmental nongovernmental organizations on the agenda of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol; - Provide (according to the plan of consultations with the public) the organization of public hearings on the preparation of legislative and other normative-legal acts on climate change.

Unfortunately, most of the Plan activities are not carried out on time and at full scale. Since the ratification of the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, no legal instruments in the field of climate change were adopted at the level of a law.

For several years, the government has been making the first steps on the legal settlement of the issue of climate change in Ukraine, as well as man-made greenhouse gas emissions, by developing a draft law of Ukraine “On the regulation and management of emissions and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases”, “On the environmental market of Ukraine”, “On regulation in the field of energy conservation”, “On greenhouse gases”.

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All of these projects have a common goal - to determine the legal and institutional framework for preventing and mitigating the effects of climate change, the commitments of Ukraine under the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, and sometimes have the same content. The main focus of these projects is not the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions but the international trading of quotes and joint implementation projects. There is no independent state initiative to reduce the negative impact on the climate. However, these bills are still pending, and the first two of them –have to be “taken into account in next drafts”.

Only the draft Law of Ukraine “On regulation in the field of energy saving” has passed its first reading in the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, despite widespread criticism of the public and the conclusion of the Main Scientific Expert Department, which made some comments on its content, drew attention to a number of gaps and deficiencies that require significant refinement. This is due to the fact that the bill defines the legal, economic and organizational principles of the state policy in the regulation of anthropogenic emissions and greenhouse gas absorption in order to increase energy efficiency by implementing energy-saving technologies and aims to meet the obligations of Ukraine in this sphere.

However, the direction of energy is just one of the main results of the implementation of the provisions and mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. Thus, the title of the bill does not match its essence, content, objectives and tasks, reduces the possibility of the introduction of the flexible mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol. Regarding the draft Law of Ukraine “On regulation and management of emissions and absorption by absorbers of greenhouse gases”, it is the National action plan for implementation the Kyoto Protocol which envisages the approval of the law. However, despite its substantial similarity to the draft law “On regulation in the field of energy conservation”, the draft is to be taken into account in the draft law “On regulation in the sphere of energy saving”.

As a result of scientific examination of the draft Law of Ukraine “On environmental market of Ukraine”, an expert opinion was provided on the expediency of its rejection based on the results of the first reading. Important tasks were set out in the draft Law of Ukraine “On greenhouse gases” in the field of prevention and mitigation of climate change, the commitments of Ukraine under the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol. However, it was withdrawn from consideration on 07.07.2010.

1.3.2. The Current Ukrainian Legislation, which has an Indirect Relationship to the Field of Climate Change Despite the lack of specific laws on climate change, the current legislation of Ukraine has laid the basis for protection, conservation and restoration of the atmospheric air, as one of the major essential elements of the environment, in some of laws even before the ratification of the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol by Ukraine.

In particular, the general requirements in the field of atmospheric air protection are formulated in the Law of Ukraine “On Air Protection” 137 , which sets out the legal and institutional framework and environmental requirements in the field of air, among them, the following standards: environmental safety of air, the maximum allowable pollutant substances

137

Law of Ukraine “On Air Protection” from 16.10.1992 No. 2707-XII (in Ukrainian) http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2707-12 Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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from stationary sources; exposure limit of physical and biological factors of stationary sources of pollutants in the exhaust gases and the impact of physical factors of mobile sources, the allowable emissions of pollutants, etc.

Greenhouse gas emissions are becoming a part of the air, since according to the Law of Ukraine “On protection of atmospheric air”, the air is a vital component of the environment, a natural mixture of gases outside the residential, industrial and other facilities. The air is needed for breathing of living creatures and is a mean of ensuring a person's life, the right to which is guaranteed by the Article 27 of the Constitution of Ukraine 138 .

Also, certain aspects of 79 laws of Ukraine in the form of brief summaries in English with Internet links to the full texts of the laws in Ukrainian language are presented in 3 parts of Appendix 00 (Law of Ukraine 1991-1999, Laws of Ukraine 2000-2006 and Laws of Ukraine 2007-2012). These parts in the form of PDF documents are publicly available on the project website: http://www.lcoir-ua.eu 1.3.2.1. Law of Ukraine 1991-1999: -

On Environmental Protection On Air Protection The Forest Code of Ukraine On Energy-Saving The Code of Ukraine on Bowels On Ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity On Use of Nuclear Power and Radiation Security On Ecological Examination The Water Code of Ukraine On Handling Radioactive Wastes On Pipeline Transport The Constitution of Ukraine On Railway Transport On Ukraine's Accession to the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979 On Ratification of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change On Energy Industry On Waste On Topographic, Geodesic and Cartographic Activity On Hydro-Meteorological Activity Mining Law of Ukraine On the State Geological Service of Ukraine

1.3.2.2. Laws of Ukraine 2000-2006: -

On Alternative Types of Liquid and Gas Fuel On Protection of Population and Territories from Man-Caused and Natural Emergencies On Emergency Ecological Situation Zone

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The Constitution of Ukraine, Law of Ukraine from 28.06.1996 No. 254k/96-VR (in Ukrainian) http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D 1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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On the National Program for Creating the National Environmental Network of Ukraine for the Years 2000-2015 On the Ratification of the Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer On Motor Vehicle Transport On Oil and Gas On Drinking Water and Drinking Water Supply On Innovation Activity On Ukraine's Accession to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity On Alternative Energy Sources On Land Management On the Fundamentals of National Security of Ukraine On Land Protection On State Control over Use and Protections of Lands On Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change On the State Complex Program of Development of High Tech Technologies On Ecological Audit On Ecological Network of Ukraine On the National State Program called “Potable Water of Ukraine” for 2006–2020 On Combined production of heating and electric energy (co-generation) and usage of residual / waste energy potential On Heat Supply On Measures Aimed at Ensuring Sustainable Operation of Enterprises of Fuel and Energy Complex On the Procedure for Making Decisions on Locating, Designing and Building Nuclear Facilities and Objects Designed for Treating Radio-Active Waste That Are of National Significance On Major Fundamentals of the State Agrarian Policy for the period until 2015 On Amendments to the Forest Code of Ukraine On Approving the State Program for the Development of the Ukrainian Mineral and Resource Base for the Period until 2010 On Chemical Sources of Current On the State Program of Elimination of the Chornobyl Catastrophe Consequences for 2006 – 2010 On State Regulation of Activity in the Sphere of Transfer of Technologies On the Ratification of Amendments to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer On the Operation of the Fuel and Energy Complex during a Special Period

1.3.2.3. Laws of Ukraine 2007-2012: -

On the Ratification of the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Protocol to the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution On Amendments to Some Pieces of Legislation of Ukraine Related to the Provision of Incentives for Energy-Saving Measures” On the Ratification of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants On Amendments to Some Laws of Ukraine Related to Making Public the Information Concerning Radioactive Contamination Zones On the National Targeted Environmental Program for Radioactive Waste Management Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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On Amendments to Some Laws of Ukraine with Respect to Setting up Quality Management Systems, Environmental Management Systems and Other Management Systems On the National Program for Putting out of Operation the Chornobyl Atomic Energy Station and Transforming the Object “Ukryttia” (Shelter) into an Environmentally Safe System On the Ratification of the Amendment to the Trade-Related Provisions of the Energy Charter Treaty On the National Program ‘The National Plan of Action to Implement the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’ for the Period up to 2016 On Amendments to the Law of Ukraine ‘On Energy Industry’ Regarding the Regulation of Electric Energy Exports On Amendments to the Law of Ukraine ‘On Energy Industry’ Regarding the Incentives for Using Alternative Sources of Energy On Coalbed Gas (Methane) On Scientific Parks On Ratification of the Amendment to Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change On the Principles of the Natural Gas Market Operation On the Power Engineering Lands and the Legal Status of Special Zones of the Power Engineering Objects On the Main Principles (Strategy) of the National Environmental Policy of Ukraine for the Period until the Year 2020 On Ratification of the Nationwide Mineral Resources Base Development Program of Ukraine for the Period until the Year 2030 The Air Code of Ukraine On Support of Fiscal Measurement of Natural Gas On the Peculiarities of Lease or Concession of State-Owned Objects of the Fuel and Energy Complex On the Priority Directions of Innovation Activity in Ukraine On Amendments to the Law of Ukraine "On Scientific and Technical Research Activity" On Amendments to the Law of Ukraine "On the National Program "Drinking Water of Ukraine" for 2006 - 2020 On Amendment to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine on the List of Sites of Subsurface Resources On the National Target Program of Protecting the Public and Territories from Man-Made and Natural Emergencies for 2013 – 2017

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1.4. REVIEW of SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS of the IMPLEMENTATION of CCT and CCS The European Union, like other industrialized countries, develops and implements technology CCT and CCS in accordance with adopted domestic legislation in the interests of businesses and the public. Significant role in the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies play mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol that allows countries with economies in transition, which include Ukraine, to take part in a real fight against climate change, not only to obtain additional funding for its economic development.

The high cost of development and implementation of CCT and CCS technologies requires the introduction of a significant tax on the emission of greenhouse gases, to encourage businesses to participate directly as in the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies, and support their implementation in third countries, which are subject to the mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol.

With the introduction of these processes need to be prepared to take into account public opinion and public areas where will be implemented CCT and CCS technologies, as initially negative public perceives any technological innovations regardless of their necessity and safety. Interaction with the public of countries with economies in transition has a number of features that must be taken into account in the future.

1.4.1. Carbon Intensity in Countries with Economies in Transition Across much of the world, reductions in carbon intensity have not been enough to offset the increase in CO2 emissions associated with economic growth 139 . However, with some notable exceptions, transition countries remain much more carbon intensive on average than either advanced economies or emerging markets like China. This reflects a global energy supply that is still largely reliant on fossil fuels and, in recent years, an increase in the carbon intensity of energy due to increased use of coal.

A decline in the energy intensity of output – reflects global trends, with advances in the transition countries and China even outpacing the relatively fast improvements in the advanced market economies of the US and the EU-15. In contrast, the relative stability in the carbon intensity of energy at the global level between 1990 and 2008 conceals very different trends among the regions. In some developing countries, the carbon intensity of energy increased – by almost 20 per cent in China, for example.

The transition countries as a whole has achieved a very significant decline in the carbon intensity of its GDP through a balanced mix of improvements in both the energy intensity of economic output (- 40 per cent) and in the carbon intensity of energy (- 8 per cent). This is akin to developments in the US and the EU-15, but different to China, where the beneficial effects of the reduction of the energy intensity of GDP have been partly eroded by the increase in the carbon intensity of energy. In absolute terms, the carbon intensity of energy in the transition countries stood at 2.46 tones of CO2 per tune oil equivalent (toe). This is comparable to the US (2.47), much lower than China (3.08), but higher than the EU-15 (2.16).

139

Special Report on Climate Change: The Low Carbon Transition. – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2011. – 80 pp.

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Again, a closer look at trends within the transition countries reveals substantial differences among countries. For example, the reduction in the carbon intensity of energy contributed to about 40 per cent of the total reduction in the carbon intensity of GDP in Ukraine; in Poland, it accounted for only about 14 per cent, with the rest being a result of the sharp decline in the energy intensity of GDP. In Turkey, the only country in the region that experienced a small increase in the carbon intensity of GDP over the entire period, the increase in the carbon intensity of energy has largely offset the effects of a slight decline in the energy intensity of GDP.

Figure 1.4.1: Carbon Intensity of GDP in 2008 Despite improvements over the past two decades, the transition countries as a whole remains one of the most carbon-intensive regions in the world. It is also one of the regions with the largest variations in the carbon intensities of GDP among its countries (Figure 1.4.1).

The average amount of energy-related emissions per unit of GDP in the transition countries is about two and a half times that of the EU-15 and 50 per cent higher than the world average.

Several transition countries â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan â&#x20AC;&#x201C; still produce between 50 and 200 per cent more CO2 per unit of GDP than China.

However, in the course of the transition, some countries have managed to reduce their carbon footprints by achieving levels of carbon intensity that are now well below the world average.

In some cases, these levels are close to, or even lower than, those of advanced market economies.

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According to official statistics of CO2 emissions volumes 140 and GDP amount 141 in the regions of Ukraine in 2010, carbon intensity index for the whole Ukraine is 1.46, and the distribution of the carbon intensity among all economic activities in specific regions can be traced (Figure 1.4.2).

It is evident that above-average carbon intensity is observed in the regions with large thermal power plants. Also there are a lot of companies registered in Kyiv, which are physically located in other regions, and thus contribute to the volume of CO2 emissions in these regions, but they add to the regional GDP in the city of Kiev.

Figure 1.4.2: Distribution of carbon intensity in the regions of Ukraine in 2010 1.4.2. Energy Efficiency in the Regions of Ukraine Since 2007, energy efficiency in Ukraine declined by 10% in 2010 to 43% of the European Union (EU) level 142 . This decline was attributed to the heavy contagion of the global economic crisis, and, as a consequence, the energy efficiency decreased in most energy intensive industries.

Final energy consumption decreased by 8.1 million tones of oil-equivalent (Mtoe) or 13.2%.

Energy consumption in the steel industry dropped by 4.6 Mtoe. Energy consumption in other sectors decreased by 3.5 Mtoe.

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Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine for 2010. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2011. - 560 pp. (P. 518519) (in Ukrainian) 141 Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine for 2011. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2012. - 559 pp. (P. 48) (in Ukrainian) 142 Energy Efficiency Rankings of the Regions of Ukraine // Ukrainian Energy Index, 2012. – 96 pp. – http://www.energy-index.com.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The decomposition of this 3.5 Mtoe energy change yields the following - the decline in business activity resulted in energy consumption decline by 5.7 Mtoe while jump in energy intensities and structural changes in the economy increased energy consumption by 0.5 Mtoe and 1.7 Mtoe respectively.

The major notable changes in energy intensities are a decline in energy intensity in the agricultural (-9%), mining (-29%), and food industries (-14%) as well as an increase in energy intensity in services (+14%) and residential sector (+4%).

It is based on an IEA method of energy consumption decomposition by sector. The methodology makes it possible to separate key factors defining energy consumption: structure of the regional economy, business activity, and energy intensity, and provides for more precise estimates of energy efficiency compared to common estimates such as energy consumption per unit of GDP. In order to separate these factors we employed the Logarithmic Mean Divisia I method.

Energy consumption in the region is divided in final energy consumption in agricultural, mining, manufacturing, construction, services, road transport, and residential sectors. For each sector, the energy efficiency indicator is calculated, and the average energy consumption in the corresponding EU sector is taken as a benchmark.

Vinnytsia, Kherson, and Zakarpattya are the leading regions with energy efficiencies of 66%, 65%, and 62% of the EU benchmark. There were no notable changes in the regionsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; energy efficiency rankings in 2010 compared to 2007 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; though with several exceptions. Lviv and Poltava oblasts jumped up 9 and 5 positions, while Donetsk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts both dropped 14 positions, and Dnipropetrovsk oblast dropped nine positions. The energy efficiency decline in the last three regions is solely attributed to the persistent deterioration in conditions for Ukrainian steel producers on the world market over the last several years.

Why the above-mentioned regions have become the leaders of energy efficiency, and the eastern regions of Ukraine are the least energy efficient?

First, the residential sector being the major consumer of energy resources in the region is very efficient in the Vinnytsia and Kherson oblasts in comparison with other regions of Ukraine.

Second, energy intensive industries, such as steel or chemicals, are almost non-existent in all three. Vinnytsia Oblast leads due to its energy efficient residential sector that has been ranked first among other regions of Ukraine for four years (90.7% of the EU level).

Compared with other regions, Vinnytsia has a large rural population (50.4%) which tends to have a low level of energy consumption, and has a relatively lower average income per capita (see Figure 1.4.3). As a result, Vinnytsia residents use much fewer energy intensive household appliances than the residents of more prosperous regions. Another factor in its reduced energy consumption is that the availability of hot water in the residential sector (21.3%) is also low.

Kherson Oblast ranks second due to the high energy efficiency of its residential and industrial sectors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 82.2% and 54.0% of EU levels. Both sectors have been ranked among the top five sectors in their categories among other regions of Ukraine for four years. The efficiency of the sector is based on the relative efficiency of the food industry (57.0% of the EU level), which is the largest energy consumer among the industries in the region.

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The efficiency of the residential sector can be explained by one of the lowest levels of hot water availability (9.1%) and a low per-capita income resulting in the less active use of household appliances.

Zakarpattya Oblast ranks third mainly due to the relative energy efficiency of its residential sector consuming 73.4% of all energy resources of the region. Although the residential sector of the region is only ranked 11th among other regions of Ukraine, the energy efficiency level of 69.1%, accompanied by a large share in the energy consumption of the region, ensures a high result. In addition to a low per-capita income, this region has a higher share of rural population than other regions (63.1%).

Figure 1.4.3: Gross Value Added Per Capita by Region and Energy Efficiency, 2010 Dnipropetrovsk, Luhansk, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts with energy efficiencies of 30.1%, 30.2%, and 34.1% of the EU level ranked the lowest. The low rankings of these regions are caused by the domination of inefficient production processes in their industrial structure (steel, mining, and chemical industries), as well as inefficient resource consumption in the residential sector.

The overall results of these regions were substantially affected by the deterioration of the situation in the steel sector during 2009-2010 when world steel prices dropped, while the prices for iron-ore went up. This resulted in the substantial reduction of the value added per tonne of the manufactured products and increased the energy intensity of the production process.

Dnipropetrovsk Oblast ranked lowest in the rating and dropped from the 16th position in 2007.

This resulted from the substantial reduction in energy efficiency in the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s industry (from 48.3% to 22.6% of the EU level). The steel industry consumes almost a half of all energy resources in the region. The substantial reduction in this sector worsened the overall result of the region.

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The energy efficiency of the residential sector was low as well (the region ranked 22nd in terms of energy efficiency, equivalent to 54.6% of the EU level).

Luhansk Oblast has ranked second to last since 2007. Low energy efficiency in the steel and chemical industries, which consume more than one-third of all energy in the region, consistently cause this region to be ranked low among other regions of Ukraine. The residential sector of the region ranks 21st in terms of energy efficiency.

Zaporizhzhia Oblast ranked 23rd after moving down 14 positions since 2007. Its energy efficiency dropped from 56.8% to 34.1% of the EU level. Since the steel industry consumes 46.3% of all energy resources of the region, its low efficiency and the deterioration of conditions in the steel sector affected the overall performance of the region in a decisive manner.

The ranks of several regions went down substantially, including Zaporizhzhia, down 14 positions (to 23rd); Donetsk, down 14 positions (to 21st); and Dnipropetrovsk, down 9 positions (to 25th). The major reason for the declines was the deterioration of external economic conditions for the steel industry, which accounted for the lion’s share of industry in all these regions. No substantial changes occurred in the energy efficiencies of other regions in Ukraine over these four years.

The highest energy saving potential is concentrated in Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Luhansk, Ternopil, Kharkiv, and Kyiv oblasts.

It should be borne in mind that even the most efficient regions in Ukraine lag substantially behind the EU energy efficiency average. Thus, the energy saving potential in Ukraine is quite high and amounts to 47.6% of its current energy consumption level.

The energy efficiency can become an important factor in economic growth and at the same time help improve the well-being of the population. Higher energy efficiency is also expected to have a positive impact on the flow of investments, especially in energy intensive industries, due to their technological characteristics.

1.4.3. Quote Trading Schemes for Greenhouse Gas Emissions The Kyoto Protocol has become the first global agreement on environmental protection, based on the market mechanism of regulation - the mechanism of the international emissions trading of greenhouse gas emissions.

After lengthy discussions and political bargaining, in February 2004, Ukraine has taken an important step for the international community – ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 143 . After the transfer of ratification charter to the UN Secretary General, it became a party to the international agreement.

According to the protocol, each country has a maximum limit of emissions. If the country does not fully use permit for emissions of greenhouse gases (quota), it can sell it to another state.

143

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto Protocol ratified by Law of Ukraine from 02.04.2004 No. 1430-IV) (in Ukrainian). - http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_801 or KYOTO PROTOCOL TO THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE. - UNITED NATIONS, 1998. – 20 pp. - http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf

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Ukraine refers to the category of countries that do not fully use their quota, and can therefore sell them. In reality, this means the beginning of a new era for the world economy, when all financial, investment and production decisions will be influenced by another factor – strict limits on carbon emissions.

According to the protocol, the following core obligations have to be met by the industrialized countries: the European Union must reduce emissions by 8%, Japan and Canada – by 6%, Eastern Europe and the Baltic States – by 8% on average, Russia and Ukraine must keep the average emissions in 2008-2012 at the level of 1990, developing countries, including China and India, did not take any obligations.

The experience of the U.S., UK and other countries shows that the use of economic incentives to address environmental problems is often much more efficient than direct administrative control. Since January 2005, the internal system of trading carbon emissions came into effect in the European Union, which includes tens of thousands of companies.

According to the State Environmental Investment Agency data 144 , Ukraine has a quota for greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere at a rate of 4.5 billion units for 5 years, which can provide 20-30% of global demand. It uses only 2.8 billion units. During the 5-year period, Ukraine can sell 450 million units of quota, which is a very profitable business in conditions of global crisis.

Thus, the Kyoto Protocol offers the ways of obtaining additional investment from participation in the mechanisms of project financing and carbon emissions trading in conditions of the economic crisis. For Ukraine, the potential market of financial services for the implementation of projects under the Kyoto Protocol in the coming years is estimated by experts at about 3.5 billion Euros per year.

1.4.4. The Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol provides the following “flexible” market mechanisms: - Emissions trading, - Joint implementation projects - The clean development mechanism.

These mechanisms provide the developed countries with the opportunities to fulfill their obligations through trading of emission permits with each other, as well as through the purchase of “carbon” credits as a result of emission reduction projects undertaken in other countries. Joint implementation projects (JI) are held between the two countries, having quantified commitments on emission reduction. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is different from JI cause it aims at realization of projects in countries which do not have emission reduction commitments.

The basis of these three mechanisms is realization of the fact that greenhouse gas emissions are a global problem and location where emissions are reduced does not really matter. Thus, the emission reductions can be implemented where they are associated with the lowest cost.

Detailed rules and supervisory structures have been created to ensure the correct use of these mechanisms.

144

State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine. – http://www.seia.gov.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The Kyoto Protocol sets quantitative limits on emissions of greenhouse gases for the world's major economies (Annex I). Industrialized countries have undertaken quantified obligations and committed to meet them. The Protocol allows countries that have emission permits in stock (permitted but unused emission permits), to sell this excess amount to countries that have difficulties in meeting their obligations. Countries that exceed their limits can buy these emission permits.

Limitation of emissions of greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol is a way to estimate the monetary value of pollution of our atmosphere. In accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, Joint Implementation projects and Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialized countries to meet part of their obligations by conducting emission reduction projects in other countries.

Emission reductions achieved by the implementation of such projects can be offset to investor. Emission reductions resulting from each project activity shall be certified on the basis of real, measurable and long-term benefits related to the mitigation of climate change.

In the framework of a Joint Implementation project, an industrialized country (Annex I) may realize a project to reduce emissions (e.g. energy efficiency project) on the territory of another countries from Annex I and receive Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) to settle its own obligations.

In the framework of the Clean Development Mechanism, an industrialized country (Annex I) may conduct emission reduction project in a developing country (a country not included in Annex I) and use the Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) to meet its quantified obligations.

The purpose of the clean development mechanism is to assist Parties not included in Annex I, in achieving sustainable economic development and contribute to the ultimate objective of the Convention. Ukraine has the right to participate in joint implementation projects and use the experience of project implementation under the clean development mechanism. Currently, according to the UNEP Risoe CDM / JI Pipenine Analysis and Database 145 756 JI Projects (Figure 1.4.4) and 8997 CDM projects are being implemented in the world (Figure 1.4.5).

There are 315 projects in Ukraine and 183 projects in Russia.

a) Number of JI projects by host country

b) Number of JI projects by type in %

Figure 1.4.4: General number of JI projects distributed by countries (а) and types (b)

145

UNEP Risoe CDM/JI Pipenine Analysis and Database // UNEP RISOE Centre for Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development. – http://www.cdmpipeline.org

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a) Percentage share of the total number of projects of in the CDM regions

b) Percentage share of the total number of projects of in the CDM categories

Figure 1.4.5: General number of CDM projects distributed by regions (а) and categories (b) And in Asia and Pacific region China is the leader, which carries 55% of the regional projects, receiving 70.5% of all regional CERs. India is at the second place: 29.6% of the projects and 17.9% of CERs, respectively. In Latin America, Brazil is the leader with 35% of all projects and 45% of CERs, followed by Mexico with 18% of projects and 17% of CERs, and then by Chile with 10% of the projects and 9% of CERs. 1.4.5. Joint Implementation Projects in Ukraine As of November 1, 2010 State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine 146 and Ukrainian Registry Carbon Units 147 lists 184 JI projects that have received Letters of Endorsement in accordance with CMU Resolution No. 206 dated 22.02.2006 148 . Estimated GHG emission reductions during the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol under these JI projects are 171,8 million tones CO2 eq.

The number of JI projects by sectors/source categories and estimated GHG emission reductions by sectors/source categories during the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol are represented in following diagrams 149 (Figure 1.4.6). Also the Figure 1.4.7 demonstrates the location of some large projects, which are mainly concentrated in the eastern industrial regions of Ukraine.

The experience of JI in the first commitment period (CP1) shows that the mechanism has achieved its primary goal only partially, whereas it helped to reduce the compliance costs both under the Kyoto Protocol and EU ETS. JI has initiated industry bottom-up approach in emission reduction (ER) efforts and resulted in a number of worthy ER initiatives. In some cases JI has facilitated the transfer of knowledge and ER technologies.

146

State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine. – http://www.seia.gov.ua Ukranian Registry Carbon Units. – http://www.carbonunitsregistry.gov.ua 148 CMU Resolution No. 206 dated 22.02.2006 “On approval of the preparation, review, approval and implementation of projects aimed at reducing anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases”. http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/206-2006-%D0%BF 149 Joint Implementation Projects in Ukraine // The National Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine, 2010. – 8 pp.

147

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a) Number of JI projects by sectors/source categories

b) Estimated GHG emission reductions by sectors/source categories

Figure 1.4.6: Number of JI projects and Estimated GHG emission reductions by sectors/source categories

Figure 1.4.7: Location of registered JI projects in Ukraine But the benefits offered by JI have been often abused and ERUs have been granted to projects that occurred anyway, despite additionality being condition. Due to the lack of stringent national emission cap the country can easily afford issuing ERUs to non-additional projects, and even use JI as a way to export its excess AAUs, while the demand for the latter is very limited.

The application of the mechanism at international and national levels has shown flaws that should be addressed for the second Kyoto commitment period to secure its environmental integrity and to ensure the continuation of JI as an emission reduction tool.

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Desk review and analysis of publicly available information on Ukrainian JI projects has revealed the following 150 : (1) Project baseline and additionality (including identification of alternatives, investment, barrier and common practice analyses) can be easily manipulated. Some PDD developers present argumentation better than others, and there is a tendency that documents of Track 2 projects are generally of higher quality and the justification of additionality is better articulated. However, the presence of additionality still can be questioned in projects under both tracks.

(2) The timelines of project endorsement, approval and ERU issuance by Ukrainian national DFP lack consistency. It is observed that some projects go through the whole JI project cycle (receive Letter of Endorsement, determination report, Letter of Approval, verification report and get ERUs issued) within only a few months. It is also surprising that many projects initiate the JI cycle in 2011 or 2012, while they were implemented well before 2008. In fact, more than 40% of projects obtained LoE (the first step in JI cycle) only in 2010-2012, which is at least 3-5 years after the project start in most cases. This suggests that JI had no role at the time of project implementation, and was used as an add-on to boost the incomes later on.

(3) Fourteen out of fifteen JI projects that were promptly endorsed and approved in 2011 under Track 1 claimed so-called “early credits” as AAUs for emission reductions prior to 2008. The volume of AAUs issued to the projects is almost 30 million, which is comparable to the volume of 47 million of AAUs sold by Ukraine via the Green Investment Scheme. Such a generous approach of Ukrainian government in distributing AAUs is related to the availability of a big surplus of the country’s assigned amount. However, the application of the early AAUs is rather limited. They are not allowed for the use in the EU ETS for compliance purposes; the governments are not likely to purchase AAUs from private entities for Kyoto compliance either.

(4) In many projects implementation costs are by far higher than potential incomes from ERUs and may constitute around 2% of the total project costs. This is particularly notable in capital-intensive projects, such as energy efficiency in steel production, industries, power generation and distribution. This suggests that the role of JI for the project implementation decision was insignificant. ERU incomes can cover a major part of project costs only in few project types.

(5) Accredited Independent Entities (AIEs) have a conflict of interests in performing determination and verification of JI projects as they are selected and paid by the project participants. The quality of the audit in some cases is rather low in terms of its due diligence.

It was noted that the majority of the registered Ukrainian JI projects were determined and/or verified by one AIE, which is considered to be the most flexible in the market.

(6) In the beginning the investment in truly additional JI projects was deterred by numerous risks associated with the immature mechanism. Nonetheless, some good projects were initiated and launched owing to JI, such as landfill gas or coal mine methane capture. When the regulatory risks reduced, there was too little time remaining until the end of CP1 to implement ER measures that rely on JI. At the same time projects that were not dependent on ERUs did not face such limitations or risks and thrived, driving out additional projects and beating down ERU prices.

150

Zhenchuk M. The Integrity of Joint Implementation Projects in Ukraine. – Kyiv: The National Ecological Centre of Ukraine, 2012. – 31 pp.

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(7) The uncertainty of CP2 framework prevents ER projects from seriously relying on CP2 ERUs in their implementation. Even though most of the registered and operational projects are set to claim ERUs beyond 2012, the need for further crediting can be questioned.

Nonetheless, some projects may indeed rely on JI for their future operation or implementation if they are not completed yet. As of May 2012, there were 305 registered Track 1 projects, of which 199 projects received 127 million ERUs. There were only 39 Track 2 projects with final determination, of them 27 projects generated almost 17 million ERUs. A significant share of the registered projects and ERUs come from two post-Soviet countries: Ukraine (90 projects) and Russia (42 projects). The numbers of new projects registered each year show that Ukraine produced the highest number of JI projects in 2011, followed by Russia that increased project registrations in 2012.

The Figure 1.4.8 graphically show the distribution of JI project types by the number of projects, the projected amount of ERUs in CP1 and the number of ERUs issued so far. For this purpose 550 JI projects at different stages of development under both Track 1 and Track 2 contained in the UNEP Risoe database 151 were analyzed.

a) JI project types by the number of projects

b) JI project types by the number of projected and issued ERUs

Figure 1.4.8: The distribution of JI project types 1.4.6. Green Investment Scheme in Ukraine The countries of Central and Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union have the largest greenhouse gas emission quotas surplus as a result of economic recession in the 1990s rather than due to systematic implementation of measures to reduce emissions. Such greenhouse gas emission quotas, acquired by the state without real climate protection efforts, are called “hot air” 152 .

In 2008, the actual level of GHG emissions in Ukraine was 420.6 million tons of CO2-eq. which is 46% of the allowed quota, set at the level of 1990 (100% = 934.1 million tons of CO2-eq). Thus, the potential use of national GHG emission quotas surplus during 2008-2012 is estimated at 2 733 586 263 tons CO2-eq.

151

UNEP Risoe CDM/JI Pipenine Analysis and Database // UNEP RISOE Centre for Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development. – http://www.cdmpipeline.org 152 Gree Investment Schemes: Options and Issues / W. Blyth, R. Baron // Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, International Energy Agency, 2003. – 31 pp.

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From 2009 to 2012, the Government of Ukraine managed to sell 47 million assigned amount of units. Selling price was approx. 10 euro per unit of transferred GHG emission quotas, so the total amount of funds received by Ukraine through the mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol emissions trading was 470 million of euros. To use funds received by Ukraine within the international emissions trading, the green investment scheme was established, with the State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine 153 (SEIAU) appointed as the coordinating body.

The legal framework of international emissions trading is established by a number of resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, and the basic provisions of the Green Investment Scheme are defined by the CMU Resolution No. 221 dated 22.02.2008 154 , as amended.

Areas of projects implementation under the international emissions trading of Kyoto Protocol in Ukraine were approved by the buyer country in the relevant Green Investment Scheme Guidelines. Thus, the following categories of activities were selected for funding: - Energy conservation, - Fuel switching for low environmental burden, - Utilization of Coal Bed Methane, - Renewable energy, - Activities for emissions reductions of greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide (CO2), - Activities for environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction activity).

In addition, 5% of resources are allocated to the “soft greening”, i.e. capacity building for prompting of environmental activities.

Proposals for green investment scheme projects may be filed by enterprises and organizations and budget-funded institutions. At first projects proposed in the SEIAU are checked for compliance with the criteria, then they are reviewed by the Interdepartmental Working Group at SEIAU, approved projects agreed with the Party of the greenhouse gas emissions quotas buyer country, The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, the Ministry of Finance and the Prime Minister of Ukraine.

As of December 2011, the National Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine accepted 987 separate projects for consideration for implementation in the framework of a Green Investment Scheme, of which the Ukrainian government finally approved the implementation of 363 energy saving projects, including thermal modernization of public buildings and mine waters treatment.

According to SEIAU, Ukraine completed 37 projects green investment scheme by the end of 2011, which achieved an overall reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2 736.63 tons of CO2eq per year. The cost of works for the project implementation amounted to UAH 38 086 997 (ca EUR 3.5 million), so specific cost of annual reduction of 1 ton of СО2-eq. amounted to UAH 13 917, that is EUR 1 278.

153

State Environmental Investment Agency of Ukraine. – http://www.seia.gov.ua CMU Resolution No. 221dated 22.02.2008 “On approval of the review, approval and implementation of Environmental (green) investments and proposals for activities related to the implementation of such projects and obligations of parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention UN Climate Change”. http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/221-2008-%D0%BF 154

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Planned activities for all 987 green investment scheme projects in Ukraine have the total emission reduction potential of 247 577.37 tons of СО2-eq per year (0.069% of all CO2 emissions in Ukraine of 2010) with the total cost of UAH 3 718 972 099 (almost EUR 340 mln).

Thus, the average cost of 1 ton of annual reduction of СО2-eq. emissions for all green investment scheme projects in Ukraine is UAH 15 021, or approx. EUR 1 373. However, a number of projects proposed for implementation under the green investment scheme are unreasonably expensive and with low efficiency of emission reduction.

The efficiency of the results of green investment scheme projects in Ukraine under current procedure is questionable by the disproportionately large cost with little cumulative target level of greenhouse gas emissions reduction. In addition, projects that can be implemented successfully within other flexible Kyoto Protocol mechanism – joint implementation – are also selected to be financed using funds received in Ukraine from the international emission trading under Kyoto Protocol. Such projects create competition for projects in the public sector. Accordingly, the principle of project selection as well as procedure transparency is questionable 155 .

Non-transparency and bureaucratization in the implementation of international emissions trading mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol is a problem in Ukraine 156 . Disclosure of information on projects implemented under the green investment scheme of the international emissions trading is not properly adjusted, resulting in difficulty to evaluate their quality and efficiency, or even the possibility of corruption signs. In turn, it is still possible that the green investment scheme projects can be implemented in Ukraine for political reasons, and thus obstruct from selection of economically and environmentally viable ones.

By the third quarter of 2010 was not selected any project to be implemented on green investment scheme in Ukraine, although the CMU Resolution No. 1036 dated 16.09.2009 157 .

The press repeatedly referred to different types of projects for funding from the funds received from international emissions trading - re-equipping of heating systems, emissions reduction in gas transmission system of the country, financing the construction of hydropump storage power plants, modernization of subway trains and fleet for the Ministry of Internal Affairs, reconstruction or construction of waste incineration plant etc.

Officially, as of December 2011, the SEIAU selected 987 separate Green Investment Scheme projects for consideration, including, for example, recommended reconstruction of Kyiv subway trains, collection and utilization of methane in solid waste landfill, replacement of the fleet of existing police cars of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine.

However, finally, by the end of 2011, the Ukrainian government had approved the implementation of 363 projects on energy efficiency (including thermal modernization of buildings) and the use of alternative energy sources, particularly in the district heating.

155

Tuerk A., Frieden D., Sharmina M. et al. Green Investment Schemes: First experiences and lessons learned / Working Paper Joanneum Research, Institute of Energy Research, Graz, Austria, 2010. – 50 pp.

156 Review of funds expenditure obtained under the international emissions trading in Ukraine. – Kiev: AllUkrainian Non-governmental Organization “National Ecological Centre of Ukraine”, 2012. – 18 pp.

157 CMU Resolution No. 1036 dated 16.09.2009 “On Approval of Plan for the Preparation and Implementation of Green Investment Scheme Projects Aimed at Reducing GHG Emissions in the Educational and Health Care Facilities”. - http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1036-2009-%D0%BF Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Thus, Ukraine chose project approach ensuring selection and implementation of individual projects to implement the green investment scheme. The funding and number of projects under the green investment scheme in Ukraine are distributed evenly in 22 regions and in Kyiv, which can be analyzed in Figure 1.4.8.

Figure 1.4.8: Geographical distribution of green investment scheme projects in Ukraine Detailed examination of the content of joint implementation projects, as well as “green” investments allows to assert the there are no projects that would be directly associated to the implementation of carbon capture and storage technology. This can be explained by the high cost of such projects and long duration, as well as the lack of incentive for implementation, since the implementation of these techniques increases the cost of the end product and, accordingly, absence of profit.

1.4.7. The Cost of Implementation of CO2 Capture and Storage Technologies The question of the cost of full-scale deployment of CO2 capture and storage technologies (CCS) has been raised in the IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage 158 , where the need to take account of all the processes that occur in the use of CCS – capture, compression, transportation, injection, monitoring and maintenance of these processes – was highlighted.

The cost of each individual process and their combination, is described in detail in the Reports European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants 159 .

158

IPCC, 2005: IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Metz, B., O. Davidson, H. C. de Coninck, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 442 pp.

159 European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants. – http://www.zeroemissionsplatform.eu Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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In particular, for capturing processes the cost for implementation of three basic CO2 capture technologies (post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy-fuel) 160 is considered, as well as for transport processes the cost of transportation by surface and underwater pipelines, by sea and road transport in a liquefied state is analyzed 161 .

a) Reducing costs: At present, even if CO2 is used for enhanced hydrocarbon, the capture, transport and storage costs amount to some 60 euros per ton.

The goal would be to cut costs by a factor of 4. (*) upper bound with no enhanced recovery.

b) Avoided CO2: CO2 capture calls for additional energy use, which in turn generates carbon dioxide. Avoided CO2 emissions are thus computed by determining the difference between a plant without and one with capture, this latter consuming more energy. Because of this mechanism, the amount of captured CO2 is always larger than that of avoided CO2.

Figure 1.4.9: Cutting the cost of CO2 capture and storage 162 Evaluation of CO2 geological storage cost was carried out for different storage variants 163 .

Location and type of field (available knowledge and re-usable infrastructure), reservoir capacity and quality are the main determinants for costs: - Onshore storage is cheaper than offshore; - Depleted Oil and Gas Fields (DOGF) are cheaper than deep saline aquifers (SA); - Larger reservoirs are cheaper than smaller ones; - High injectivity is cheaper than poor injectivity.

The estimate of the total cost of the whole process of implementation of CO2 capture and storage technologies leads to the following conclusions 164 :

160

The Costs of CO2 Capture: Post-demonstration CCS in the EU. - European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants, 2011. – 81 pp.

161 The Costs of CO2 Transport: Post-demonstration CCS in the EU. - European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants, 2011. – 53 pp.

162 CO2 capture and storage in the subsurface: A technological pathway for combating climate change. – The Geoscience Issues series: BRGM Communication and Publications Division, 2007. – 64 pp.

163 The Costs of CO2 Storage: Post-demonstration CCS in the EU. - European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants, 2011. – 42 pp.

164 The Costs of CO2 Capture, Transport and Storage: Post-demonstration CCS in the EU. - European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants, 2011. – 51 pp.

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• Post 2020, CCS will be cost-competitive with other low-carbon energy technologies.

The EU CCS demonstration programme will not only validate and prove the costs of CCS technologies, but form the basis for future cost reductions, enhanced by the introduction of second- and third-generation technologies. The results of the study therefore indicate that post-demonstration CCS will be cost competitive with other low-carbon energy technologies as a reliable source of low-carbon power. CCS is on track to become one of the key technologies for combating climate change – within a portfolio of technologies, including greater energy efficiency and renewable energy.

• CCS is applicable to both coal- and natural gas-fired power plants.

CCS can technically be applied to both coal- and natural gas-fired power plants. Their relative economics depend on power plant cost levels, fuel prices and market positioning, whereas applicability is mainly determined by load regime.

• All three CO2 capture technologies could be competitive once successfully demonstrated.

The study includes the three main capture technologies (post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy-fuel), but excludes second-generation technologies (e.g. chemical looping, advanced gas turbine cycles). Using agreed assumptions and the Levelised Cost of Electricity as the main quantitative value, there is currently no clear difference between any of the capture technologies and all could be competitive in the future once successfully demonstrated. The main factors influencing total costs are fuel and investment costs.

• Early strategic planning of large-scale CO2 transport infrastructure is vital to reduce costs.

Clustering plants to a transport network can achieve significant economies of scale – in both CO2 transport and CO2 storage in larger reservoirs, on- and offshore. Large-scale CCS therefore requires the development of a transport infrastructure on a scale matched only by that of the current hydrocarbon infrastructure. As this will lead to greatly reduced long-term costs, early strategic planning is vital – including the development of clusters and over-sized pipelines – with any cross-border restrictions removed.

• A risk-reward mechanism is needed to realise the significant aquifer potential for CO2 storage.

Location and type of storage site, reservoir capacity and quality are the main determinants for the costs of CO2 storage: onshore is cheaper than offshore; depleted oil and gas fields (DOGF) are cheaper than deep saline aquifers (SA); larger reservoirs are cheaper than smaller ones; high injectivity is cheaper than poor injectivity. Given the large variation in storage costs (up to a factor of 10) and the risk of investing in the exploration of SA that are ultimately found to be unsuitable, a risk-reward mechanism is needed to realise their significant potential and ensure sufficient storage capacity is available – in the time frame needed.

• CCS requires a secure environment for long-term investment.

Based on current trajectories, the price of Emission Unit Allowances (EUAs) under the EU Emissions Trading System will not, initially, be a sufficient driver for investment after the first generation of CCS demonstration projects is built (2015-2020). Enabling policies are therefore required in the intermediate period – after the technology is commercially proven, but before the EUA price has increased sufficiently to allow full commercial operation. The goal: to make new-build power generation with CCS more attractive to investors than without it.

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1.4.8. Methods of Analysis of Public Opinion on CCS Introduction To date, the general public is not well informed about CCS technologies 165 . Several studies which were conducted recently show that this technology would likely be met with less enthusiasm by public compared to other options, such as improving energy efficiency and switching to renewable energy sources.

It is also unclear how the public will react to the CCS and other options for reducing emissions and the broader challenges of climate change, when it will be better informed about these issues.

A study carried out in the UK in 2004 found public awareness and understanding to be low; and in the absence of information, people tended not to have an opinion or, if they did, they had a slightly negative view 166 . Provision of some, even limited, information on the topic moves public opinion to a more positive stance, but public support tends to depend on concern over climate change and global warming, with CCS being viewed as one positive strategy. Further concluded that uncertainties about the potential risks of CCS, in particular the risks of accident and leakage, need to be addressed and reduced.

Very little research has been conducted to date on public perceptions and perceived acceptability of CCS, with a few completed or on-going studies in north European countries and the USA. Research on perceptions of CCS is challenging because of: a) the relatively technical and ‘remote’ nature of the issue, meaning that there are few immediate points of connection in the lay public’s frame of reference to many of the key concepts; b) the early stage of the technology, with very few examples and experiences in the public domain to draw upon as illustrations.

Figure 1.4.10: Assessment of Energy Options within Sub-Groups

165

Can the storage of carbon dioxide contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions? - A simplified guide to the IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage // UNEP, Information Unit for Conventions, 2006. - 24 pp. (in Russian) 166 Shackley S., McLachlan C., Gough C. The public perceptions of carbon capture and storage // Tyndall Centre Working Paper No. 44, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, UMIST, Manchester, UK, 2004. – 79 pp.

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A more indepth research approach is typically required in such circumstances, whereby technical information is provided in an incremental fashion to the target public sample.

Methodologically, focus groups and indepth discussion groups are likely to be more suitable than structured questionnaires, at least as a first step in the research process. The disadvantage is that only small samples can be surveyed using indepth methods, as opposed to surveys which can be statistically representative. The three groups were asked to weight the level of funding they would support for each of the following technologies (Figure 1.4.10). This was used as a surrogate indicator for the technology options which they would most like to see developed in order to reduce future CO2 emissions.

The “radical innovation” category was added by one group, thus reinforcing the idea that current RandD efforts are perhaps not seen as being radical enough. As discussed previously, education and communication were felt to be of utmost importance. Therefore one group created this separate category whilst the others included it implicitly under energy efficiency and demand reduction.

Wind power met with unanimous support.

The use of Nuclear power was met with some disapproval. The only expenditure on nuclear that was widely supported was that to close down the industry or to develop fusion related technology. However one of the subgroups also noted that nuclear may have to provide the long term solution to climate change if no other technological developments are made, though it was hoped that it would be made “cleaner”.

Solar power was supported in principle; however, two of the groups did not consider that it would have a significant impact in the UK. There was widespread support for Hydrogen, especially in relation to transport. Demand reduction and Energy efficiency were strongly supported throughout all the groups. The groups were all of the opinion that Biomass had not yet been proven to be effective. Wave and tidal power, although generally less well understood than other renewables, were supported.

Carbon capture and storage received fairly high ratings from groups two and three. It is promising for the development of CCS that all groups supported some level of expenditure on it. One sub-group was noticeably less keen on CCS than other options - this was the “doubters group” and so was an expected response.

Respondents were asked their opinion of CCS after a very brief introduction to the technology, i.e. they were told that it would store CO2 under the ground but not the reason for doing this. Figure 5.6 shows that positive responses were not widespread. It was often stated by respondents that they had to know why it was being done and what the risks were before they could make a judgement. About 25% of the sample stated that they did not know, whilst 23% stated that they were neither for nor against. In other words, nearly half of the respondents were undecided in what they thought of CCS. Most of the other respondents were against CCS, with 14% stating that they did not like CCS at all, whilst 24% said they did not like it, or 38% against in total. Only 13% of the sample said that they supported CCS (Figure 1.4.11a).

The possibility of CCS being used to increase the amount of oil that could be extracted made no difference to their perception of CCS for a large number of respondents (47%) (Figure 1.4.11b). However a similarly large percentage (43%) became more favourable toward the idea of CCS. Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Less than five percent became less favourable after being given this information. This suggests that EOR will, in general, be regarded as an additional reason in support of CCS, rather than counting as a reason against.

When asked, unprompted, if they could think of any negative effects of CCS (Figure 1.4.11c) respondents’ most frequent answer was leakage (49%). The next most frequently mentioned were ecosystems (31%), the new and untested nature of the technology (23%) and human health impacts (18%). Although these practical, physical risks were the most frequently mentioned, there were also a number of negative attributes mentioned in relation to CCS as a part of climate change abatement policy. Avoiding the real problem (13%), short termism (12%) and the policy demonstrating reluctance to change from government (11%) were all mentioned regularly. Grouping these last three responses into a general concern that CCS is treating the symptoms not the cause of excessive CO2 emissions, this would constitute, at 36%, the second most frequently mentioned negative aspect of CCS. When asked, unprompted, if they could think of any positive effects of CCS (Figure 1.4.11d), by far the most frequent response was abating climate change (58%). The notion that using CCS could “buy time” to develop other solutions was the next most frequently mentioned at 7%.

a) Initial reaction to CCS

b) The effect of EOR on opinion of CCS

c) Negative attributes of CCS

d) Positive attributes of CCS

Figure 1.4.11: Results of the analysis of public opinion on CCS introduction Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The study allowed to make the following conclusions and interpret the results for the further development of CCS in the UK context. We use the set of eight questions that we posed in Chapter One to structure the discussion and the text in italics is copied from Chapter one to remind of the rationale behind each question. (i) What do the public think about carbon sequestration when the idea is initially presented to them? (questionnaire) Do people have an immediate ‘like or ‘dislike’ to the idea of CCS or do they simply not know?

This question is perhaps the closest we get to a lay, cursory contact with the idea of CCS, as might be experienced through a brief news item, informal conversation with a friend or halflistened to media report.

On first contact with CCS, most people are slightly against, neither for nor against it or say that they do not know.

We found that nearly half of respondents do not express an opinion either in favour or against CCS when the notion of carbon storage is presented without any other information (e.g. concerning why it is being done). 38% of the respondents were either slightly or strongly against CCS and only 13% expressed support.

This suggests that on first hearing about CCS without any information as to its rationale or risks, the majority of people may be somewhat sceptical or just not form an opinion at all. (ii) How do their opinions change when provided with more information on CCS and the problem of climate change? (citizen panels and questionnaire) Does a small amount of information on CCS, climate change and the challenge of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 60%, affect people’s perception of CCS? We might expect that as the purpose of CCS is revealed, i.e. to tackle the problem of global climate change by contributing to a reduction of carbon emissions by 60%, there would be a certain proportion of respondents who might express greater support for the concept. We have explored this issue of opinion-change in the survey, whilst in the citizen panels we have explored the underlying reasons why people’s opinions change as more information is provided, and as group discussions are undertaken.

Carbon Capture and Storage is generally recognised as a potentially important carbon mitigation option for the UK. The survey results showed that CCS was slightly supported by 43% of respondents, and strongly supported by a further 12%, whilst 22% slightly or strongly opposed CCS, once basic information had been provided. The response was elicited relative to the other major carbon mitigation options (wind, solar, wave, nuclear, energy efficiency, etc.).

The support for CCS is somewhat less when respondents were asked just about CCS (i.e. not compared to other decarbonisation options) towards the end of the survey, at about 39% slightly or strongly supportive. A larger number also said that they did not know or were neither in favour nor against CCS when asked specifically about CCS than when compared to other decarbonisation options (at 35% compared to 24%).

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Support for CCS can be described as moderate or lukewarm compared to strong support in general for wind, solar and energy efficiency. The citizen panels also show a moderate support for CCS, provided that a range of other decarbonisation options are also supported – in particular renewable energy and energy efficiency. An integrated approach towards decarbonisation was generally preferred in which all options were considered, including social change as well as the ‘harder’ technological options.

Support for CCS is, however, conditional on understanding the reasons for CO2 mitigation.

The survey respondents’ showed a marked shift towards moderate support for CCS once the purpose of carbon storage had been explained and, to a variable extent, discussed, during the course of the survey.

Nearly one half of the respondents became more positive in their perception of CCS on receipt of information as to its rationale, with about 17% becoming more negative in their perception. We found that the key information which had to be conveyed was the use of CCS in removing CO2 from power plant emissions to avoid it entering the atmosphere and contributing to global climate change. (iii) Is there a difference in perception depending upon standard demographic variables (age, socioeconomic status, gender, education, etc.)? (citizen panels and questionnaire) There is no strong a priori reason why we would expect CCS to be more or less preferred according to the standard demographic variables, yet it is important that we at least check if this is the case. The evidence about age-related effects, education and socio-economic status in previous surveys of sustainability is less clear, with contradictory findings in past work.

There was not a drastic difference between the attitudes of men and women with regard to CCS, though women were marginally more likely to have a positive attitude. At the ‘extremes’, men seemed slightly more likely to really like CCS, whilst women were slightly more likely to not like CCS at all. The influence of the other variables (socio-economic status and education) requires more detailed analysis of the survey findings but may be limited by the relatively small sample size. From the citizen panels we suspect that gender, socioeconomic status and education all play a role in influencing perceptions of CCS, though just how important a role it is difficult to ascertain. Although the two panels ‘reasoned’ very differently with regards to CCS, they did arrive at similar end points. (iv) Is there a difference in perception depending upon peoples' values and beliefs? (citizen panels, and to an extent questionnaire) Previous research on the underlying reasons for different perceptions of sustainability suggest that values, beliefs and ‘world views’ are a more important determinant than standard demographic variables. Attempting to address values and beliefs is notoriously difficult, whether in surveys or focus groups, and in this work we were not able to explore this issue in any depth. In the citizen panels, we were able to infer different values and beliefs from extended discussions with the participants, at least to a limited extent. In the questionnaire we attempted to ascertain beliefs about the role of experts in making decisions about how to respond to climate change, and several other questions provide clues as to the underlying world views of the respondents.

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This question proved too difficult to address convincingly in the present research. In the questionnaire we tried to gauge individual’s beliefs in public participation in deciding what should be done about climate change, and to their readiness to accept expert delineation of climate change policies. A strong belief in public participation, together with a reluctance to accept expert-led policy making, might have indicated a more ‘egalitarian’ worldview, whilst the converse (low belief in public participation plus support for expert led policy) might have indicated a ‘hierarchic’ worldview. In practice, we found that many respondents supported both public participation and expert-led policy making, a somewhat contradictory position.

We suspect that the two questions did not access respondent’s worldviews, but rather worked at a more superficial level, whereby both public participation and expert input were regarded by most as a ‘good thing’. A more detailed questionnaire focusing upon world views specifically would be required to improve our understanding.

Three Broad Positions vis-à-vis CCS “Pro-, Anti- and Ambivalent” were identified in the Citizen Panels.

The Citizen Panels were more successful at elucidating broadly different perspectives on CCS which did appear to relate, at least to some extent, to underlying worldviews and different sets of values. A small minority were in favour of CCS, mainly for utilitarian reasons that it is an effective use of geological reservoirs and removes CO2 so reducing the risks of global climate change, which are regarded as larger than the risks of CCS itself. Another small minority were opposed to CCS, mainly for moral reasons that it is basically wrong to ‘inject mother earth’ with an industrial waste by-product.

Humans have responsibility, according to this perspective, for changing their ways – through new technologies and lifestyle changes – such that CO2 emissions are not produced in the first place. The third, and most common perspective, was essentially ambivalent – at times in favour, at other times against, CCS. Whilst many in this third group were initially sceptical of CCS, they became more favourably inclined as the scale of the decarbonisation challenge was revealed (see (v) below), as the risks of CCS were more thoroughly discussed, and as the risks associated with the other major decarbonisation options were also discussed.

The majority view tended to find more support for CCS when the latter was combined with other options which had a (seemingly) more favourable cost-benefit profile than CCS itself, in particular renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy demand reduction, and the hydrogen economy, based at least initially on fossil fuels with decarbonisation. This finding strongly supports the need to embed CCS within a portfolio of decarbonisation options and to promote CCS as a ‘bridging strategy’ to other low- or zero-carbon energy sources. (v) Is there a difference in perception depending upon what people think about climate change and its seriousness? (citizen panels and questionnaire) A sub-set of beliefs relates to the respondents beliefs about whether climate change is a real problem to be concerned about and whether it is caused by human activities. The hypothesis is that if the respondents are concerned about climate change and its human causes, then they may be more favourably inclined towards CCS. Certainly, if the respondents do not believe that climate change is human-caused and/or a problem, then it is more difficult to imagine why they might lend strong support to CCS, since there is no other reason why CCS should be undertaken. The only partial exception relates to the use of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and we explored whether this possibility might change opinion on CCS. Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Belief in, and concern about, human-caused climate change, plus recognition of the need for major CO2 emission reduction, is likely to be a necessary prerequisite for including CCS as a serious response option to climate change.

We found that both belief in human-caused climate change and concern about climate change amongst our survey sample was high. These two factors did not, therefore, help to explain the variation in the perceptions of CCS. It is possible that the high levels of belief and concern that we obtained are a consequence of conducting the survey just after the heat wave of 2003.

Although there was an awareness of the issue of global climate change, the potential impacts, government policy on climate change and the extent of CO2 reductions likely to be required was not at all well appreciated. We found that the potential acceptability of CCS in the citizen panels depended on it being clearly understood as a key carbon mitigation option. In other words, there appear to be three prerequisites which provide the context in which carbon capture and storage is regarded as a potential option: - Acceptance of the basic underlying science of climate change; - Acceptance of the seriousness of the potential threat of climate change impacts to life in the UK and more generally; - Acceptance of the need to make very large reductions in carbon emissions (e.g. 60% cuts) over the next 50 years.

Even amongst the most sympathetic and trusting of our citizen panel participants, no one was aware of the enormous scale of the challenge of a -60% reduction in carbon emissions, and there was in general a lack of awareness and knowledge of what different carbon mitigation options had to offer. (vi) Does (carefully presented) information on alternatives (behavioural change, energy prices, renewables, etc.) influence the perception of CCS? (citizen panels and questionnaire) Since CCS is one of a range of options being considered as a route towards decarbonisation, a comparative approach is necessary. We therefore asked about perceptions of the main other contending routes towards decarbonisation: demand reduction, energy efficiency and the range of renewable energy sources.

CCS is not liked as much as wind, wave, tidal and solar power, and energy efficiency measures, but there is slight support for it and CCS is certainly preferred to nuclear and higher energy bills.

CCS is not ranked as favourably by the majority of respondents as wind, wave and tidal, energy efficiency and solar, all of which are strongly supported. CCS is, however, much more favourably received than either nuclear power (which c.55% of respondents are either slightly or strongly against, with c.24% either slightly or strongly supportive) or higher energy bills to try and reduce demand (with 69% either slightly or strongly against, and again about 24% either slightly or strongly supportive). We should note, however, that we did not include any measures to address equity problems arising from higher energy bills in the questionnaire this could have changed the response, since many objections to higher energy bills appeared to relate to exacerbating fuel poverty. The â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;not knownâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; response rate was highest for CCS, nuclear and wave and tidal, but is not large enough to explain differences in response rates.

The citizen panels show a similar set of preferences for the known and emerging renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency options, though again tended to include CCS as an option which required further investigation and RandD. Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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(vii) What polices and processes would make carbon sequestration more acceptable? (citizen panels and questionnaires) This slightly more free-ranging discussion focused upon what types of changes (technical, risk, environmental, social, economic, policy, etc.) might influence peoples’ perceptions of CCS. More certainty about the risks of CCS in the long-term would help people to come to a clearer decision about the desirability of CCS. The main concerns of the survey respondents about CCS were leakage (49%), ecosystems and environmental impacts (31%), the new and untested nature of the technology (23%) and human health impacts (18%). Many respondents indicated that they would like more information and more certainty in the risk assessments of CCS with regards to the above issues. Although these practical, physical risks were the most frequently mentioned, there were also a number of negative attributes mentioned in relation to CCS as a part of climate change abatement policy.

Avoiding the real problem (13%), short termism (12%) and the policy demonstrating reluctance to change from government (11%) were all mentioned regularly (or 36% expressing the sentiment that CCS is ‘treating the symptoms not the cause’). When asked if they could think of any positive effects of CCS, by far the most frequent response was abating climate change (58%). The notion that using CCS could “buy time” to develop other solutions was the next most frequently mentioned at 7%.

CCS as one within a portfolio of decarbonisation technologies, options and measures, and as an explicit bridging strategy to a low- or zero-carbon energy system, would do much to increase its public acceptability.

The citizen panels had the advantage of more lengthy discussions and with expert witnesses.

Their ability to cross-examine experts does appear to have influenced their perceptions and to have provided some greater reassurance than was available to the questionnaire respondents.

This might, however, be a function of the particular experts chosen and the panel might have responded differently if a ‘sceptical geologist’ had spoken to the group, i.e. one who might have posed more basic questions about the integrity of geological reservoirs for storing CO2.

The panels seemed to recognise that most decarbonisation options have a set of associated risks and benefits, and that uncertainties would remain until further implementation of the technologies or other options had proceeded. Hence, they supported further research, alongside RandD on the other major options, and money spent on encouraging energy efficiency and demand reduction. Finding positive applications of captured CO2 (even if only in relatively small volumes) would also be beneficial in influencing public opinion favourably, as there is a strong ethic in favour of recycling waste by-products where possible.

Enhanced Oil Recovery, combined with CCS, will, in general, be regarded as an additional reason in support of CCS, rather than counting as a reason against.

47% of respondents did not change their opinion of CCS because of EOR, though 43% became more favourable. Less than five percent became less favourable because of EOR. On the other hand, the citizen panels found that the motivation of those promoting the technology is questioned; if it is thought to benefit the oil companies, reactions are likely to be more hostile.

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The questionnaire also found that most respondents thought that the oil and gas industries should pay for CCS, followed by government (this response might have been influenced by the order of the questions, since the notion of EOR was introduced three questions before asking about who should pay for CCS).

Regulation involving a partnership between Government, the Environment Agency, Environmental organisations and the energy industry would help to reassure the public The questionnaire found that there was widespread support for regulation to involve more than a single agency. In particular, there was support that an Environmental NGO should be involved in a regulatory role, to ensure that the regulatory process is conducted in a due and proper manner.

A transparent, inclusive and open decision-making process was advocated by one citizen panel.

The York panel was very clear on the importance of a decision-making process which was transparent and in which a range of stakeholders and the public could have faith. A joint meeting of decisionmakers and a sample of the members of the Manchester and York groups was proposed and generally supported. Further elaboration of the concept identified the following decision-makers as important to this process: - MPs who sit on the Science and Technology and Environment Select Committees; - Senior civil servants; - Leading industrialists; - Leading environmentalists.

We would suggest that a joint meeting of this nature on the issues surrounding the desirability of CCS and its uses in different circumstances, with appropriate media coverage, would be a highly valuable exercise (comparable with the debate on Genetic Modification which is currently underway in the UK). (viii) What polices and processes would make CCS less acceptable? (citizen panels) CCS should not be considered or presented as a ‘technical fix’. Ownership by the public is important, as one participant expressed it: “we own the problem we should own the solution”.

The citizen panels were opposed to regarding CCS as a single ‘fix it’ solution and expressed concerns that such use of CCS would be to treat the symptoms rather than the causes of climate change. There was a sense that CCS could “let us off the hook” of making more fundamental, deep-rooted changes and this avoidance of change was perceived generally negatively. There remained a minority of opponents who saw the concept and practice of CCS as either morally questionable, or as posing too great a risk in terms of geological integrity.

There was also concern expressed that CCS would divert RandD resources and attention away from renewable energy technologies, demand reduction and energy efficiency.

This concern was largely allayed when the level of new resources being directed to energy RandD, demonstration and support schemes was indicated, alongside the very small amount going into CCS RandD at present.

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A similar study, but using a different methodology was performed within the framework The Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies Program. In September 2009, Knowledge Networks (KN) conducted a study of opinions the public’s opinions about energy use and environmental issues. The primary goal of the study was to gather information on people’s support for measures for reducing green house emission. The bulk of the questionnaire was previously administered to the KN panel in 2003 and 2006 and the current study was also intended to track any changes in public’s feelings on the same issues.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 167 provided Knowledge Networks with the survey instrument and in conjunction with MIT, Knowledge Networks revised the instrument so that it met the design requirements of the study as well as those of the MSN WebTV platform. A pretest survey was conducted to determine the survey length and verify all survey functionality worked correctly.

Once final changes to the main study had been implemented, the survey was fielded on September 10th, 2009 to 1,846 panel members age eighteen years of age or older who represented a general population sample. The completion goal was to collect a total of 1,200 qualified interviews. A questionnaire with various answers was developed. Most of the questions were related to the problems of global warming, environmental pollution, environmental safety, energy development areas. Some questions and answers were directly related to the prospects of CCS implementation, so below are the graphic illustrations of the answers statistics 168 .

Figure 1.4.12: Consider the following environmental problems. Which is the most important problem facing the US today? [Asked to select the top two, in order]

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Field Report: Carbon Sequestration Survey / Conducted for Massachusetts Institute of Technology // Submitted to: Howard Herzog, 2009. – 61 pp.

168 Gaphic Summary – Appendix to the Field Report: Carbon Sequestration Survey / Conducted for Massachusetts Institute of Technology // Submitted to: Howard Herzog, 2009. – 14 pp.

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Figure 1.4.13: Have you heard of or read about any of the following in the past year? Check all that apply. [2003 survey included More efficient cars in place of Hybrid cars.]

Figure 1.4.14: There is a growing concern about increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. How do you think the following contribute to these levels?

Figure 1.4.15: How do you feel we can best address the issue of global warming as it relates to electricity production?

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Figure 1.4.16: The following technologies have been proposed to address global warming. If you were responsible for designing a plan to address global warming, which of the following technologies would you use? [The question included definitions not included here.]

Recently, a great number of research on various social and environmental aspects of implementation of CCS technologies in the form of books 169 , 170 , 171 , as well as post-graduate theses 172 was carried out.

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Acceptability of CO2 capture and storage: A review of legal, regulatory, economic and social aspects of CO2 capture and storage / H. de Coninck, J. Anderson, P. Curnow et al. // Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, 2006. – 42 pp.

170 CO2-Capture and Geological Storage as a Climate Policy Option: Technologies, Concepts, Perspectives / M. Fischedick, A. Esken, H.-J. Luhmann et al. // Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, 2007. – 34 pp.

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1.5. REVIEW of UKRAINIAN STAKEHOLDERS In Ukraine, there are several levels of governmental bodies, enterprises, institutions and organizations interested in implementing CCT and CCS technologies. These are national and regional authorities, who are interested in sustainable development of the country and regions in conditions of climate change. Enterprises, as the main culprits of air pollution and CO2 emissions, are also interested in applying these technologies in their business processes.

Representatives of scientific and educational communities are interested in implementing their environmental and climate-friendly methods at the domestic enterprises, and through collaboration with European researchers working in this field. Managers at all levels and public representatives need this information for making informed decisions to promote the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine. Detailed information with contacts on all of these stakeholders is collected in a database, which will be freely available at the project website.

1.5.1. National Governmental Bodies In Ukraine there are a number of ministries 173 to be interested in implementing CCT and CCS technologies: - Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of Ukraine, because agriculture is very sensitive to climate change, and according to the experts in Ukraine moisture indicators and, consequently, yields will change substantially; - Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine, which is determined as a responsible body for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and, accordingly, should require to reduce CO2 emissions; - Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine, whose function is to ensure innovation and sustainable development of all enterprises, including the promotion of environmentally sound technologies; - Ministry of Industrial Policy of Ukraine, which was established in December 2012 and will contribute to the development of industrial enterprises in the direction of reducing their anthropogenic impact on the environment by reducing emissions of pollutants and carbon dioxide; - Ministry of Energy and Coal Industry of Ukraine, which is the main coordinator of activities in the energy sector of Ukraine, whose enterprises (coal-fired thermal power plants) are responsible for most of the Ukrainian CO2 emissions and harmful substances; - Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, responsible for transport operations in Ukraine, including the road transport, making a significant contribution to the pollution of the atmosphere by various harmful substances and increasing the concentration of CO2 in the surface layer of the atmosphere;

171

Public Outreach and Education for Carbon Storage Projects // National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2009.

– 62 pp.

172 Public Perception of Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage / A dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Sciences presented by Lars Ivar Wallquist, ETH Zurich, 2011. – 216 pp.

173 The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. – http://www.kmu.gov.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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- Ministry of Regional Development, Construction, Housing and Communal Services of Ukraine, which is in charge of providing thermal control to multi-storey buildings and controls energy losses, including energy efficiency of private residential sector, where a lot of CO2 is emitted (the second biggest source of emissions after energy); - Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, which determines the development of education and science, and shall promote training of specialists in every area of activity, including science, which affects the climate and the environment, and also mitigates the effects of climate change.

In the process of implementing of CCT and CCS technologies, the following state services, agencies, inspections and commission of Ukraine will take part as matching, regulatory and licensing authorities in the field: - State Service of Geology and Mineral Resources of Ukraine, as any geological work (research, search, monitoring, etc.) can be carried out by geological enterprises that are under the management of the service, or with the authorization of the service; - State Service of Mining Supervision and Industrial Safety of Ukraine, which oversees the implementation of all geological and promotional activities, as well as controls them from the point of view of compliance with safety regulations; - State Emergency Service of Ukraine will be involved in case of danger or man-made disasters during the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies at the territory of Ukraine; - State Service of Intellectual Property of Ukraine is required to ensure the protection of intellectual property rights on the objects of both domestic and foreign origin that are used in CCT and CCS technologies; - State Agency of Water Resources of Ukraine will be involved to introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in case of use of water resources in Ukraine and will be informed about the possible impact of CCT and CCS technologies on water resources; - State Agency of Land Resources of Ukraine will be involved to introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in case of use of land resources of Ukraine and will be informed about the possible impact of CCT and CCS technology on land; - State Agency of Forest Resources of Ukraine will be involved to introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in case of use of forests of Ukraine and will be informed about the possible impact of CCT and CCS technology on forests; - State Agency of Ecological Investments of Ukraine, which is the executive body for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and provides the process of preparation and realization of joint implementation projects as well as “green” investment projects, can assist in providing a “green” status to projects implementing CCT and CCS technologies; - State Agency of Energy Efficiency and Energy Saving of Ukraine, responsible for improving energy efficiency and providing energy efficiency in every field of activity and in all processes, can contribute to assessing the effectiveness of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies at specific enterprises and at the selected territories; Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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- State Agency of Science, Innovation and Іnformatization of Ukraine may organizationally and financially contribute to the process of research and implementation of CCT and CCS technologies at the enterprises in Ukraine.

- State Ecological Inspection of Ukraine, which will monitor the impact of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies on the environment; - State Inspection of Technogenous Safety of Ukraine, which will monitor the man-made impact of implementation of CCT and CCS on human safety and operation of infrastructure; - National Commission Realizing State Regulation in Energy Sector can contribute to all the processes of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine.

All of the above mentioned national authorities may be interested and assist in introduction of CCT and CCS technologies only on its own initiative. To ensure their official commitment, it is necessary to develop and make appropriate decisions at the legislative level to include the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in the list of priorities for the country. And this requires a decision of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 174 on amending the Laws of Ukraine or adopting appropriate laws. To do this, participation of the following committees will be needed: - Committee on Agrarian Policy and Land Relations; - Committee on Construction, Urban Development, Housing and regional policy; - Committee on Environmental Policy, Natural Resources and Elimination of Consequences of Chornobyl Catastrophe - Committee on Economic Policy; - Committee for European Integration; - Committee on Education and Science; - Committee on Fuel and Energy Complex, Nuclear Policy and Nuclear Safety; - Committee on Industrial and Investment Policy; - Committee on Transport and Communications.

1.5.2. Regional State Authorities and Local Self-Government Bodies In the target regions of the project are the five eastern regions of Ukraine (Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk, Zaporizhzhia, Lugansk and Kharkiv region), the following governmental bodies may be interested in implementing CCT and CCS technologies: - DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST STATE ADMINISTRATION 175 : - Department of Economic Development and Trade; - Department of Industry and Environment; - Department of Infrastructure; - Department of Agriculture and Rural Development; - Department of Emergencies and Protection of Population from the Consequences of Chornobyl Catastrophe; - Department of Foreign Trade and Investment; - Department of Housing and Communal Service; - Department of Fuel and Energy Complex; - Department of Education and Science.

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The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. – http://www.rada.gov.ua Dnipropetrovsk Oblast State Administration. - http://www.adm.dp.ua

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- DONETSK OBLAST STATE ADMINISTRATION 176 : - Main Department of Agricultural Development; - Main Department of Economics; - Main Department of Basic Industries, Energy and Energy Efficiency; - Main Department of Emergency, mobilization and defense work; - Main Department of Regional Development, investment and foreign economic relations; - Department of Education and Science.

- ZAPORIZHZHIA OBLAST STATE ADMINISTRATION 177 : - Department of Economic Development and Trade; - Department of Agricultural Development; - Department of Industry and Infrastructure Development; - Department of Housing and Communal Sector and Construction; - Department of Education and Science, Youth and Sports.

- LUGANSK OBLAST STATE ADMINISTRATION 178 : - Department of Economic Development and Trade; - Department of Agricultural Development; - Department of Industry and Energy saving; - Department of Education and Science, Youth and Sports; - Department of Emergencies.

- KHARKIV OBLAST STATE ADMINISTRATION 179 : - Department of Agricultural Development; - Department of Economics and International Affairs; - Department of Education and Science; - Department of Innovation Development of Industry and Transport Infrastructure; - Department of Housing and Communal Sector and Infrastructure Development; - Department of Fuel and Energy Complex.

In 2012, the following governmental bodies, very interested in and very concerned about the possibilities of CCT and CCS implementation, previously subjected to the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine 180 , were eliminated their functions to be transferred to new units of oblast state administrations (have not yet been created): - State Department of Environmental Protection in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast; - State Department of Environmental Protection in Donetsk Oblast; - State Department of Environmental Protection in the Zaporizhzhia Oblast; - State Department of Environmental Protection in the Luhansk Oblast; - State Department of Environmental Protection in the Kharkiv Oblast.

In Ukraine there is structure of regional authorities - local self-governmental bodies: oblast, municipal and raion councils, which have executive powers, including administrations, departments or units, responsible for environmental issues in the area.

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Donetsk Oblast State Administration. - http://www.donoda.gov.ua Zaporizhzhya Oblast State Administration. - http://www.zoda.gov.ua 178 Luhansk Oblast State Administration. - http://www.loga.gov.ua 179 Kharkiv Oblast State Administration. - http://www.kharkivoda.gov.ua 180 Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine. - http://www.menr.gov.ua 177

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So the database of stakeholders includes information about the five oblast councils in the target regions, as well as information on the following councils 181 : - Dnipropetrovsk Oblast (district councils - 22; municipalities - 20; district councils in cities - 18); - Donetsk Oblast (district councils - 17; municipalities - 52; district councils in cities - 10); - Zaporizhzhia Oblast (district councils - 20; municipalities - 14); - Luhansk Oblast (district councils - 17; municipalities - 37; district councils in cities - 4); - Kharkiv Oblast (district councils - 27; municipalities - 17).

1.5.3. Higher educational institutions and research institutes The database of stakeholders also includes higher education institutions located in the target regions that may be involved in the development of CCT and CCS technologies and in development of educational process in the direction of climate change and climate technologies, in particular 182 : - DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST: - National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine; - National Mining University; - Kryvyi Rig National University - Ukrainian State University of Chemical Technology; - Dniprodzerzhinsk State Technical University; - Dnieper State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture; - Oles Gonchar Dnepropetrovsk National University; - DONETSK OBLAST: - Donetsk National University; - Donetsk National Technical University; - Priazovskkiy State Technical University (Mariupol) - Donbas National Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture; - Donbass State Engineering Academy; - M. Tugan-Baranovsky Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade; - Donetsk State University of Management; - Mariupol State University; - ZAPORIZHIA OBLAST: - Zaporizhzhya National Technical University; - Zaporozhye State Engineering Academy; - Zaporizhya National University; - LUHANSK OBLAST: - Donbass State Technical University; - Volodymyr Dahl East Ukrainian National University; - Taras Shevchenko Lugansk National University;

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The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. – http://www.rada.gov.ua The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraineю – http://www.mon.gov.ua

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- KHARKIV OBLAST: - V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University; - National Technical University “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute”; - Kharkiv National Automobile and Highway University; - Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics; - Kharkiv National University of Civil Engineering and Architecture; - M.E. Zhukovskiy National Aerospace University “Kharkiv Aviation Institute”.

The following institutes could be potentially involved in scientific research and technological development in the field of CCT and CCS technologies 183 : - DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST: - Іnstitute for Technical Mechanics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) and the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU); - M.S. Polyakov Іnstitut for geotehnіchnical mechanics of the NASU; - Institute of Nature and Ecology NASU; - Institute of Transport Systems and Technologies of the NASU; - Z.I. Nekrasov Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy of the NASU; - Scientific Research Institute “Energotehnologii”; - Research Institute of Mining Problems; - Ukrainian Equity Project Design and Technology Institute “Ukrstalproekt”; - Ukrainian State Institute of Steel (Ukrgipromez); - Ukrainian Scientific-Research and Design Institute of Industrial Technology Scouting (UkrNIPRIpromtehnologii); - Scientific Research and Experimental Design Institute of Automation of Ferrous Metallurgy; - Institute “DneprVNIPIenergoprom”; - State Design Institute of Mineral Processing Equipment “Gipromashobogaschenie”; - State Research and Production Enterprise for Surveying, Environmental, Hydraulic and Geomechanical Studies “MAGGIE” - State Institute for Designing of the Mining Industry “Krivbasproekt” - Research Institute of Mining; - DONETSK OBLAST: - Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics of the NASU; - A.A. Galkin Donetsk Physico-Technical Institute of the NASU; - Institute of Physics of Mining Processes of the NASU; - A.M. Litvinenko Institute of Physical Organic and Coal Chemistry of the NASU; - Institute of Industrial Economics of the NASU; - Ukrainian State Research and Design Institute of Mining Geology, Geomechanics and Mine Surveying of the NASU; - Donetsk Botanical Garden of the NASU; - Research Institute of Medical and Environmental Problems of Donbass and the Coal Industry; - Donetsk State Research and Design Institute of Nonferrous Metals; - Donetsk State Research Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy; - Donetsk Design Institute of Technology;

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A directory of the leading companies of Ukraine. – http://www.rada.com.ua Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Donetsk State Research, Design and Research Institute of Experimental and Comprehensive Mechanization of Mines “Dongiprouglemash”; Donetsk Scientific and Engineering Center of the Research Institute of Organization and Mechanization of Coal Mine Construction; Donetsk Scientific-Research Institute of Coal Mining; The Institute of Geological and Environmental Problems of Donbass; M.M. Fedorov Research Institute of Mining Mechanics; Design Institute “Dongipromash”; State Enterprise “Donetsk Ecological Institute”; Donetsk Design Research Institute “Teploelectroproject” of the PJSC “Donbasenergo”; State Maiivka Research Institute for Safety in the Mining Industry; State Scientific-Research Institute of Power Engineering; State Regional Geological Enterprise “Donetskgeologiya”.

- ZAPORIZHZHIA OBLAST: - Ukrainian Scientific-Research Institute of Industrial Gas Cleaning and Sanitizing; - Special Project and Design Bureau “Zaporozhgidrostal”; - State Research and Design Institute “Ukrgiprogazoochistka”; - A.G. Ivchenko Zaporozhye Machine-Building Design Bureau “Progress”; - LUHANSK OBLAST: - Ukrainian Scientific-Research and Design Institute of Enrichment and Briquetting of Coal; - Scientific Research and Design Institute “Water Technologies”; - Research and Design Institute of Chemical Technology “Khimtekhnologiya”; - Subsidiary of “Energosberezhenie” - LLC “Energoresurs”; - State Design Institute of Mineral Processing Equipment “Gipromashugleobogaschenie”; - Scientific Research and Design Institute “Iskra”; - State Scientific-Research Institute of the Safety of Chemical Production; - Lugansk Institute of Design of the Coal Industry “Luganskgiproshakht”; - KHARKIV OBLAST: - State Enterprise “State Institute for Design of Coking Enterprises”; - V.Ya. Yuriev Institute of Plant Industry of the NASU; - Public Joint Stock Company “A.S. Berezhnoy Ukrainian Scientific-Research Institute of Refractories”; - Kharkov Central Design Bureau for the Creation, Modernization and Reconstruction of Heat-Mechanical Equipment of Power “Energoprogress” Branch “Kotloturboprom”; - Open Joint Stock Company “Kharkov Scientific-Research and Design Institute “Energoproekt”; - Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Ecological Problems; - A.N. Podgornyy Institute of Problems of Mechanical Engineering of the NASU; - Scientific Research and Design Institute of Automated Transport Management Systems of Gas, a Subsidiary of State Enterprise “Naukanaftogaz” of the National Joint Stock Company “Naftogaz Ukrainy”; - Open Joint Stock Company “Special Design and Technological Bureau for Electrical Submersible Drilling and Production of Oil “Potential”; - Ukrainian Scientific-Research Institute of Natural Gases; Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Ukrainian State Scientific-Research Institute of Metals; State Enterprise “Vostokgeoinform”; Kharkov State Geological Engineering Department “UkrNIINTIZ”; Subsidiary “Agrogeofizika” of the National Joint Stock Company “Nadra Ukrainy”; Institute of Electrophysics and Radiation Technologies of the NASU; Limited Liability Company “SPE Ekoenergokom”; Scientific Research and Design Institute of Gas Transportation Branch of PJSC “Ukrtransgas”; Limited Liability Company “Ukrgazteh” - Kharkiv Branch; Limited Liability Company “EkotermoInzhiniring”; Ukrainian State Research and Production Institute of Engineering and Environmental Studies “UkrNIINTIZ”; Limited Liability Company “Research and Consulting Group “Ecology”; Limited Liability Company “Kharkov Military Research Centre of Ecology”; Limited Liability Company “Scientific and Production Enterprise “Ukrgazgeoavtomatika”; A.I. Kalmykov Center for Radiophysics Sensing of the Earth of the NASU and NSAU; Research Center for Industrial Problems of Development of the NASU; G.N. Vysotskii Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Agroforestry of the State Forestry Committee of Ukraine and the NASU.

1.5.4. Energy and Industrial Enterprises A database of enterprises located in targeted regions which are major air pollutants was created based on official reports of the regional units of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources 184 in the form of Ecological Passports of the regions for 2011: - DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST 185 : - Pridneprovskaya TPP of the PJSC “Dneproenergo’; - Kryvyy Rih TPP of the PJSC “Dneproenergo”; - PJSC “Dzerzhinsky Dnieper Metallurgical Plant”; - PJSC “Nikopol Ferroalloy Plant”; - Metallurgical production of PJSC “ArcelorMittal Krivoy Rog”; - OJSC “Pivdennyy GOK”; - PJSC “Pivnichnyy GOK”; - Mining and Processing Complex PJSC “ArcelorMittal Krivoy Rog”; - Coke Production of PJSC “ArcelorMittal Krivoy Rog”; - PJSC “Centralnyy GOK”; - Coke-Chemical Production PJSC “Euras - Petrovsky Dnepropetrovsk Metallurgical Plant” (OJSC “Dniprokoks”); - PJSC “Euras - Petrovsky Dnepropetrovsk Metallurgical Plant”; - OJSC “INTERPIPE - Nyzhnodniprovsk Rolling Plant”; - PJSC "Euras Bahliykoks”; - PJSC “Euras - Dniprodzherzhynsk Coke Plant”; - PJSC “Ordzhonikidzevsk GOK”;

184

Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine. - http://www.menr.gov.ua Environmental Passport Dnipropetrovsk region 2011 // The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Dnipropetrovsk region, 2012. – 135 pp.

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- DONETSK OBLAST 186 : - PJSC «Illicha Mariupol Metallurgical Plant”; - PJSC Metallurgical Plant “Azovstal”; - RC “Zasyadko Mine”; - PC “Donetskstal” - Steel Plant” of the Branch “Metallurgical Complex”; - PJSC “Enakieve Metallurgical Plant”; - PJSC “Avdiivka Coke Plant”; - PJSC “Yasynivskyi Coke Plant”; - PC “Yenakievo koksohimprom”; - PJSC “Donetskkoks”; - PJSC “Makiyivkoks”; - Slovyansk TPP of the PJSC “Donbasenergo”; - Starobeshevo TPP of the PJSC “Donbasenergo”; - Kurakhovo TPP of the LLC “Skhidenergo”; - Vuglegirska TPP; - Zuivka TPP of the LLC “Skhidenergo”; - ZAPORIZHIA OBLAST 187 : - OJSC “Zaporizhstal”; - PJSC “Dniprospetsstal”; - PJSC “Zaporozhye Aluminum Plant”; - PJSC “Zaporizhkoks”; - PJSC “Ukrainian Graphite”; - SE “Zaporizhia Titanium and Magnesium Plant”; - PJSC “Zaporozhye Ferroalloy Plant”; - PJSC “Zaporizhskloflyus”; - PJSC “Zaporozhye Abrasive Plant”; - PJSC “Zaporizhvognetryv”; - SE “Kremniypolimer”; - Zaporizhzhya TPP of the PJSC “Dneproenergo”; - LUHANSK OBLAST 188 : - Lugansk TPP of the LLC “Skhidenergo”; - PC “Alchevsk Metallurgic Plant”; - PC “Alchevsk Coke Plant”; - PC “Lysychansk Oil Investment Company”; - CJSC “Severodonetsk Association “Azot”; - KHARKIV OBLAST 189 : - OJSC “EUROCEMENT-UKRAINE”; - OJSC “Kharkiv CHP-5”; - SE “CHP-2 Eskhar”; - Zmiiv TPP of the PJSC “Centrenergo”.

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Environmental Passport Donetsk region 2011 // The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Donetsk region, 2012. – 142 pp.

187 Environmental Passport Zaporozhye region 2011 // The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Zaporozhye region, 2012. – 130 pp.

188 Environmental Passport Luhansk region 2011 // The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Luhansk region, 2012. – 128 pp.

189 Environmental Passport Kharkiv region 2011 // The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Kharkiv region, 2012. – 117 pp.

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1.5.5. Non-Governmental Organizations and Mass Media Associations of citizens – regional environmental NGOs that actively participate in the work of the public councils at the state Department of Environmental Protection in the target regions, and on the basis of which the database was set up – play an important role in shaping public opinion about the prospect of introduction of CCT and CCS technologies: - DNIPROPETROVSK OBLAST 190 : - Dnipropetrovsk Regional Ecological Association “Green World”; - Dnipropetrovsk Oblast NGO “Academic Centre of Ecological Life Safety”; - Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Organization of Ukrainian Environmental League; - M. Varnyak Pavlograd City Ecological Society; - NGO “Man on Earth”; - Interregional Environmental NGO “World of Water”; - Dnipropetrovsk City Association of Conservation; - Pridneprovsky Centre for Clean Productions; - NGO “Public Environmental Control”; - Regional Organization of the Public Movement of Ukraine “For the Right of Citizens to Environmental Safety”; - NGO “Native Land”; - Youth Environmental League of Pridneprovye; - Ecological and Tourist Association “Orlan”; - NGO “Dnipropetrovsk Interregional Ecological Association”; - NGO “Dnipropetrovsk branch of the National Ecological Centre of Ukraine”; - DONETSK OBLAST 191 : - NGO “Makeevsky City Branch of All-Ukrainian Union of Child “Environmental Guard”; - Donetsk NGO “Agency for Local Government Development”; - Donetsk Regional Public Organization “Association for Environmental Rights”; - NGO “Donetsk Environmental Movement”; - Khartsyzk Urban Socio-Ecological Organization “Eco-Action”; - Donetsk Regional Environmental NGO “To Clean Sources”; - Donetsk Oblast Organization “For the Right of Citizens to Environmental Safety”; - Donetsk Oblast NGO “Society for Conservation - Heritage of Donbass”; - Donetsk City Children NGO Ukrainian Union “Environmental Guard”; - NGO “Center for Sustainable Development “Wind Rose”; - Donetsk Oblast NGO “Mobile Service Environmental Safety”; - Donetsk Regional Organization “All-Ukrainian Ecological League”; - NGO Ecological and Cultural Center “Bakhmat”; - Donetsk City Youth Environmental Center “Ecos”; - Donetsk Oblast NGO “Ecological Society of Donbass”; - ZAPORIZHZHIA OBLAST 192 : - Regional Ecological Association “Green Movement of Zaporizhzhia”; - Zaporizhzhya Oblast Charitable Organization “Sozidanie”; - Zaporizhzhya Branch of All-Ukrainian Ecological League;

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The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Dnipropetrovsk region. - http://ecodnepr.dp.ua The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Donetsk region. - http://ecodon.org.ua 192 The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Zaporozhye region. - http://www.zdn.gov.ua 191

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NGO “Clean Azov”; Youth NGO “Zaporozhye Center Promoting Local History “Horse”; Zaporizhia City Environmental Club; Zaporizhia Oblast NGO “Cossacks Specialized Command “SICH”; Zaporizhia Oblast NGO “Ukrainian Society for the Protection of Nature”; Zaporizhia Oblast Association “Environmental Education”;

- LUGANSK OBLAST 193 : - Luhansk Oblast Organization of Ukrainian Society for Nature Conservation; - Luhansk Oblast NGO “Green World”; - Luhansk Oblast NGO “Dawn of Ukraine”; - Severodonetsk Branch of Ukrainian Ecological Association “Green World”; - Rubezhnoe Branch of Ukrainian Ecological Association “Green World”; - Luhansk Branch of Ukrainian Environmental League; - Luhansk Branch of Ukrainian Children's Union “Environmental Guard”; - Children's Environmental NGO “Green Bean”; - NGO “Zelenyy gomin”, Illiriya, Lutuginskyi district; - Luhansk Oblast NGO “Ecopark”; - Alchevsk City Society for Nature Conservation; - Regional NGO “Agency for Environment Research”; - Luhansk Oblast Organization “World Wildlife”; - KHARKIV OBLAST 194 : - Kharkov Oblast NGO “Ekologichna bezpeka”; - Kharkov Oblast NGO “Ekologichna varta”; - Environmental Charitable Foundation “ECOS”; - Kharkov Oblast NGO “Eco”; - Association of Kharkov Interbranch Center of Environmental Education, Training and Scientific Activities “Kharkov Ecocenter”; - Kharkiv Regional Council of the Ukrainian Society for Nature Conservation; - Kharkov Youth NGO of Pupils and “Ecocenter”; - Kharkiv City Organization “Independent Agency for Environmental Information” (Ekoinform); - Kharkiv Regional Organization of the All-Ukrainian Ecological League; - Kharkiv NGO “Energiya Myru”; - Kharkiv Oblast Public Organization “Scientific Ecological Society “EkoPerspektyva”; - Interregional Society of Environmental Group “Pecheneg”; - Kharkiv NGO “EcoPravo-Kharkov” - Environmental Public Advocacy Center.

Also significant impact on public awareness on the necessity of introduction of CCT and CCS technologies has an environmental journalism, which is only forming in Ukraine: there are no targeted environmental media, not to count a number of Ukrainian environmental websites.

So currently, the database of Ukrainian media (websites, newspapers, magazines, TV programs and individual journalists) that may contribute to the public recognition of the importance of CCT and CCS technologies to mitigate the effects of climate change is being created.

193 194

The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Luhansk region. - http://ecolugansk.in.ua The State Department of Environmental Protection in the Kharkiv region. - http://ecodepart.kharkov.ua

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1.6. RECOMMENDATIONS to the IMPLEMENTATION of PERSPECTIVES CCT and CCS Performed analysis of Ukrainian stationary sources of carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) into the atmosphere and the geology of eastern regions leads to a number of preliminary recommendations for further scientific and technological research to be carried out to provide process of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine.

1.6.1. The Potential of Sources of CO2 Emissions Using the information of the 5 open databases: IEA 195 , BELLONA 196 , CARMA 197 , DTEK 198 and BIOMASS 199 , - as well as new more data directly from the thermal power plants, iron and steel, coke, cement, chemical plants and oil refineries, geographic information system (GIS) sources of CO2 was established.

It covers five eastern regions of Ukraine (previously mentioned). This GIS in the test mode is available on the LCOIR-UA project website and businesses can read this data about their emissions of CO2, which are listed in network connections, and correct the data in accordance with the actual volumes of emissions of the enterprise.

Using this GIS can estimate the amount of CO2 emissions from a particular company, as well as to obtain data about its geographic location and other useful information about it (5 variants of icon size ofenterprises conform to the following gradation of enterprises in terms of emissions of CO2: 1 Mt / year or less, 1 - 4 Mt / year, 4-7 Mt / year, 7.10 Mt / year, 10 Mt / year or more). GIS makes it possible to simultaneously analyze all the enterprises of chosen industries of the economy of Ukraine (Figure 1.6.1), or consider only companies in selected industries: coal-fired power stations (as of 2011 200 the share of coal in the fuel thermal power plants is more than 97.5% vs 52.3 % as shown in the CARMA) is currently represented in the GIS; 12 gas-fired plants - 1; steel mills - 13; coking plants - 14; cement plants - 8; various chemical plants (including oil) - 3.

It is planned to extend this database with data on CO2 emissions from all enterprises which are the major air pollutants in these regions (see section 1.5.4), the enterprises of housing and communal services of the city, houses the private sector and from the road transport. As this GIS is based on informal sources of information, the real value of the volume of CO2 emissions from a particular company may differ from the values presented in the GIS. In such cases, an enterprise may apply to the LCOIR-UA project website with a proposal to update the information on the volume of CO2 emissions, to be in a accordance with the official statistical reporting of enterprise. Such regular updates about the amount of CO2 emissions would indicate a commitment to a responsible attitude to the problems of global climate change and an awareness of the role of a “carbon footprint” in the occurrence of these problems.

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IEA – International Energy Agency. – http://www.iea.org BELLONA – The Bellona Foundation. – http://bellona.org 197 CARMA – Carbon Monitoring for Action. – http://www.carma.org 198 DTEK Holdings B.V. (DTEK Ltd.). – http://www.dtek.com 199 Scientific Engineering Centre “Biomass”. – http://biomass.kiev.ua 200 National Joint Stock Company “Energy Company of Ukraine”. – http://www.ecu.gov.ua 196

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Figure 1.6.1: GIS of stationary sources of CO2 emissions in the eastern regions of Ukraine 1.6.2. The Potential of CO2 Storage Reservoirs Pumping of CO2 in geological formations has more than thirty years of experience working to improve oil and gas recovery beds. In addition, in recent times numerous studies on the geological storage of CO2 are held in various countries. As a long-term storage of CO2 porous or fractured sedimentary rocks (collectors) is mainly considered, limited by the surrounding mountain environment and the earth's surface with low permeable or substantially impermeable rocks (confining or tires) 201 .

It should be noted that natural gas storage (including combustible ones) of natural genesis are reliable over hundreds of thousands or millions of years, leakage of these gases are negligible.

There are three main types of formations where geological storage of CO2 is possible: depleted oil and gas basins or are in the stage of depletion ones, deep-lying saline formations, and have no commercial coal seams.

There are three main types of formations where possible geological storage of CO2: depleted or are in the stage of depletion oil and gas basins, deep-lying saline formations, and have no commercial coal seams. Among other possible geological formations are also considered basalt and shale oil, but their potential is still insufficiently studied.

The success of the method of the geological storage of CO2 is confirmed by the results of experiments conducted at different times of the companies MRCSP, MGSC, SECARB, SWP,

201

Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Carbon capture and storage of carbon dioxide / Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary. - IPCC, 2005. – 58 pp. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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WESTCARB, Big Sky, PCOR (USA), as well as in projects Weyburn, Fenn Big Valley (Canada), Sleipner (Norway) , Yubari (Japan), Qinshui Basin (China), etc 202,203,204 .

Search and selection of geological structures and horizons that can serve as long-term storage of CO2 in oil and gas basins is based, as a rule, on the results of the previous searching and exploration works, and the determination of potential areas for CO2 storage requires additional research.

In Ukraine, there are large oil and gas provinces with large amounts of productive horizons.

One of the largest oil and gas regions - the Dnieper-Donets Basin is located within the boundaries of the two large structures - the Dnieper-Donets Valley (DDV) and the Donets Coal Basin (Donbass). Gas presence of Dnieper-Donets basin is closely related to the clastic sedimentary rocks of the Middle and Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian. The Methane gas content of Donbass is also associated with the coal-bearing Carboniferous strata.

The results of previous exploration works has shown that the geological conditions DDV and Donbass one of the most promising to gas-bearing areas are the areas with the stored hydrochemical sediments of Permian age. The important role of hydro-chemical deposits is their good insulating properties (alternating-tight oil and gas layers of rock salt, gypsum and anhydrite dense) 205 .

It is also important the location of hydrochemical sediments in the upper part of a large cycle of sedimentation which litho-facies composition is dominated by rocks with good reservoir properties. These factors combined with high power gas permeable sedimentary rocks have created favorable conditions for the free migration of hydrocarbons and their concentration under an impenetrable veil of hydro-chemical sediments. In the Donbas Lower Permian hydrochemical formations are developed in the north-western part within Bakhmutskaya and Kalmius Toretskoy-basins (Figure 1.6.2).

The structure and Bakhmutskaya Kalmius-Toretskoy basins contains three floors: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Mesozoic and Cenozoic structural floors are unpromising to the geological storage of CO2. This is due to their small capacity (typically less than 500 m) and the bedding in the upper part of the sedimentary cover without gas-tight tires. Paleozoic structural stage, which lies under the cover of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments is promising to explore of options for geological storage of CO2.

This is confirmed by its high potential gas content established by numerous researches and multidirectional exploration works. For example, the analysis of the geological structure and gas-bearing basins of the northern side of Bakhmutskaya, which was made in UkrNIIgaz, showed that Paleozoic is a potentially gas-bearing floor of the three structural floors (Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic) 206 .

202

Gunter W.D., Mavor M.J., Robinson J.R. CO2 Storage and Enhanced Methane Production: field testing at Fenn-Big Valley, Alberta, Canada. – http://uregina.ca 203 The Sleipner Project and Monitoring Experiences. – http://ns.energyresearch.ca 204 EA Weyburn CO2 Monitoring and Storage Project Weyburn, Saskatchewan, Canada. – http://www.netl.doe.gov 205 Goryayov S., Lakoba M., Pavlov S. Assessment of the prospects of new gas-bearing lithologic traps in the northern side of the valley Bakhmutskaya // Geologist of Ukraine, 2011, No. 2 (34). - P. 99-102. (in Russian) 206 Zhykalyak M. Undeveloped gas resources Donbass sandstones with low permeability // Geologist of Ukraine, 2011, No. 2 (34). - P. 103-107. (in Russian)

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Figure 1.6.2: Geological scheme of the pre-Mesozoic sediments of the north-western part of the Donets Basin (a) and geological cross-section along the line A-B to it (b), where: 1. Bakhmutskaya hollow 2. Kalmius-Torets hollow 3. Mesozoic sediments 4. Carboniferous coal-bearing sediments 5. Permian terrigene-carbonate sediments (suites P1kr â&#x20AC;&#x201C; P1nk)

6. Permian salt-bearing section (suites P1sl â&#x20AC;&#x201C; P1km) 7. Boundary of perspective plots 8. Faults 9. Marker of suite and his index

Paleozoic floor of Donbass consists of sediments of Permian, Carboniferous and Devonian systems. The Permian system is represented in the lower division of Asselian and Sakmarian stages. Carboniferous system is presented completely and is a continuous section mostly in coal-bearing strata. Devonian sediments overlie at large depths (typically more than 5 miles) and come to the surface in the form of a narrow strip on the south-western edge of the Donbass.

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According to lithological-facies characteristics stratigraphic units - formations are allocated in the Donbass. Some formations of Lower Permian age consist predominantly of hydrochemical gas-impermeable rocks. Formation of the upper and mid-Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) consist mainly of carbonaceous sedimentary clastic sediments (sandstones, siltstones, mudstones) with subordinate beds of limestone and coal. Formation of the Lower Permian, Pennsylvania with structurally clastic composition, overlie below the hydrochemical sediments.

There are the following formations: Kartamyshskaya (P1kr), Nikitovsky (P1nk), Slavic (P1sl) (Asselian tier) and Kramatorskaya (P1km) (Sakmarian stage) in the general section of the Lower Permian sediments of of Donbass. Among them P1sl and P1km are the salt-formations , which consist primarily of hydro-chemical sedimentary rocks - gypsum, anhydrite, and rock salt. The clay and carbonate rocks have the less importance.

Within the boundaries of the Bakhmutskaya basin salt-sediments reach their maximum capacity and are marked areal staunchness almost throughout its territory except uplifts, where salt-bearing sediments are absent. In the sections of Formation P1sl gypsum, anhydrite, and halite form numerous layers, which often alternate with each other, sometimes reaching a thickness of several tens of meters.

The most powerful layers of rock salt has a maximum power up to 40-50 m. The total capacity of Slavic Formation in the Bakhmutskaya basin is up to 500 meters. In contrast to Bakhmutskaya basin P1sl formation in Kalmius-Toretskoy Basin consists mainly of sand and clay deposits, which reduces its gas isolating capabilities.

Formation P1km has a limited distribution in the submerged part of the main synclinal structures in the north-western part of the Donbass within Bakhmutskaya and KalmiusToretskoy basins. hydro-chemical precipitation dominated as part of Formation P1km , which make up 92% of the section, including rock salt is 80-85%. Maximum capacity is observed in Bakhmutskaya Basin and up to 400-530 m. The total capacity of hydro-chemical sediments in Bakhmutskaya basin reaches up to 1000 m.

There is a thickness of the mixed composition between P1sl, which is dominated by saltbearing sediments and P1kr, consisting mainly of clastic sediments. This sequence is allocated to a separate formation - P1nk. As a part of the upper and mid-carbon formations clastic sedimentary rocks predominate, which are sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. These rocks are characterized by generally good reservoir properties, and some horizons have industrial gas content.

Sandstones have the best filtration-capacity parameters of the Paleozoic rocks of Donbass.

Some formations of the upper and middle carbon contain a part of the powerful sandstone horizons that make up a significant part of the total. These formations are: C33, C32, C2-31 (Gzhel and Kasimovian Stage), C27, C26, C25 (Moscow tier), С24 (Bashkirian).

The formations С24, С25, С26 and С32 (30-47% cut) have the largest share in the overall composition of the sandstones, others sandstones share of middle and upper carbon is 2030%. For comparison, sandstones shares are only 16-20% in the suites С21 and С22 (Bashkirian). Typically, the sandstones are presented in the context of thin layers and layers whose capacity reaches up to 35-60 m (rarely - up to 100 m).

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Almost across the Donets Basin increased gas content is marked in the bottom of the sandstone 207 formations С31, С25 and the top of the formations С27 and С24, sometimes С26.

The results of analysis the possible areas of geological storage of CO2 have been merged into a single GIS of storage of CO2 (Figure 1.6.3), which is available on the project website and showing: Devonian salt stocks, Permian salt-bearing sediments, Carboniferous coal-bearing deposits; Devonian boundary saline aquifers horizons, the border of the Paleozoic sediments, the Dnieper-Donets gas-and oil-bearing basin and the Donetsk coal basin, as well as the location of the main sources of CO2 - energy enterprises and steel sectors.

Position 8 in Figure 1.6.3 shows the location of exploratory wells, where samples were taken to determine the porosity of the rocks by X-ray Computed Micro-Tomography at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble (France). The scan results were processed using software Avizo Fire and presented in detail in the next section of this report.

Figure 1.6.3: GIS of possible sites of geological storage of CO2 in eastern Ukraine, where: 1. Donets coal Basin 2. Dnieper-Donets gas-oil basin 3. Southern border of diffusion of paleozoic sedimentary deposits 4. Permian salt-bearing section 5. Carboniferous coal-bearing sediments

6. Devonian saline aquifers 7. Devonian salt rods 8. Biliaivka, Kharkiv obl.

9. Power Plants 10. Iron & Steel Works

207

Shkuro L.L., Gorbachev G.N. Evaluation gas-bearing sandstones in mines, based on indicators of porosity and humidity // Geotechnical Mechanics, 2010, No. 88. - P. 118-123. (in Russian)

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1.6.3. The Criteria of the Process of CO2 Storage The important point in the assessment of options for geological storage of CO2 in any pool is to determine the quantitative values of the criteria for the storage process. These criteria are: 1.1. The reservoir and gas capacity parameters of rocks; 1.2. Permeability of gas isolation tire; 1.3. The maximum and minimum depth of CO2 storage.

Consider these criteria in more detail.

1.1. The main parameters of reservoir and gas capacity properties of sandstones are open porosity, the degree of pore filling gas, moisture permeability. Open porosity characterizes the capacity of sandstone that is available to fluids and does not reflect the nature of the fluid. We can say that the open porosity alone can only be used in the theoretical ideal cases, when the pore space rocks are filled with water and gas. In reality, numerous other factors affect to the sandstone reservoir properties. For example, methane gas-bearing sandstone is strongly dependent on their moisture (water content) 208 . Average values of open porosity of Donbass sandstones in different areas vary in the range of 2-10%, depending on the size of the rockforming grains, their degree of roundness, katagenesis stage, the degree of compaction. The results of research on some Donbass mines show that the sandstones with humidity of less than 2% and the open porosity in the range 7-11% have the degree of pore filling gas above 50% (industrial methane gas content). The open porosity of the of sandstones of the Upper Carboniferous in the side parts and Bakhmutskaya Kalmius-Toretskaya basins ranges from 10-13% to 20-22% 209 . It should be noted that the reservoir properties of sandstones and other clastic rocks of Donbass regarding carbon dioxide are still unexplored. It is unknown how CO2 reservoir properties of sandstones will depend on the above parameters. To estimate the CO2 capacity potentials Donbass of sandstones it is necessary to set the experimental studies.

1.2. The permeability of the tire is determined not only by the physical properties of the constituent species, but also by its integrity. In case of breach of formation by geological faults their gas isolating properties are significantly reduced.

1.3. The minimum depth of storage of CO2 is determined by pressure and temperature at which the CO2 enters the liquid phase and is about 800 m. The density of CO2 under these conditions will be in the range 50-80% of the density of water, comparable to the density of certain types of crude oil 210 . This limitation specifies the minimum depth of the reservoir horizons and should be used to determine potential areas for CO2 storage with the other criteria.

However, it should be noted that this value was obtained in pools with different geological conditions, and the Donetsk Basin depth may be different. with comparable thermo-baric parameters The maximum depth of the reservoir is determined by economic profitability and technological possibilities.

208

Baranov V.A. Effect of structure on the porosity of the sandstones of Donbass // Geotechnical Mechanics, 2010, No. 88. - P. 70-76. (in Russian) for Policymakers and Technical Summary. - IPCC, 2005. – 58 pp. (in Russian) 209 Shkuro L.L., Gorbachev G.N. Evaluation gas-bearing sandstones in mines, based on indicators of porosity and humidity // Geotechnical Mechanics, 2010, No. 88. - P. 118-123. (in Russian) 210 Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Carbon capture and storage of carbon dioxide / Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary. - IPCC, 2005. – 58 pp. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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1.6.4. The Options of Process of Pressurization and Storage CO2 Among the possible versions of implementation of the pressurization process and subsequent storage of CO2 in the Donbass there are offered: 2.1. The pressurization of CO2 in the gas-bearing horizons, having properties of collectors.

2.2. The pressurization of CO2 in the undeveloped coal beds and enclosing coal-bearing rocks for enhanced recovery of coal bed methane (ERM).

2.3. The pressurization of CO2 into exhaust oil-and-gas collectors.

Consider each of these options in more detail.

2.1. In the sedimentation mass of upper Paleozoic of Donbass, there are known horizons having good reservoir properties, but do not have any gas content. These horizons may theoretically be used as collectors CO2.

2.2. Currently it is assumed that the rocks have industrial gas content with the degree of pore filling gas for more than 50%. The extraction of gas from reservoirs with lower gas content is economically disadvantageous; however, this estimate could change in the future at occurrence of new technologies. One of these technologies is to enhance the recovery of methane (ERM) by its displacement from coals and enclosing rock by means of injected compressed CO2 through wells 211 .

In this case, two important problems are solved: increased production rate of natural methane gas and CO2 utilization. In the case of the economic viability of the process, non-industrial gas developer (with a degree of pore filling gas of less than 50%) may be quoted as a deposit.

The lower limit for the gas content of these fields will be determined by the profitability of their development with application of ERM. In the conditions of Donbass, potential areas for learning opportunities of ERM are the West and South Donbass and Krasnoarmeisky coalbearing area within their boundaries, where there is no mining. When developing gas deposits of coal basins, their exhaustion and abandonment are also inevitably over time. In this case the proportion of gas remaining in the reservoir can be sufficiently large. Increased production rate of methane depleted horizons using ERM can extend the term of their operation and increase gas recovery.

2.3. Completely exhaust horizons are often used as temporary repositories of natural gas.

These vaults can be used for long-term storage of CO2. Taking into account that the development of methane from coal mines of Donbass is at the initial stage, the implementation of this option will be available in the future at a high level of methane mining industry in the region.

Options 2.1 and 2.2 are relevant at the moment especially given the fact that in the Donbass, there are known horizons of sandstones with significant gas reserves, which are nonindustrial, as well as sandstones and siltstones that do not have a high methane gas content.

According to the latest data, the total gas-bearing potential of the only one Bakhmutskaya closed depression can reach up to 200 billion m3 of natural gas, in connection with which ERM is one of the most promising directions of geological storage of CO2 in the outlying parts of the Donbass.

211

Zhykalyak M. Undeveloped gas resources of low permeability sandstones of Donbas // Ukrainian Geologist, 2011, No. 2(34). – P. 103-107. (in Russian)

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1.6.5. Recommendations on the Allocation of Plots of CO2 Storage We propose the following sequence of actions in the allocation of promising areas of longterm distribution of geological CO2 storage sites on the territory of eastern Ukraine: 3.1. Allocation of space, in the context of which there are rocks - collectors (sandstones and siltstones), at depths of 800 m or more, covered with thick layer of insulating rocks.

3.2. The construction of the lithological column with the release of promising horizons collectors.

3.3. Construct maps of surface of the selected horizons. Outlining areas horizons occurring below a depth of 800 m 3.4. Placed on the map the contours of mine fields, the areas of deposits, underground mining, exploration and development wells and all of the existing structural elements (faulting, salt stocks, intrusive bodies, etc.).

3.5. Analysis of the data, delineating prospective areas.

Operation proceeds to the step, which includes analytical studies of reservoir properties of each layer at different depths, mineralogical and petrographic analyzes of rocks that form the horizon, the study of hydrodynamic, hydro-geological and structural-tectonic features of the entire thickness to the depth of the proposed store. Based on these data it can be counted collector capacitance.

Only after the full complex of studies will be carried out, the conclusions about the suitability of the selected horizons for long term storage of CO2 will be made, and the most importantly â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the conclusion of the environmental services of process safety injection and storage of CO2 to the environment and people, it will be possible to proceed to the stage of preparation of experimental studies.

Based on the results of foreign geological storage of CO2 and features of the geological structure of the Donets Basin Districts (Novomoskovskiy, Petrikovskii, Lozovskaya, Starobelsky and North-western outskirts of the Donbass) are proposed for further study of their potential geological storage of CO2.

From the standpoint of geological and industrial regionalization of Donbass they can be divided into two large groups: 1. The north-western outskirts of the Donbass (Bakhmutskaya and KalmiusToretskaya closed depression and the the adjacent areas).

2. Coal-bearing areas with no industrial development (Starobelskiy, Lozovskaya, Petrikovskii, Novomoskovskiy).

In the territories of these areas developed suite of the Middle-Upper Carboniferous, containing in its composition powerful horizons of sandstones and siltstones. Within the Northwest suburbs of Donbass within Bakhmutskaya and Kalmius-Toretskaya-basins is a powerful insulating cover of the Lower Permian salt-bearing deposits. According to the data of drilling and geophysical studies, a powerful coal-bearing clastic strata of the upper - middle carbon, which lies directly below the gas-impermeable rocks and contains layers of rocks with good reservoir properties, in some cases - the methane gas content, and the seams of coal. An important aspect is also the fact that the coal seams are not developed in the territories and Bakhmutskaya Kalmius-Toretskaya basins due to high power covering the Permian and Mesozoic-Cenozoic sediments. In the south-eastern part of the basin Bakhmutskaya rock salt Slavic developing a suite of underground mining.

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In the Donets Basin, including Bakhmutskaya and Kalmius-Toretskaya closed depressions, there are sites, complicated by numerous tectonic disturbances that disrupt the integrity of the rock mass and the gas-tight tires, creating the possibility of migration of liquid and gaseous substances to the surface of the earth. In addition to faulting in the north-western part of the basin Bakhmutskaya salt-dome structures Devonian developed which break through the overlying Paleozoic and Mesozoic, and in combination with tectonic disturbances are also areas of migration of liquid and gaseous substances to the surface of the earth.

In this regard, further quantitative assessment of options for geological storage of CO2 in the Donbass should be given a thorough analysis of their structural-tectonic structure.

Figure 1.6.4: Geographic location scheme of clusters of sources of CO2 emissions, possible sites for the geological storage of supercritical CO2 and the approximate direction of transport of CO2 from emission sources to the geological storage tanks.

Summarizing the results of these preliminary studies, which are based on open source information, the geographical location scheme of clusters of sources of CO2 emissions, possible sites for the geological storage of supercritical CO2 and the approximate direction of transport of CO2 from emission sources to storage tanks (Figure 1.6.4) was built, where conventional sources of CO2 clusters are marked with yellow hatched ovals, from which the blue arrows indicate the approximate direction of transport of CO2 to the alleged sites of storage - brown dash-dotted ovals.

Also, black squares show the location of existing coal mines near which fundamentally cannot be placed reservoirs for CO2 storage.

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1.6.6. Recommendations for Future Work on the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies The following list of priority tasks that need to be addressed to ensure the possibilities of implementing of technologies of capture and geological storage of CO2 in the Donbass was made on the basis of the above material: 1. Determination of the actual volumes CO2 emission from energy and industrial enterprises located in the eastern regions of Ukraine.

2. Estimation of prospects of the modernization of enterprises with large volumes of CO2 emissions in order to provide opportunities for CO2 capture at the technological processes.

3. Estimation of quantities of the captured CO2 for the subsequent compressing and transportation to the sites of long-term storage.

4. Determination of quantitative criteria values of the process of geological storage of CO2 with the geological and hydrogeological conditions of the geological regions of Donbass and its suburbs.

5. Identification of the most prospective areas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; potential sites for injection and long-term (permanent) storage of CO2.

6. Performing of geochemical, structural-tectonic and hydrogeological assays of promising areas to determine the quantitative values of reservoir parameters of sedimentary rocks and allocation of gas traps â&#x20AC;&#x201C; potential CO2 reservoirs.

7. Analysis and summary of the obtained results, the allocation of the effective reservoir horizons within the prospective sites and counting of their capacitive CO2 potential by determining the porosity of the rocks selected for storage.

8. Selection of the ways of CO2 transportation from capture sites to the sites of geological storage, including population density on the route of the pipeline, as well as other technical, economic and social factors.

9. Performing of forecasting researches of all possibilities of leaks paths and migration of CO2 in the process of capture, compressing, transportation, injection and storage. Risk assessment of such leakage and migration of CO2.

10. Selection and testing of analytical monitoring techniques of CO2 leakage and migration, as well as the study of the response of endemic plants to increase the concentration of CO2 in the soil and in the surface layer of the atmosphere.

11. Informing and raising awareness of local authorities and the population living in the areas that will be involved in the processes of capture, transport and storage of CO2.

12. Preparation of legislative and regulatory framework for legal groundwork of implementation processes of technologies of capture and storage carbon dioxide in the territory of Ukraine.

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CONCLUSION ON PART I The study performed the national and regional context of the implementation issues CCT and CCS technologies in the industrial regions of Ukraine indicates the number of tasks to be performed for the implementation of these processes. First of all it concerns the political decisions to be taken to run these processes. You need to prepare and adopt an appropriate legal basis for the introduction of incentives (incentives and punitive) to activate these processes.

The following steps will be of a technical nature: the need to assess the scientific and technical feasibility of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukrainian enterprises in almost complete deterioration of the equipment. Need to develop a mutually beneficial scheme of transfer of low-carbon technologies that would allow the use of modern science and technology to upgrade equipment in the power industry and other industries, which are major emitters of CO2.

Having defined the technical issues and the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies can already perform assessment of the financial costs of the process of implementation, taking into account existing schemes â&#x20AC;&#x153;carbonâ&#x20AC;? financing: joint implementation projects, green investment scheme, etc. This approach would provide the possibility of financing the process of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies within existing quotas on Ukrainian amounts of CO2 emissions.

The project stakeholders are defined, which can have both tangible benefits of the CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine and social effect of mitigating the effects of climate change, which can be predicted in the near future. The social impact of the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies are very important for the processes of a particular implementation of pilot and industrial projects in this area.

Without public support in the modern world it is impossible to carry out the process of implementing technologies that do not generate significant economic benefits on either a national or regional levels. And the only global effect will be observed in the case of the widespread implementation of technologies to combat climate change.

Analysis of the Ukrainian context of the process of implementation of CCT and CCS technology shows promise for Ukraine's participation in global processes to counter the trend of climate change with its subsequent stabilization.

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PART II. EVALUATION: CAPACITY GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) To develop recommendations for the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies in the eastern regions of Ukraine, which are summarized in section 1.6 of this Report, database (DB) and geographic information systems (GIS) of a source of CO2 emissions, as well as potential sites of geological storage of CO2, which were created by the project, have been used. These databases and GIS have been developed with a focus on their wide use of non-professional users of the Internet to raise awareness of different target groups of the project with the possibilities and prospects of implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in Ukraine.

Therefore, DB and GIS, which are posted on the website of the project, have a simple interface of access and control, and also contain a limited amount of information about the target objects of the project. Complete information about these objects is stored on a stationary workstation of the project, which is accessible only for members of the project.

Some of the information about the target objects of the project has been used in scientific publications of the project participants, and will be used in the preparation of a monograph on the results of the project.

In addition to these planned research and development within the framework number of works was made, that are relevant to the main direction of the project: the study of lowcarbon options for the industrial regions of Ukraine.

In particular, the test estimate of the density of geological rocks was performed on the potential CO2 storage site by X-ray computed tomography at the European synchrotron radiation source followed by the scanning results of rock samples using the appropriate software. Also possibilities to use native plants for biomonitoring of possible leaks of CO2 storage were evaluated.

The possibilities of use of geophysical methods to optimize the placement of underground storage of CO2 in industrial regions of Ukraine and the monitoring of their condition during operation were assessed. Also one of the possible alternative solutions of utilization of CO2, which greatly prolongs the retention time (up to millions of years), was regarded. Such a solution is chemically binding of CO2 to stable compounds in terrestrial space, known nature minerals and their subsequent storage. It is proposed to use as a starting component hexahydrate magnesium chloride, which is known in nature as the mineral Bishofit widespread in Ukraine.

The analysis of the various ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions: carbon capture and geological storage of CO2, the widespread use of biomass for energy, the use of cogeneration, the formation of secondary ecosystems on the lands, that were changed as a result of human impact, modernization of equipment of Steel production in the direction of reducing emissions of CO2 and other pollutants, heat storage and use of heat pumps was made. The use of pulsed high-speed liquid jets extinguish gas flares, so it was an experimental study carried out this possibility. Application of this method extinguishing fires will significantly reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. A device for capturing of pollutants and carbon dioxide directly from the air on the street corners, where a significant amount of pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions from the exhaust of automobiles is accumulating, which are able to form a strong influence on the health of the population and makes a significant contribution to global climate change is proposed.

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2.1. TARGET for INTRODUCTION of TECHNOLOGY CCT and CCS Selection of companies, which ones are expedient to introduce technologies CCT and CCS, is made based on the volume of CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases and hazardous substances emitted into the atmosphere in the production process.

The website of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine 212 placed Ecological passport regions, which presents information about companies - major air pollutants. A list of these companies is given in section 1.5.4 of this Report. Detailed information about these companies is taken from the pages of their official websites, annual reports and other public sources.

2.1.1. Creating a Database Target To create an interactive map of enterprises product of Google Maps API 3 213 was used. An example of it is shown in Figure 2.1.1 and which location and characteristics of the object are specified directly in the HTML-code of the web page, as well as a visual marker for the image of the object on the map. Cent card and its size specified prior to the initial list of objects.

Figure 2.1.1: Example of HTML-code of the interactive site map.

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Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine. - http://www.menr.gov.ua Google Maps Javascript API Version 3. - https://developers.google.com/maps/documentation/javascript/

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The result of such an insert is reflected map of relevant sources of CO2 emissions and all sources together on the web site of the project. It is possible to increase or decrease the size of the cards and get information about the name of the object and the amount of CO2 emissions in the case of moving the cursor to the appropriate marker.

Using this method of creating 6 maps by industries (Figures 2.1.2-6) were created and posted on the project website free, which include businesses, as well as an integrated map of all sources of CO2 emissions in the eastern regions of Ukraine (see Figure 1.6.1).

The advantage of this direct programming of GIS is the security of information from interference by third persons and a lack - the complexity of adding or editing of information about the objects because it is necessary to make changes directly to the source code of the web page.

Figure 2.1.2: Interactive map on the project website for Coal thermal power Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Interactive map of gas thermal power plants yet having only one Kharkiv CHP-5, which is the largest cogeneration plant for the production of heat and electricity and is located in the eastern regions of Ukraine. This map will be supplemented with information about the following CHP: “Dnіprodzerzhinska Teploelektrotsentral”; Krivorіzka CHP, CHP Mine Zasjad'ko; CHP “Stirol”; Kramatorska CHP, CHP “Zaporіzhstal”"; Lisichanskaya CHP; Severodonetsk CHP and Harkіvska CHP-2 “Eskhar”.

Most of the iron and steel enterprises, located in the eastern regions of Ukraine is not represented in foreign databases, requiring the addition of an appropriate database with parameters and the information first of all, information on the volume of CO2 emissions and the possibilities of upgrading through the participation of these companies in joint implementation projects under implementation of provisions of the Kyoto Protocol.

Figure 2.1.3: Interactive map on the project website for metallurgical enterprises Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Coke plants are not mentioned in foreign sources of information for the amount of CO2 emissions in Ukraine, although according to official statistics 214 enterprises producing coke other chemicals took the third place in Ukraine in terms of CO2 emissions from stationary sources. So separate cards for coke plants (Figure 2.1.4), cement production (Figure 2.1.5) and the chemical industry, including refineries (Figure 2.1.6) were set up, which will be filled with more information in the next phase of the project.

Figure 2.1.4: Interactive map on the project website for coke plants

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Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine for 2010 / Edited by O.G. Osaulenko. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2011. - 560 pp. (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.1.5: Interactive map on the project website for cement plants

Figure 2.1.6: Interactive map on the project website for the chemical industry, including oil refining Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.1.7: GIS sources of CO2 emissions are built on the Google Maps

Figure 2.1.8: View Object on Google Maps in satellite mode with photos Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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To provide more informative GIS service Google Maps 215 , was used which provides accommodation for text and graphic information on the pop-up panel when you mouse over the marker object (Figure 2.1.7), and consider the object from the satellite and favorite photographs (Figure 2.1.8).

The advantage of this method is the simplicity of GIS in the creation and filling of information content, as well as a simple user interface, which is understandable for any layman. But there is a major drawback of service Google Maps: creating a GIS with a lot of elements are automatically partition information on pages that are impossible to see it all together.

This lack of system is devoid in Google earth 216 , which allows you to place on produced the map an unlimited number of items that has been used in the subsequent development of interactive maps with the simultaneous presentation of sources of CO2 emissions and the potential CO2 storage sites for subsequent determination of CO2 transport routes (see Figure 1.6.4).

Such a map (Figure 2.1.9) provides information on the sources of CO2, the diameter of the circles of different colors (if there is a black dot in the disk, then there is no information on the amount of CO2 emissions) corresponds to the annual CO2 emissions from the enterprise, and the color indicates the industry activity 217, 218 , 219 : - Dark blue - coal power plants; - Blue - gas thermal power plants; - Red - metallurgical production; - Purple - coke production; - Yellow - cement production; - Golden - chemical production; - Black squares - the coal mines; - Green spaces - Carboniferous coal-bearing sediments; - Orange sections - Permian salt-bearing section; - Brown patches - Devonian salt rods; - Blue line - Devonian saline aquifers; - Red line - Southern border of diffusion of paleozoic sedimentary deposits; - Yellow line - the administrative border of Ukraine; - White line - the administrative boundaries of the regions of Ukraine.

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Google maps. – http://maps.google.com Google Earth. – http://earth.google.com 217 Shestavin M.S., Leynet A.P. / New Ukraine-French Project “Low-Carbon Opportunities for Industrial Regions of Ukraine” (LCOIR-UA) // Proceedings of the International Conference on Carbon Reduction Technologies - CaReTECH2011 (Poland, Polish Jurassic Highland, September 19-22, 2011) – Gliwice: Silesian University of Technology, 2011. – P. 167-168.

218 Shestavin M.S., Bezkrovna M.V., Osetrov V.V., Yurchenko V.V. / Preliminary Assessment of the Potential CO2 Sources and Sinks of the Eastern Ukraine // Proceedings in Advanced Research in Scientific Areas (ARSA 2012) – The 1st Virtual International Conference (Slovak Republic, Zilina, December 3-7, 2012.). – Zilina: University of Zilina, 2012. – P. 1374-1380.

219 Bespalova S.V., Shestavin N.S. / Assessment of the Opportunities Implementation of Low-Carbon Open Innovation in the Industrial Regions of Ukraine // Problems of Ecology and Environmental Protection in the Region of Anthropogenic: Collection of Scientific Papers – Donetsk: Donetsk National University Publishing, 2012. – No. 1 (12). – P. 10-25. (in Russian) 216

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Figure 2.1.9: GIS of sources and storage of CO2 in the service Google earth

2.1.2. Populating the Database To populate the DB and GIS with the sources of CO2 emissions information are based, which was obtained in 2011 from the IEA 220 in the format of MS Excel, as well as the visual realization of this information in the form of interactive maps on the website BELLONA 221 (see Figures 2.1.10-11).

Global DB and GIS sources of CO2 emissions is a website CARMA - Carbon Monitoring for Action 222 . CARMA is produced and financed by the Confronting Climate Change Initiative at the Center for Global Development, an independent and non-partisan think tank located in Washington, DC, USA. This DB (for more detailed information than is shown in Figure 2.1.12 may be freely downloaded as a file in the format of MS Excel) contains information on 166 sources of CO2 emissions, including 28 Power Plants.

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IEA – International Energy Agency. – http://www.iea.org BELLONA – The Bellona Foundation. – http://bellona.org 222 CARMA – Carbon Monitoring for Action. – http://www.carma.org 221

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Figure 2.1.10: BELLONA Map of sources of CO2 emissions in Ukraine

CO2 emission in Mt/year

Figure 2.1.11: BELLONA Map of CO2 sources in the eastern regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.1.12: CARMA map and the table of the major emitters of CO2 in Ukraine Thus it is necessary to have that many Ukrainian sites listed on these two websites (BELLONA and CARMA) have inaccuracies in the names of the objects and the coordinates of their geographical location.

For example: 3 Krivoy Rog enterprises (Metallurgical Plant, a Coal Power Plant and a Cement Factory) on the BELLONA map caught in Cherkasy region, and on the CARMA map and table Zmiivskaya Thermal Power Plant, too, was in the Cherkasy region.

Ukrainian DB and GIS information have more accurate location of objects which was also used to populate the database and GIS for this project. So from the database on the website of DTEK 223 (Figure 2.1.13) information about the coal-fired thermal power plants and coal mines was derived.

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DTEK Holdings B.V. (DTEK Ltd.). – http://www.dtek.com Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.1.13: DTEK map of power plants and coal mines Information about the heat characteristics power plants and heating plants was used from a map of the BIOMASS 224 , they are designed to produce heat and electricity. The information about distribution companies, nuclear power plants, hydroelectric and pumped storage power plants is not taken into account. This database of objects is filled with photographs and information about working in the 2012 power units, their capacities, etc.

To populate the DB and GIS project data from the Catalogue of Ukrainian Enterprises 225 and directly from the pages of the websites of these companies also used. However, in general, these Ukrainian resource information on production volumes of CO2 emissions is not from individual enterprises. The official statistics has annual volumes of CO2 emissions by sector of activity by regions and throughout Ukraine.

Therefore, to fill positions on the annual volume of CO2 emissions in the DB and GIS we have yet to use information from foreign sources, and in the future we hope to get this information directly from the companies as the disclosure of “carbon footprint” of the enterprise after the call to the management company.

224 225

Scientific Engineering Centre “Biomass”. – http://biomass.kiev.ua Catalogue of leading enterprises of Ukraine. – http://www.rada.com.ua

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2.2. CO2 GEOLOGICAL STORAGE The issue of geological storage of CO2 in the Donbass arises in connection with the large volumes of CO2 emissions by the enterprises that are located in the Donbass that is in the target regions of the project: Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk, Zaporozhye, Lugansk and Kharkiv regions. At present, on the basis of previously collected and published in the press geological material it is possible only to assess the possibility of CO2 storage in geological formations of Donbass, without specifying the possible amount of the injected CO2. Since the geological information that is now available, was obtained in the process of exploration and development of mineral deposits: metals, coal, oil, gas, etc., and information about sedimentary rocks and other horizons, where perhaps it will be possible to store CO2, was a by-product and is rarely reflected in full.

Therefore, geological maps, which are the results of the project, is for information only and can only serve as a benchmark for further targeted geological studies to determine the potential of the eastern Ukrainian regions as potential sites suitable for geological storage of CO2.

Now the main source of information on geological formations suitable for long-term storage of CO2 is an initiative website content on paleontology and stratigraphy of Donbass DONPALEO 226 , which was created in the project by our participant Osetrov V.V. as a personal Internet site. This site is devoted to the study of extinct (disappeared) worlds of the geological past located on the territory of modern Donbass millions of years ago, to the searches and study of fossil animals and plants, paleogeographic reconstructions, and lots more.

Numerous scientific literatures from different years were used to create the site. The stratigraphic description of all locations and sections were aligned with the latest data, place names were specified, and the binding locations were adjusted.

Many cuts and outcrops are illustrated by drawings, diagrams and photographs are provided with a detailed description of the geological and paleontological characteristics. Geological maps of the designated locations with fossil floras and faunas are also presented on the site.

Donetsk coal basin covering the territory of Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk and Luhansk Ukrainian regions and the Rostov region of the Russian Federation, located on the territory of Donbass.

The deposits of the Carboniferous system, representing the thickness of the many kilometers of rock, which was deposited almost continuously during the Carboniferous, form the core of the Donetsk coal basin. In addition to the numerous representative Carboniferous outcrops with diverse oryctocoenosis, on the territory of Donbass paleontological characterized deposits of Devonian and Permian systems are presented. Phanerozoic ancient Devonian sediments in the Donbass were not found. The Mesozoic is represented in the Donbass by sediments, developed mainly in the northern and north-western outskirts of the pool. Triassic and Jurassic sediments contain flora, which are one of the most representative in the East European platform. Marine sediments of Jurassic and Cretaceous are rich in numerous faunal complexes. Cenozoic is represented by the variety of marine and continental deposits, as well as by the rich fossil flora and fauna.

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2.2.1. Creating a GIS CO2 Storage For creating of geological maps for the project, services, Google maps and Google earth, which incorporate information on relevant geological formations to view it through the web site of the project, were used. The first step was to explore all available geological schemes and sections of Donbass (such as shown in Figures 1.2.25-30, 1.6.2 and 2.2.1).

a)

b)

Figure 2.2.1: Geological scheme (a) and section (b) of Donbass (Ukrainian part)

Izopis surface pre-Riphean foundation in km

Figure 2.2.2: Estimation of the capacity of Paleozoic sedimentary deposits of Donbass

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In particular, in Figure 2.2.1a deposits corresponding to the specific geological periods in the history of the Earth are shown by different colors, as in Figure 2.2.1b Paleozoic structural stage is contoured red dotted line.

Capacity of Paleozoic sediments reaches up to 20 km in the Donbas and DDB. In Figure 2.2.2 the area with a capacity of the sedimentary cover more than 1 km is contoured by red line.

A more detailed scheme of the Paleozoic structural stage without the cover body of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks (Figure 2.2.3) was used for these estimates. The most potential for CO2 storage are the Permian saliferous and the carbonous (carbon) coal-bearing sediments.

Permial sediments Coal sediments Devonian sediments

Figure 2.2.3: The Paleozoic structural stage of Donbass

Figure 2.2.4: Diagram of geological and industrial zoning of the Donets Basin.

The locations of coal mines are shown by squares, promising areas are marked with numbers: 1 – Novomoskovskiy, 2 – Petrikovsky, 3 – Lozovskoy,

4 – Starobelsky, 5 – The north-western outskirts of the Donbass.

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Analysis of the characteristics of the geological structure of the Donetsk coal basin and the eastern part of the Dnieper-Donets basin was conducted from the position of options for geological storage of CO2, potential sites for further study of their reservoir properties for long-term storage of CO2 were determined.

From the standpoint of geological and industrial zoning Donbass they can be divided into two groups (Figure 2.2.4) 227 : 1. The north-western outskirts of the Donbass (Bakhmutskaya and the KalmiusToretskaya Basin and areas, adjacent to them).

2. Coal-bearing areas with no industrial development (Starobelsky, Lozovskoy, Petrikovsky, Novomoskovskiy).

2.2.2. Determination of CO2 Storage Using the above resources section 2.2.1, and the resources section 1.2.6 of this report, and the services of Google maps and Google earth, databases (DB) and geographic information systems (GIS), in which the possible future areas of geological storage of CO2 in the eastern regions of Ukraine (Figure 2.2.5 ) are represented; were created 228,229 : - Permian salt-bearing section; - Carboniferous coal-bearing sediments; - Devonian saline aquifers.

Areas with localization of Devonian salt rods, near which fundamentally cannot be stored CO2 due to the high probability of leakage of CO2 through existing cracks and fissures are also shown on this map. GIS allows to increase the size of the map (Figure 2.2.5), to allocate its parts (Figure 2.2.6), and to supplement it with new data about the geological formations where there are prospects for geological storage of CO2.

On this map, you can turn on and off all the layers and elements that are included in this GIS: - Permian salt-bearing section; - Carboniferous coal-bearing sediments; - Devonian saline aquifers; - Devonian salt rods; - Border of diffusion of Paleozoic sedimentary deposits.

It is planned to supplement the map layers bischofite salts in which the CO2 carbonation process can be carried out rapidly, which will connect with the exception of CO2 possibilities of diversion.

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Zhykalyak N.V., Osetrov V.V., Shestavin N.S. / Opportunities for CO2 Storage in the Paleozoic Sediments of the Donbass // Proceedings of the Institute of Geological Sciences at the National Academy Sciences of Ukraine, 2012. – No. 5. – P. 53-61. (in Russian) 228 Bespalova S.V., Zhykalyak N.V., Osetrov V.V., Shestavin N.S. / Assessment of CO2 Capture and Storage in the Paleozoic Sediments of Donbass // Modern Problems of Lithology of Sedimentary Basins of Ukraine and Adjacent Territories: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference (Ukraine, Kiev, October 8-13, 2012) – Kiev: Institute of Geological Sciences at the National Academy Science of Ukraine, 2012. - P. 18. (in Russian) 229 Bespalova S.V., Zhykalyak N.V., Osetrov V.V., Shestavin N.S. / Carbon Capture and Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide as the Outlook for the Energy Sector of Ukraine // Modern Science: Research, Ideas, Results, and Technology. Collection of Research Papers. – Kiev: “SPIC “Triakon”, 2012. – No. 3 (11). – P. 107-113. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.2.6: GIS of the prospective potential CO2 storage sites, enlarged to the size of the computer screen

Figure 2.2.6: GIS of the prospective potential CO2 storage sites with selected sites Devonian saline aquifers and Devonian salt rods Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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2.2.3. Identification of Possible Ways of the CO2 Transportation In the course of a joint analysis of the locations of CO2 sources and the potential CO2 storage sites, several options that are based on straight lines connecting the sources and the alleged storage of CO2 (Figure 2.2.7) were considered 230 .

More specific options are presented in Figure 1.6.4, where the location of clusters of stationary sources of CO2 emissions, possible sites for the geological storage of supercritical CO2 and the approximate transport direction of CO2 from emission sources to the geological storage reservoirs, were described.

Figure 2.2.7: Possible options for transportation of CO2 from stationary emissions sources to areas of geological storage In the next step of project implementation, the transportation routes will be more fleshed out, taking into account the density of the population living on the route of transportation, as well as the existing pipeline infrastructure.

In addition to these planned research and development in the course of the project we carried out additional research and development, necessity of which has arisen in the course of the project. Information about the results of the above-plan activities are provided in the following sections.

230

Web-site of the project LCOIR-UA – http://www.lcoir-ua.eu

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2.3. EVALUATION of POTENTIAL SITES for CO2 STORAGE As shown in the previous parts of this Report in the eastern regions of Ukraine are both major sources of CO2 emissions, as well as possible areas of long-term storage of CO2 in sedimentary rocks. Also based on the location of possible sources and destinations defined storage CO2 transport. The main task of further research - is to specify a number of options looking for further, more thorough exploration of possibilities of capture, transport and geological storage of CO2, taking into account the actual conditions of these options. Also need to consider other options for reducing CO2 emissions in the various sectors of the Ukrainian economy.

2.3.1. Range Case Studies Multiple selection of the implementation CCT and CCS technologies in the eastern regions of Ukraine are now performed on the basis of valuation of works on installation of the necessary equipment and its intended use, taking into account the specific conditions of Ukrainian. This takes into account depreciation of existing equipment for thermal power plants, forcing a comparison of the cost of the modernization of the equipment of the old plants and the construction of a new one.

Transportation issues are also considered from the standpoint of the use of existing pipeline systems or building new systems. Implementation of geological storage of CO2 may be carried out only through new wells and the cost of making a significant contribution to the overall cost of implementing CCS. All of these works are in the phase of active implementation and results will be available only at the time of completion of the project.

2.3.2. Classification Based on the Geology, the Socio-Economic and Environmental Problems of Risk Now considered several options for implementation CCT and CCS technologies in the eastern regions of Ukraine, taking into account the different risks to the population of these regions, the environment (including the geological environment) and for the regional economy. These works will be completed in the final stage of the project.

Assessment of the degree of risk is made taking into account the international experience implementing CCT and CCS technologies on a scale pilot projects, as well as several operational projects. Ukrainian specificity is taken into account on the basis of introduction of other technologies like the sense of CCT and CCS technologies.

2.3.3. Recommendations for Actual CCS Based on the results of all these studies on completion of the project will provide recommendations for the implementation of one or two choices of real implementation of CCS in the eastern regions of Ukraine, which will significantly reduce the amount of CO2 emissions on selected objects.

Preliminary recommendations for the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies are introduced to the public on the events of the project in 2012, and published as a separate brochure and presented in several scientific articles, that are published in Ukrainian and foreign journals, and at several international conferences, which were held in Ukraine and the European Union.

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The project is not limited by the capacities of CCT and CCS technologies to reduce CO2 emissions and sequestration of CO2 in order to prevent an increase in global average temperature. In the course of the project were reviewed and considered other technology options for climate change mitigation, the intermediate results are presented in the following sections of this Report, as well as in the additional section 2.4. Some of the proposed additional technical solutions can be an alternative to CCT and CCS technologies, and will be recorded as the Final Report on the results of the project.

2.3.4. Selecting the Direction of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions 231 The main source of carbon dioxide emissions of anthropogenic origin are fuel combustion processes in the production of electricity (thermal power plants), of heat (in various municipal and industrial boiler stations) and of mechanical energy (in various types of moving vehicles).

According to expert estimates it is assumed that a doubling of energy consumption will occur in the next 20 years. In this case, more than 50% of power generation will be provided through fossil energy sources.

Figure 2.3.1: Change in the number of the world population, of consumption of energy resources and of specific energy consumption:

70 60 50 40

1 – population, billions of people х·10-1; 2 – specific energy consumption, tons of equivalent fuel х 10-1 / person; 3 – consumption of fuel and energy resources, billions of tons of equivalent fuel.

30

1 20

3 2 1

10 9 8 7 6

Analysis of the global consumption of energy resources in the processing of statistical data showed that there is an exponential growth of the world population, consumed energy and of specific energy consumption (Figure 2.3.1).

5 4 3

2

0

10 1900

1950

τ, year →

2000

In the scientific literature, in the periodical press there is a tendency that the only alternative source of energy for Ukraine is coal. However, volume of coal production is gradually reduced.

It is estimated that the industrial-grade coal reserves in Ukraine will be enough for 250-300 years. Its production requires investments and new technologies, since over 80% of fuel and energy complex physically and morally outdated.

231

Vysotsky S.P. / Choice of Ways to Reduce Carbon Emissions // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 23-29. (in Russian)

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The unit costs of energy for production of 1 ton of coal are quite significant and are as follows: 89 Mcal of heat, 125 kWh of power. Besides 10.3 kWh of electricity consumed for the enrichment of 1 ton of coal.

The complexity of the situation of using the energy resources is aggravated by the fact that the production of electricity at thermal power stations is carried out with low efficiency.

Approximately 2/3 of the energy produced by burning of fuel is dissipated in the environment. At the calorific capacity of thermal coal in 4500 kcal/kg (18.8 MJ/kg), the real specific fuel consumption is a 0.580 kg/kWh. Fuel consumption and emissions into the environment is quite large. Specific consumptions are 0.7 kg/kWh when used for the generation of plant material, for example, pressed straw.

The complexity of tasks facing the economy of Ukraine is in the fact that all of our manufacturing industries are resource- and energy-intensive. About 1 ton of raw material is used to produce one dollar of GDP in Ukraine, and in the United States – 3 kilograms.

Combustion of the huge amounts of fossil fuels leads to the release into the atmosphere of such a quantity of carbon dioxide, which is not assimilated in the process of photosynthesis. It leads to disastrous climate change on the planet. The atmosphere of the planet is overheating, that is traceable in all the continents.

The number of hurricanes tornadoes increases. Every year is getting warmer than the previous one. There is a need to find ways to reduce the emissions of the main component, that leads to the greenhouse effect – carbon dioxide.

It should be noted that, besides the carbon dioxide the greenhouse effect is caused by the presence of a number of other gases in the atmosphere. The influence of the individual gases in the creation of this effect is difficult to estimate because their action is not additive. Thus, the proportion of the action of water vapor ranges from 36 to 70%, the proportion of carbon dioxide is from 9 to 26%, the proportion of methane ranges from 4 to 9% and the proportion of ozone is between 3 and 7%. At the same the upper limit corresponds to the action of the one gas, the lower limit - when there is a mixture of gases 232,233 .

An interesting conclusion follows from the data presented. The increase of generating electricity at nuclear power stations, on the one hand eliminates the emission of carbon dioxide, on the other hand, increases the emission of water vapor. This is due to the lower thermal efficiency of nuclear power. However, the excess emission of water vapor and the resulting increase in the greenhouse effect is still less than the influence of carbon dioxide emissions for conventional thermal power plants. This is caused by that “lifetime” of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 130 years, and water vapor exists for several days or weeks.

The influence of various gases to the greenhouse effect is very different. The World Resources Institute provides data on the coefficients of influence on the greenhouse effect.

They take into account the harmful effects of gases such as the ratio of the mass of CO2 equivalent to the mass of the gas.

232

Sean Black. Carbon capture the moment: A chilled ammonia pilot project // Power Engineering – 2008. - Vol. 16, Issue 5, June.

233 H. van Veen, Y.C. van Delft, E.M. van Dorst, P.P.A.C. Pex. Water gas shift membrane reactor for CO2 emission reduction and hydrogen production. Presented at the 6th Netherlands Process Technology Symposium (NPS6). Veldhoven, The Netherlands, 24-25 October 2006. February 2007.

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The total impact is estimated by the sum of products of the mass emission on the appropriate conversion factor 234 . For instance the emission of one kilogram of sulfur hexafluoride is equivalent to the 23.9 tons of emissions of carbon dioxide (see Table 2.3.1).

Table 2.3.1: The given rates of greenhouse gas emissions Type of greenhouse gas Coefficient of the influence on the greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide

Methane

Nitrous oxide

Fluorine and chlorine hydrocarbon

Sulfur hexafluoride

1,0

21

310

1300

23900

In the CIS countries the thermal power stations are the main source of carbon dioxide emissions. It is assumed that by 2020, emissions of carbon dioxide at thermal power stations in Ukraine will be about 79 million tons. In the European Union countries the emission of greenhouse gases is about two billion tons now. Currently, Ukraine's share is 22.4 per cent from this parameter 235 .

It is advisable to evaluate the effect of different fuels on the emissions of carbon dioxide.

Table 2.3.2 shows the average data in magnitude of CO2 emission by burning of the various types of fuel. Under current conditions, there are three areas to reduce carbon dioxide emissions at the using of coal as a fuel. The first direction is the pre-gasification of coal with the removal of CO2 from the gasification products.

Synthesis gas produced in the gasification process, is composed mainly of carbon monoxide, CO and hydrogen. During the purification of synthesis gas in scrubbers CO2 is removed from it, and then it is transferred to the liquid state by compression and is sent to underground disposal.

Table 2.3.2: The specific CO2 emission during combustion of different fuels Type of fuel Unit of measure The emission coefficient Anthracite Brown coal Natural gas Aviation gasoline Diesel fuel (№ 1, 2) Petrol Fuel for jet engines Fuel oil (masut) (№ 5, 6) Propane

g/MJ g/MJ g/MJ g m3 kg/l kg/l kg/l kg/l kg/l kg/l

98-180 90-95 50-55 1,92 2,17 2,65 2,32 2,49 3,08 1,51

The second direction is the burning of solid fuel in a medium of almost pure oxygen. Flue gases in this case mainly consist of CO2 and water vapor and are substantially free from the nitrogen compounds. The smoke gases are partly recirculated. After cooling the gas and condensing the water vapor in the smoke gases only CO2 is practically remained.

234

Tobias Jokenhövel, Rudiger Schneider, Helmut Rode. Salt of the earth: carbon capture via amino acid flue gas scrubbing // Power Engineering – 2010. - Vol. 18, Issue 5, May. 235 Vysotsky S.P. / The problem of carbon dioxide emissions. // Environmental Technology and Resources: Scientific and Technical Journal, 2007. – No. 2. - P. 47-50. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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This technology is not yet used on the large-scale facilities in the energy sector, but it is already being used in other industries. A significant reduction in the total mass emissions, obtaining a highly concentrated CO2 stream is the advantage of this technology. The disadvantage is that the production of pure oxygen requires a lot of energy.

According to the third direction the CO2 is removed from the flue gases using solutions of chemical sorbents. After heating the sorbent the CO2 removal occurs, and then absorption capacity of the sorbent is restored. The advantage of this process is that the sorption purification of flue gases is a fully mature technology. The disadvantage is that the equipment takes up much space, in connection with which it is difficult to integrate into existing power generation system.

Besides the use of this technology connected with high operating costs of up to 1000 euros (1300 dollars) for the flue gas consumption at the 1 million m3/hour (it is approximately 300 MW for one energy unit). In this case, specific expenses for sequestration of the1 ton of the CO2 is estimated in about 30 euros (41 dollars). It is assumed that by 2030 this index falls down to 20 EUR/t ($ 27/t).

In accordance with approximate estimates of experts, the global “storages” for CO2 injection are ranged from 100,000 to 200,000 billion tons. According to the experts of Germany, the geological formations, including the developed deposits of natural gas and oil, can provide burial of CO2 produced during 40-130 years of the operation of the thermal power stations 236 .

In Ukraine, such geological formations that can be used for the burial of CO2 are located in western Ukraine, Kharkiv and Poltava regions.

It should be noted that in the present, many of these “storages” are used as a buffer gas storage vessel. Thus, there is the concurrent use of these containers. We can also note the positive effect of injection consisting in the fact that it increases the flow rate of the existing oil wells.

The risks associated with the disposal of CO2 in geological formations include possible leaks and direct adverse impact on the environment, consisting in the impact on the climate and in the causing damage to the personnel and the equipment. As noted earlier 237 , injection of CO2 creates the danger of formation of water-and-carbon-dioxide mixes with the occurrence of the carbonic acid. The latter can dissolve the stripping rock formations, lead to a breach of their continuity and cause uncontrolled leakage of CO2 as well as violation of the earth's surface.

In any case, the use of CO2 capture systems on the thermal power stations is associated with the reduction in the efficiency of energy generation and with the need of additional capital investment. The use of higher steam parameters (pressure, temperature), the combined cycle power generation at thermal power stations allows to partially or fully offset the loss of efficiency in the use of gas cleaning systems. Retrofitting of the existing thermal power stations with capacity of 800 MW using the gas cleaning system requires additional capital investment of 300-400 million euros (404-539 million dollars), i.e. the increase capital investment is almost 1.5 times.

236

Sean Black. Carbon capture the moment: A chilled ammonia pilot project // Power Engineering – 2008. - Vol. 16, Issue 5, June.

237 Vysotsky S.P. / The problem of carbon dioxide emissions. // Environmental Technology and Resources: Scientific and Technical Journal, 2007. – No. 2. - P. 47-50. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Additional costs include: cleaning of flue gases from sulfur dioxide, cooling down the flue gas, absorption of CO2, heat transfer equipment, desorption of CO2 and then its compression for the liquefaction before transport.

Figure 2.3.2: Phase diagram of carbon dioxide equilibria, depending on the temperature and pressure By comparison with other substances, which are transported by pipelines, such as oil, natural gas and water, carbon dioxide behaves unusual because the triple point in the phase equilibrium system is situated in the region close to the ambient temperature. Thus, substantial changes in physical properties (transition to another phase, the density change, the compressibility) occur with small changes in pressure and temperature. Phase equilibria diagram of carbonic acid at different temperatures, which confirms these indexes is shown in Figure 2.3.2.

During transport of carbonic acid over long distances (several hundred kilometers) the possibility of the formation of multi-phase flow occurs due to changes in external conditions.

This makes it difficult transport, as well as measurement of the flow rates because flowmeters can only measure the single-phase flow. The most preferred for reducing carbon dioxide emissions is the use of biomass to generate electricity, heat and preparation of biogas, its use in internal combustion engines and living conditions 238 .

238

Vysotsky S.P., Chernyuk A.A. / The use of biomass as an alternative source of power supply // Bulletin of Automobile and Road Institute: Research and Production Compilation / ADI Donetsk National Technical University. - Gorlivka, 2007. – No. 2 (5). - P. 191-197. (in Russian)

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Currently in England and the Scandinavian countries the biomass is already widely used on the boiler installations of thermal power stations. Work has begun on the use of wood waste on the heating plants in the Russian Federation. In England, the biomass (straw, wood waste, etc.) are used in boiler plants for co-firing with pulverized coal. The potential of biomass production for different crops in Ukraine is given in Table 2.3.3. With a competent forest management, wood can provide power supply in some regions of Ukraine. One of the available resources is straw, which is characterized by low water capacity and may be involved in energy production after crushing and tabletization. The cost of this product in a different scheme of harvesting is between 55 and 70 USD/t.

A promising source of energy in many areas is poplar and willow. Growing of poplars solve the environmental problem along the way. It purifies the air from dust and some toxins. It is reported that in the year one plant can grow up on the 15-20 mm in diameter and 2.5-3.5 meters high. Mechanized “cleaning” of poplars can be carried out using facilities placed on tractors with power take-off.

Table 2.3.3: The potential of biomass production in Ukraine Type of biomass / excess of biomass Cereals / straw Corn for grain / stalks Sugar beet / tops of vegetable, bagasse Sunflower / stalks Wood / wood wastes Manure (dry substance) Total

Gross collection, mln t

Coefficient of waste

Availability factor

Total amount of waste, mln t

Qнр, MJ/kg

Amount of biomass available for energy production %

mln t

Energy potential of biomass available to provide energy, mln t, oil equivalent

28,53

1,0

0,85

24,25

15,7

20

4,85

1,82

5,34

1,2

0,7

4,49

13,7

50

2,24

0,74

17,66

0,4

0,4

2,83

13,7

50

1,41

0,46

2,31

3,7

0,7

5,97

13,7

50

2,99

0,97

5,4

0,84

0,9

4,1

9,0

71

2,91

0,62

7,39

-

0,62

4,58

15,0

100

4,58

1,64

18,98

6,25

44,46

One of the most promising crops is miscanthus – elephant grass. Comparison of the energy indicators of this culture with others, given in Table 2.3.3 indicates that only willow can compete with it. However, most growing complexity and “cleaning” of the energy harvest of willow indicate that other cultures are almost uncompetitive in comparison with the elephant grass. Elephant grass is a perennial plant and requires the cultivation of the soil once every 4 years.

Table 2.3.4: Comparison of the energy indicators of the elephant grass with other cultures Crop Elephant grass Willow Wheat Raps

Energy consumption for production – EC, МJ/hа 9,224 6,003 21,46 19,39

Energy output – EO, МJ/hа 300,0 180,0 189,34 72,0

Ratio EO/EC 32,5 30,0 8,8 3,8

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With its growing the problem with the emission of carbon dioxide is solved and biodiversity in the area of cultivation of this crop is improving. Unit costs and energy output during the growth of energy crops are shown in Table 2.3.4. An important direction of reducing greenhouse gas emissions is to reduce energy consumption. Effective methods of reducing energy consumption are the use of cogeneration, heat accumulation and the use of heat pumps.

Cogeneration is a co-production of electricity and heat. The meaning of cogeneration is that the opportunity to utilize associated heat is created at the direct production of electric energy.

About 40% of the fuel is saved in the application of the method of cogeneration heat and power production. Expressing the money, in fact a consumer will pay only 60% of the cost for the same amount of energy. Heat and electricity are generated in the vicinity of their use; in this case, both the costs of the energy distribution as well as losses in mainline transfer of energy disappear. The heat generated in the cogeneration power plant, is used for heating facilities, in the preparation of hot water or to obtain process heat. When applying the method of cogeneration heat and power production, 40% of the fuel is saved, then the environmental pollution is reduced by the same amount, from an environmental point of view.

Power supply from co-generation units allow to reduce the annual costs on electricity and heat as compared with electricity from the power systems by about $ 100 per kW of rated electric power from the co-generation power plant, in that case where the co-generation unit is operating in basic mode of energy generation (at 100% load year-round). In the presence of heat accumulator all the thermal energy from the device generating electricity is used to charge it. Excess electricity is also directed to the heat accumulator. Thus, the efficiency of an autonomous source is comparable to the efficiency of the boiler (about 85%), and the cost of electricity generated by such an installation would be in several times lower than the network.

The processes of heat accumulation occur by changing the physical properties of heatretaining substances and by using the energy the binding of atoms and molecules of the substances (due to the phase transition).

Temperature

1, 2 - Cooling water; 3 - Cooling Na2SO4 10H2O (340 g/kg); The ratio of the volume of water that gives and takes the heat - 1:3.3; 4, 5 - Cooling Al2(SO4)3 10H2O (400 g/kg); The ratio of the volume of water that gives and takes heat: 4 - 1:3.3; 5 - 1:1; 6Low water which takes heat.

Duration, min

Figure 2.3.3: Comparative characteristic of heat accumulating by aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3路18H2O) and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4路10H2O) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The most appropriate storage heaters with a phase transition are aluminum sulfate, sodium sulfate and lithium nitrate. Comparative characteristic of removing heat from the water and the media with thermal storage materials with aluminum sulfate and sodium is shown in Figure 2.3.3.

Based on the conducted analysis of the ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions it may be concluded that: - Analysis of ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions shows that the introduction of flue gas cleaning technology requires increased capital investments for the construction of new power equipment more than in 1,5 times compared with conventional energy generation technologies applicable in the country.

- Given the shortage of investment, the reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions in the national thermal power stations is advantageously carried out the path of cogeneration and co-combustion of biofuels and coal.

- The production of electric energy at the facilities with the use of biofuels is worthwhile throughout small power plants.

- The use of waste oil wells is possible with the burial of carbon dioxide in underground horizons. It also allows increasing the production rate of operating wells.

- When transporting the carbon dioxide to its disposal sites, it is necessary to take into account its special properties both in a compressed state and the supercritical.

2.3.5. Quenching of Gas Flares by Pulsed High Speed Liquid Jets 239 The fires of gas flares are one of the most difficult types of industrial accidents in the oil and gas fields. Huge amounts of carbon dioxide, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur discharged into atmosphere during such accidents. The fight against these fires requires the use of enormous material resources and can last for weeks. The height of a burning flare with high power reaches 80-100 m, the intensity of heat in a flare is several million kilowatts.

For extinguishing of oil fires flares many different methods 240 are developed: injection of water into the well; pulsed supply of fire extinguishing powder with special installations, water jets of fire monitors, the explosion of charge of explosives, a down-hole drilling and pumping of special solution into it, the combined method etc.

In Ukraine and CIS countries for fire extinguishing of gas flares fire monitors (hydromonitors), gas-extinguishing vehicles, pneumatic powder flame crushers are used most commonly 241,242 . Each of these ways of suppression has its advantages and disadvantages.

However, there is as yet no universal effective way to extinguish of gas flares.

239

Semko O.M, Bezkrovna M.V., Ukrainskyi Y.D, Vinogradov S.A., Gritsyna I.M. / Quenching Gas Flares Pulsed High Speed Liquid Jets // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 64-68. (in Russian) 240 Vinogradov SA, Gritsyna IN Analysis of the methods of fire suppression and gas fountains / / Proceedings of the XIII All-Ukrainian scientific-practical conference of rescuers, 20-21 September 2011 - Kiev, 2011. - S. 202205. (in Russian) 241 Field Manual Fire Service (approved by the Chairman of the State Committee for Emergency Situations of the Republic of Kazakhstan from 27.12.05, № 373) (in Russian) 242 Mikheev VP Gas fuel and burning it. - Nedra, Leningrad. Dep-tion, 1966. - 327. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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One of the most common ways of extinguishing gas flares is to use water mist. The main active factors in extinguishing of flare with water mist are cooling of the burning material and the formation vapor cloud of the localizing hearth burning. A separated quenching of gas flare is observed at high speed of liquid jet, where finely dispersed jet spray tear the burning torch.

Experiments have shown that the breakdown of the diffusion flame flare occurs at speeds of 80-100 m/s.

Here are some experimental studies on extinguishing of gas flares using pulsed high speed liquid jets, which are obtained by a pulsed jet. Studies performed in model plants, have shown promising results and showed the promise of this trend.

The scheme of the Pulse Jet Propellant (PJP),which was used in a pilot study, is shown in Figure 2.3.4 243,244 . The barrel of gunpowder 4 PJP, which ends with conical nozzle 6with a collimator 7 is filled with water 3. Powder charge 2 is separated from the water charge 3 with wad 8. Most intense section of the trunk strengthened by bandage 5 to harden it, bandage is fitted to the barrel with a given tension. The powder charge 2 in the housing water cannon is fixed with gate 9, there is an igniter 1, inside it.

1 2

9

3

4

5

6 7

8

Figure 2.3.4: Schematic of the gunpowder pulse water cannon To construct a mathematical model of firing the powder PJP the following assumptions were made. The fluid is considered ideal and compressible, viscous, heat conduction, and the influence of the wad can be neglected. Nozzle profile is assumed smooth, and radial flow components are not considered. The beginning of the process is the moment of ignition of gunpowder. The origin of coordinates coincides with the entrance to the nozzle.

Quasi one-dimensional flow of an ideal compressible fluid in a water cannon is described by the equations of unsteady gas dynamics with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions in the adopted statement. The combustion of gunpowder considered in quasistationary approximation under the assumptions that are typical for the tasks of internal ballistics of artillery.

The problem is solved numerically. The fluid motion in pulsed water cannon was calculated using Godunov and Rodionov methods and burning gunpowder - the modified Euler method 245 . Some of the results of calculations are following for gunpowder PJP with parameters: the mass of water charge is 450 g, and the diameter of jet nozzle is15 mm.

243

A. Semko Pulsed high-pressure liquid jet. - Donetsk: Weber (Donetsk branch), 2007. - 149 p. (in Russian) A. Semko The internal ballistics of powder jet and water cannon / / Theor. and Appl. mechanic. - Kharkov: Base - 2002. - Issue. 35. - S. 181-185. (in Russian) 245 Reshetniak V., A. Semko Application of the method for calculating the quasi Rodionova motions of an ideal compressible fluid / / Applied Fluid Mechanics. - 2009. - T. 9 (81). Number three. - Pp. 56 -64. (in Russian) 244

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The plots of the velocity of the jet and the pressure inside the PJP with time for a gunpowder charge of 30 g (normal operation BPI) are given In Figure 2.3.5. Curve 1 - outflow velocity, 2 - the pressure of powder gases, 3 - water pressure in the barrel of PJP. v, м/с p, МПа 600 1 400 tg 200

2

tout

3

0

1

2

3

4

5

t, мс

Figure 2.3.5: Results of calculations for gunpowder PJP

As you can see, the expiry of jet of gunpowder PJP starts with zero velocity. The outflow velocity increases rapidly with the combustion of gunpowder and reaches a maximum value of 685 m/s in 1.5 ms from the beginning of the shot.

The outflow velocity slowly decreases to 320 m/s after the combustion of gunpowder.

Expiration of jet ends at time = 5.2 ms with ejection of small portion of the water by gunpowder gases with higher speed. Table 2.3.5 shows the results of the maximum speed of the pulse jet of gunpowder PJP for different masses of gunpowder.

Table 2.3.5: Estimated speed of jet of gunpowder PJP for different masses of gunpowder Mass of gunpowder, g Max speed of water jet, m/s

30 686

25 600

20 504

15 405

10 298

5 178

The specific character of the velocity of time of the PJP jet (rapid increase at the beginning of the expiration from zero to maximum and further decrease to almost zero) defines patterns of distribution of the pulse jet. At the beginning of the expiration faster particles of fluid, those are the flowing out of the PJP nozzle, make their way through the slower leaked earlier ones.

As a result, there is a radial jet flow, which increases the cross-sectional jet 246,247 .

Radial flow causes a thickening of the jet and the formation of the halo around the spray, which is moving at a slightly slower speed than the speed of the core of the jet. Later the speed of the head of the jet decreases due to braking and air jet breaks, stopping to exist.

In the experiments, the speed of the head of PJP jet was measured by non-contact laser speed measuring devices at different distances from the arrangement. The measured velocities agree well with the calculated data.

In Figure 2.3.6 shows the scheme of the experiment of extinguishing of the gas flare and the experimental arrangement in field trials at the landfill. Here, 1 - gunpowder PJP, 2 - pulse jet of liquid, 3 - gas torch, 4 - speed meter, 5 - the block lasers, 6 - laser beams.

246

Chermensky GP The pressure in a pulsed jet of liquid // Journal of Applied Mechanics and Technical Physics, 1970. - № 1. - S. 174 - 176. (in Russian) 247 Dunne B., Cassen B. Velocity discontinuity instability of liquid jet // J. Applied Phys., Vol. 27, No 6, June 1956. – P. 577 – 582.

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The distance from PJP to flare and the amount of a gunpowder charge was varied in the experiments, it determines the speed of the pulse jet of liquid. The distance from the arrangement to flare was measured by tape measure, and aiming was performed using a special laser sight, which was mounted on the trunk of a pulse water cannon.

5 3

5 1

2

3

4

6 1

2

4

Рис. 3.of extinguishing of the gas flare and the Figure 2.3.6: Schematic of the experiment experimental setup in field trials at the landfill

Figure 2.3.7 shows the fragments of video of extinguishing process of the gas flare with pulsed liquid jet of high speed. Here 1 - pulse jet of liquid, 2 - gas torch, 3 - speed detector modules. Also, Figure 2.3.7: a), b) and c) show elementary, middle and final stages of extinguishing of gas flare, and d) –shows size of flare. The band of dark material with subdivisions is visible at the background of photo. The distance between the large marks is1 meter and between small ones is 0.5 m. The distance between the arrangement and flare is 10 m. The photographs also show modules of speed meter 3 that mounted at a distance of two meters from each other.

Figure 2.3.7: Video fragments of extinguishing process of the gas flare with pulsed liquid jet of high speed.

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The first photo shows a) jet flew 3.5 meters. The form of the jet at this time corresponds to the middle phase of distribution. The part of the spray head and the veil of splashing into the back of the cross-section are easily visible diameter of veil is many times larger than the diameter of the jet.

The second photo: b) the jet flew about 9 m. The head portion of jet is clearly visible, it is located at a distance of about one meter from the torch. The whole jet is surrounded by a veil of spray, the transverse dimensions of it reaches 0.5 m in some places. The head part of jet has a pointed shape and intensely blurred by air.

The third photograph c) jet cuts torch from the borehole and stops the supply of a combustible mixture, which leads to extinguishing of the flare. The upper part of flare still burns, and the lower part is torn with pulsed jet of liquid. The velocity of pulsed liquid jet is much higher than the speed of gas entry from a well to flare combustion zone that promotes disruption of the flame and flare combustion stops.

The experiments showed that the pulse jet of liquid of gunpowder PJP can extinguish burning gas flare model from well at a distance of 10 meters or more. There is only cloud of spray of jet at a distance of about 20 m, it is not able to repay the torch. Range of arrangement significantly depends on the mode of operation and construction. It is possible to increase the range set to 50 m and more by changing the structure and mode of operation.

Experimental studies of the quenching of modeling gas flare using pulsed high speed liquid jets were held. Liquid jets are generated by pulsed water cannon powder. The amount a gunpowder charge and the distance from the arrangement to flare varied in the experiments.

This peed of the jet head just near the torch was measured with the non-contact laser speed meter the photographs of the jet are made. Maximum accounting speed of pulse jet depending on the energy charge was 300 - 600 m/s, which is consistent with the measured values. It is shown in the process that of pulsed liquid jet speed is “ripped off” with the air around it and formed a high-speed cloud of spray of large cross-section, which effectively knocks down the flames of the gas flare at distances about 5 - 20 m from the unit.

The experimental results confirmed the theoretical assumptions about the possibility of extinguishing of gas flares with pulsed liquid jets. The resulting jet velocity to tear flare corresponds to known data. Further research should focus on determining the velocity field along the length of the jet and the density field in a cross section of the jet.

2.3.6. Device for Capture Pollutants and Carbon Dioxide at the Crossroads of the City Streets to Clean the Air from Car Exhaust Official statistics of Ukraine for 2010 248 indicate a significant contribution to road transport CO2 emissions - this is the third position after the power and metallurgy. In addition, the fleet of vehicles in Ukraine is growing rapidly, especially in the category all-road vehicle, that are significantly more fuel burned per kilometer than cars that meet European standards in fuel consumption.

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Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine for 2010 / Edited by O.G. Osaulenko. - Kyiv: State Statistics Service of Ukraine, 2011. - 560 pp. (in Ukrainian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The World Bank in its World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change 249 , leads an interesting assessment of the influence of cars on climate change, comparing: Emission reductions by switching fleet of American SUVs to cars with EU fuel economy standards; Emission increase by providing basic electricity to 1.6 billion people without access to electricity, which are almost identical in size.

Estimates are based on 40 million SUVs (sports utility vehicles) in the United States traveling a total of 480 billion miles (assuming 12,000 miles a car) a year. With average fuel efficiency of 18 miles a gallon, the SUV fleet consumes 27 billion gallons of gasoline annually with emissions of 2,421 grams of carbon a gallon. Switching to fuel-efficient cars with the average fuel efficiency of new passenger cars sold in the European Union (45 miles a gallon; see ICCT 2007) results in a reduction of 142 million tons of CO (39 million tons of carbon) annually.

2

Electricity consumption of poor households in developing countries is estimated at 170 kilowatt-hours a person-year and electricity is assumed to be provided at the current world average carbon intensity of 160 grams of carbon a kilowatt-hour, equivalent to 160 million tons of CO2 (44 million tons of carbon). The size of the electricity symbol in the global map corresponds to the number of people without access to electricity.

As shown in Section 1.2.4 the use of devices for capture CO2 from the air could be economically advantageous in the case of additional sources of energy from the environment, both natural and artificial origin. To analyze the potential for application of SCPP (see section 1.2.5) for removal of pollutants and carbon dioxide from exhaust gas accumulation zones car, i.e. the most intense crossroads, when incomplete combustion occurs in the standby mode was patent search carried out in this field in various open patent databases 250,251 . Found numerous patents, which are similar to the content of the proposed technical solution, five of which are shown below.

2.3.6.1. A method for using the low speed wind energy and solar energy complementary power generation device of 252 A method for using the low speed wind energy and solar energy complementary generating set belonging to renewable energy source field claims a method of using low speed wind energy and solar energy complementary power generation device of.

The solar energy chimney the top end of the magnetic push bearing is installed with low speed vertical shaft wind power generator impeller solar energy chimney the bottom part of it is composed of frame bracket the supporting frame supporting frame is fixed on ground top part by four diagonal tight-wires fixed; Of said low speed vertical shaft wind power generator impeller is set with 3-4 inner part of blade is set with the gas spraying pipe gas injection pipe leads to low speed vertical shaft wind power generator impeller blade tip and it is set with the nozzle tip; The solar energy the internal part of the chimney wind power generator blade wheel is installed on the lower part of transmission shaft transmission shaft the bottom of the installed on the frame bracket is set on the speed increasing mechanism of alternating current

249

World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. - World Bank, 2009. - 424 pp.

European Patent Office. – http://www.epo.org 251 The United States Patent and Trademark Office. – http://www.uspto.gov 252 Chong Du / A method for using the low speed wind energy and solar energy complementary power generation device of // CN102477966 (A) ― 2012-05-30 (in Chinese) 250

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generator is connected with the; The whole power generating device the structure is simple and reliable and the solar energy and wind energy is made organically complementary to each other to the environment the dependency degree is a method for generating electricity and the whole body of the small power generation capability of the single power mode is ratio is increased 60-80%.

Figure 2.3.8: A device for generating electricity under the influence of an additional low wind speed wind and solar energy 2.3.6.2. A by using industrial waste heat and solar energy heat power generation wind tower device and method for hot wind tower power generation device and method by using industrial waste heat and solar energy 253 The invention claims a by using industrial waste heat and solar energy heat power generation wind tower device and method by recycling industrial waste heat of waste hot water or waste steam and so on and heat-collecting shed set on the heat collecting tube of absorbed solar energy to make the temperature in the water tank water temperature reaches to 80-90 centigrade and sending it into the wind tower is set on the base and heat exchanger in the heating tower base of the air in the air be heated to form floating heat flow heat floating the flow of stream guidance awl guiding the entering the wind tower the chimney of the driving is set in the wind tower a turbine generator to generate electricity and effectively reclaiming and utilizing the industrial waste heat at the same time increases the solar energy the utilization efficiency of the sending of electric guarantee the device itself the normal working of other parts can be used to the power network to supply power.

The invention relates to a hot wind tower power generation device and a method by using industrial waste heat and solar energy. By the recovered industrial waste heat (waste hot water, waste steam and the like) and the solar energy absorbed by a heat collection tube arranged on a heat collector, the temperature of water in an insulation water tank reaches 8090 DEG C; the water is sent into a heat exchanger in a wind tower footing to heat the air in the tower footing; the air is heated to form hot floating flow; and the hot floating flow, guided by a flow guide cone, enters a chimney of the wind tower so as to drive a turbine power generator arranged in the wind tower to generate power.

253

Kunfeng Liang; Chunyan Gao; Zhumu Fu; Lin Wang; Zhiyong Chang / A by using industrial waste heat and solar energy heat power generation wind tower device and method for hot wind tower power generation device and method by using industrial waste heat and solar energy // CN102691626 (A) ― 2012-09-26 (in Chinese) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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The industrial waste heat is effectively recovered and utilized; meanwhile the utilization rate of the solar energy is improved; and most of the rest of the generated power can be merged into a power grid for power supply, apart from ensuring the self normal work of the device.

Figure 2.3.9: A hot wind tower power generating apparatus and method using a industrial heat and solar energy

2.3.6.3. Combining photovoltaic technology of solar heating wind power-generating system – Solar chimney power generation system combining photovoltaic technology 254 This utility model claims a combining photovoltaic technology comprising solar heating wind power-generating system comprises a solar energy chimney and solar energy heat collector the solar energy heat collector the top of the shed coating transparent thin film solar energy photovoltaic battery board the solar energy heat collector is set on the bottom surface of the single crystal silicon solar energy photovoltaic battery board.

This utility model has simple structure skillful design it has great market potential.

The utility model discloses a solar chimney power generation system combining a photovoltaic technology, comprising a solar chimney and a solar heat collector; wherein a light-transmitting thin-film solar photovoltaic cell panel is coated on a ceiling of the solar heat collector; and a monocrystalline silicon solar photovoltaic cell panel is laid on a bottom surface of the solar heat collector.

The solar chimney power generation system of the utility model has the advantages of simple structure, ingenious design, and huge market potential.

254

Xingwen Mo / Combining photovoltaic technology of solar heating wind power-generating system - Solar chimney power generation system combining photovoltaic technology // CN202385034 (U) ― 2012-08-15 (in Chinese)

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Figure 2.3.10: Solar power chimney system that combines photovoltaic technology 2.3.6.4. Solar chimney with wind turbine 255 A solar chimney includes an elongated chamber having the general configuration of an hourglass. The chamber includes one or more heat exchangers for heating air in the chamber by solar energy. A turbine in the chamber is driven by updrafts of air created in the chamber, and the turbine drives an electric generator or other machine. An exhaust wind turbine assists in the production of such updrafts. A vertical axis wind turbine harnesses energy of wind in the environment of the chimney, and such energy is used to drive the exhaust wind turbine.

Excess wind energy is stored for later use. A set of extendable and retractable vanes, mounted externally of the chimney, deflects wind, in the environment of the chimney, towards the vertical axis wind turbine.

Figure 2.3.11: Solar chimney with wind turbine

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Yangpichit Pitaya / Solar chimney with wind turbine // EP2524137 (A1) ― 2012-11-21 Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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2.3.6.5. Hybrid solar-wind powered power station 256 The power station comprises a collector (5) of air heated by solar radiation (R, S) during the day, said collector having a distal end (6) open towards the ambient surroundings, and an opposite, proximal end (8) in communication with a chimney (1), a series of turbines designed to drive a set of electric generators (12) being interposed between said proximal end (10) of said chimney (1), characterized in that said turbines are magnetically supported turbines with a vertical axis of rotation (7).

Figure. 2.3.12: Hybrid solar-wind powered power station 2.3.6.6. “Air Terrikon” in Donetsk Based on these prototypes to create solar power plants such as “Solar Chimney”, which will be cost-effective if the additional energy from the environment as a natural (sun and wind) and artificial (hot exhaust gases from automobiles) origin. Such a device is called “Air Terrikon” (AT), since the appearance of the device is almost the same as the views of the majority of the waste heaps of Donbass. AT is designed to clean the air from the exhaust gases of cars on the street corners and to capture greenhouse gases 257 .

To fulfill these ecological functions used electricity generated by the vertical and horizontal wind turbines and solar panels system. Force structure of the heat pipe support glass cone, and monorails and ribs - a sector of the cone with solar panels. Heat pipe is placed on the viewing sphere. In the space between the glass cone and funnel heat pipe are commercial site, and in the sector of the cone - viewing platforms and cognitive rest area. On the following figures show: - AT location at the crossroads of the city of Donetsk (Figure 2.3.13); - 3D computer model of AT (Figure 2.3.14); - Simplified diagram of the AT (Figure 2.3.15); - AT scheme in functional colors (Figure 2.3.16).

256

Ung Seng-Hong / Hybrid solar-wind powered power station // WO2012127134 (A2) - 2012-09-27 (in French) Shestavin M.S. Capabilities Sequestration Anthropogenic Emissions from Low Fugitive Sources // Materials digest of the XXXII International Scientific and Practical Conference “Models and Methods of Solving Formal and Applied Scientific Issues in Phys.-Math., Tech. and Chem. Research” (United Kingdom, London, September 20-25, 2012). – London: International Academy of Science and Higher Education, 2012. – P. 65-67.

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Artema Str.

B. Khmelnitsky Av.

B. Khmelnitsky Av.

Artema Str.

Figure 2.3.13: Location “Air Terrikon” in Donetsk, Ukraine

Figure 2.3.14: 3D computer model of “Air Terrikon” Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Figure 2.3.15: Simplified scheme of “Air Terrikon”

Figure 2.3.16: Schematic of “Air Terrikon” in functional colors Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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2.4. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Low-carbon opportunities for industrial regions of Ukraine is not limited to the introduction of CCT and CCS technologies, and have a wider range of technological innovations that will facilitate the transition of the Ukrainian economy on the technology with “zero” or minimal emissions of CO2. And the problem of disposing of CO2 already emitted are still not actually resolved. Therefore, research and development in this area remain relevant for Ukraine and other countries of the world.

The following will show the intermediate results of particular solutions of these problems for the particular conditions of the economy and the environment.

2.4.1. Reduction of CO2 Emission from Electric Arc Furnaces 258 Donetsk region is the largest industrial center of Ukraine, and at the same time it supplies about a third of the country's pollution. In the structure of emissions dominates carbon monoxide, which accounts for nearly 28.8% of all emissions, sulfur dioxide - 21.3%, dust 15% and light organic compounds - 13%. In this paper we consider the pollution of atmosphere by metallurgical complex, which is particularly active in the Donetsk region.

Although the emissions of carbon dioxide are not major in electric steel industry, yet they contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere with greenhouse gases.

Today about 40% of the world steel is melted in Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF). In Ukraine this trend has started only recently and rate of open-hearted furnaces is still high. Nevertheless EAFs will soon take leading positions. Modern steelmaking technology in the EAF is accompanied by off-gas emissions 100 ... 270 m3/hr (at standard conditions) per ton of steel 259 . Off-gas composition varies during the melting and is presented mainly by nitrogen, oxygen, carbon oxide and dioxide, water vapor.

The rate of formation, chemical composition and temperature of the process gases at the outlet of 130 m EAF were examined 260 . The average gas volume flow rate during melting cycle (70 min) is within 12-20 m3/hour (under normal conditions). Its maximum level is approximately 35 m3/hour. The gas temperature varies from 900-1400°C during melting period to 1600-1700°C during the liquid period when the bath is injected with oxygen.

Chemical composition of gases varies greatly during the melting. The main components are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon oxide and dioxide, water vapor. In melting period N2 (50%), CO2 (30%) and water vapor (20%) are dominant. In liquid period N2, СО (40%) and CO2 (30%) prevail. Oxygen is presented during melting process in quantity 4-7%. The dust content in the exhaust gases is within 20-60 g per m3 of gas or 5-22 kg per ton of steel.

258

Timoshenko N.S, Semko O.M, Timoshenko S.M. / Reduction of Carbon Dioxde Emassion from Electric Arc Furnage on Basis of Advanced Off Gas Removal System // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 79-83. (in Russian) 259 Tuluevsky YN Innovation for electric arc furnaces. Scientific bases of choice: Monograph / N. Tuluevsky, IY ZINNUROV. - Novosibirsk: Publishing House of Novosibirsk State Technical University, 2010. - 347 p. (In Russian) 260 Kuhn R. Continuous off-gas measurement and energy balance in electric arc steelmaking/ R.Kuhn, H.Geck, K.Schwerdtfeger. - ISIJ International, Vol.25 (2005), No.11, pp.1587-1596.

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The chemical composition of the dust comprises oxides of iron, calcium, silicon and aluminum (80-90%) as well as other compounds, in particular oxides of non-ferrous metals and carbon particles. Traditional gas removal schemes are arranged in such a way that the speed of removing gases near the exhaust pipe is large, and on the opposite side is very small.

Such uniform suction of gases leads to a rather large loss of metal during melting (in the form of suspended particles of dust) and rapid wear-out of filters.

Selection of the optimum gas suction mode is an actual task, which will improve the efficiency of EAF performance, reduce the intensity of dust removal, extend the life of electrodes, and thus, indirectly, provide reduction of CO2 emissions. Due to the significant divergence of CO2 emissions data 261 , let’s give an estimation of this parameter based on the fundamental postulates of modern intensive technology. In the EAF formation of CO2 is caused mainly by the following processes.

1. The oxidation of the carbon in the incoming charge material by the oxygen supplied through special blowing lance. Technological instructions regulate oxidation of an average 0.75% of carbon for intensive "boiling" of liquid bath by emitting gaseous product, and thereby acceleration of physical and chemical processes in it. At high temperatures (160016500S) and the presence of solid carbon, its oxidation takes place by reaction with C+0.5O2 = CO, which is a combination of reactions C + O2 = CO2 and CO2+C=2CO. Outside EAF (and partially in the furnace) afterburning CO is done by reaction CO+0.5O2=CO2 to prevent its release into the atmosphere (MPC of CO in the work area is 25 mg/m3), and also to provide additional chemical heat which can be used for heating of charge or generation of energy source - water vapor. Ultimately, the above reactions can be reduced to one: C+O2=CO2 according to which, per ton of steel 27.5 kg of CO2 are generated.

2. The oxidation of the carbonaceous material injected into the bath during liquid period in the form of powder on the average of 12 kg/t to generate additional electricity of exothermic heat and foaming slag by emitted gas to screen electric arcs and more efficient use of their energy for heating the bath. This process is also described by the overall reaction C+O2=CO2) and gives 44 kg of CO2 per ton of steel.

3. Use of oxy-fuel burners in the initial stage of melting as an alternative energy source for intensifying of melting. The average natural gas consumption is 7 m3 per ton of steel. Under the reaction of complete combustion gas (in which is at least 95% of methane) CH4+2O2=CO2+2H2O it gives 13.75 kg of CO2 per ton of steel.

4. Oxidation of graphite electrodes which is an average of 2.5 kg per ton of steel, is also described by the overall reaction C+O2=CO2) and gives 9.2 kg of CO2 per ton of steel. This process is caused mainly by suction of atmospheric air through the slag door of the furnace.

The average release of CO2 from EAF according to the all above processes is 95 kg per ton of steel. One of the ways to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide, without changing melting technology is the reduction of air suction into the furnace. This will result in decrease of graphite electrodes wear-out one of the sources of carbon dioxide emissions.

261

Thomson M.J., Evenson E.J., Kempe M.J., and Goodfellow H.D. Control of greenhouse gas emissions from electric arc furnace steelmaking: evaluation methodology with case studies // Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 2000, Vol 27, No 4, p. 273.

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In the article 262 is considered the possibility of reducing the removal of dust and carbon oxides (CO and CO2) from the electric arc furnace using the optimized gas suction system.

The method involves changing the design of the furnace roof in order to transform it into the exhaust duct, sucking out processed gases not by its entire surface but through slots of the various sizes. The relevant duct has a toroidal shape and is located under the furnace roof.

In this work was assessed the possibility of using developed mathematical model on a real EAF. The new design for gas suction is proposed (Figure 2.4.1a). In this scheme, unlike in the conventional one (Figure 2.4.1b) an annular exhaust duct 1with variable by half-perimeter (due to the symmetry of the gas stream) width of the slots, mounted on top camera 2 of the roof 3 is used. Parameters of the slits 4 are calculated on basis of mathematical model from the position of uniform flow of process off-gas along duct perimeter: area of slots increases with their angular position (0 ... 1800) with respect to the longitudinal axis of the suction elbow 5.

The proposed solution is aimed at reducing energy loss with the technological dust-gas emissions, which make up at least 15% of the energy input to the EAF. One of the factors of solving this problem is the reduction of atmospheric air suction into the furnace slag door.

Figure 2.4.1: Off-gas removal system with top chamber and exhaust duct (а) and traditional EAF off-gas removal system (б).

The arrow shows direction of the off-gas suction.

The effectiveness of the proposed technical solutions of the EAF off-gas removal system was checked with the aid of the application package CosmosFloWorks in SolidWorks 263 software.

The calculation is performed numerically on the basis of the Navier-Stokes and continuity equations using the k − ε model of turbulence. The boundary conditions are (Figure 2.4.1): depression 100 Pa to face 6 of suction elbow; normal (pressure and temperature) in the furnace slag door 7; gas flow rate of the bath 8 (CO output by oxygen blowing of steel bath with injection of carbon powder) 2.2 m3 /s at a temperature of 1850K; the “real” wall - the rest of the fluid body boundaries.

262

Timoshenko N.S., Semko A.N. / Simulation of the exhaust duct for EAF // Modern science: ideas, research results, technologies. - The collection of scientific articles. - Kiev: NPVK “Triakon”, 2012, No. 2 (10). - P. 1015. (in Russian) 263 Dassault Systèmes SolidWorks Corp. - http://www.solidworks.com Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Dimensions of the furnace correspond to 100 .. 120 tons modern EAF and adopted the same for options a) and б): diameter of the bath D = 5500 mm; height of the working space H = 0.6 D; electrode diameter d = 600 mm; electrodes split diameter dp = 1250 mm; the size of the slag door 700x600 mm; suction elbow cross section 1500x750 mm.

Figure 2.4.2: Gas flow trajectories in the working space for EAF with proposed off-gas removal system (а) and traditional one (б).

The objective was to obtain a calculation of the velocity field of the gas medium in the furnace with regard to off-gas removal system options a) and б) in comparable conditions and analysis, in particular the assessment of air flow in the EAF slag door. Figure 2.4.2 shows the trajectories of the gas flow in the EAF workspace.

Figure 2.4.3: Distribution of air inflows velocity (w, m/s) along slag door diagonal (b, м) for EAF with proposed off-gas removal system (а) and traditional one (б).

Visualization of the trajectories gives an indication of a less intense nature of the motion of gases in a furnace equipped with the proposed off-gas removal system (option a), compared to the traditional (option б). This, apparently, is connected with the division of a single powerful vortex in the EAF working space at the traditional pattern of two less powerful vortex and stagnation in the annular exhaust duct of improved off-gas removal system.

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The evaluation of air inflow in the EAF slag door (it opened about half of the heat cycle in connection with the operation of the manipulator for oxygen blowing the bath, sampling and temperature measurement) for gas removal systems were performed. Fig. 2.4.3 shows the calculated curves of the velocity distribution of air suction on the diagonal of the EAF slag door, obtained by solving the problem using of CosmosFloWorks application package.

According to represented data, using of exhaust duct with calculating parameters provides lowering of average air inflows velocity through EAF slag door from 11,2 to 8,2 m/s, and, correspondingly to decrease by 27% the air inflows rate in comparison with traditional off-gas removal system. Thus should be expected a corresponding reduction in consumption of graphite electrodes, that will reduce emissions of carbon dioxide from the furnace at 2.5 kg per ton of steel.

2.4.2. Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Forming the Secondary Ecosystems on Lands Changed as a Result of Human Impact 264 Anthropogenesis is accompanied not only the direct emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, but also the change of lands, on which ecosystems are losing the ability to maintain the stability of the biosphere. Thus, the land desertification, which is in itself is a global environmental problem, compound the impact of climate change.

Return of the disturbed land to a state of natural functioning of the secondary ecosystems creates the ability to run the biological mechanisms of self-regulation of the biosphere, including the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations and temperature.

Plants absorb the carbon dioxide without any additional energy and material resources consumption, without creation of waste, without environmental pollution in the automatic mode. Development of methods, technologies, technological techniques of formation of secondary ecosystems in the mode of the natural operation and assessment of their resilience to climate change presents current scientific problem.

Conducting of mining operations is accompanied by the formation of disturbed lands with total destruction of natural ecosystems: changes in the structure of the surface, exit to the surface of the lifeless rocks. Disturbed lands are a source of pollution and require the technological rehabilitation. Implementation of the technology impact on geosystem in most cases is related with the addition of substances or energy with the change of condition of the geosystem of disturbed lands. Management of technological activity creates the possibility of formation of the target type ecosystems required for sustainable development of the area, and aimed at carbon sequestration, reduction of CO2 emissions of methane.

The centuries-old experience of development of the mining industry has allowed to develop a large number of methods to influence the disturbed lands. According to the results of a formal assessment, they can be categorized by the following criteria: the direction, management mechanisms, technological features and the energy base.

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Shapar A.G., Skrypnyk O.A. / Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emission by Formation of Secondary Ecosystems on the Lands, Changes in Human Impact // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 90-94. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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In the first phase, three complexes of methods are distinguished in their fields: the formation of the secondary ecosystem, restoration and reclamation.

The complex formation of secondary ecosystems combines techniques of technological impacts on natural processes. The purpose of these methods is the creation of natural ecosystems that are most relevant to the conditions that have occurred on lands disturbed by mining activities. The natural ability of ecosystems to repair itself is the engine of processes.

It is inherent in all ecosystems which have the biotic component 265 .

Rejection of the implementation of the large-scale intervention, the need to reduce the anthropogenic impact, increase of natural part of recovery methods require the development of the formation of the secondary ecosystems based on the natural functioning. They are based on new approaches and impacts oriented to environmental results. In the process of interaction with biota the species turn into soil-forming, provide nutrients for the plants, microorganisms and animals. Formation of the secondary soil leads to depositing elements including carbon, to aggregation of granulometric elements, to the accumulation of organic matter and moisture, to the absorption of dust and gases, which helps to reduce environmental risks.

Reclamation, by definition, is a complex of activities aimed at restoring the productivity of degraded sites. Reclamation provides, first of all, the creation of layered soil-like formations 266, 267 , 268 . Traditionally, it is divided into two stages: mining and technological, and biological. Preference is given to the artificial methods – the planning, the earthing, and the creation of artificial soil profile.

The purpose of rehabilitation is to reduce the diversity of landscapes and land use in the artificial agrocenoses or forest plantations with limited biodiversity. Energy reclamation foundation is provided by operating machinery. Complex reclamation, become already traditional, requires large energy inputs, accompanied by the release of wastes, including, and greenhouse. At the individual stages of reclamation it is observed the degradation phenomena (water and wind soil erosion, death of plants, etc.).

The additional energy consumption for production of ameliorating substance and entering into of geosystem are required for the implementation of land reclamation. Meliorative works often leave after themselves salinized and solonetsous soils, over-dried peat bogs, waterlogged lands. Reclamation can significantly affect the mode of ground and surface waters, disrupt the ecological balance.

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Shapar AG Activation of self-healing biogeocenosis degraded land Krivbass / AG Shapar, OA Skrypnyk, LF Bobyr / / Bulletin of the Dnepropetrovsk State Agrarian University. - 2005. - № 1. - Pp. 15-18. (in Russian) 266 Shemavnov VI Zabaluev VA, Shepherd I. Man territory: reclamation, optimizing agricultural landscapes, ratsionalne use / / International Scientific Conference "Sustainable use of reclaimed and eroded land: Experience, Problems, Prospects" - Dnepropetrovsk: Dnepropetrovsk Agricultural University. - 2006. - P. 16-20. (in Ukrainian) 267 Some theoretical problems of rehabilitation / [Karpachevskyy LA, Zubkov TA, Shevyakova NI, Bhantsova MV] / / Math. Int. Nauk.-pr. conf. "Rational use of reclaimed and eroded land: Experience, Problems, Prospects" - Dnepropetrovsk: Dnepropetrovsk Agricultural University. - 2006. - P. 27-28. (in Russian) 268 Travleev AP Dnipropetrovsk National University - Research Center of forest reclamation of mine dumps in Ukraine (results and prospects) / AP Travleev, NM Dron, N. Belov / / Abstracts. int. conf. "Problems of Forestry reclamation Ukraine."- Dnepropetrovsk: Dnepropetrovsk National University., 2006 - P. 3-7. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Table 2.4.1: Energy intensity and wastes in the directions of rehabilitation of ecosystems Direction Agricultural reclamation Forestry reclamation Fecreational reclamation Formation of secondary ecosystems

Energy intensity, GJ/ha 470,6 303,0 157,9

Waste, t/ha 8,063 5,108 2,176

CO2 emissions, t/ha 47 30 16

34,2

0, 390

3

Formation of vegetation groups leads to the accumulation of biomass which is capable of absorbing the toxic substances, dust, greenhouse gases, to increase the secondary biodiversity surface protection against wind and runoff, which also contributes to reduce the environmental damages.

Formation of secondary ecosystem has significantly less impact on the environment than costly remediation technologies (Table 2.4.1). According to our estimates, the use of innovative technologies helps to reduce CO2 emissions by 47 tons/ha.

Technology foster the emergence of secondary soil allows to carry out utilization of organic waste of municipal, forestry, agriculture, processing industry. Adding of sewage sludge on the surface of disturbed lands involves process of formation ecosystems to 100 tons/ha of organic waste.

With total reserves of sewage sludge in enterprises CE “Krivbassvodokanal” of in 150 tons, the use of technology allows to avoid an emission of 550,000 tons of CO2 in their traditional combustion.

Secondary soil deposits carbon in the organic material during their development process. The study of the process of accumulation of organic matter indicates that the reserves of humus in the technical soil of secondary ecosystems are 10-18 tons/ha, which allows to provide deposition of 6-11 tons/ha of carbon (Table 2.4.2) for a period of 30-50 years.

The development of secondary ecosystems is accompanied by increasing their productive capacity and the rate of accumulation of organic matter. The annual accumulation of humus in the developed ecosystems of 0.5-1.0 tons/ha, carbon sequestration in this case is 0.3-0.6 tons/ha.

Table 2.4.2: The accumulation of humus and carbon sequestration in the secondary soils in the lands disturbed by mining Secondary soil Technical stony loam land reserve “Vizirka” (Inguletsky Mining and Processing Plant) Tehnozemy loess-like loams reserve “Grushevskii” (Marganetsk Mining and Processing Plant) Technical loess loam land reserve “Vershina” (Prosyana Mining and Processing Plant)

Reserves of humus, t/ha

Carbon sequestration, t/ha

10

6

15

9

18

11

The accumulation of carbon by the secondary vegetation, which consumes CO2 during photosynthesis, is even more active. Studies of secondary phytocenoses in the pilot area (dozer blade number 3 Inhuletsky Mining and Processing Plant) indicate that the secondary grasslands, the dominant species are white sweet clover and alfalfa (Table 2.4.3), show the greatest productivity.

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Table 2.4.3: Average annual productivity and carbon storage of secondary vegetation communities Plant communities Sweet Clover Alfalfa Acacia Amorfovye Oak

Net Primary Production (NPP), t/ha 95 68 55 65 5

Accumulation of carbon, t/ha 57 41 33 39 3

In general, the formation of secondary ecosystems on disturbed areas can contribute to the annual carbon sequestration of up to 82 tons/ha. The revival of all lands disturbed by mining activities can provide an annual deposit of 3 million tons of carbon in the Dnipropetrovsk region, which corresponds to the absorption of 15 million tones of CO2 and compensates industrial emissions of region. 269 .

Catastrophic changes of lands have caused the creation of the Dnieper cascade reservoirs. As a result of this large-scale transformation of nature, about 700,000 hectares of highly floodplain forests and meadows were flooded, waterlogged and saline land area of about 500,000 ha have significantly reduced productivity.

At present, water reservoirs are highly productive source of greenhouse gases, water vapor and methane.

The volume of evaporation from the surface of the reservoir is estimated at 0,9-4,1 km3/year 270,271 . Water vapor has a greenhouse effect twice exceeding the action of СО2. Thus, the evaporation from the surface of the reservoirs has an effect on the climate, similar to the influence of 1,8-8,2 billion tons/year of CO2, which greatly exceed its allocation by the entire industry of Ukraine (322 million tons).

Siltation of reservoirs has led to a significant increase in shallow water areas, especially in the Kakhovka, Kremenchug reservoirs and in the lake named after Lenin, where anaerobic decomposition processes of organic matter are developing with the release of methane. 272 .

Assessment of methane emissions in the bottom sediments of lakes and swamps of Western Siberia, the Rybinsk water reservoir indicates about the release of methane by the silts, rich with organic matter, which can reach 600-800 ml/m2 х day, или 2000-3000 m3/hа х year 273,274 . Area of shallow waters of reservoir cascade is already 280 thousand hectares and continues to increase in the siltation process. Operation of reservoirs in their present state can lead to the emission of 840 million m3 per year, or about 600 thousand tons/year. Greenhouse effect of such amounts of methane can be equivalent the action of 13 millions tons/year СО2.

269

Regional report on the state of the environment in the Dnipropetrovsk region in 2009. (in Ukrainian) Reservoirs and their impact on the environment / Otv.red. G.V.Voropaev, A.B.Avakyan. - Moscow: Nauka, 1986. - 367 p. (in Russian) 271 Mikhailov, VN Hydrology / VNMikhailov, AD Dobrovolsky, S.A.Dobrolyubov. - M.: Higher School, 2005. 463 p. (in Russian) 272 Reservoirs and their impact on the environment / Otv.red. G.V.Voropaev, A.B.Avakyan. - Moscow: Nauka, 1986. - 367 p. (in Russian) 273 Gal'chenko VF Dulov LE, and other biogeochemical processes of methane cycle in soils, swamps and lakes of West Siberia / / Microbiology, 2001, Vol 70, № 2 - S. 215-225. (in Russian) 274 AN Dzyuban Methane and microbiological processes to transform it into water reservoirs in the Upper / / Water, 2002, V. 29, № 1. - S. 68-78. (In Russian) 270

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Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved by restructuring of water reservoirs or by changing of their operation mode. Department of shallow waters of reservoirs by dams allows to reduce the area of evaporation from aquatic surface and the release of methane of bottom sediments. However, this method requires a large expenditure of material and energy resources. At the same time, its use does not preclude secondary swamping of polders. It is easier to reduce the level of reservoirs, what will lead to losses in the production of hydroelectric power, but will reduce the area of the mirror and shallow waters 275 . Radical solution to many environmental problems The Dnieper River Basin is a gradual descent of water reservoirs 276 .

Formation of secondary ecosystems on the lands which left from under flooding by reservoirs, will create productive floodplain communities. Our research flood-plain vegetation of Dnieper-Orel natural reserve, studies of other authors 277 indicate that the average biological productivity of woody and herbaceous flood-plain ecosystems can be 15 tons/ha-year. Carbon sequestration in this case will reach 10 tons/ha-year that provide absorption 50 tons/ha-year CO2. According to our estimates up to 600 hectares of disturbed land can get out of flooding when descending the Dnipro reservoirs. Formation of secondary ecosystems on these lands will provide absorption of 30 million tons/year СО2.

Waterlogged now The Dnieper floodplain in the natural state has formed the basin ecosystem stability. Due to the floodplain, optimal indexes of woodiness was retaining even in the steppe zone (8%). Floodplain ecosystems have contributed to the migration of living organisms in the meridional direction, to the exchange of genetic material. At the same time, the extensive floodplain gave the inexhaustible sources of the biological resources and organic products.

Functioning of water reservoirs, constructed in the industrial age, counteract the fulfillment of the requirements for sustainable development of the country today.

Agricultural lands are dominated in the structure of land resources of Ukraine (71%). Arable land is 32.5 million hectares (53.8%), our country is superior to most of the CIS and Europe on the indicator of plowed lands. Formation of the land management was occurring on the basis of political necessity, which excluded consideration of environmental capacity of the territory. Using a sharp slope, sandy, saline, salinized lands under cultivation has led to their rapid degradation and loss of productivity. According to our estimated that today about 480 million hectares of arable land is in need of conservation only in the Dnipropetrovsk region.

In accordance with the environmental conditions it is necessary to create a man-made forests, improved grass stands for use as a hayfields and pastures. Providing a natural mode of operation of the secondary ecosystem, it is possible for at least 3 months to extend the growing season, including, for photosynthetic absorption of СО2. Conservation of arable land will allow to reach the intensification of carbon deposition on the 4 tons/ha-year, absorption about 20 tons/ha-year of СО2. Thus, it is possible to provide only within the Dnipropetrovsk region the absorption up to 10 million tons/year of CO2, accounting for 60% of industrial emissions in the region.

275

Dem'yanov V. Save the Dnieper / / Environmental safety: Ukrainian official newspaper. - 2011. - № 1-2 (78). (In Russian) 276 Shapar AG, Skrypnyk OO, Smetana S. Ecological and economic problems transferring the Dnieper river ecosystems for sustainable operation / / Ecology and Environmental Sciences: Proc. Science. publications of the Institute of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine. - 2011. - Issue 14. - S. 26-49. (in Ukrainian) 277 Bazilevich NI Biological productivity of the ecosystems of northern Eurasia - Moscow: Nauka, 1993 - 293 p.

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From the above we can draw the following conclusions: 1. The absorption of industrial emissions of greenhouse gases of Ukraine is possible as a result of the rationalization of land use by transferring disturbed and degraded lands in the natural mode of operation.

2. The greatest environmental benefits can be achieved by the withdrawal of land from the flooding of the Dnieper cascade reservoirs.

2.4.3. Material Recycling and Long-term Storage of CO2 in the Form of Magnesium Carbonate Due to the greatly increased in recent years and the urgency of the problem of disposing of long-term storage of CO2 are becoming increasingly popular various technologies of geological CO2 storage in different geologic formations. One of the main advantages of this type of waste CO2 storage is indicated for a long time (several thousand years). The data about the processes occurring in the geological storage of CO2 derived theoretically using a variety of modeling techniques, and the time process monitoring of CO2 storage in existing projects is estimated at best two decades.

All of the Earth's crust is riddled geological faults of different ranks having different depth and length, which is why there is the inevitable migration of CO2 over time to the surface of the earth. This is an inevitable process, the speed of which depends on numerous factors, many of which are predicted theoretically impossible. This is the main drawback of the geological storage of CO2.

One possible alternative solutions recycling CO2 significantly prolonging the retention time (up to millions of years) is the chemical bonding of CO2 in stable conditions in the terrestrial space compounds known naturally occurring minerals and their subsequent storage. Among the possible technical solutions indicated carbonation of alkali metals in the course of chemical reactions, which are obtained at the output stable to weathering carbonate, calcite (CaCO3) and magnesite (MgCO3).

Magnesite and calcite are the rock-forming minerals such rock as dolomite and limestone. A variety of limestone are widely distributed in the earth's crust in the sedimentary rocks, and have, as a rule, organogenic, to a lesser extent - beds of origin.

Carbonates of calcium and magnesium are non-toxic, extremely resistant to chemical degradation (reverse reaction of decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide takes place at temperatures of 900-1000째C, magnesium carbonate, - at temperatures of 500 or more) and can be stored in the open countryside and for the ground.

Time of storage of CO2 utilized in the form of carbonates may be hundreds of millions of years (some limestones are aged 0.5 billion years). However, such a solution and recycling the CO2 contains significant problems. One of them is the large quantities of calcium and magnesium oxides needed for binding large mass of CO2.

In industry, the calcium oxide is obtained by the thermal decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate, resulting in the released carbon dioxide (carbonation backlash). Naturally, this method is not suitable as mass of CO2 released and absorbed in the best case, will be equal.

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Consequently, oxides of calcium and magnesium to be found in natural compounds in the rocks and minerals that form them. Oxides of magnesium and calcium present in the calciummagnesium silicate, e.g. olivine.

Carbonation reaction of calcium-magnesium silicates is reduced generally to mean: (Ca/Mg)silicate + СО2 = Ca/Mg(CO3) + SiO2.

Numerous publications explore the various ways technology carbonation of calciummagnesium silicates in specially equipped devices, autoclaves, which create the necessary thermo-baric mode 278, 279 , 280 .

In general, the carbonization cycle calcium magnesium silicate is a complicated manufacturing process is energy intensive. A large proportion of the energy is spent on obtaining a concentrate, which includes the development of calcium-magnesium silicates career or way of mining, as well as the processing, enrichment and separation in the mining and processing enterprise. High energy consumption can create this kind of unprofitable disposal of CO2.

The solution to high energy is cheaper CO2 carbonation process of oxides of calcium and magnesium, and the search for alternative chemical reactions requiring less energy consumption.

One of the earliest experiments carbonization Mg-containing silicates have been studies using hydrochloric acid HCl, made at the National Laboratory, Los Alamos (LANL) (Butt et al 1996, 1997, 1998) 281, 282 , 283 ; (Lackner et al, 1996, 1997) 284,285 .

As the starting component used serpentine Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 or olivine Mg2SiO4, from which by means of chemical reactions with hydrochloric acid was obtained magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2. Magnesium hydroxide saturated with CO2 to form carbonate, magnesite (MgCO3): Mg3Si2O5(OH)4=MgCl2*6H2O=MgCl(OH)=Mg(OH)2=MgCO3.

278

Guthrie, G. D., J. W. Carey, D. Bergfeld, S. Chipera, H.-J. Ziock, K. Lackner (2001): Geochemical Aspects of the Carbonation of Magnesium Silicates in Aqueous Medium; Los Alamos National Laboratory.

279 Huijgen, W.J.J. & R.N.J. Comans (2005): Carbon dioxide sequestration by mineral carbonation. Literature review update 2003-2004. Energy research Centre of The Netherlands, Petten, The Netherlands, ECN-C-05-022.

280 O'Connor, W.K., D.C. Dahlin, D.N. Nilsen, R.P. Walters, and P.C. Turner (2000): Carbon dioxide sequestration by direct mineral carbonation with carbonic acid; 25th international technical conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA. 281 Butt, D. P., K. S. Lackner, C. H. Wendt, S. D. Conzone, H. Kung, Y.-C. Lu, J. Bremser (1996): Kinetics of Thermal Dehydroxylation and Carbonation of Magnesium Hydroxide; J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 79, 1982–1898 282 Butt, D.P., K.S. Lackner, C.H. Wendt, Y.S. Park, A. Bejamin, D.M. Harradine, T. Holesinger, M. Rising, and K. Nomura (1997): A method for permanent disposal of CO2 in solid form; World Resource Review 9 (3): pp 324-336.

283 Butt, D.P., K.S. Lackner, and C.H. Wendt (1998): The kinetics of binding carbon dioxide in magnesium carbonate; 23th international conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA. 284 Lackner, K.S., D.P. Butt, C.H. Wendt, and D.H. Sharp (1996): Carbon dioxide disposal in solid form; 21st international conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA: pp 133 – 144.

285 Lackner, K.S., D.P. Butt, and C.H. Wendt (1997): Magnesite disposal of carbon dioxide; 22th international conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA. Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Further calculations showed that the energy consumption of the whole process for recycling exceed the energy produced, for example, power-to-weight ratio of CO2 and material costs exceed € 150/tonnu CO2 286 . In this regard, further research in this area has been undertaken.

As will be shown below, the use of other sources of mineral raw materials may significantly change the material and energy costs, and determine the cost-effectiveness of the process. It is proposed to use as the source component is not magnesium - containing silicates and magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCl2 * 6H2O), which is the same as the serpentine, is known in nature as the mineral bischofite.

When using bischofite no need for a complicated process of extraction and enrichment of magnesium - containing silicates. At the output of the same is not a by-product of the process - silica, which must be disposed of. The resulting output hydrochloric acid is not involved in the iterative process, and can be used for industrial needs.

Bischofite at reservoir conditions is a solid crystalline salt with a specific weight of 1.6 g/cm3 and a hardness of 1-2. The main rock-forming mineral is in the rock to 99% of the basic substance, other - isomorphic bromine impurity (0.45-0.9%), calcium chloride, potassium, sodium, sulfate minerals, autologous quartz and trace elements.

In the form of mineral accumulations bischofite found in many salt deposits and salt lakes of the world, among which was the largest and most accessible to development: the Gulf of Kara-Bogaz-Gol, the Dead Sea in Israel, the field “Biliton” in the Netherlands and some other fields in Australia, United States, Russia, Ukraine and other countries.

Bischofite salt on the territory of Ukraine are deposited in the form of extended reservoir bodies. Plast bischofite opened by drilling at depths of 1700-5000 m in the various depressions Dnieper-Donets basin and Bakhmutskaya Basin and is a system of lenses and lens-like layers with layers of siltstone and saline aleuropelites capacity of 2-35 m or more.

The content bischofite is 40-95%. Bischofite can be mined by underground leaching, which significantly reduces the cost of its acquisition.

It is proposed carbonization process bischofite salts, which consists of the following chemical reactions: MgCl2*6H2O(l) ~250 °С→ 2MgClOH(s) +H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s)+CO2(g) →

MgClOH(s)+HCl(g)+5H2O(g) +103,3 кДж/моль Mg(OH)2(s)+MgCl2(l) -206,5 кДж/моль MgCO3(s)+H2O(l) -81,1 кДж/моль

(1) (2) (3)

The first reaction is endothermic and takes place with heat absorption. Two further reactions are exothermic.

The first cycle of the process involves thermal decomposition bischofite water, hydroxochloride magnesium (MgClOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). MgClOH precipitated and separated from the aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. The second cycle is the dissociation reaction MgClOH in water to form a magnesium chloride - MgCl2 and magnesium hydroxide - Mg(OH)2.

286

IEA GHG (2000): CO2 storage as carbonate minerals; prepared by CSMA Consultants Ltd, PH3/17, Cheltenham, United Kingdom.

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Magnesium chloride was dissolved in water and magnesium hydroxide precipitates and is the main component in the carbonization process. Dissolved magnesium chloride is removed together with the solution for reuse. In the hydrolysis process, it forms magnesium hydrochloride and hydrochloric acid: MgCl2+Н2О~200-260 °С →

MgClOH+HCl

(4)

Equilibrium reactions under normal conditions is shifted to the left, the hydrolysis rate significantly increases with the MgCl2 solution is heated to a temperature in the range 200260°C 287 .

Carbonization process can be done in two ways: by impregnating the recovered magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide in a gas-solid phase (3) or aerated salt solution. The propose to conduct laboratory studies of carbonation MgClOH by dissolving in an aqueous solution of carbonic acid. The joint reaction between Mg2+ cations and anions CO32-, magnesite will be deposited immediately, without prior extraction of magnesium hydroxide: CO2(g) → CO2(l) + H2O→ H2CO3 → HCO3– → MgClOH → Cl–+ H+ → Mg2++CO32– →

CO2(l) H2CO3 H++HCO3– H+ + CO32– Mg2+ + Cl– + (OH)– HCl MgCO3

National Laboratory in Los Alamos (LANL) studies were performed on the saturation of magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide in the gas-solid phase. Studies have shown that at atmospheric pressure and room temperature the reaction rate is extremely slow.

According to the findings, the reaction rate of carbonation Mg(OH)2 depends on the temperature, increasing as the temperature approaches dissociation MgCO3 (400-500°C and above). Low dissociation MgCO3 increases with pressure, so the simultaneous increase in temperature and pressure considerably accelerates carbonation reaction Mg(OH)2 and reverse slow dissociation MgCO3 (Figure 2.4.4).

In the experiments noted achieve 90% completion of the reaction at a temperature of 565°C and a pressure of 52 atm. (5.269 MPa) 30 minutes 288 . Just carbonation reaction rate was strongly dependent on the size of the crystals Mg(OH)2.

Precipitating magnesium carbonate is the end product of carbonation. Known naturally as minerals magnesite and dolomite, this product can be used in industry or waste stored in mines or quarries. Not be used magnesite obtained in any processes leading to its decomposition and release of free carbon dioxide. Magnesium carbonate under normal conditions - very stable compound which is decomposed with carbon dioxide at a temperature of 500 ° C or more.

287

Lackner, K.S., D.P. Butt, and C.H. Wendt (1997): Magnesite disposal of carbon dioxide; 22th international conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA. 288 Butt, D.P., K.S. Lackner, and C.H. Wendt (1998): The kinetics of binding carbon dioxide in magnesium carbonate; 23th international conference on coal utilization and fuel systems, Clearwater, FL, USA. Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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BISCHOFITE

MAGNESITE

Figure 2.4.4: Diagram of chemical reactions carbonation bischofite salts.

Utilization of CO2 through the carbonation is a promising direction for the eastern part of Ukraine, as the main focus here share the sources of carbon dioxide, as well as there are virtually unlimited opportunities for long-term storage of waste produced magnesite quarries fluxing limestone and dolomite in the south of Donetsk region.

The important point is also that in Donetsk and Kharkiv regions within Bakhmutskaya and Kalmius-Toretskoy basins are extensive deposits bischofite.

Dnieper-Donets depression has a huge potential for mining bischofite. Thus, the stocks of only one most explored at the moment Novopodolskogo bischofite field, located in the Chernihiv region, estimated at 1.68 billion tonnes at 10 m isopach is easy to calculate that the method proposed by the authors can be disposed of 0.36 billion tons of CO2, using the resources of only one Novopodolskogo field.

This will generate 0.7 billion tons of magnesite and 0.6 billion tones of hydrochloric acid, industrial use which may be partially recoup the costs.

The total estimated resources bischofite brines containing 1670-3670 g/l in the DnieperDonets basin is no less than 50 km3.

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2.4.4. Analysis of the Feasibility of Biomonitoring Programs of CO2 Leakages from the Storage Facilities, Located in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine 289 The purpose of the analysis was to examine the prospects for the use of plant organisms for the diagnosis of the environment quality in the aspect of elevated CO2 concentrations for the implementation of regional environmental phytomonitoring (as part of a planned biomonitoring at national level) in industrialized regions.

Phytoindication ecological expertise is considered by us as a complex of the monitoring activities to establish the significance of the reaction of plant organisms on the effect of a particular environmental factor – a specific indication of the different levels of organization of living matter and the extent of use of landscape units.

Thus, we consider any information that can be extracted from the vegetation organism at different levels of the organization, as part of the indication base used for monitoring and expert programs.

If we consider the idea of the possibility of using plants for evaluation and indication of undesirable elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide in the environment, it is necessary to bear in mind the many aspects of plant organisms response to the action of carbonic acid with account of specific character of laboratory-research approach and the levels of organization of the natural matter: - The study of chloroplasts and photosynthetic pathways of transition to the conditions of a warm and dry climate 290 ; - The combined consequences of the influence of elevated carbon dioxide concentration on photosynthesis at the higher plants under controlled ecological life support systems 291 ; - Analysis of change of atmospheric CO2 as a characteristic feature of environmental history in the period of developing vascular plants, adaptation mechanisms of plants in the conditions of different concentrations of carbon dioxide, the increase of CO2 to increase productivity quantitative genetics and selection approaches; it is assumed that a radical change in the gas composition of the atmosphere (at the catastrophic climate change) can significantly impact on the phenotype of plants; the significant leaps in productivity are possible, as well as the changes in the enzyme composition, the structural changes in the plants needed for C4 photosynthesis in the leaves of C3 - an evolutionary context and physiological integration of the responses of plants to changes in carbon dioxide concentrations 292 ;

289

Safonov A.I. / Biomonitoring Methods Possible Leakage of CO2 from the Storage // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 59-63. (in Russian) 290 Baldocchi D. The grass response // Nature. Vol 476, 11 August 2011, 160-162.

291 Hu E., Tong L., Liu H. Mixed effects of CO2 concentration on photosynthesis of lettuce in a closed // Ecological Engineering 37 (2011), 2082-2086.

292 Leakey A.D.B., Lau J.A. Evolutionary context for understanding and manipulating plant responses to past, present and future atmospheric [CO2] // doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0248. – Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2012) 367, 613629.

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- Physiological processes of photosynthesis activity, of the effectiveness of the yield and concentration of carbon dioxide in controlled conditions, photorespiration and taxonomic relation in the use of different groups of plants - with a decrease in the effectiveness of photorespiration, the strategy of spending carbon dioxide in assimilation organs of different groups of plant organisms 293 ; - Various technologies of the assessment of carbon balance in mountain ecosystems on changing of woody biomass, net ecosystem production and soil carbon concentration 294 ; - Evolutionary significance of carbon dioxide with the emergence of eukaryotes over billions of years 295 ; study of fossil leaves of the plants for establishing of retrospective scenarios of biological past of environment and for climate prediction based on the levels of carbon dioxide in the environment – high informativity of biomechanical and biochemical characteristics in a multi-dimensional approach 296 ; - Modeling of the climate scenarios of the change communities of vegetable organisms and micro-ecosystem of the corresponding points on the surface 297 ; assessment of the carbon balance at cultivation of cypress plantations and harvesting in temperate forests 298 ; relationship of community types of wood and grass in their competition in certain regions of the planet, which is associated with the carbon cycle on a global scale 299 ; assessment of the impact of elevated CO2 concentrations on the adventitious plants (listed, the flora of other regions), ornamental plants are compared 300 ; - Correlative processes of the climate change and forest ecosystem condition, 12 forecast scenarios which combine biomass growth, the processes of decay, the rotting, the breathing, possible fires and catastrophic intervention of insects, the release of greenhouse gases ( with the carbon budget model of Canadian forest sector), monitoring of forests in response to global climate change, current adapted strategies of forest management, global efforts to minimize the transforming impact of climate change on the forest 301 ;

293

Vats S.K., Kumar S., Ahuja P.S. CO2 sequestration in plants: lesson from divergent strategies // Photosynthetica. – 49 (4). – 2011, 481-496.

294 Etzold S., Ruehr N.K., Zweifel R., Dobbertin M. The Carbon Balance of Two Contrasting Mountain Forest Ecosystems in Switzerland: Similar Annual Trends, but Seasonal Differences // Ecosystems (2011) 14, 12891309.

295 Bergengren J.C., Waliser D.E., Yung Y.L. Ecological sensitivity: a biospheric view of climate change // Climatic Change. (2011) 107. – 433-457.

296 Jordan G.J. A critical framework for the assessment of biological palaeoproxies: predicting past climate and levels of atmospheric CO2 from fossil leaves // New Phytologist. (2011) 192, 29-44.

297 Bergengren J.C., Waliser D.E., Yung Y.L. Ecological sensitivity: a biospheric view of climate change // Climatic Change. (2011) 107. – 433-457.

298 Ueyama M., Kai A., Ichii K., Hamotani K., Kosugi Y., Monjia N. The sensitivity of carbon sequestration to harvesting and climate conditions in a temperate cypress forest: Observations and modeling // Ecological Modelling. 222 (2011), 3216-3225.

299 Bond W.J., Midgley G.F. Carbon dioxide and the uneasy interactions of trees and savannah grasses // Phil.

Trans. R. Soc. B. – (2012) 367, 601-612.

300 Runion G.B., Finegan H.M. Effects of Elevated Atmospheric CO2 on Non-Native Plants: Comparison of Two Important Southeastern Ornamentals // Environ. Control Biol. – Volume 49, № 3. – 2011, 107-117.

301 Metsaranta J.M., Dymond C.C., Kurz W.A., et al. Uncertainty of 21st century growing stocks and GHG balance of forests in British Columbia, Canada resulting from potential climate change impacts on ecosystem processes // Forest Ecology and Management. 262 (2011), 827-837.

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- Physiological responses of different species of lichens in the condition of pollution by toxic gases 302 ; - The impact of increased concentrations of carbon dioxide on plants in the conditions of different soil structures (biophysical parameters of the soil), temperature, humidity and soil moisture content, the assessment of biomass and crop of plants, root index, the enzymatic activity 303 ; - Physiological responses of mosses under elevated concentrations of carbonic acid – the theory of the expansion of thermotolerance of photosynthesis, the special sensitivity of bryophytes to the factor of carbon dioxide in terms of heat stress 304 ; - Stomatal response of laboratory test plants to different concentrations of carbon dioxide in the air – the epidermal structuring factor at the growth of plants in the conditions of different environmental scenarios, obtaining the required stomatal density at the genetic manipulation 305 ; - Transformation in the structure of the mesophyll leaf blades, the role of specific proteins that contribute to the diffusion of carbon dioxide and the permeability of the membrane structures in vivo laboratory cultivation of plants, the relation of these processes to the brightness and moisture – evaluation of mesophyll conductance of CO2 306 ; mesophyll conductance in the leaves of monocots and Peclet effect, the duration of photosynthetic enzymes 307 ; fluctuations in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide in the direction of its increase can and lead to changes in the competitive relationship between weeds and crops on the example of tomatoes and amaranth: these experimental data prove that the increase in CO2 may exacerbate the competitive relationship between the two groups of plants C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways with increasing drought – a physiological or unavailability of moisture 308 ;

302

Häffner E., Lomský B., Hynek V. Air pollution and lichen physiology. Physiological Responses of Different Lichens in a Transplant Experiment Following an SO2-Gradient // Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. – 131: 2001, 185-201.

303 Saha S., Chakraborty D., Pal M., Nagarajan S. Impact of elevated CO2 on utilization of soil moisture and associated soil biophysical parameters in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) // Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. – 142 (2011), 213-221.

304 Coe K.K., Belnap J., Grote E.E., Sparks J.P. Physiological ecology of desert biocrust moss following 10 years exposure to elevated CO2: evidence for enhanced photosynthetic thermotolerance // Physiologia Plantarum 144, 2012, 346-356.

305 Doheny-Adams T., Hunt L., Franks P.J. Genetic manipulation of stomatal density influences stomatal size, plant growth and tolerance to restricted water supply across a growth carbon dioxide gradient // Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2012) 367, 547-555.

306 Flexas J., Ribas-Carbo´ M., Hanson D.T., Bota J., Otto B., Cifre J., McDowell N. Tobacco aquaporin NtAQP1 is involved in mesophyll conductance to CO2 in vivo // The Plant Journal (2006) 48, 427-439.

307 Kodama N., Cousins A., Tu K.P., Barbour M.M. Spatial variation in photosynthetic CO2 carbon and oxygen isotope discrimination along leaves of the monocot triticale (Triticum X Secale) relates to mesophyll conductance and the Péclet effect // doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2011.02352.x. Plant, Cell and Environment (2011) 34, 1548-1562.

308 Valerio M., Tomecek M.B., Lovelli S., Ziska L.H. Quantifying the effect of drought on carbon dioxideinduced changes in competition between a C3 crop (tomato) and a C4 weed (Amaranthus retroflexus) // European Weed Research, Society Weed Research. 2011, 51, 591-600.

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- Detection of the leakage of CO2 by the spectral characteristics of vegetation to evaluate the effects of high concentrations of CO2 in the soil for vegetational facilities - the ratio of chlorophyll and carotenoids, reduced vegetation index, the ratio of chlorophyll A and B 309 ; - Organization of monitoring leakage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from the ground by the method of multiple spectral images of vegetation, based on the induced plant stress; results of the regression analysis of reflection and normalized difference vegetation index over time show a significant correlation between the concentration of carbon dioxide and images that testify to the effectiveness of this method for controlling leakage of CO2; analysis of vegetation indices is performed 310 ; - Negative impacts on biodiversity, which may arise as a result implementation of the program of the misplaced (irregular, incorrect) planting of trees, even if this program is aimed at reducing of emissions of carbon dioxide for effective ways of changing climate: destruction of indigenous (local) flora and vegetation for new plantings of tree plantations, planting species of trees, which may have an invasive ability and disrupt the phytosanitary balance of territory; tree plantation may negatively affect the key ecosystems and cause dangerous processes, such as fire, disruption of the hydrological regime 311 ; - Technologies of construction and functional activity while creating “green roofs” on the roofs of houses to mitigate the effects of pollution and it is assumed the development of improved growing substrates 312 ; - The experimental installations to determine the carbon balance when moving plants from one climatic region to another, and vice versa: the factors of humidity and drought impacts on ecosystems in the microcosms 313 ; - Important issues into the life of human populations are considered in the light of criteria for analyzing the urban environment, environmental pollution 314 .

Practical geological sequestration will require long-term monitoring to detect possible leakage of CO2 into the atmosphere. One of the potential methods for monitoring is a multi-spectral image of reflectance of vegetation to determine the leakage through the study of stress in plants caused by CO2. Several spectral features for simultaneous reception for green, red and near-infrared images in real time under certain conditions of the calibration were used.

309

Lakkaraju V.R., Zhou X., Apple M.E., Dobeck L.M. Studying the vegetation response to simulated leakage of sequestered CO2 using spectral vegetation indices // Ecological Informatics. – 5 (2010), 379-389.

310 Rouse J., Shaw J.A., Lawrence R.L., Lewicki J.L., et al. Multi-spectral imaging of vegetation for detecting CO2 leaking from underground // Environ. Earth Sci. (2010) 60: 313-323.

311 Lindenmayer D.B., Hulvey K.B., Hobbs R.J., Colyvan M., Felton A., Possingham H., Steffen W., Youngentob K., Gibbons P. Avoiding bio-perversity from carbon sequestration solutions // Conservation Letters.

5 (2012), 28-36.

312 Rowe D.B. Green roofs as a means of pollution abatement // Environmental Pollution. 159 (2011), 21002110.

313 Wu Z., Koch G.W., Dijkstra P., Bowker M.A. Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Climate Change Treatments Along an Elevation Gradient // Ecosystems (2011) 14, 1066-1080.

314 Manning W.J. Urban environment: Defining its nature and problems and developing strategies to overcome obstacles to sustainability and quality of life // Environmental Pollution. – 159 (2011), 1963-1964.

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The results of the regression analysis on the groups of reflections and normalized difference vegetation index over time show a significant correlation with the degree of this indicator of removal from the source of the contamination, which indicates the suitability of this method for controlling leakage of carbon dioxide 315 .

Thus, the study subjects to high concentrations of carbon dioxide thematically cover a wide range of problems, whose solution not only require a comprehensive approach, multidisciplinary diagnosis, but also have practical importance.

Biological issues associated with various (mostly high or increased) concentrations of carbon dioxide have multidirectional vector and are discussed as in the evolutionary, climatic, globalcontinental, well as in highly specialized molecular genetic, structural and physiological issues at the level of a single cell, tissue, organs, organ systems, individual organisms, populations, and even heterogeneous communities of the level of biomes.

This approach allowed not only to outline the importance of the issues, but also to choose some of the principal feasibility of scientific programs by Ukrainian scientists.

Considering specificity of work and research areas, Ukrainian scientists can be called perspective and possible to implement the following areas related to the experimental study of the effects of high or elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in the environment: - Phytoindication aspect, the implementation of the monitoring screening using plants; - Mapping and zoning of territories representing the environmental risk; - The establishment of sensitivity thresholds of biological indicators in the communities of indigenous species; - Diagnostics of the transformation of natural landscapes on the example of urbangeosystems; - Diagnostics of the degree of suitability of primary landscapes to economic activity; - Development of automated systems for the assessment of the dynamics of changing environmental factor indicators; - Development of programs for the study the behavioral strategies plants in the conditions of a transformed environment of the industrial region; - Conducting the environmental impact assessments in the territories of different target destination; - Assessment of pollution levels and degrees of disturbance of ecotypes for the purpose of feasible complex adjustments situation considering multifactor analysis.

With such specific programs Ukrainian scientists need a corresponding hardware at the level of chlorophyll, cell of functional fabrics, sensors for integrated monitoring, systems of data visualization.

315

Rouse J., Shaw J.A., Lawrence R.L., Lewicki J.L., et al. Multi-spectral imaging of vegetation for detecting CO2 leaking from underground // Environ. Earth Sci. (2010) 60: 313-323.

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2.4.5. Assessment of the Possibilities of Optimizing the Placement of Underground CO2 Storage and of Ensuring their Monitoring Using the Complex of Geophysical Methods 316 Proceeding from analysis of the results of the foreign experience on the CO2 storage taking into account the features of the geological structure the Donets Basin, a number of the areas in eastern Ukraine potentially suitable for storage of carbon dioxide was determined. The selection of the sites was done on the basis of the results of prospecting and exploration work carried out by specialized companies in different years.

At the same time the geological environment of eastern Ukraine is in a evolutional state under the influence of industrial agglomeration. The considered area is largely urbanized, and is characterized by high concentration of industrial production which has a negative impact on the geological array. There are more than 800 industrial and 470 agricultural enterprises in the Donetsk region, the base of mining and metallurgical, chemical and machine-building complex of the country is concentrated here.

The changing of the hydrogeological situation caused by the closing and the flooding of coal mines which leads to subsidence of the earth's surface above the mine workings, to the rise of groundwater level and becomes one of the factors of the disequilibrium of the geological environment, has a significant impact on the geological area of the array. Most of the prospective sites are located in the area of cover slightly water permeable soils underlain by impermeable rocks of the tectonically disturbed, geomechanical unstable and lithology contrasting rock mass.

Consequently, in order to ensure safe storage of carbon dioxide in geological formations on the east of Ukraine, it is necessary to make a qualitative assessment of potential storage, select the most corresponding to the conditions of long-term storage of CO2 and to provide a reliable monitoring system of their condition during operation. Solution of the problem of optimizing the placement of underground CO2 storage and of ensuring monitoring of their condition from the Earth's surface is possible with the use of geophysical methods. Coal three-dimensional (3D) seismic exploration and deep magnetotelluric sounding (MT, AMT) in conjunction with the shooting of the gas (CO2, CH4, etc.) on the surface above the storage CO2 (Figure 2.4.5-7) is understood as a complex of geophysical methods.

Specified complex methods will allow to estimate the physic-mechanical and physical properties of water of the array, pre-selected for use as storage CO2, and to assess its fracturing and the presence of filtration ways of CO2 from the storage to the surface and into the environment with the identification of possible environmental risks of the future operation of the facility. In this case, data allowing sufficient detail divide the array both vertically and laterally will be obtained. The experience of the application of these methods for solving similar tasks is set out in the supplemental and technical literature 317,318 .

316

Antsiferov A.V., Kyselov M.M., Tumanov V.V., Filatov V.F. / Optimization of Underground Storage of CO2 for the Monitoring of the State of a Complex of Geophysical Methods // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 8-11. (in Russian) 317 Ogilvy A.A. / Fundamentals of Engineering Geophysics. - Moscow: Nedra, 1990. - 468 pp.

318 Nikitin V.N. / Fundamentals of Engineering Seismology. - Moscow: Moscow State University, 1981. – 176 pp.

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Therefore, the optimization of location of underground CO2 storage and monitoring of their condition during the operation in the industrial regions of Ukraine are a new direction of geotechnical survey work, which can be realized with the earth's surface using a mix of geophysics methods, which will allow to greatly reduce the cost of preliminary studies of the geological features storage of CO2.

Expected tectonic disturbance

Figure 2.4.5: Visualization of the tectonic disturbance as a result of the interpretation of geophysical and deformation anomalies, with detailing of the profile lines of observation and lithological heterogeneities Time sections

Deep cuts

Figure 2.4.6: Temporal deep and seismological cuts Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Profile No. 1

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Figure 2.4.7: Results of the seismic-acoustic probing on profiles

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2.4.6. Porosity Determination of Rocks, which are Prospective for the Geological Storage of CO2, According to the Data of X-ray Tomography on the Synchrotron 319 One of the key parameters of the gas-bearing capacity of the rocks is porosity, which is defined as the ratio of pore volume to the total volume of rock. Due to the lack of the special probe sampling of the potential sites suitable for CO2 storage, used samples that previously were taken for other purposes from the sediment of Donbass, but which are located close to the potential CO2 storage sites and are related to the relevant horizons.

Therefore, the sandstone samples (Table 2.4.4), taken from the wells drilled within Belaievsky dome close to s. Belyaevka, Pervomaisky district, Kharkiv region (see point 8 of Figure 1.6.3) were used for the researches of porosity.

Table 2.4.4: Parameters of sandstone samples to determine porosity No. sample No. well Well depth, m

1 8 210

2 5 323

3 31 349

4 10 343

Samples rocks in the form of cylinders of 20 mm height and 8 mm in diameter were selected for study. Preliminary assessment of porosity were obtained using X-ray computed tomography. These studies were carried out in the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility 320 , Grenoble (France). Then the data were processed by software Avizo Fire 321 .

4 samples with twofold and tenfold increase was investigated by using software Avizo Fire.

The following steps must be performed to calculate the volume of porosity: to remove the “noise”; to remove the matrix material (rock), leaving only the pores; to perform threedimensional recovery of the pores and counting of the pore volume.

To eliminate the "noise" it is necessary to filter out the image (Figure 2.4.8). In this application there are various embodiments of filters. In our case, the choice was between two filters: Edge-preserving and Median 322,323 .

At first glance, it might seem that the data processed by the Edge-preserving filter is smoother, however, on closer examination, it is clear that the boundaries have blurred (which leads to some loss of data), and there are additional inclusions.

319

Beskrovnaya M.V., Yurchenko V.V., Kobchenko M. / Determination of Porosity of the Rocks, the Potential for Geological Storage of CO2, According to the Data of X-Ray Tomography on the Synchrotron // Collection of Scientific Papers of the International Scientific and Practical Symposium on “Low-Carbon Open Innovation for Regions of Ukraine”, Volume 2 (Editors: S.V. Bespalova and N.S. Shestavin) - LCOI-Reviews: Low-Carbon Open Innovation Reviews, No. 11, 30.11.2012. - Donetsk: Southeast Publishing, 2012. – P. 12-15. (in Russian) 320 European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. – http://www.esrf.eu 321 Visualization Sciences Group an FEI Company: Avizo Fire. - http://www.vsg3d.com/avizo/fire 322 Osetrov V.V., Shestavin N.S., Yurchenko V.V. / Assessment of Geological Storage of CO2 in the Sediments of the Donbass // Modern Science: Current Issues of Theory and Practice - A Series of “Natural and Technical Sciences”, 2012. – No. 6/7. – P. 43-49. (in Russian) 323 Shestavin M.S., Bezkrovna M.V., Osetrov V.V., Yurchenko V.V. / Preliminary Assessment of the Potential CO2 Sources and Sinks of the Eastern Ukraine // Proceedings in Advanced Research in Scientific Areas (ARSA 2012) – The 1st Virtual International Conference (Slovak Republic, Zilina, December 3-7, 2012.). – Zilina: University of Zilina, 2012. – P. 1374-1380. (in English) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Therefore, preference was given to the filter Median. The original data (a) and the data filtered by the filter Median (b) are shown for comparison in Figure 2.4.8.

Đ°) The original data

b) The data processed by filter Median

Figure 2.4.8: Example of data filtering Further it is necessary to remove the matrix material (rock), leaving only the pores. To do this, we use the function Thresholding (classification of thresholds). Pores selected from the total set of data are shown in Figure 2.4.9 for the samples 1 and 2 respectively (at the tenfold magnification).

Đ°) Sample 1

b) Sample 2

Figure 2.4.9: The result of the use of the Thresholding function Calculating the number and volume of pores are made using the function I_analyze. After that, we can see a drawing of all the pores in a volume image where the entire pores, in other words, a clusters of interconnected pores, which can store CO2 in a supercritical state (Figures 2.4.10-11), are shown by each individual color (shade of gray).

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b) Sample 2

а) Sample 1

Figure 2.4.10: The process of the calculation of the pore volume recovery Summing the volume of all the pores and considering the value of the sample volume, it is possible to determine the relative pore volume (Table 2.4.5), i.e. porosity. And results 324 , 325 , 326 of recovery pore volume for the four samples at different magnifications are presented in Figure 2.2.11.

Table 2.4.5. Statistics of the porosity determination No. sample

Increas e

Minimum pore volume, m3

Maximum pore volume, m3

Average value, m3

Median value, m3

Mean quadratic deviation

1 1 2 2 3 4 4

2 10 2 10 10 2 10

2,18861Е-17 1,75089E-19 2,18861Е-17 1,75089Е-19 1,75616Е-19 2,18861Е-17 1,75089Е-19

4,59834Е-11 7,13294E-12 1,50799Е-11 9,21765Е-13 2,28021Е-12 1,00121Е-11 2,10844Е-12

1,42973Е-15 1,06747E-16 1,62297Е-15 6,33780Е-17 7,96444Е-17 3,68775Е-16 4,05574Е-17

8,75446Е-17 2,10106E-18 1,53203Е-16 5,42775Е-18 2,10739Е-18 4,37721Е-17 5,25266Е-19

8,46907Е-14 2,32723E-14 4,24641Е-14 3,04981Е-15 7,75357Е-15 1,38530Е-14 5,11583Е-15

Relative volume of pores, % 0,01381 0,03206 0,01389 0,02661 0,02503 0,01350 0,01751

The resulting porosity values of samples taken from the wells drilled within the vicinity of the dome with Belaievsky. Belyaevka, Pershamaiski district, Kharkiv region (about 3%) and processed using software Avizo Fire, with twofold and tenfold increase, suggest the perspectives of the Donets Basin sediments 327 for long-term storage of CO2.

324

Shestavin M.S., Bezkrovna M.V., Osetrov V.V., Yurchenko V.V. / Preliminary Assessment of the Potential CO2 Sources and Sinks of the Eastern Ukraine // Proceedings in Advanced Research in Scientific Areas (ARSA 2012) – The 1st Virtual International Conference (Slovak Republic, Zilina, December 3-7, 2012.). – Zilina: University of Zilina, 2012. – P. 1374-1380.

325 Osetrov V.V., Shestavin N.S., Yurchenko V.V. / Assessment of Geological Storage of CO2 in the Sediments of the Donbass // Modern Science: Current Issues of Theory and Practice - A Series of “Natural and Technical Sciences”, 2012. – No. 6/7. – P. 43-49. (in Russian) 326 Bespalova S.V., Shestavin N.S. / Assessment of the Opportunities Implementation of Low-Carbon Open Innovation in the Industrial Regions of Ukraine // Problems of Ecology and Environmental Protection in the Region of Anthropogenic: Collection of Scientific Papers – Donetsk: Donetsk National University Publishing, 2012. – No. 1 (12). – P. 10-25. (in Russian) 327 Baranov V.A. / Effect of structure on the porosity of the sandstones of Donbass // Geotechnical Mechanics, 2010. - No. 88. - P. 70-76. (in Russian) Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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Đ°) Sample 1 (twofold increase)

b) Sample 1 (a tenfold increase)

c) Sample 2 (twofold increase)

d) Sample 2 (a tenfold increase)

e) Sample 3 (twofold increase)

f) Sample 3 (a tenfold increase)

g) Sample 4 (twofold increase)

h) Sample 4 (a tenfold increase)

Figure 2.4.11: Results of the pore volume recovery Guidelines for the Implementation of CCT and CCS technologies in the Eastern Regions of Ukraine

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CONCLUSION ON PART II Developed in the project database and geographic information system for CO2 sources and potential sites for its storage will be used in determining the specific implementation scenarios, processes, technology adoption CCT and CCS in Eastern Ukraine. In fact, already identified the main objects of the future system for CO2 capture in the energy sector: the coalfired thermal power plants, which are now thrown out most of the Ukrainian share in global emissions of greenhouse gases.

Analysis of geological structures Donbass showed the ability of the processes of geological storage of CO2 in the sediments. The areas of such structures, suitable for long-term storage of CO2, taking into account the location of existing operating coal mines and other facilities where leakage of CO2 from storage. Selected areas require further careful study of their properties by geophysical methods, as well as pilot injection of CO2 for assessing the correctness of choice.

In addition to the traditional elements of CCT and CCS technologies in the project have been investigated additional opportunities to capture and store CO2. It is possible for CO2 capture in a variety of manufacturing processes, as well as directly from the air. The latter problem is mainly related to the emissions of road transport, therefore, a system of air purification, and the capture of CO2 over the crossroads of the city.

A significant contribution to the emissions of CO2 and the "black carbon", which is now defined as a second culprit of climate change, forest fires and give torches gas and oil.

Therefore the system proposed flame out by using high-speed jet liquid, that has proven to model experiments.

The project also considered alternative ways of disposing of CO2 without the use of geological storage. This is the opportunity of binding CO2 various plants and minerals that are in the depths of Ukraine. We propose a process of carbonation of CO2 with the use of the mineral, which is available in large quantities in Ukraine, which is reducing the cost of these processes and makes them cost-effective.

An integrated approach to the problems of capture and disposal of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will significantly mitigate the effects of climate change, and the synergy of different technologies can now provide the required reduction in CO2 emissions through the implementation of CCT and CCS technologies, including in conjunction with other lowcarbon technologies. Â

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