Bestiary 3 by Milano Animal City

Natrice dal collare, Grass snake, Natrix natrix Wioletta Sarara

Description of biological characteristics The Grass Snake is a large, clumps snake with an oval head, clearly delimited with the neck from the body. It has got big eyes with round pupil and the skin is in clearly visible scale. It has got long tail. Its coloration is in different shades of gray, sometimes brown. Snakes can be uniformly colour or covered with the spots at the top or the sides of the body, relative black spots or light, longitudinal stripes. On the head there are two, less or more visible, characteristically white, yellow or orange temple spots, with a black border from the back side of the head. Whitish or yellowish stomach is black checkered or darkspotted. The skeleton, besides the head, consist the vertebrae and ribs. The large number of vertebrae allows to greater mobility. The interaction of the ribs and belly muscles causes that the snake hooks up with belly disks on irregularity of the ground. The whole length of male is 70-75cm and a female 85-90cm. Sometimes there are species of 150 cm length or even 200cm.

Wioletta Sarara

Habitat (space) Grass Snake appears almost in whole Europe, west Asia and north Africa. There is no sign of him in Ireland and on the Mediterranean islands. In this huge area found nine subspecies, which are mainly different with the coloration. Grass Snake establish especially in large numbers in overgrown with reeds, rushes and shrubs shores of lakes, ponds and morasses. Snake occurs also in wetlands and also not so often in drier environment like gravel or stone pits. Snake exists primarily in lowlands but sometimes can be found in upper mountain parts, even to 2400 meters above sea level.

Wioletta Sarara

Temporality (time) Grass Snake is active only during the day. At the evening he hides in his hiding place and rest rolled in a spiral curl. Early morning, cold after night leaves his place to warm up at the Sun. Is especially active during forenoon and afternoon hours. During the biggest heat his hideout. In warm summer evenings he can penetrate his surrounding till the twilight. Snake moves nimbly and agilely not only on the surface but so he is a perfect swimmer and diver. During the year Grass Snake moults very often. When this period approaching the snake becoming gray and the eyes turbid. He begins shedding old, horny skin from the head, rubbing with various object. Thanks to that epidermis crack on the edges of jaws. Then he gets rid of the skin from the rest of the body, hooking it around the bushes and trees. For the winter sleep, at the end of September or beginning of October, creeps into the moleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s or other rodentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s corridor, natural cavity, slit in the trunk or in the last resort in a chink under the stone. In an extremely favourable places of hideout accumulates a big about of Grass Snakes. The snake leaves his hideout at the end of March.

Wioletta Sarara

Reproduction The copulation takes place at the beginning of the May. Around the female collects a big amount of male snakes, up to 20 mature individuals. In such mass everyone disturb others and sometimes it is impossible to make copulation. The female runs away from the males. When some male finally takes the right position, female tries to separate. They stays together for a longer time. At this time they are defenceless, fro the reason that they cannot separate immediately. Each of them try to run away in different way and as a result the bigger female pulls the male with herself. Laying eggs takes place in July and August. For this, the female chooses willingly piles of rotting leaves, bulrush or sawdust. In a particularly convenient places more of females can lay their eggs. One female can usually lay about 30 eggs. In natural conditions young snakes hatch after 60-75 days. Small Grass Snakes measure, in the moment of hatch, about 15-22cm and with the coloration they are similar to the mature individuals.

Wioletta Sarara

Food cycle What the Grass Snake eat? The Grass Snake feeds mainly with the brown or green frog, but also regularly fishes for tree frogs, toad, tailed amphibians and also for fishes like small carps, crucian and others. Despises only with the spotted salamanders. During the hunting he scares the victim to make a move. His favourite food are frogs. Grass Snake react mainly on the movement, so if the frog is standing motionless, the snake will not see it. He will see the frog only when it will start to run away or he will touch it by the tongue. The victim is grabbed in any place and swallowed alive. The process of swallow begins from the head or leg. The time of digestion is long so the snake can have no need to obtain food for long period, even for couple of months.

Wioletta Sarara

Food cycle Opponents. When the Grass Snake is being attacked, he rolls into a plate, expands the rib and flattens out the body. Can also rise the front part of the body, hiss loudly, extend tongue and hit the opponent closed mouth. When even after such defensive behaviour the snake is still disturbed, he tries to escape, hitting his body around. Usually empties anal glands with a stinky, white liquid. The smell is strong and lasts long. The special kind of attitude is â&#x20AC;&#x153;playing deadâ&#x20AC;?. The alive snake slackens, opens mouth, hangs out the tongue and pupils of the eyes go down to the edge. In this state we can roll him, turn, do everything and the snake will not react. If he will be left alone, for a long time he do nothing in motionless, then he starts to being alive very fast and run away. The Grass Snakes are eaten by lots of animals. Rats and ants can destroy deposit of the eggs. Newly born snakes fall prey to large runners, marsh frogs and fishes. For small and big snakes hunt hedgehogs and martens. The Grass Snakes are also eaten by lots of bird species like heron, loons, storks, buzzards and different crows and blackbirds. The most effective hunter is a shorttoed eagle. Repeatedly observed a sparrow that kills young snakes.

Wioletta Sarara

Stereotype From ancient times snakes were seen as a human villains, but also as the oldest teachers and guardians. Myths changed opinion about snakes and the reptiles became gods. They were surrounded with great respect. One example is the story of mythological doctor Asclepius, snakes were faithful companion since they wrapped around his stick. Depending on the nationality and religion the snakes were blessing or devil. Nowadays, people are scared of snakes. The Grass Snake is non venomous snake. It cannot harm the human, however small amount of people can distinguish the Grass Snake from other form this family. Nonetheless, humans even donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know that there are species that are harmless. For almost everyone snake wants to attack them and bite them with the venom. The truth is, when the human will attack the snake, it will defend itself but without any attack movements he will do nothing, for the reason that the opponent is too big. Moreover it cannot inject the venom from its teeth, because it has no venom at all.

Wioletta Sarara

Perspective on the humans People cannot be sure how the snake see and all their arguments are mainly based on assumptions. When it comes to snakes a topic is even more complex, because it depends on pupils. The Grass Snake has got round pupils. These are most common for species active during the day. Most snakes have a very good eyesight, however mainly they can see objects that moves. Unlike other reptiles they see in shades of gray rather than in colour. Snakes creep through the ground, grass, so the horizontal point is very low. Crawling sometimes they raise the front part of the body to increase view area. Humans for the grass snakes are big opponents. Snakes are scared of large creatures. For the reason that they have no such defence (venom) like other snakes, they can only run away or â&#x20AC;&#x153;play deadâ&#x20AC;?. Humans sometimes attacked snakes and kill them because of negative thinking of this animal. Nonetheless, people destroy natural habitats of the Grass Snakes sometimes specially, sometimes without knowing, for ex. draining the area.

Wioletta Sarara

Relation with other species The Grass Snakes live alone. They do not create families or bigger groups. Only during the reproduction time the male snakes are looking for a female and gather around her. After placing the eggs the female never come back to take care of offspring. The Grass Snakes do not live in harmony with other species. If the other animal is smaller than the snake, it, in most cases, eats it. If animal is too big, snake run away or â&#x20AC;&#x153;play deadâ&#x20AC;?. Numerous natural enemies are not able to seriously threaten the existence of the Grass Snake. Although in many regions the snake occurs in large numbers, in some places became visibly rarer. The main reason is the formation of urban bathing in the lakes and ponds, intense water sports, reed cutting and drainage of wetlands.

Wioletta Sarara

Tartaruga palustre americana, Pond Slider, Trachemys scripta Marco Scritta

Marco Scritta

Il Macaone, Old World Swallowtail, Papilio machaon Maria Sole Teberino

Description biological characteristics The Old World Swallowtail is definitely one of the most beautiful butterflies insect fauna of the entire European Union, also known as the common yellow swallowtail or simply “the swallowtail” (a generic name applied to all members of the family) Very showy, body and wings are patterned in yellow and black vein markings and a wingspan of 65–86 millimetres. Hind wings also have one red and six blue spots each. The underside is paler in colour. Each hind wing has one tail. Both sexes have a pair of protruding tails which give the butterfly its common name from the resemblance to the birds of the same name. Eyes are actually the most important sensitive organ for orientation while the quality of flowers and food plants is recognized with the feet. Caterpillars reach a maximum length of 45 mm. In the last two of the four instars they are green with black transversal bands carrying 6 rows of reddish spots. Young caterpillars look like bird droppings which is a good camouflage. The Swallowtail feeds by sucking the nectar of flowers with a strange mouthparts consisting of a proboscis, a kind of long channel normally coiled in the head, which is rolled out when needed nutrition. The antennas, like those of all European butterflies, have swollen ends. The eyes are compound and vision could be called “puzzle”; if we combine this with the fact that butterflies can see colors differently from us, we can imagine that the world could describe the swallowtail is a lot different from ours. Ectothermic, heterothermic, bilateral symmetry, polymorphic are other phisical features. Therefore, the Old World Swallowtail is characterized by a rigid symmetry and is ectoterma. It has a particular type of self-regulating warming up their muscles quivering wings body, which depends from the external environment. Often their metabolism is more complex: in the presence of optimal temperatures they present an optimal metabolism without wasting energy on their thermoregulation and they have a greater ability to withstand periods of food shortage and therefore fast. On the other hand are more vulnerable to changes in temperature, inability to live in cold environments and therefore inability to icy areas and lower physical performance (especially in terms of strength).

Maria Sole Teberino

Fore Wing Thorax

Wing veins

Head

Middle Leg

Coxa Trochanter Femur Tibla Tarsus

Abdomen Abdomen

Legs

Hind Leg

Torax

Head

Prolegs True legs (6)

Mandible

THE OLD WORLD SWALLOWTAIL (Papilio machaon)

Habitat The Old World Swallowtail is definitely one of few representatives present at our latitudes, the majestic family Papilionidae, mostly tropical family, to which belong in fact some of the largest species now existing on Earth. Even if it has only 5 centimeters maximum wingspan, it is not difficult to meet and to notice her, especially in the countryside or in the hills from early spring (the period in which the pupae flicker), until late autumn. The swallowtail prefers arid grasslands, the land of flowers, the edges of woods, plains up to 1800 m. Caterpillars are irresistibly attracted to the taste of the leaves of carrots and fennel (cultivated or wild) and so they survive so well in gardens and agricultural crops.,Throughout most of it’s range the Swallowtail shows itself to be highly adaptable, utilising a wide variety of habitats including sub-arctic tundra in Canada, prairies, woodlands and arid canyons in the south of the USA; hay meadows, roadside verges, river banks and sub-alpine pastures in Europe; high montane habitats in the Atlas mountains of north Africa, and semi-cultivated habitats in the Mediterranean area. Unfortunately, the swallowtail is becoming increasingly rare, especially in the northern part of its range, due to the scarcity of its habitat and biotopes able to host it, in addition to the indiscriminate use of pesticides and chimical products.

Behavior

Floating across the air effortlessly, Swallowtail flutters from flower to flower, providing humans with a glimpse of an ecosystem’s health. The swallowtails mate, lay eggs and die. Stylish and agile in flight, the male is also a defender of its territory; if two neighbors circling in daring stunts, they probably are disputing territory. The Swallowtail shows the typical “hilltopping” behavior, it tries to fly above the highest point of the terrain in which it is located (domain). The chrysalis fear the attacks of mice and lizards that hunt down everywhere, even in the most hidden places. The adult stage must be protected instead by birds, spiders and other predators. The swallowtail is a tasty morsel for lizards and ants: the small orange appendix that shows when it feels attacked (osmeterium), which emits an unpleasant smell to deter any predator.

Maria Sole Teberino

+1800

HABITAT (Behavior)

Time Seasons This species typically has five instars and is capable of producing multiple generations per year depending on temperature constraints. Near the equator as many as nine generations may be seen. The average length of a generation varies from 26 to 59 days. In colder climates, pupae may overwinter. The butterfly is bivoltine in our continent, emerging in late May and at the end of July and beginning of August, but in Britain the second brood is either partial or non-existent. If the year is especially favorable there may be a third in September-October (very rare). The last chrysalis of the season, during the autumn, remains intact throughout the whole winter and the adult flickers only the following spring. So pupae present in autumn will overwinter in a physiological state called diapause, and may remain in diapause for several seasons if conditions are unfavorably dry. The caterpillar stage is variable and is affected by temperatures. The development time of generation spring-summer are shorter than the summer-autumn. The butterfly lives about two weeks. If kept in a greenhouse large enough and fed with fruit and sugar can last for one month. Moreover the insect can not resist to cold climates and need to move the solar heat. Otherwise, it becomes unable to fly and ends shortly into the clutches of some predator. Day The Old World Swallowrtail is also known as a diurnal butterfly and so it plays the main activities during the day. On the other hand, caterpillars naturally eat more during the night than during the day, which is affected by the lowering of the temperature in the evening. Therefore their metabolism has slowed down.

Maria Sole Teberino

NIGHT

DAY

EGG

CATERPILLER

CATERPILLER PUPA

PUPA BUTTERFLY

BUTTERFLY

TIME Seasons

Cycle of reproduction During his life, moths radically change the structure of the body and eating habits (metamorphosis). Their life cycle is characterized by four stages: egg, larva (or caterpillar), pupa (or chrysalis), and finally the adult form. Therefore the swallowtails mate, lay eggs and die. Adults display hilltopping behavior and use this to identify potential mates. Emerging in late May, they lay their large brown globular eggs singly on the fine leaves of milk parsley Peucidanum palustre. The eggs are nearly always laid on the upper foliage of tall plants which project above the surrounding reedbeds. The fact that they lay only one egg, compared to many butterflies that instead used to lay in the tens or even a hundred, brings to mind several considerations. Probably thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why they never become so weeds by â&#x20AC;&#x153;peelingâ&#x20AC;? the plants easily as do several other species. And then as parasites, they are not too intrusive. Then surely for predators and parasites of eggs and caterpillars, it is not as easy to find eggs or caterpillars so scattered as when they find an entire litter. And finally, in this way the caterpillars are not competing with each other for food. The eggs are yellow and darken as the tiny caterpillar inside spread after about a week. After 8-10 days, the eggs hatch and the larva, called a caterpillar, is born, without wings and unable to fly, which moves through three pairs of thoracic legs and abdominal legs. Caterpillar will release a dark liquid and begin to bind to the plant or to support chosen by a thread of drool. The pupae are reasonably stout, wrinkled, and about 30 mm long. They are attached to the thicker stems of the food plant, or to adjacent sticks and rocks. The color is dimorphic, typical for many swallowtails, being either pale green or pink-brown with other variable cryptic markings. The color pattern imitates the dominant surrounding color to which the pupa is attached. The pupal duration is variable. In some areas, it is about 30 days in spring, reducing to 18 days in summer, but often those pupae formed in captivity during autumn will not produce adults until the following spring, or even longer with one record of 280 days.

Maria Sole Teberino

CYCLE OF REPRODUCTION (Phase 1)

Cycle of reproduction The complete formation of the chrysalis will take approximately 24 hours. Just before the flickering - this is called the output of the insect from its nymphal shell - the chrysalis becomes transparent and thin. This protective shell that protects the insect from evaporation during its metamorphosis, is the result of a previous transformation undergone by the caterpillar. At the breakage of the pupa, the antennas are the first to come out while the butterfly is pushing away the protective coating on the legs. Once out, the butterfly wings are shrunk and wet and the butterfly emits a dark liquid from the abdomen called meconium, excreting waste products accumulated during the pupal stage. While waiting for the wings fully dry, the butterfly is not able to fly yet. It is at this time that is most vulnerable to be attacked by predators. A good defensive tactic is to come out of the chrysalis at sunrise, when most of his enemies rest. On average, it takes two to three hours to stabilize. The chrysalis has two main colors: green or brown. The butterfly lives about two weeks but if kept in a greenhouse large enough and fed with fruit and sugar can last for one month.

Maria Sole Teberino

CYCLE OF REPRODUCTION (Phase 2)

Food cycle In the early stages the caterpillar is black with white spots, appearing inattentive eye a simple bird droppings. This type of camouflage pattern is defined as a particular strategy, in which the individual assumes shapes and color of the environment or of part of it. In this case the caterpillar does not hide but it creates an illusion to the possible predator. This secretion acts as a deterrent to both vertebrate (birds, lizards and mice) and invertebrate (ants, spiders and wasps) predators. It is more effective if the chemical can be deposited on the predator, hence the larvae will attempt to throw their heads (and osmeterium) either backwards or sideways if a predator attacks from the rear or side. The secretion is usually composed of a butyric acid compound having irritant properties. There are many different creatures that make butterflies part of their diet. While most humans can not even imagine attempting to eat a butterfly, there are many animals that need to make a meal out of a butterfly to survive. Some of the common predators of butterflies include but are certainly not limited to: wasps, ants, parasitic flies, birds, snakes, toads, rats, lizards, dragonflies and even monkeys! Some other animals that are constantly adding butterflies onto their menu list are frogs and spiders. These predators eat butterflies as well as butterfly eggs, caterpillars and adult butterflies. Economy The positive impact on the environment is represented on pollination, a necessary mechanism for the entire ecosystem. Like all butterflies, Old World Swallowtails can be effective pollinators. The pollination of plants by Swallowtails, which in this case are said to be “matchmakers” (which literally means “to promote the marriage” between a pollen grain and an egg), is essential to maintain plant diversity. This is an adequate number of species of wild and cultivated plants, thanks to a high amount of pollinating insects. There are plants to attract butterflies: a very beautiful and fragrant is the Buddleja davidii, with a nectar so sweet to lure them in large numbers. Then an excellent plant is Lantana camara as well. In addition to these two species, are well suited Lonicera Verbena, Valerian, and more other species.

Maria Sole Teberino

FOOD CYCLE (Economy)

Stereotype The butterfly stereotype is represented by the abstract idea of beauty and symbol of lightness and freedom. A species that has freed from the shell of the chrysalis changing from a caterpillar to a beautiful creature with light and colored wings that allow it to fly. Therefore the butterfly represents change and freedom. In ancient cultures the butterfly drowing represented the soul escaping from the body after death or the mind, nowadays has more the meaning of ephemeral beauty of “Carpe Diem”. When the butterfly shows up in your life as a spirit animal or totem, it might indicate the need to look at a conflicting situation with more lightness and different perspective. This totem animal is symbolic of lightness of being and elevation from the heaviness of tensions. This power animal invites those who have a connection with it to bring joy and bliss into their lives. Butterflies often have bright colors. By extension, they are associated with aliveness and brightness. The message of this totem animal is to lighten up and add more color to your life. Perhaps it’s time to express yourself more fully and show your colorful personality. The butterfly is a symbol of powerful transformations. By analogy to the development of this animal, the meaning associated with the butterfly emphasizes the ability to move from one state, perspective, lifestyle to another. When the butterfly comes into your life as spirit guide, you may be going through or expect important changes in your life. More than changes in your environment, the transformation the butterfly totem points to are more internal: They could be related to your own perspective on a subject, aspects of your personality, or personal habits. Personal transformation is emblematic of the butterfly symbolism. Movies, documentaries, cartoons and comics as well were and continue to be inspired by this showly insect steriotype.

Maria Sole Teberino

STEREOTYPE (Lightness-Freedom)

Perspective on humans Butterflies, and insects in general, do not clearly distinguish the forms, but they see a greater number of still images per second, about 200 against 18 human: for this reason, a movement that appears to us fast for a fly is instead composed of single still images. The visual system of insects is therefore ideal to survive the dangers of predators (including people with a fly swatter), or to capture flying prey. Several animals also have eyes sensitive to ultraviolet light and this is the case of some butterflies, for instance the Old World Swallowtail - that through this feature recognize the males from the females, who are attracted by the flowers, some of which structures are seen only with ultraviolet light. Regarding lights and colours, the Old World Swallowtail can perceive especially the pink or purple hue similar and thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why is mostly attracted to flowers of the same colours. In addition they have only two types of cones (and therefore a vision said dichromatic) and can not distinguish red from green.

Maria Sole Teberino

PERSPECTIVE ON HUMANS (Colours and frames)

Relation with other species Friends Relations with other species may be conflictual or friendly with a peaceful sharing of the same habitat for both the caterpillar to butterfly. Just like the bees, there are plants that butterflies may give preference for the quality of their nectar. Bees and butterflies are both part of a key link for pollination, which allows in fact the fertilization of the flowers and the production of seeds. To attract these pollinators do not have to use pesticides, at least when the plants are in bloom. Without exception of a few species, the flowers with many petals fail to attract butterflies or bees because they may lack nectar and pollen available for pollinators. Same friendly relation is with ladybugs for butterflies and snail for caterpillars. Enemies On the other side, not always the relationship is peaceful.Both eggs, caterpillars and chrysalis are subjected to attack by pests such as Diptera and Hymenoptera that lay their eggs and use these moths as incubators and nurseries for their larvae, feeding on the caterpillar or chrysalis or egg, are able to develop and metamorphose. Treat cases of parasitism is obviously impossible. The caterpillar is a tempting prey for some species of birds, especially the blue tit. Butterflies mimicry is, however, rarely useful with enemies invertebrates such as, for example, the spiders with or without their web; they actually stay stand motionless waiting for thier prey: many of them are hidden on the flowers visited by moths, which are unlikely to escape.

Maria Sole Teberino

RELATIONS WITH OTHER SPECIES (Friends- Enemies)

Ape europea, Western honey bee, Apis mellifera Matilde Valagusa

Biological Characteristic There are an estimated 30,000 bee species worldwide. The Western honeybee or Apis mellifera is the most common. This race is known for its high rate of honey production and its gentle nature. Like all insects, the body of a bee consists of three regions, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The head houses two compound eyes, which are used for distance vision outside of the hive, as well as orienting the beeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flight relative to the sun. Antennae receive and analyze highly volatile substances that are responsible for odor and taste. Antennae also perceive vibrations and movement of air, sounds, temperature and humidity. The thorax includes the legs and the wings. At the end of each leg are structures called tarsi, which taste what they touch. The first (frontmost) pair of legs has a notch in its first terminal segment for cleaning antennae. The middle pair has spines on one side specialized for removal of masses of pollen brought to the hive. The third (hindmost) pair of legs each possess a pollen basket (corbicula) in which the pollen mass is kept during transportation from the flowers to the hive. The lower side of this pair of legs also possesses a row of stiff hairs, collectively called the pollen comb. Wings of each bee species vary in their venation (vein) pattern. The slight differences in Apis mellifera wing venation can be useful in differentiating between races. The forewing is always larger than the hind wing. The front and hind wings are held together by approximately 20 small hooks located along the front margin of the hind wing. Bee wings can beat nearly 200 times per second. The abdomen consists of seven visible segments. The first is very narrowed and makes up the petiole (waist) of the bee, while the seventh segment of workers (sterile females) and queens includes the sting. Wax glands on the underside of worker abdomens secrete the wax that makes up the honeycomb. The sting is a modified ovipositor, so it is found only in females. When pushed from the end of the abdomen, it locks into position at a right angle to the base. Muscular abdominal plates then push the stinger into the flesh. The sting has a scalpelsharp point, with two serrated retractable rods (lancets) on the sides. The venom bulb is positioned at the top of the sting.

Matilde Valagusa

fig. 1

fig. 2

fig.1. Typology of bees. Drone; Queen, Worker fig. 2. Scientifical drawing of a bee fig.3. zoom of the head of a bee

fig. 3

Habitat and Social Behaviour Bees are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect pollinated flowering plants. We can identify two types of bees: a type that lives in beehives self-produced, and another type that lives in man-made beehives for honey production. Honey-bee hives can contain up to 90,000 bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer elements. In general, the habitat of the bees is closely related to the presence of flowers and plants and water within about 2 km; under these conditions, more units can coexist without interfering with each other. Inside the rational hive there are many honey-comb witch are composed of perfectly hexagonal cells for breeding new born and storage honey. The cells are made with self-product bee-wax. The true honey bees have arguably a very complex social behavior. A typical honeybee colony consists of 50,00060,000 sterile workers, 500 to 1000 drones (fertile males) and one queen, the only fertile female in the colony and mother of the entire population of the hive. There is a specific division of labor within the group. The only physical difference between queens and workers is average size. Queens can be distinguished from workers by their longer tapered abdomens and greater size. Queens have the longest lifespan of all of the bees within the hive. Their major role centers around egg laying to insure the vast numbers of individuals required to maintain a hive. Colonies will make a new queen if the original is ailing or infertile. Queens typically lay several hundred thousand eggs over their lifetime. After two to four years, the queen uses up all of her stored sperm and begins producing unfertilized eggs, which give rise to drones. Usually the workers raise one or more queens from the last of the fertilized eggs to replace the new queen. Drones are the male bees within a colony. Drones can be distinguished from workers and queens by their large size, rectangular abdomens, large conspicuous eyes, and noisy flight. All drones lack a sting, and have more eye facets than a worker. The role of the drones is largely to fertilize new queens.

Matilde Valagusa

s ron e

one

100

lls ce nal

ago

hiv honeycomb

A BEEHIVE

rke

000

60.

one queen

fig. 1

fig. 2

fig.1. Social structure and location of a hive fig. 2. Habitat for nourishment

Temporality Bees are insects extremely linked to the cycle of the seasons and weather conditions. The life cycle of a hive revolves around the different seasonal blooms. In the months of December and January, with low temperatures and adverse weather, the swarm remains in the hive. Are used up stocks of honey and brood stays still, there arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t the ideal conditions for new births. Bees leave the hive only during the hottest hours of the day, to make short flights called purifiers. In February, with increasing temperatures, we find a timid beginning of the brood. In this month in fact, there are the first blooms of hazel and willow and, consequently, the workers begin to collect nectar. In March begins the season of the most important blooms: fruit trees and wild flowers such as dandelion. The brood increases gradually with the increase of the presence of flowers. In the months of April, May and June the hive reaches its maximum. These are the months in which the abundance of blooms that allows the stock for winter are made; there are two large blooms: the first between April and May, cherry, meadow flowers and acacia; the second, in June, about the chestnut and blackberry. Within two months, with increasing temperature, the working in the hive slows down. The large blooms are finishing and the clutch slows down. In September, with the lowering of temperatures, there is a timid recovery of the brood. The months of October and November, with no blooms, are stationary months of preparation cold winter. An exemplar of European Bee moves away from the hive an average of 3 km of radius; in one day a bee travels several kilometers to transport nectar. This insect flies at a speed of 24km/h and an average height from the ground of 2.5 m. The orientation of these insects is extreme and is not left to chance. The role of the sun is for this reason fundamental. When a bee finds flowers, it back in the hive and informs its companions of the exact position of the spoils. This is due to the perception of the position of the sun. In the hive it teach a specific dance that orient the others bees to the sun to find the flowers in question.

Matilde Valagusa

june july

il apr y ma

a sep ugus t te m ber r obe r oct mbe e nov

fig. 1

december january

solar orientation fig. 2

fig.1.annual cycle of production and hatching fig. 2. importance of the sun for the orientation

feb r ma uary rch

annual cycle

Food Cycle The majority of commercial apiary profits come from payment for pollination services. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of which is accomplished by bees, especially the domesticated European honey bee. Contract pollination has overtaken the role of honey production for beekeepers in many countries. In addition to pollination profits, several bee products are economically significant. Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. The most common and widespread bee product is honey. We can also find pollen, royal jelly, bee-wax and propolis. Talking about honey, each hive can produces up to 60 kg per year. Honey is produced from nectar, which is obtained from floral nectaries deep within flowers. Each worker fills her honey sac within her digestive system, increasing her weight by up to one half. Upon arrival at the hive, the worker regurgitates the contents of the honey sac to the younger workers within the hive. These younger workers receive the nectar, which is processed by enzymes within their honey sacs, and tipped into storage cells where it then ripens for five days. At this point the substance has becomes honey. During its lifetime, the typical worker makes 1/12 of a teaspoon of honey. Pollen is a plant protein source for the young, is collected in pollen baskets (corbicula) on the workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rear legs. Royal jelly is used in the pharmaceutical field as a dietary supplement. Beewax has traditionally been used in a number of items including furniture and shoe polish, crayons, candles, lip balms, lipstick, hand creams. Interestingly, bees convert excess food resources within their own bodies to wax instead of fat. Wax glands on the underside of worker abdomens secrete the wax that makes up the honeycomb. Though there are likely few people involved in the commercial production of bees for the sole purpose of wax production, the annual wax harvest from commercial hives often provides enough money for beekeepers to refurbish old hives as well as produce some new ones for the next year. Propolis, the final substance brought into the hive, is also called â&#x20AC;&#x153;bee glue.â&#x20AC;?

Matilde Valagusa

fig. 1

PRICELESS fig.1. economy of bees

Cycle of reproduction Typical of the most advanced insects, bees exhibit complete development or complete metamorphosis. The life stages are egg, larva, pupa and adult. Development from egg to new worker typically takes two to three weeks. Each egg has a small opening at the broad end of the egg, the micropyle, that allows for passage of sperm. Hatching takes place three days after egg laying. The larval stage lasts eight to nine days. Upon hatching, the larva is almost microscopic, resembling a small, white, curved, segmented worm lacking legs and eyes. For the first two days, all larvae are fed a diet of royal jelly. Beginning the third day, worker larvae are fed honey, pollen and water, while the larvae destined to become queens continue to receive royal jelly throughout their larval lives. The larva molts five times during its larval stage. Care of the larvae is constant. Each larva receives an estimated 10,000 meals during this stage. Larval stage durations vary: 5.5 days for queens (fertile females), 6 days for workers (sterile females), and 6.5 days for drones (fertile males). The pupal stage is a stage of massive reorganization of tissues. The body changes from the wormlike larval body shape to the adult body shape with three distinct body regions. Pupation periods vary: queens require up to 7.5 days, drones require14.5 days, while workers require 12 days. Adult bees are either workers (sterile females), queens (fertile females), or drones (fertile males). Workers provide virtually all of the efforts required to maintain function within a hive. During the latter part of their life, each will travel up to two miles in search of pollen, nectar and water. Each worker typically goes on ten food gathering journeys per day, each lasting approximately one hour. This heavy workload takes its toll; each worker lives for about a month prior to wearing out. Immediately after emerging from its pupal cocoon within one of the many brood cells, it immediately goes to work. During the first four days of its adult life, each worker is cleaned and fed by the other bees while its body hardens and it begins to produce substances in various glands. Activities during the next seventeen days include cleaning, feeding larvae, manipulating wax, processing honey, guard duty and air conditioning the hive by fanning.

Matilde Valagusa

death

48 46

larval state

adulthood

larval state

death

adu

34 32 field bee

23 24 1

life cycle

17 16 15 11 12 13 14 adulthood

cleaning cells

26 24

16 14 12 10

sta

nurse

first orientation flights

pup al

al a

pup

l st age

coupling skills

wax production

age

receipt pollen and nectar

guardian

pup

4 5

maturity

the to the up ell to c se up ell pha f the c se wth re o pha f the gro su wth re o clo gro losu c the to up ell c se pha f the wth re o gro losu c

40 38

lth

life time

ood

4 2

fig. 1

fig. 2

fig.1.life cycle of a worker bee fig. 2. life cycle of a drone

Stereotypes â&#x20AC;&#x153;If the bee disappears from the surface of the earth, man would have no more than four years to liveâ&#x20AC;?. (Albert Einstein) There are many stereotypes associated with the figure of the bee. Some of these seen bee as a positive insect, a friend, others on the contrary as an enemy. This insect has been used as a character in several cartoons as Ape Maia or in the Winnie the Poohâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s series. In these cases appears to be nice and kind that produces honey. On the contrary, often, the figure of the bee is used in disaster movies in the role of killer bees. Indeed the bee is an insect not aggressive: it stings for defense; during the sting it looses its sting and it dies. Some people confuse bees with wasps. Bees tend to be vegetarians and are generally hairy, whereas wasps tend to be carnivorous and hairless. The corporate structure of the bees with the queen at the head, is often seen as a feminist society against drones and, more generally, as an exploitative society to the worker bees. Another positive stereotype of the figure of the bee is linked to the figure of the vehicle Ape. This vehicle recalls in form and function as a vehicle for the worker, the shape of the bee.

Matilde Valagusa

wa sp

hy c r a

stereotype

the

nie

win

ape maia

killer swarm fig. 1

fig.1. stereotypes about bees

Perspective on Humans Like most other insects, the head of a bee houses two compound eyes, which are used for distance vision outside of the hive, as well as orienting the bee’s flight relative to the sun. Each eye consists of 3000 to 5000 visual processing units called ommatidia. This does not mean, however, that the bee sees lots of little pictures, as each ommatidium sees only one intensity, contributing a ‘pixel’ to the overall image perceived by the compound eye, just like a single photoreceptor in the retina of our own eye. The eyes do not perceive shapes clearly but identify color well. A bee’s compound eyes are receptive to ultraviolet light, but less receptive to reds. Bees recognize blue, yellow, white and black. Others important organs are simple eyes, called ocelli, are found near the front and top of the head. Ocelli register intensity, wavelength, and duration of light. At dusk the ocelli estimate extent of approaching darkness, causing the bees to return to their hives. Are also important for this insect antennae, witch receive and analyze highly volatile substances that are responsible for odor and taste. Antennae also perceive vibrations and movement of air, sounds, temperature and humidity. There are differences between the bee’s view of the world and ours. The bee has a lot fewer ommatidia than we have photoreceptors, and they are not evenly spaced. And of course the bee sees colours differently, relies more on image motion than on shapes, and much more.

Matilde Valagusa

fig. 1

fig.1. how a bee sees

Coexistence with other Species Bees are insects that do not live with many animal species. Their hive is a kingdom carefully defended: worker bees in a particular stage of their life, are specialized in the defense. Around the hive there is a security perimeter that is defended by them as soon as an intruder approaches the hive. The rapid and enhanced communication among bees allows rapid response to intruders. A group of bees is always ready to sacrifice their lives for the defense of the hive. Honey is a booty field for many animal species and certainly for this reason the bees have more enemies than friends. There are many enemies to all the bees and wasps of this world. Generally bees and wasps provide a rich source of food for many animal predators from huge mammals to fish, frogs, lizards and birds. Even small minibeasts can cause havoc to their lives. Further, the nests that contain honey is also a great store of food for creatures who either stealthily sneak in or rip apart the nest to steal the pure honey inside. Other creatures ravage the nest for pollen or the wax. Despite the high number of opponents, rare animal species can coexist with bees. Creatures found in or near the hive which constitute no danger to honeybees are the little green lizard, wall gecko, some small frogs and the cockroach. They are usually called the bee friends. They eat some insects which encroach upon the hive such as the wax moth, the house fly, the blue-bottle fly and the mosquito. However, there is some doubt whether the cockroach is really a good friend to the honeybee. Since centuries the life of bees is closely related to that of man. By the Egyptians, through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, we find many examples of coexistence between man and bees.Human management of bees is known as beekeeping or apiculture. Man profits from the farming of bees: as repayment he offers treatments and cures for diseases destructive and feeding in unfavorable seasons.

Matilde Valagusa

per im ete r

medieval drawing

trail

def

ens ive

egyptian drawing

col

lec

tio

rea

fig. 1

medieval drawing

renaissance drawing

fig.1. defensive behavior with other species fig.2. coexistence with human

fig. 2

Coccinella comune, Seven spot ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata Wang Yani

Description of Biological Characteristics Kingdom Animalia Phylum Arthropoda Class Insecta Order Coleoptera Family Coccinellidae Genus Coccinella Ladybirds are perhaps the most well-known and popular of all British beetles, and the seven-spot ladybird is one of the commonest species . This rounded beetle has bright red wing cases with 7 black spots, although some individuals may have more or fewer spots. The thorax is black with patches of pale yellow at the front corners . Ladybirds are beetles and so possess two characteristics that distinguish them from insects of other orders: 1.hard fore-wings that cover the abdomen and meet centrally. 2.biting mouth-parts. The ladybird family within the beetle group is called the Coccinellidae. Coccinellids can be recognised by a number of general features: Small to medium sized beetles (1-10 mm or 1/16 3/4 inch long). Usually round or oval. Elytra are often brightly coloured and patterned. Short, clubbed antennae. Pronotum is broader than long; extends forward at the margins and is often patterned. Short legs that are retractable under the body. Feet that have four segments but the third is so small that only three are easily visible. Length: 5.2 - 8 mm Biology Both adults and larvae are voracious predators of aphids, and are one of the gardenerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest natural allies. Ladybirds lay their yellow eggs in small groups on leaves. The black larvae have relatively long legs, and they are active predators. When threatened, adults exude a bright yellow distasteful substance from the joints of the legs, which dissuades potential predators from eating a ladybird. Adults overwinter in garden sheds, amongst vegetation, in crevices in fences and a range of similar locations, and can often be discovered in fairly large numbers during this time. They emerge in March and April .

Wang Yani

Biological Characteristics Physical Morphology Culex pipens belongs to the culicidae family and they are among the families of blood-eating pests. Main characters can be observed directly like light brown body color with gray strips across back and stomach part as well as the omitting of piebald on the wings. The second pair of wings have already degenerated into one pair of balance sticks which can enable them to remain parallel status when stick to a surface. More importantly, culex pipens have the same length between its elongated, forwardprojecting and stinger-like proboscis and two sensory palps to detect the ambient sensors like carbon dioxide, humidity, etc. And this equlibrium distinguishes them form other kinds of mosquitos. In terms of some statistics, adult culex pipens alway have a body size no larger than 15 millimetres and a body weight between 2 and 2.5 milligrams. Habitus The usual activities during night make them notor ious nocturnal human attackers. As for moving, culex pipens can perform an average velocity of 2 kilomitres per hour and they can travel 12 km at most for each continuous flight. Even in bad weather like a storm, they can manage to keep their normal flight perfomance. During the process, their wings beat up to an astonishing 450-600 times per second with a comparison of butterflies, 5, humming birds, 90, house flies, 200 and bees, 440. Meanwhile this kind of animal can`t walk and they are very sensitive to chemical and optical sensor with will be illustrated following.

Xi Xiaoyang

of same length

head thorax balance stick

15 mm grey stipes

stomach

1 A4 sheet = 32,000 ~ 40,000 culex pipens

2 ~ 2.5 km/h

4 ~ 5 km/h

450 ~ 600 beatings per second

440 beatings per second

200 beatings per second

90 beatings per second 5 beatings per second

Zanzara comune, Common house mosquito, Culex pipiens Xi Xiaoyang

Habitat Generally speaking, culex pipens, fond of warm, humid and dim environment, are widely spread all through the world continent except for Iceland and Antarctic where dramatically-changing weather and extreme temperature play their important role. And they can be transported through human agencies such as ships, airplanes and trains. Aquatic Before culex coming out they spend everyday in water. And we can find them habitating in stagnant surroundings such as paddyfield and lotus pond, or the edge of a moving stream, or small still water like tree hole, pot and jar. On-land As soon as they reach the mature stage they would like to hibernate in our cellars, greenhouses or the corners and small fissures of our house to get through winter while staying away from very warm place because this kind of ambient factor will enhance their metabolism process thus leading to extremely energy shortage. In addition, celux pipens are found to leave at best 2 km from their birthplace. A research focus on their vertical capacity indicates most culex will be able to climb at best 5 floors and 10 floor seen as a limitation.

Xi Xiaoyang

Temporality Duration Due to their vunerability to severe ambient status, the emergence of culex varies through all over the world. In humid and warm tropical regions, they can be active for the entire year. While in temperate regions they need to hibernate over winter and in Arctic regions, they can only show up in a few weeks. For each object, longevity refers to 1-2 weeks before mating, after mating, male will survive another 7-10 days and female another 1-2 month during the time they finish making the next generation. Seasonality & During one day Taking temperary regions as an example, culex usually appear from spring to autumn, equally April to Octorber. Since their sensitivity on optical factors, they always come into appearance at dawn and night time is perfect for their activities.

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frigid regions

a few weeks

temperate regions

except for winter

tropical regions

entire year

temperate regions

except for winter

frigid regions

a few weeks

culex duration through the world

for culex in Milan and all temperate regions

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Food Cycle Trophic Level As a matter of fact, mosquitos generally feed on plant sap, including nectar and other source of sugar. Males keep this code for the entire life and females will suck flood when they want to make babies and blood can provide sufficientsugar, protein and other nutrients to generate eggs. Culex`s feeding on plant nectar has nothing to do with producion and these plants usually exclude human economy crops. In addition, culex, as well as its larva is a main food source of many birds, insects,frogs and even fish. Attack on Humans Given the facts of being sensitive to chemical, visual, heat and optical sensors, culex can detect organic substance such as carbon dioxide produced from the host and optical recognition, using these information to target a victim. Generally speaking, people with dark clothing, heavy breathing, a lot of body sweat and heat will attract mosquitos to varied degrees. Their biting speed depends on temperature as well. For ambient situation over 37 degrees biting will last only 0.1 second, below 27 rapidity dropping dramatically and as long asbelow 17 there will be seldom attack. After biting the femals will always take a few days to digest the blood and wait for the eggs ready, the process of which depends on temperature as well.

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predator be prey

be parasite host

food

Reproduction Mating The mating process is rapid and brief which will last merely 10-25 seconds. Different kinds of male mosquitos will form into one large swarm, usually around dusk. Then the femals will fly into the swarm and find their mating partner of the same spieces. Each female mates only once in the entire life. One Typical Generation Adult culex will lay eggs in stagnant water or somewhere abutting the edge. Usually one female can lay as many as 200 eggs and arrange them one by one to form a raft shape floating on the surface. After egges hatched, always in 2 days, second stage called larva comes to the stage feeding on decaying insects, algae, bacteria and other microbes in surface microlayer. They take advantage of spiracles, like a straw, coming to the surface to breath and once disturbed they can swim away with a high velocity through proplusion with their mouth brushing. Through 4 times of exuviation comes next stage, pupa, with a difinite character of merging head and thorax together. Pupa also manage the ability to escape rapidly by flipping abdomens, while undisturbed, soon floating up again. It usually take 2 days before the pupa become adult culex. Then a new life cycle initiates.

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living in water

living off water adult, lasting 2 months

living in water

larvae, lasting 5 - 7days

pupa, lasting 2 days living off water eggs, lasting 2 days

Stereotype Culex recieves a notorious opinion in our daily life, not only because the itchy feeling it leaves on our skin but also coming from the fact that culex is the host of several terrible bacterium and disease which indeed will threaten our health. Additionally, given the fact of larva habitat dirty and wet, we always regard them as a indicator of beingfilthy and ugly. Even in 1960s, culex pipens are listed as one of the FOUR HAZARDS needed to be wiped out from China mainland society together with the other three, namely housefly, rat and cockroach. Even the males, though do not suck blood, can`t help in economy plant polination. To be summary, we regard culex pipens as hazards that needs to be prevented from daily life.

Xi Xiaoyang

FOUR HAZARDS in China, 1960s

various method to kill culex

Perspective on Humans The relationship between culex and human is somehow similar to parasite and host, though not completely. From culex view, they may see us like a giant nutrition depot where they can fetch sufficient energy to make next generation. The benefit in this dual relationship is single-direction meaning human will not get any fortune while at the same time mosquitos aren`t going to lose anything. As a result, culex regards human as a place to get free lunch. On the other hand, since humans are utilizing modern technologies to trap and kill culex pipens, they may also view us as dangerous spieces, our house as a possibly fatal place, not referring to humans themselves, but the tools or weapons they have in hand.

Xi Xiaoyang

trap or meal ?

Relation with other species with Other Mosquitos Culex is just one member among the mosquito family. The other two common mosquitos are anopheles and aedes which do not enter human house commonly. When the males of three kind mosquitos are in open field, especially during mating season, they always flock together forming a swamp shape. During infancy, these mosquitos share the same kinds of aquatic habitats. with Microbes Being parasites to human and other big animals, however culex serves as a host to other living things, referring to microbes. Research shows culex is host to micro creature like bacteria and pathogens. In addition, certain kinds of bacteria exceed the role of parasite and can even kill culex larvae by spoiling their digesting system. This princeple applies to some fungi as well which can kill adult culex. with Plants Nectar and other plant sap can serve as the food resources for culex and conversely, culex may help some kinds of plant in the process of polination. with Animals It is undoubtful culex acts as parasite to some animal hosts. While culex serves as a sufficient and plentiful food resources for many animals including birds like sparrow, insects like spider and dragonfly, frogs, bats and fish like gambusia affinis, which not only eat adult culex but also larvae.

Xi Xiaoyang

eaten by fish, birds, etc.

coexist with other insects host to other microbes

feeding on, host, netar, microbes

Cavedano, European chub, Squalius cephalus Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter One All about European Chub I remember when I first saw the European chub. Before that I was just living my life like I was a fish expert and I knew everything about this species, and suddenly this bright light hit me and woke me up. That was a European chub with light. It was a cloudy Sunday and as usual I was fishing at Adda alone. My target was European chub, which was pretty easy due to its readiness to feed, and thus to be caught, in almost any conditions. Basically European chub (Squalius cephalus) is a species of freshwater fish that is part of the carp family. Its distribution is within most countries of Europe. It is also sometimes called the round chub, fat chub or pollard. It is found in both slow and moderate river currents as well as canals, lakes and ponds. In its nature European chub is timid, frequenting deep holes in the more quiet parts of the sides of the stream, and sheltering itself generally under or near any bush or tree. Most important, I have plenty of experience catching them. Suddenly, I saw the European chub, a European chub with light. She swam to me not fast or slow, with light. It seemed she was waiting for me as always, waiting for a gaze from me. I wanted to have that European chub.

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Two Her Habitats My Styles I brought a European chub back home, a European chub with light. I talked to her, and she waged her tail, with light. I watched TV late at night, and she made a few bubbles, with light. She was always by my side with light. I liked this European chub. I had a European chub loyal like a dog, intimate like a cat, fond like a lover. Good night. I thought my European chub and I both fell asleep. I saw a European chub, a European chub with light floating on my room, my European chub. She floated on air. I hurried to catch her, being afraid of losing her. I saw a European chub with light floating to the river slowly. I jumped into the river after her as I jumped after my little friends when I was a child. My European chub and I frolicked in the pure and cool water. Rivers streams, reservoirs, ponds, lakes are her habitats. Backstroke, butterfly, breaststroke, freestyle are my styles. I was like a European chub swimming easily and freely.

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Three Remember Me When I swam along a slow stream In the nature my heart held so dear Remember the joy that my European chub gave me And knew that Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll always be near I engaged my European chub in a playful chase from day to night In warm noon on the surface of the water In cold night at the bottom In deep and tranquil water In the summer in the shade of big trees In the winter in the sun In each of these things, remember me And know that Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll always be near The sun, the moon, the four seasons In her nature my heart held so dear

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Four A Gentle Creature or Not? There were sorts of strange things I had never seen before. I became a curious child who was eager to explore the wild world, while I found in its nature my European Chub was timid, frequenting deep holes in the more quiet parts of the sides of the stream, and sheltering itself generally under or near any bush or tree that would screen it from view. Then I realized she was hunting, hunting worms, mollusks, crustaceans, and various insect larvae. Great hunter, I thought. However, after witnessing some large chubs eating considerable numbers of small fish, such as eels, dace, roach, gudgeon and minnows; also frogs, crayfish, voles and even young water birds, I guessed my European Chub was one of the few gentle creatures. At the same time, European Chub is remarkable for his hawk like quickness of sight; even the shadow of the rod or a passing cloud will make him sink instantly. It will be found that he has a very large air bladder, which enables him to ascend and descend in the water at will, with great rapidity, because he tries his best to avoid big water birdsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; hunt.

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Five Ceremony of Life It was really suitable for playing hide and seek game deep in the water, but where were my European Chub? I was looking for her suddenly I saw a grand ceremony of life. A big crowd of European Chub spawned in fast-flowing water above gravel bottom, rarely among submerged vegetation. As far as I know, Males reach sexual maturity at the age of 2-4 years whereas females reach it at 4-6. Maturity is influenced by environmental factors and some individuals may mature much later. Spawning takes place in May-August, when temperature rises above 14ยบC. Multiple spawning is described during each breeding season. Males assemble at spawning sites and follow ripe females, often with much splashing, to shallow riffles. Females then lay sticky eggs into the gravel. Pale yellow eggs are found attached to gravel, weed and stones in flowing water. See for myself was a hundred times better than reading from books.

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Six Fish Tank I followed a European chub with light, swimming in the water in the middle of night. Was everybody asleep? Were they having good dreams? It had been a long time for me looking at the moon, wishing to the stars. I tried to swim up to see the midnight sky, but found out I cannot across the transparent boundary no matter how hard I struggled. I held ideas before tonight that the European chub was just a kind of fish who was found about mills, piles of bridges, weirs, in eddies, steep banks overhung with willows. They are greedy fishes, and would eat almost anything that falls into the water. When trolling for pike with a gorge bait below a weir, I had a run once, and instead of a jack I caught a European chub. When the European chub was not full grown it was very difficult to know it from a dace. Defiance and experience of the chub were very great. They had very good appetite, being placed, like Aesopâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s animal, in the middle of the cheese. Living in clear water, they saw the fishing line, and turned up their nose at it in a disdainful manner. Yes, all I could think of was how to catch this stupid fish. I didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t realize I was a small fish imprisoned in a large tank as well until this night.

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Seven She Sang I saw a European chub, a European chub with light floating on air. Her light made me sad. I could not have this European chub, a European chub who is loyal like a dog, intimate like a cat, fond like a lover. Maybe it was magic. The European chub started to sing. She sang, The man I used to be afraid of doesn’t scare me anymore Cos I know you are just a boy don’t want to be alone anymore This river will keep on running and the stars will always shine That first time that I saw your big hands and long fishing rods To escape from you became my only prayer And then you cached me and dropped me in your tank. I used to be so frightened every night I turned and tossed And wished this cruel world would give me back the freedom I had lost But now I know your heart is warm as mine The man I used to be afraid of doesn’t scare me anymore Cos I know you are just a boy don’t want to be alone anymore This river will keep on running and the stars will always shine

Yang Dan

With light The story of a European chub and a man Chapter Eight Real Home When I was boating on the river, I though of an old song I used to sing everyday. I could not help singing this song. I sent a European chub back home, her real home. She waged her tail and swam to the limitless river, with light. Together with zooplankton, fauna dwelling on the surface of vegetation, submersed plants and many other small fish individuals the European chub can create sweet harmonious home of resources, predators, space and time. I actually fall asleep this time. I see a European chub with light.

Yang Dan

Persiano reale, European perch, Perca fluviatilis Yang Xin

Description of biological characteristic Diagnosed from other species of Percidae in Europe by having the following unique characters: pelvic and anal fins yellow to red; posterior part of first dorsal fin with dark blotch; and flank with 5-8 bold dark bars, usually Y-shaped. Differs further by the combination of the following features: two dorsal fins, clearly separated from each other; and 56-77 scales along lateral line . Body greenish-yellow; 5-9 transverse black bands on the sides; first dorsal fin gray, black spot at the tip; second dorsal greenish-yellow; pectorals yellow; other fins red. First dorsal fin markedly higher than the second. Caudal fin emarginate. European perch can vary greatly in size between bodies of water. They can live for up to 22 years, and older perch are often much larger than average; the maximum recorded length is 60 cm (24 in). Freshwater; brackish; demersal; pH range: 7.0 - 7.5; dH range: 8 - 12; anadromous ; depth range 1 - 30 m ; usually 3 - 4 m . Temperate; 10°C - 22°C; 74°N - 38°N, 91°W - 168°E . Salinity 0.05%-3.5%. In the summer or sunny days, they stay near the water surface. While in cold days they would go deeper for warmer water temperature.

Yang Xin

-1m

14 40 30

-5m

20 10

PH 7-7.5

-10

10째C - 22째C

-20 0 20

S 0.5%-3.5%

Hardness 8-12

12 8 4 0

-30m

11-25cm Max60cm

Habitat It is a predatory species of perch found in Europe and northern Asia. Inhabits very wide range of habitats but prefer still or slow-flowing waters such as lakes, dams, billabongs, swamps and slower moving streams and rivers. The species is a popular quarry for anglers because of their fighting qualities and taste and has been widely introduced beyond its native area, into Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Eurasia: throughout Europe to northernmost extremity of Scandinavia, except Iberian Peninsula, central Italy, and Adriatic basin; Aegean Sea basin in Matriza and from Struma to Aliakmon drainages; Aral Sea basin; Siberia in rivers draining the Arctic Ocean eastward to Kolyma. Widely introduced. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after introduction. It is among the most appreciated and popular freshwater fish for food in northern Italy, but perch populations in the major pre-alpine lakes have strongly decreased over the last 30 years due to poor water quality, overfishing, and competition with allochthonous species.It could be found in Lake Como and River Adda near Milano.

Yang Xin

Lake Como

Lake Lugano

Periodo di divieto di pesca: dal 5 aprile al 20 maggio (dal 1 aprile al 31 maggio nel F. Adda). Misura minima di cattura: 18 cm Limite di cattura giornaliero (solo F. Adda): 10 capi. ă&#x20AC;?Pescare in provincia di Milanoă&#x20AC;&#x2018;

River Adda

Time In the summer or sunny days, they stay near the water surface. While in cold days they would go deeper for warmer water temperature. They are more active during warmer time and move in groups. Winter time they stay deep in the water with much less activities and makes winter a difficult time for fishing. However, the distance from shore was consistent among seasons. During the spring, males inhabited areas closer to shore than females in the complex lake, whereas the spatial distributions did not differ between sexes in the simple basin. Perch displayed similar seasonal variation in activity, movement rates being highest during the fall and lowest during the summer. Movement rates in the simple lake, however, were higher than those in the complex lake during all three seasons, which suggests that the effectiveness of passive sampling gears may vary in response to habitat complexity. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. The average growth rate of european perch in Italy is 0.41kg per one year. Spawning, in the Northern hemisphere, happens in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches between 7-8째C.

Yang Xin

JAN DEC

FEB

NOV

MAR

APR

OCT

-14 -12 -10 MAY

-8

SEP

-6

-4 JUN

AUG -2 JUL

LESS MOVEMENT

0 WATER DEPTH

MORE MOVEMENT

Food European perches are known to hunt fish either solitarily (by ambushing or stalking their prey) or in organised groups. In groups, they herd shoals of small fish until encircled or pinned against the bank; a few of the perch then chase into the shoal while the majority hold position and prey on fleeing fish. Schools of perch also use a similar method known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;beatingâ&#x20AC;?, where they flush out insects and small fish from weed beds or other shelter into open water, where they become easy prey for waiting perch. Such methods give them a reputation as voracious predators. Baits for perch include minnows(Minnow is a general term used to refer to small freshwater and saltwater fish, especially those used as bait fish or for fishing bait.), goldfish, weather loaches, pieces of raw Squid or pieces of raw fish (Mackerel,Bluey, Jack mackerel, Sardine), or brandling, red, marsh, and lob worms, shrimp (Caridina, Neocaridina, Palaemon,Macrobrachium), peeled crayfish tails, and artificial lures. The tackle needed is fine but strong. Artificial lures are also effective, particularly for medium-sized perch. Organisms Preying on Perca fluviatilis include Esox lucius, Lota, Lurta, Sander lucioperca, Slamo trutta, Silurus glanis and itself.

Yang Xin

Jack mackerels

Shrimp

Squid Minnows

Saury

Brown trout

Silurus glanis

Sander_lucioperca

Esox lucius

Anguilla

Lurta

Reproduction The perch spawns (in the Northern Hemisphere) at the end of April or beginning of May, depositing the eggs upon water plants, or the branches of trees or shrubs that have become immersed in the water; it does not come into condition again until July. The eggs have been known to stick to the legs of wading birds and then transferred to other waters where the birds visit. Males reproduce for the first time at 1-2 years, females at 2-4 years. Spawns in February-July, depending on latitude and altitude, when temperature reaches about 6째C. May undertake short spawning migrations. A female usually spawns with several males, once each year. The female circles the spawning site, followed by one male, while other males remain stationary. The egg strand is released as the female swims in spiral clockwise movements, folding herself into a U-shape. All eggs are released and fertilised within about 5 seconds in a single strand, which becomes twisted around and entangled with spawning substrate. The egg mass is unpalatable to most other fish and is hence generally protected from predation. The eggs develop and hatch in about a week, and the young fish school to help avoid predation.

Yang Xin

a ye

a 7d

Every Sping

ars

3 ye

nds

co 5 se ar

Stereotype European perches are not like golden fishes or some colorful tropical fishes which are populare for being kept as watching fishes. The first reaction people have towards it is whether it could be eaten and whether it is good tasteing. Actually, the flesh of perch is very good eating. Also important for game fishing. In Europe it is fished for and marketed as a food-fish; also used to be cultured commercially in Australia. The total catch reported for this species to FAO for 1999 was 2 421 t. The countries with the largest catches were Canada (1884 t) and USA (537 t). Utilized fresh and frozen; eaten pan-fried and baked. A traditional dish is the Risotto con Filetti di Pesce Persico or simply Risotto al Pesce Persico (European Perch filet Risotto), a fish grown in Lake Como, prepared with white wine, onion, butter and wheat.

Yang Xin

Perspective on the humans Fishes opinion of human might be either vogue or cruel. Since they live in the water while we live on the ground. In most times, we two living creatures does not offense each other. Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adore towards water leads to some water activities like swimming, snorkling or purely playing with water, during this we will intrude into their habitat. As long as we do not harm them directly, human are just vogue shadows and like other water creatures that could coexist with them and sharing the same water system in different depths or areas. Once people shows interest in them and begin catching them no matter for food or not, human becomes a deathful threat for them and could cause drastically decrease in their numbers.

Yang Xin

Relation with other animals European perches are known as voracious predators of other fish and invertebrates, they can destroy recreational fisheries in enclosed waters by building up large numbers of stunted fish and eliminating other species, and can devastate native fish populations by carrying the epizootic haematopoietic necrosis (EHN) virus. They have caused substantial damage to native fish populations in Australia and have been proclaimed a noxious species in New South Wales. However, they are also threaten by other animal like their predator such as Esox lucius, Lota, Lurta. Humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities has great influence on them, too. There was report about the decrease of perch amount in lakes because of the environment pollution and poor water quality. In other cases, perch could coexist with other fishes and animal in the waterbody.

Yang Xin

BE THREATEN

Perca fluviatilis

THREAT

COEXISTENCE

Sfinge testa di morto, Deathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-head Haw, Acherontia atropos Yi Ruoletai

Characteristics The name Deathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-head Hawkmoth refers to any one of the three moth species of the genus Acherontia (Acherontia atropos, Acherontia styx and Acherontia lachesis). The former species is found primarily in Europe, the latter two are Asian. Acherontia atropos is a large hawk moth with a wingspan of 90â&#x20AC;&#x201C;130 mm, being the largest moth in some of the regions in which it occurs. Acherontia atropos occurs throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean region, much of Africa, and increasingly as far north as southern Great Britain due to recently mild British winters. It occurs as far east as India and western Saudi Arabia, and as far west as the Canary Islands and Azores. In most regions in Italy, they are availibale only normally from March/ April to August/September for few individuals successfully overwinter. Acherontia atropos live in frequently cultivated areas where potato is grown and open scrub with solanaceous plants, tending to prefer drier and sunnier locations. Not as common as it used to be, due to use of insecticides and light pollution from urban lighting, which plays havoc with their natural night navigation systems.

Yi Ruoletai

Habitat Potato fi elds & Tobacco fi elds Acherontia atropos feeds also on the â&#x20AC;&#x153;tea-treeâ&#x20AC;? (lycium barbarum), woody nightshade (solanum dulcamara), and snowberry (symphoricarpus), It is attracted to light and occasionally to the nectar of potato, tobacco and sweet-william flowers, orange blossom, and honey. Leaves of potato - caterpillars are most frequently found on the leaves of potato; Acherontia atropos live in frequently cultivated areas where potato is grown and open scrub with solanaceous plants, tending to prefer drier and sunnier locations. However, in Italy, chemical control has been put into effect for lackness of animals and insects control manner. So they are not as common as it used to be, thanks to the use of chemical sprays and mechanical harvesting. Urban area Light pollution has become an increasing problem in most cities. What is worse, it can be harmful to acherontia atropos. It seems more likely that the structure of a mothâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eye paradoxically makes it see darkness in the centre of the light. Light, however, is the main mothing tool. The moth thinks it is heading for a safe hiding place. Hawkmoths are drawn to lightbulbs because they mistake the bulb for the Moon while trying to navigate in the night. As a result, there are decreasing numbers of atropos found in tuban areas today.

Yi Ruoletai

Temporality Season and month Atropos is seen from March to September in its normal range. However, they will sometimes be seen as early as February and as late as October. They have many broods (a brood is a group of offspring) each year.Migrant and multivoltine; in its resident range, normally from March/ April to August/September, although occasional specimens are on the wing in February and October. Continuous-brooded from North Africa southwards, where the winter is passed as a pupa, or sometimes a larva. Farther north, mainly during August, September and October as the offspring of immigrants in June and July. Hawkmoth gives birth to eggs around summer after their magration toward north. She prefers to lay them on the underside of the leaves, and usually with one egg per leaf, which will hatch out in 1-2 weeks.On hatching, the 6mm-long larva consumes its egg-shell, then after 20-30 days through fi ve instars, they can reach a length of about 13 cm finally. Before it turns into a chrysalis, the caterpillar will begin to darken. It will also cover itself with saliva. This makes the caterpillar darken even faster. It often takes 10days. Once this is done, it will look for a good place to pupate. The caterpillar will pupate 15 to 40 cm deep in the ground. The chrysalis is a shiny brown. It is 7.5 to 8 cm long. If attacked, the chrysalis can move. The chrysalis hibernates. However, Acherontia atropos may sometimes hibernate as a caterpillar (larva). An. atropos does not live through the winter in Europe. Day and night Acherontia atropos is most active from evening to after midnight. It is attracted to lights. They may follow the Moon while trying to navigate.

Yi Ruoletai

Hawkmoth

Chrysalis

Caterpillar

Egg

Food Cycle Predators Where there are insects there are other animals that feed on them, and an insectivorous little mammal that would happily make a meal of a moth pupa or caterpillar is the Hedgehog. We may well associate them with bread-and-milk put out at night on a British lawn, but, somewhat surprisingly, they live on Tenerife too. Birds like to eat insects as well, and one type that will be very familiar to many people is the Blackbird (Turdus merula). They are more common in the north of the island but can also be seen in parks and gardens of the south. A far more exotic looking bird is the green Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus). They often set up home in palm trees but can be somewhat annoying with all the screeching noise they make. Food Acherontia atropos caterpillars eat a wide range of plants, but mostly those in the plant orders Lamiales and Solanales. The former includes such families as Bignoniaceae, Oleaceae (privet and lilac are readily eaten in captivity) and Verbenaceae; the latter includes Solanaceae. One of the favourite foodplants of the mothâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s caterpillars is the potato, but they eat the leaves, not the spuds.The adult moths only have short proboscises so cannot feed from many types of flowers and instead they take tree sap and also steal honey from beehives. Nectar and sugar eaters, adult moths like honey, and because they produce a scent mimicking the scent of bees, they can climb into hives without alarming the bees inside. Their thick skin also protects them from stings. A. atropos only invades the hives of the Western honey bee.

Yi Ruoletai

Reproduction Egg Female A. atropos will lay one egg per host plant (the host plant is the plant that the caterpillar feeds on). She will lay them on the underside of the leaves. The egg is green or a gray-blue color. It will turn to a yellowish color just before hatching. Ovum: Oval, 1.5 x 1.2mm, matt green or greyish blue with a slight polygonal network on its surface (evident only under magnifi cation). Changes to golden buff just before emergence. Generally laid singly, low down underneath old leaves of the hostplant. Caterpillar On hatching, the 6mm-long larva consumes its egg-shell. Initially light, frosted yellow (the frostiness being imparted by small, closely packed, pale yellow tubercles and lines), it quickly darkens to green after feeding on leaf material. At this stage the horn is black and disproportionately long, with a bifurcate tip. In the second instar, thorn-like tubercles adorn the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments. In the third instar, blue or purple edging to the yellow lateral stripes appears and the still disproportionately large horn is now yellow with a black base. After the next moult the colours become more vivid: dark purple spots cover the dorsal surface from abdominal segment 1, with yellow replacing all the black pigmentation of the horn. However, it is only in the final instar that the horn assumes its characteristic down-curved shape, the dorsal tubercles vanish and yellow and brown colour-forms appear in addition to the more normal green. Chrysalis Before it turns into a chrysalis, the caterpillar will begin to darken. It will also cover itself with saliva. This makes the caterpillar darken even faster. Once this is done, it will look for a good place to pupate. The caterpillar will pupate 15 to 40 cm deep in the ground. The chrysalis is a shiny brown. It is 7.5 to 8 cm long. If attacked, the chrysalis can move. The chrysalis hibernates.

Yi Ruoletai

80-90mm

copulation

-1

hawkmoth

oviposition

ﬁnal instar (immature) 6-7mm

ﬁrst instar

oval: 1.5x1.2mm

second instar

ﬁnal instar (mature)

third instar fourth instar

120-130mm

150-400mm

egg

chrysalis potato ﬁeld

75-8

0mm

Stereotype Movie Acherontia atropos has been featured in art (notably in The Hireling Shepherd), Bram Stoker’s “Dracula” and in movies, notably in Un chien andalou and the promotional marquee posters for The Silence of the Lambs. In the latter fi lm the moth is used as a calling card by the serial killer “Buffalo Bill”, though the movie script refers to Acherontia styx, and the moths that appear in the fi lm are Acherontia atropos. In The Mothman Prophecies this moth is referred to. It also appears in the music video to Massive Attack’s single, “Butterfl y Caught.” Novel In José Saramago’s famous novel, Death With Interruptions, Acherontia atropos appears on the American edition’s cover, and is a topic that two characters mull over. The Death’s-head moth is mentioned in Susan Hill’s gothic horror novel, “I’m the King of the Castle as it is used to instil fear in one of the young protagonists.” Folklore The species names atropos, lachesis and styx are all from Greek myth and related to death. The first refers to the member of the three Moirai who cuts the threads of life of all beings; the second to the Moira who allots the correct amount of life to a being; and the last refers to the river of the dead. In addition the genus nameAcherontia is derived from Acheron, a river of Greek myth that was said to be a branch of the river Styx. The skull-like pattern and its fanciful associations with the supernatural and evil have fostered superstitious fears of Acherontiaspecies, particularly Acherontia atropos, perhaps because it is the most widely known. The moths’ sharp, mouse-like squeaking intensify the effect. Nor is this a new attitude: during the mid 19th century entomologist Edward Newman, having earlier mentioned the mark on thethorax wrote: “However, let the cause of the noise be what it may, the effect is to produce the most superstitious feelings among the uneducated, by whom it is always regarded with feelings of awe”

Yi Ruoletai

Perspective Insecticide One of the favourite foodplants of the mothâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s caterpillars is the potato (they eat the leaves, not the spuds) and population levels of the Deathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-head Hawk-moth have undoubtedly been hit by the use of insecticides over the past few decades. In Italy especially, because the lackness of diverse animals and insects has taken a side influence upon natural control in potato fields, farmers have to abuse pesticide and chemical spray. After decades, atropos have been disappeared in potato plant fields where once hawkmoths prefered to live. Recently, it is said that atropos could contribute to connect the eco-chain to provent potatos from other insects and bacterias which may destory the whole ecosystem in the fi elds.

Yi Ruoletai

Coexistence Western honey bees Nectar and sugar eaters, adult moths like honey, and because they produce a scent mimicking the scent of bees, they can climb into hives without alarming the bees inside. Their thick skin also protects them from stings. A. atropos only invades the hives of the Western honey bee. Raiding honeybee colonies and sucking honey directly from the comb may seem suicidal for such a large moth. But adult deathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-head hawkmoths have numerous adaptations to help them survive: their legs are short and stout, with well-developed claws to help them climb around the combs other structures on the feet (the pulvilli and arolium) are highly reduced and nonfunctional, to prevent them clogging with honey the cuticle of the body is thick and covered in a dense pile of short scales to protect against the stinging attacks of worker honeybees the moths may have some resistance to honeybee venom the proboscis of a deathâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-head hawkmoth is short, stout and pointed so it can pierce capped honey cells and suck up the viscous honey inside more easily. Although adult atropos steal honey, but they may lay positive effects on fl ower nectar which infl uences the quality of honey.

Yi Ruoletai

Mosca domestica, Housefly, Musca domestica Michele Zambetti

Biological characteristics The housefly, Musca domestica Linnaeus (1758), is a well-known cosmopolitan pest of both farm and home. The adult is about 5–8 mm long, and its body is well-differentiated in a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The thorax features all of its limbs used for movement. Like other Diptera (meaning “two-winged”), flies appear to have only one pair of wings, even if a closer inspection reveals the presence of tiny, secondary wings, called halters, located below the main pair. While their ancient ancestors boasted two full sets of wings, houseflies have learned to do more with less. Over millions of years, the lower set evolved into the shrunken appendages you see today. They’re far from useless, however. Houseflies flap their halters at high speeds during flight, using them to maintain balance in the air. If one halter is removed, the insect can only fly in circles. Without either halter, the fly can’t take to the air at all. The primary wings do the rest of the work, beating 200 to 300 times a second for an average speed of 4.5 miles (7.24 kilometers) per hour. The wings provide enough power and precision for instant liftoff and complicated flight movements, such as tight spirals, zigzags and even backward maneuvers. The muscles that power his flight account for more than 10 percent of his entire body. With their fast wing-flapping speed, houseflies are able to travel distances, though they aren’t necessarily likely to. While these tiny insects can travel as far as 20 miles, this is rare. As many as 80% of houseflies stay within a mile of their origin, and most of the rest don’t make it as far as one additional mile. Though they are strong enough to travel far greater distances, they are typically able to find food - their primary motivator - without having to go that far. Using their powerful wings, houseflies explore their surroundings quickly and unpredictably. They are naturally driven to explore and wander, even away from areas with the resources they need, like food and water. However efficient their wings make them at navigating their natural environment, the reasons for their exploratory tendencies are unclear.

Michele Zambetti

Habitat The housefly is always found in association with humans or their activities; because human garbage and feces are the most preferred source for larvae development, houseflies are most associated with urban areas. Every decaying organic matter is suitable for the development of the larvae when it has a level of humidity between 40% and 80%. Specifically, animal manure, dung heaps, garbage cans, and mammalian carrions are the best environments for larvae to develop. The ability of housefly larvae to feed and develop in a wide range of decaying organic matter is important for recycling of nutrients in nature. The warmer the temperature, the faster the flies will develop, succeeding in complete their life cycle in as little as 7 to 10 days. Therefore, they are primarily found in temperate regions between April and October, especially in the cities. The paradox is that they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need green areas to develop but rather what for humans are unhealthy conditions and degradation.

Michele Zambetti

Time/Development Houseflies develop through a complete metamorphosis, that takes place faster in the warm season or climate. The eggs, deposited below the surface in the cracks and interstices of the manure, are maintained by the fermentation below, where there is a high degree of heat. The second batch of eggs is laid from 8 to 10 days after the first. The eggs usually hatch in less than 24 hours. Under the most favorable conditions of temperature and moisture the egg state may last hardly more than 8 hours. The maggots which issue from the eggs are very small and transparent. They are pale-whitish, 3–9 mm long, thinner at the mouth end, and have no legs. They grow rapidly, feeding on dead and decaying organic material, completing the growth of the larva stage in three days under the most favorable conditions, although this stage usually lasts from 4 to 7 days. The larval period may be prolonged greatly by low temperature or by dryness or scarcity of the larval food. As the larvæ attain full size they gradually assume a creamy white color. A few hours before pupation, at the end of their third instar, they become very restless and crawl from their feeding ground to a dry, cool place in which to pass the pupa stage. They will often congregate at the edges of manure piles near the ground or burrow into the soil beneath, or they may crawl considerable distances away from the pile to pupate in the ground or in loose material under the edges of stones, boards, etc. The pupæ, or “sleepers,” are more or less barrel shaped and dark brown in color and about 8 mm long. In midsummer this stage usually lasts from 3 to 6 days. The pupa stage is easily affected by temperature changes and may be prolonged during hibernation for as long as 4 or 5 months. Numerous rearing experiments have shown that the shortest time between the deposition of eggs and the emergence of the adult fly is 8 days, and 10 and 12 day records were very common. The adult fly, upon emerging from the puparium, works its way upward through the soil or manure and upon reaching the air it crawls about while its wings expand and the body hardens and assumes its normal coloration.

Michele Zambetti

Feeding Cycle Housefly longevity, that usually is between 15 to 25 days, is enhanced by availability of suitable food, especially sugar, that let it live up to two months. Without food, it survives only about two to three days. The main food sources of houseflies are milk, sugar, blood, feces, and decaying organic matter such as fruits and vegetables. Houseflies also require a source of water. Larvae also eat paper and textile materials such as wool, cotton, and sacking if it is kept moist and at suitable temperatures. Houseflies are attracted to sources of food through their strong olfactory sense, provided by their antennae. Their retractable sponge-like mouthparts require them to uptake food in either a liquid or dissolved manner. Houseflies cannot ingest particles larger than .045 mm. Liquids and dissolved foods are taken in through either the tiny grooves on the labella, known as the pseudotracheae, or through a channel between the upper and lower lips. To break down harder foods, houseflies deposit saliva and stomach contents from their crop onto their food, which makes it easier to digest. Straw-colored spots on food may indicate where the housefly regurgitated. Houseflies also leave feces on food, which show up as dark spots. Though houseflies intake food through their labella, they taste their food through their feet. This is why houseflies have a tendency to crawl on food. Because of their large intake of food, they deposit feces constantly, one of the factors that makes the insect a dangerous carrier of pathogens.

Michele Zambetti

Reproduction Cycle Houseflies exhibit a polygynous mating system. Males seek to mate with many females. The females generally seek to only mate with one male since this is sufficient to lay all the eggs in her life. Male and female adult flies are able to mate by the time they are 16 and 24 hours old, respectively. The male mounts the female from behind to inject sperm. Copulation takes a few seconds to a couple of minutes. Normally, the female mates only once, storing the sperm to use it repeatedly for laying several sets of eggs. Houseflies reproduce at an extremely high rate relative to other species of flies. Females lay oval, white eggs on moist animal feces, excrement, and garbage, preferably that is exposed to light. Each female fly can lay up to 500 eggs in 5 to 6 batches of about 75 to 150 over the course of 3 to 4 days. The eggs are white and are about 1.2 mm in length and, at birth, larvae weigh .008 to .02 g. Female houseflies exhibit minimal parental investment by choosing a moist, nutritious material to deposit her eggs in. After depositing her eggs, the female does not care for or interact with her eggs or larva again. Males do not exhibit any parental investment. The complete metamorphosis includes a following three-phases larval stage, a pupal stage and then the emergence of the adult fly. In midsummer, with a developmental period of from 8 to 10 days from egg to adult, and a preoviposition period of from 3 to 4 days, a new generation would be started every 11 to 14 days. Thus the temperate climate allows abundance of time for the development of from 10 to 12 generations every season.

Michele Zambetti

How we see it «The chant was audible but at that distance still wordless. Behind Jack walked the twins, carrying a great stake on their shoulders. The gutted carcass of a pig swung from the stake, swinging heavily as the twins toiled over the uneven ground. The pig’s head hung down with gaping neck and seemed to search for something on the ground. At last the words of the chant floated up to them, across the bowl of blackened wood and ashes. “Kill the pig! Cut her throat! Spill the blood!” Yet as the words became audible, the procession reached the steepest part of the mountain, and in a minute or two the chant had died away.» William Golding Lord of the Flies, 1954

Michele Zambetti

How it observes us A pair of large complex eyes covers most of the housefly’s head. Each eye is composed of 3,000 to 6,000 simple eyes. Unlike the eyes of vertebrates, houseflies can’t focus in on the particulars of the environment around them. Instead, they provide an excellent mosaic view of everything to the left, right, front and above the fly. Compound eyes are capable of detecting both the polarization of light and color spectrums unseen by humans. House fly eyes can recognize even the slightest movements in a wide field. This allows the fly to see a far wider range, as well as detect and react to movement at a quicker pace than species with simple eyes. House flies are meticulous in heir grooming, particularly around their eyes. These flies use their forelegs to remove any material that has come into contact with the eyes. Houseflies also boast three additional simple eyes called ocelli, located between the two compound eyes, that are a kind of navigational device or compass, letting the fly know which way is up. The fly accomplishes this by keeping track and moving towards sunlit areas. This is why you’ll often find houseflies buzzing around windows.

Michele Zambetti

Relation with other species Housefly is, in some way, a “parasyte” of many other species including human’s one: in fact, without animal manure and garbage produced by humans, it couldn’t lay eggs and feed itself. Persistent house flies are very annoying and potential carriers of human and animal pathogens in very easy ways. Flies collect pathogens on their legs and mouths when females lay eggs on decomposing organic matter such as feces, garbage and animal corpses. House flies carry diseases on their legs and the small hairs that cover their bodies. It takes only a matter of seconds for them to transfer these pathogens to food or touched surfaces. Mature house flies also use saliva to liquefy solid food before feeding on it. During this process, they transfer the pathogens first collected by landing on offal. Diseases carried by house flies include typhoid, cholera and dysentery. Other diseases carried by house flies include salmonella, anthrax and tuberculosis. House flies have also been known to transmit the eggs of parasitic worms. Some forms of conjunctivitis are caused by the housefly, and in some cases - mostly in some African regions - they also lead to child blindness.

Michele Zambetti

La formica faraone, Pharaoh ant, Monomorium pharaonis Wilson Zarate

Lombrico terrestre, Worm, Lombricus terrestris Mehdi Zayani

Characteristics Earth-worms have no eyes, but they can sense light, particularly on their front end. They use this sense to make they sure they avoid light as much as possible. Most varieties of earth-worms cannot handle direct sunlight for long. This is for two reasons: first, because they can’t allow the mucus on their skin to dry out or they will suffocate; second, because most also can’t handle direct exposure to UV rays for more than a few minutes to an hour. If they are exposed to UV light too long, they will become paralyzed and die quite quickly. Even though earthworms need to breath, they have no lungs; rather, they breathe through their skin. This is why earthworms come to the surface after heavy rains, even though it is extremely hazardous for them to do so. They high water content of the soil after heavy rains doesn’t allow gases to diffuse across their skin so if they don’t come to surface, they will suffocate and die. Earthworms are able to regenerate most lost segments of their bodies, though this varies somewhat from species to species and extent of the damage to themselves. In 1972, it was proven that some species of earthworms are able to regenerate to the extent that you can grow two living worms from one bisected worm. However, this is not common among most earth-worms species, with most, the side with the head is the only one that survives, assuming the damage isn’t too extreme.

Mehdi Zayani

Habitat While, as the name earthworm suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, the situation is more complicated than that. Earthworms and their relatives live anywhere there is moist soil and dead plant material. Earthworms are most abundant in rainy forest areas, but can be found in many habitats on land and in freshwater. All earthworm species need moist soil conditions to survive. Most earthworms species live in the top meter or so of soil, and spend much of their time just below the surface where there is plenty of decomposing plant material. Some species emerge onto the surface at night when it is damp enough. They go deeper to avoid droughts or winter freezes. Some species never come to the surface, and spend their whole lives meters below the surface. Worm tunnels have been found to go at least 5 meters (16.5 ft.) below the surface! Charles Darwin noted the amazing ability of earthworms to bury things in the soil, even entire buildings as they gradually process soil underneath and around the buildings having it sink deeper and deeper over time. They are also quite efficient at burying and processing small things like coins and random bits of garbage, which they will literally grab and pull below the surface where they can safely process it. A more specific way to describe where earthworms live is their niche â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the position of the species within its habitat. A speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; niche includes both its physical location and the role it plays within the environment. By occupying a specific niche, earthworms make use of conditions that are best suited to their survival. Although all earthworms have common characteristics, features like size, pigmentation (skin colour) and quickness of movement reflect which niche different species occupy. Soil-dwelling earthworms fall into three main niche groupings: compost and soil-surface dwellers (epigeic), topsoil dwellers (endogeic) and deep-burrowing subsoil dwellers (anecic).

Mehdi Zayani

Coexistence Earthworms are natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clean-up crew, aiding in the production of lush, humus-rich topsoil from spent plant and animal materials. These elegantly efficient organisms have been on earth for hundreds of thousands of years longer than humankind, largely untouched by evolution due to their nearly perfect adaptation to their role in nature and coexistence with other species. In healthy soil, countless organisms and microorganisms interact to create the foundation in which plants thrive. Earthworms play a major role in the conversion of large pieces of organic matter into rich humus, thus improving soil fertility. Snakes, birds, moles, toads and even foxes are known to eat earthworms. Beetles, centipedes, leeches, slugs and flatworms also feed on earthworms. Some types of mites parasitize earthworm cocoons and the cluster fly (Pollenia rudis) parasitizes worms of the species Eisenia rosea. In general, worms are kind of creatures which are not in relation with other animals in a direct way, but their existence are necessary for animalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; living.

Mehdi Zayani

Reproduction Earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning each worm possesses both male and female reproductive organs. Some earthworm species can be self -fertile, meaning they can fertilize their own ova to produce young, and some species are parthenogenic, meaning fertilization of the ova by sperm is not necessary to produce young. Most earthworm species, however, require that two worms exchange sperm in order to produce young. When worms mate they lay side by side with their heads pointed in opposite directions, making close contact along the upper segments of their bodies. They excrete a mucous that coats both worms and binds them together, preventing them from being easily pulled apart and ensuring environmental conditions like rain or dew do not interfere with the exchange of sperm. The worms exchange sperm, storing the received seed in a pore on the skin surface just above the clitellum (the differently colored or thickened band that encircles the worm body). Once they exchange sperm, a process that may take hours, the worms move apart and eject their own ova into a pore on their skin surface near the sperm pore. Contrary to popular belief, worms are a closed species, meaning they can produce viable young only with sperm from members of their own species. They cannot be hybridized . In those rare circumstances when two worms from differing species have attempted to mate, the result was either no young being produced or, in rare circumstances, babies that were always sterile. Earthworm longevity is species dependent. Various specialists report that certain species have the potential to live 4-8 years. In protected culture conditions (no predators, ideal conditions) individuals of Allolobophora longa have been kept up to 10 1/4 years, Eisenia foetida for 4Â˝ years and Lumbricus terrestris for 6 years. Worms continue to grow once they reach sexual maturity but once at this stage there is a much slower increase in weight until the disappearance of the clitellum indicates the onset of old age or senescence. During this period there is a slow decline in weight until the death of the worm.

Mehdi Zayani

Stereotype There is a public belief about the relationship between human and worms after the death. During centuries, there are many books that explains this matter. “Death is responsible for the beauty of the wings of the butterfly. After a worm is dead a butterfly having beautiful wings is born. There is a hidden comparison between worm and human. Worm is compared to human; cocoon to life in this world; and butterfly to human after death. When the creature’s life as a worm ends, it dies and turns into a butterfly. ” 3 Bible Verses about People Eaten By Worm: 1-And immediately an angel of the Lord struck him because he did not give God the glory, and he was eaten by worms and died. 2-”For the moth will eat them like a garment, And the grub will eat them like wool But My righteousness will be forever, And My salvation to all generations.” 3-Behold, the Lord GOD helps Me; Who is he who condemns Me? Behold, they will all wear out like a garment; The moth will eat them. We can see this attitude toward worms also in other cultures and religions.

Mehdi Zayani

Perspective on humans Earthworms are important to people as decomposers and garden helpers. Decomposers break down old dead things into the soil. This allows new plants and animals to grow. Earthworms are also excellent as bait for fishing and as food for many interesting pets. As a consequence, it is clear that this creature has play a very important role in humans life. But it should be noted that there are some people that are counted as an enemy for these kind of insects.

Mehdi Zayani

Feeding Cycle Earthworms derive their nutrition from many forms of organic matter in soil, things like decaying roots and leaves, and living organisms such as nematodes, protozoans, rotifers, bacteria, fungi. They will also feed on the decomposing remains of other animals. They can consume, in just one day, up to one third of their own body weight. Earthworms possess very strong mouth muscles they do not have teeth. Dew worms or nightcrawlers often surface at night to pull fallen leaves down into their burrow. When the leaf decomposes or softens a little they pull small bits off at a time to munch on. They also “swallow” soil as they burrow and extract nutrients from it. Earthworms form the base of many food chains. They are preyed upon by many species of birds (e.g. starlings, thrushes, gulls, crows, European robins and American robins), snakes, mammals (e.g. bears, foxes, hedgehogs, pigs, moles) and invertebrates (e.g. ground beetles and other beetles, snails, slugs). Earthworms have many internal parasites, including protozoa, platyhelminthes, and nematodes; they can be found in the worms’ blood, seminal vesicles, coelom, or intestine, or in their cocoons. Various species of worms are used in vermiculture, the practice of feeding organic waste to earthworms to decompose food waste. Earthworms are sold all over the world; the market is sizable. According to Doug Collicut, “In 1980, 370 million worms were exported from Canada, with a Canadian export value of $13 million and an American retail value of $54 million.” Earthworms are also sold as food for human consumption.

Mehdi Zayani

Temporality Specific temperature requirements and tolerances vary from species to species, though the ideal range for most epigeic worm species is between roughly 60-80° F. The worm’s ability to tolerate temperatures outside of ideal is highly dependant on the level of moisture in the system, with hot, dry conditions being the most lethal combination. Like all invertebrates their body processes or metabolism slow down with falling temperatures. They will hibernate at near freezing temperature. If frozen they will die. They react to advancing colder winter weather by burrowing deep (up to two meters) in the soil to avoid the extreme cold. Moisture is critical to the survival of all earthworm species because it is moisture within the worm’s body that gives it shape, enables it to move, and aids in the worm’s ability to absorb oxygen. To facilitate the absorption of oxygen the skin is very thin and permeable, meaning that the moisture within the body cavity is easily evaporated off, particularly in dry environments. The moisture range for most worm species is from 60-85%, which ensure the worm can absorb as much moisture as may be lost. Earthworms respire through their skin, and therefore require humid conditions to prevent drying out. They coat themselves in mucus to enable the passage of dissolved oxygen into their bloodstream.

Mehdi Zayani

Barbo Italico o barbo padano, Italian barbel, Barbus plebejus Zhao Liying

Biological Characteristics The Italian barbel, Barbus plebejus, is a species of freshwater fish in the Cyprinidae family, nearly related to the common barbel Barbus barbus. Barbus plebejus can reach a maximum length of 70 cm in males and a maximum weight of 6 kilograms. Usually, it is much smaller. It has a long and slender body, with a mouth equipped with characteristic four barbels (hence the common and genus names). It has greenish back with black dots, sides finely dotted, whitish belly, paired fins tinged with grey and a slightly thorny dorsal ray. Lower lip has a median lobe.

Zhao Liying

Habitat Like the common barbel, these longlived fishes have their natural habitats in running waters of rivers and rarely freshwater lakes. They inhabit the water just above the bottom. In Italy, the species is native. Italian Barbus is endemic in the district Padano- Veneto. In the postwar period this species has been introduced in central Italy. In Milan, there are many area could raise this species. I choose 4 plots to discover: Parco Lambro (river), Parco Sempione (Lake), Giardini Pubblici (Lake) and Navigli River. According to Italian Barbus habits, the river should be more suitable for them. But the real research indicates that the biggest population is hold by Parco Sempione. The Navigli River is dry, while there is no fishes now. Giardini Pubblici and Parco Lambro also keep this species but not a big number. When they are young, they are living in groups. For adults, they perfer isolated life.

Zhao Liying

Temporality Like the common fishes, these long-lived fishes have their natural habitual nature. Over a year, the performance of the different barb biological properties. In winter, the barb will gather at the bottom of the river, or in the pits, caves, the temperature is low, maintain a minimum of energy consumption, reduced activity, similar to hibernate until spring and then returning to normal. Spring will be a lot of eating sinensis, from April to June to spawn. The day, day and night will be eating barb, but most of the barb will sleep in lowlight conditions, the evening will stay in bed between plants.

Zhao Liying

Food Cycle In Milan, around the fishâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s habitat, there are many other species, such as snakes, frogs, birds, ducks, earthworms, insects, hedgehogs, squirrels, and of course human beings. They influence each other and coexist in the biosphere. In this biological system, they differ from each other in the food chain positions. Frogs, birds, ducks, hedgehogs prey on birds, snakes prey on frogs and birds, ducks will sometimes prey on frogs. Phytoplankton and algae eating fish itself, so in the food chain, the fish are at the bottom. People, in the top of the food chain organisms, longterm consumption, capture and rearing fish. If before the Earth is very old stars, then water polo, all creatures are from aquatic organisms evolved, so now weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re eating our own, or eating fish? Contrast fish and humans, we can find a lot in common.

Zhao Liying

Reproduction Barbus hatchery annually in April and May. In the spring, when the water temperature arrives at 18-22 degrees, barbus gonad maturation, at dawn, they will chase each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities. Dawn, the broodstock chasing each other, a few males chasing a female in a row and pushed the female plants leaves or fish nest, the female body shake, eggs spilled down in rows, the male ejaculate immediately, fertilized plants or fish scattered on the nest. A female generally several times until the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s production of finished eggs. Several females will produce many eggs. Broodstock spawning activity to the morning of 9-10 points is generally sustainable. The next day at dawn, there will broodstock spawning activity, in general, sustainable broodstock spawning activity 2-3 days. After spawning broodstock first end, usually 7-10 days interval, can be a second spawning.

Zhao Liying

Stereotype From ancient times, fish is an important symbol throughout the history of literature. We look at the fish, but also on behalf of his own thoughts into individual fish inside. Employing ways of thinking, a way to survive with fish mermaid template, then fish the way to think, the employerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way to live, it would not be more logical? In ancient China, the mermaid is representing intelligence and brutal. In Europe, the fable, the mermaid is a beautiful symbol of purity. Fish and humans living in different environments, water is indispensable for them. As living in two close but not Cyberspace as fish for people more ornamental and food value. Barbus, in China, is especially on behalf of luck and success. This comes from the fish live in moving water and often jump out of the water action.

Zhao Liying

Perspective of animal For fish and people who have lived in different environments, the fish should also think human life is in the water. Fisheye visual range up to 12m, so the fish in the park can only see vague humans and the surrounding landscape. As more and more fish are placed in the middle of the city, and the fish of the relationship has become closer. Sometimes humans feeding the fish in the city, and sometimes people will catch fish, so the human hand should be the most familiar fish. Different hands for different actions for the fish to convey different emotions. Prolonged feeding fish make a human feel close gathered over a long period of fishing and fish to humans make sense of persecution.

Zhao Liying

Relationship with other animals The barbus who is living in parco Lambro lives with many other species in harmony. There are turtles, frogs, birds, lots of ducks and all kinds of fish, as well as hedgehogs, squirrels, etc. The animals in the park under the whole biological system, comply with the rules of survival. Most of the time the fish and ducks live in the water system, but barbus living in the bottom waters, ducks on the water. The other side of the food chain of fish and ducks at the other end is a simple relationship between prey and hunter. Frogs and sea turtles are amphibians, so there will be intersection. Other live fish in the water system and barbus is similar, but also prey on each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationships.

Zhao Liying

Vairone occidentale, Western Vairone, Telestes souffia Laura Zura Puntaroni

Biology Physical Caracteristics__Western Vairone has an elongated, slender, slightly compressed body, covered with large scales. These are stuck each other like tiles on a roof; their function is to cover the entire body of the fish, making it smooth and hydrodynamic. It has a small face, with a slightly prominent lower jaw and a thin mouth. It also presents a bilboa tail, with the marging significantly concave. Caudal fin is responsible for the main driving force of the fish, it is arranged vertically to the plane of the fish and moves from right to left or vice versa. Eyes are located on each side: visual field is of 360 degrees, they have a wide angle and monocular view, in order to keep all risks under control. In addition to the sense of taste, smell, sight and touch this fish presents another sensory organ that is not present in other vertebrates: the lateral line. This is made up of a series of small ducts that run sideways in the head and in the body of animal; they are connected with the outside thanks to small pores and they have the funtion of sensing very low frequency variations or feeble electric fields. Referring to colours, its back can be metallic blue, black or greenish-white. On sides it has a lighter colour, except from a longitudinal black stripe, extending from the eye to the tail. On the belly we can notice silvery-white reflections, while finsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; base assumes red colour. During the reproductive season dorsal and caudal fins assume an intense yellow or orange colour. This specimen is always smaller than the Oriental Vairone; its maximum lenght is about 20 cm, although the majority is much smaller.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

CYPRINIFORMES ORDER CYPRINIDAE FAMILY

BONY FISH OSTEICHTYES

LEUCISCINAE SUBFAMILY

8 FAMILIES 2914 SPECIES 89 GENRES

TELESTES SOUFFLA MULTICELLUS

BINOCULAR VISION MONOCULAR VISION

METALLIC BLUE BLACK GREEN

SCALES

MONOCULAR VISION

BLACK

ORANGE YELLOW

Space Natural Habitat_ The Western Vairone can be found in the upper and middle part of rivers and streams with clear well oxygenated water, and in the current sustained hard substrate mixed with sand, gravel and crushed stone. In the mountains it can reach an altitude of 900 m above sea level, but it is also found in some high-altitude lakes, where t was probably introduced as a forage fish for trout and char. These little fishes are present in large subalpine lakes, where they stay in the vicinity of inlets and outfalls, along coasts. Space needed_One single fish measures from 10 up to 20 centimeters. It belongs to a gregarious species, so it is normally found in school of fish. A single school can count up to hundreds samples. Each fish is able to keep a fixed distance from others, every single sample loses its individual characteristics in order to adopt those of an aggregate of the collective personality. Swimming direction and speed changes are synchronized in fact the school moves as a single organism. This strict and regular space disposition is called Schooling and is coordinated according to a specific directional polarity. Metric distance model_Fishes organized in school use a precise metric distance model that is divided in 3 bands of priority. Considering one single fish, starting from the centre to the close proximity of its body the main rule is “avoid collision”, then “keep same direction” and in zone 3 “stay close”. This particular space organization is a clear evidence of fishes’ intelligence and spatial awareness.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

METRIC DISTANCE MODEL AVOID COLLISION - 1 KEEP SAME DIRECTION - 2 STAY CLOSE - 3

GETATION VE

GRAVEL

OXYGEN O2 O2

Time Temporality__Thinking about time, the main feature of Western Vairone is to be a seasonal animal. In fact, it can be observed that the species is mostly present during the period fromApril to late July, which coincides with the breeding season. Western Vairone suffers from a slight photophobia, that means that is possible to see it mostly after sunset and before dawn, expecially in the warmer months. In winter, only a small percentage of the species resists at the cold temperatures, hiding in deeper water, near plants, or trying to survive where warm currents run. As already mentioned, it is possible to observe it in large quantities between spring and summer (MayJune): during hottest hours it goes to the bottom, near the gravel bed of watercourses, while he usually swim near water surface during night hours. Breeding occours in this seaoson: spawning is performed by females and eggs are fertilized by males within 5-6 days, usually during dark hours. Autumn is a middle season: there are fewer specimens of the roach fish in the water. They start to look for deeper water (3-4 meters) to protect themselves from the cold weather; only during hottest hours they rise to the surface to feed on small insects.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

night hours

SPRING

night hours SUMMER

day hours AUTUMN

day hours WINTER

Food cycle Diet__Western Vairone has an omnivorous diet, which include both animals and plants. As far as underwater flora is concerned, the fish feeds on small algae and diatoms: they can be found attached to underwater vegetation. Talking about other animals, roach fish distinguishes basically two types of nutrition, one at the bottom and anotherone at the top of water. Regarding the bottom part of its habitat, it usually eats small invertebrates and plankton, while on the surface it feeds on mosquitoes and other small insects that usually live near watercourses. Foodcycle__The Western Vairone itself is part of a well-defined food chain. In addition of being a predator of other small animals, it is also considered a prey from salmon and trout. In fact, in many high altitude lakes it was just introduced by man as a forage fish. Also humans feed on fishes.Western Vairone is caught in small quantities, especially in the pre-mountain streams or cold lakes; it is often eaten fried with other little fishes. Its economic value is null.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

D SALMON UT AN TRO

PLANKTON

VAI RO NE

S AN M HU

S CT E S IN

A L G AE

Reproduction Breeding__Sexual maturity is reached at the age of 2-3 years. In late spring, males develop nuptial turbecles and females start to look for the perfect place for spawning. Breeding takes place from late April until July, depending on water temperature and weather condition. Spawning takes place in shallow water with a gravelly bottom. A strong current is needed: it enriches water with oxygen. Eggs laid by female animals are fertilized by males during the night. Each female lays from 6000 up to 8000 eggs; each one has a diameter of about 2 mm. They are covered with a sticky film, in order to adhere at the bottom substrate of gravel. Under regular thermal conditions, hatching occurs after 5 days. Life Cycle__Eggs hatch in 5-6 days and a new life starts. During the first two weeks of life fish’s body is not built, it is just a fragile embryo. At the end of the larval stage, the fish begins to assume the form of the adult. In this period alevins’ body is very weak and subjected to external attack of bacteria and diseases; that’s why only a small percentage of 8000 eggs survives at the first few days of life. After some months the animal developed adult characteristics. It grows steadily, reaching in 3 years 15/20 cm of lenght. At this point of its life the fish is ready for reproduction, so a new life can starts. Western Vairone can live up to 7 or 10 years.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

60 00 /8 00 6D 0 E AY S

E M B RYO 1 5 D AYS

ENILE FISH V U J NTHS 4 MO

S G G

ISH F LT U RS AD YEA 3

30 DAYS ALEVIN SPAWNING: CURRENT WATER +

GRAVEL

Stereotype Fish Bowl__When we speak about Western Vairone, or in general about fishes and their connection with the human world, immediately the idea of the glass bowls comes in mind. Actually there canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be a more erroneus stereotype. Starting from the spatial dimension, fishes (and especially roach fishes) are social animals that like to live sourrounded by their fellows, travelling a lot, swimming and exploring their living habitat, looking in every hidden place. Grow them up inside an acquarium means to deny all the social and spatial organization that are implied in their nature. While humans usually think that a bowl of 5/10 liters of water is sufficient for the life of the animal, actually the Western Vairone (it reaches 15/20 cm of lenght in 3 years) requires at least 120 liters of water to grow in good health conditions. A fundamental part of the required habitat is the superficial area in contact with air, which must be as large as possible in order to allow fishes to breath oxygen. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why is unthinkable to reproduce the proper habitat and to allow the healty growht of fishes inside fish bowls.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

Perspective on humans Perception__As well as other fish species and also lots of cold-blooded animals, Western Vairone has a quite a strong memory, in opposition to the stereotype of fish being forgetful. Anyway the Vaironeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception is different from that of mammals: fish have a selective memory, that can help them avoiding obstacles or natural enemies and recognizing the easiest spot where to find food, but their mental structure is not developed in a way to let them have a defined prospective on human race. The main limit to achieve a real meeting between human and fishes is the natural habitat: a fish can only see a human and interact with him from the water. Also, the fisheye typical view, useful in the aquatic enviroment, may be another problem in the perception of human. The vairone is, however, an edible fish, usually fished and eaten in a large quantity of areas near rivers. So, a Vairone may recognize a fishermen regular spot and mark it as a dangerous place, but it is quite certain that it cannot recognize a single fisherman or interact with him.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

Relation with other species Cohexistence__Western Vairone lives with many other species, both animal and plant. In particular with plant species no probem of adaptation is found, because the fish itself feeds on them and at the same time use them as a sun screen. As far as animal species (in particular fishes) are concerned, it can easily live in the same habitat of all members of Cyprinidae family (expecially chub and rudd: it can also couple with them). All types of fishes with similar diet can cohexist with Western Vairone. It is also found in the same habitat of Salmonidae family, such as trout and salmon. These last two are predator fishes, in fact they feed on roach fishes but despite that they can also share with them the same habitat. Due to the fact that it is a very small fish not widespread, it is not a considered a prey from other animals of variuos species, that are not interested in the little amount of food obtainable.

Laura Zura Puntaroni

SN ASS AKE R G

RONE VAI

E FROG TRE

COOT

IBLE FROG ED

PIGO

COYPU

BER BAR

TE SWA N MU

LLARD MA

SLIDER ND O P

OHREN MO