The Invention of Printing by Madeline Christensen

The

Invention of Printing A D 1450 - 1800

The 15th through 18th centuries will be remembered for tremendous advancements in printing, design, and typographic form The development of the printing press influenced the development of full typefaces and their production rather than the job-specific approach that most typography was developed for. Nicholas Jenson was responsible for the development of the first full roman typeface, which was based on humanistic characteristics and was highly legible. Aldus Manutius proved influential in the world of printing and production while his punch cutter Francesco Griffo developed the first italic as a handwritten style designed to conserve space so that the books Manutius published could take a smaller form. The Italian Renaissance of roman typography influenced the French which led to a period in which many developments occurred in both typography and printing. The push towards a higher quality of printing was led by several printers including Robert Estienne, Simone de Colines and Geofroy Tory. Apprenticing for de Colines and Estienne, Claude Garamond learned the trade of punch cutting and printing. After Estienne died, Garamond became the first to produce and sell typefaces to other printers. His style of type design moved even further from the style of calligraphy and his type designs were further developed by Jean Jannon who produced a set of roman and italics which were mistakenly attributed as Garamondâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s all the way into the 20th century because of their resemblance.

Papermaking and book binding

German Illustrated Book

The Mainz Psalter

Incunabula

The Anatomy of a Letterfromm

Blackletter

Roman Typefaces

Johann Gutenburg

William Caxron

Johann Fust

Nicolas Jensen

Peter Shoffer

Claude Garamond

Gwriffo Francesc

Aldus Manutius

Jean Jannon

Papermaking and book binding European papermaking in the 15th and 16th centuries was characterized by the use of water-based mills. The small team of men that worked at these paper mills made paper by hand using the vat method. These teams were able to make about nine reams, or 4,500 sheets, in a thirteen-hour day. The quality of the paper produced depended on the quality of materials being used to construct the paper. Making higher-grade paper required the use crushed and fermented white linen rags and clean spring or well water. This combination of materials would ultimately yield high quality, white writing paper. A larger variety of lower quality. quality materials, such as coarse rags, netting, canvas, colored linen, pieces of rope, and other flax or hemp based fabrics, to yield browner, more common papers. By the 17th century, the papermaking industry had advanced technologically, and many mills were now using machines with Hollander beating engines. These machines were able to shred the raw materials to create the pulp more efficiently than the human workers at water-based mills. The Hollander machines allowed paper makers to keep up with the increase in paper d e m a n d t h a t c a m e a l o n g w i t h t h e improve-

ments in the printing process. The Hollander also increased the demand for linen rags and other raw materials. History has greatly influenced the typographic forms of today, and it is very informative to look at how the anatomy of any given letter can be traced back to some point in typographic history. The basic element in each letterform is a linear stroke, due to the fact that typography evolved from handwriting â&#x20AC;&#x201C; making series of marks with our hands. The early typographic forms were also influenced by the marks made by the reed pen and stone engraverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chisel. The reed pen, from ancient Rome and medieval times, was held at an angle and produced a pattern of thick and thin within each stroke. The chisel was used to make mainly capital letters with minimal curved strokes. Curved strokes developed with pen writing, and were used to cut down on the number of marks needed to write a series of characters.

1. paper making in ancient chinsa <paper.lib.uiowa.edu> 2. paper making in early european 15000s <www.pinterest.com>

German Illustrated Book

Books printed from Gutenberg’s invention of typography until the end of the fifteenth century are referred to as incunabula, the latin word for “cradle” or “baby linen”. Incunabula’s references to birth and beginnings caused seventeenth-century writers to adopt it as a name used for books printed between Gutenberg’s invention of typography in the 1450s and the end of the fifteenth century. After Gutenberg’s invention of movable type, typographic printing spread rapidly. Printing had become a practice used in over 140 towns in Europe by the 1500’s. Book Publications of several editions began, after the first print was created.This increase in editions also increased study possibilities for people who could purchase a more affordable book. A large sum of design innovations started and took place in Germany, where woodcut artists and typographic printers came together in order to develop the illustrated book and broadsheet. Eventually it became common practice for Scribes and artists to make layouts for illustrated books and broadsides. (“History of Graphic Design | History of Graphic Design.”)

1. “Think Smart Designs Blog: Printing Comes to Europe - Graphic Design History 3.”

The Mainz Psalter

The Psalterium (Mainz Psalter) is the second earliest printed book, after the Gutenberg Bible. This is the first volume to include a date of printing, August 14, 1457. It was commissioned by the Mainz archbishop. This book introduced several innovations, it was the first book to have a colophon containing the work’s title printer, and date of publication. In the colophone it mentioned that the entire book was produced with the aid of printing methods, like decoration, which was no longer added by book illuminators. It was also the first book to be printed in 3 colors. It was the first importatn publicaton issued by Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer after their separation form Gutenberg. Only 10 copies of the completed book have survived. The Psalter combines printed text with a two-colour woodcut since both woodcuts and movable print are a relief processes, they could be printed together on the same press. The Psalter is printed using black and red inks, with two-color initials, and large colored capitals printed in blue and red inks These capitals were partly the work of the Fust master a known artisan, who later also worked for Fust and Schöffer again on the 1462 Bible. The musical score accompanying the psalms was provided in manuscript, and may have been the model for the type style. Printing in two colors, although feasible on the moveable press of Gutenberg’s time (as shown by the Mainz Psalter), was apparently abandoned soon afterward due to being too time-consuming, as few other examples of the process in it’s fulfillment are in existence. Only 10 copies of the completed book hae survived, 6 of the long issue and 4 of the short issue. (“Digitising the Mainz Psalter.”)

1. The colophon of the Psalter. (“Digitising the Mainz Psalter”) 2. Iluminated initial from the title page on vellum in black and red, with woodblock two colour initials. (“Digitising the Mainz Psalter”)

Incunabula “Incunabula” is a term coined by seventeenth century English book collectors to call the first printed books of the fifteenth century. These books were previously called “fifteeners” but were changed to sound more elegant. The word is formed by two Latin words that literally mean “in the cradle” or “in swaddling clothes. The very first Incunabulum is the Gutenberg Bible of 1455. There is some debates over whether this is corrected considered the first printed book, as books had been printed in Europe since the fourteenth century using solid block type and not moveable type. The books at this time, some of which were still being hand copied, were in high depend by a large amount of readers. Books made in 1500 are the last incunabula because they are printed in the final year of the fifteenth century. Scholars started to study the typography in the books because they hold the most important clues to the origins of the incunabula. Many of the Incunabula lacked any indication of printing or the printer’s names. It was because of this that scholars began to group letterforms together by their characteristics. The first catalog of incunabula owned by the U.S. was Census of Fifteenth Century books owned in America. The catalog identified 13,200 copies of 6,292 titles in American libraries. Religious literature was printed in large amounts during the incunabula period, but especially in Germany. The Bible was printed 11 times in Italian, 15 times in German, and 94 times in Latin. (Incunabula | Printing.)

1. Found in the ca. 1477 Vitae sanctorum patrum (“Early Printed Books.”) 2. Coat of arms (“Category Archives: Incunabula.” ) 3. 2004 National Diet Library, Japan (“External View of Incunabula (2) | Incunabula - Dawn of Western Printing.”)

The Anatomy of a Letterform History has greatly influenced the typographic forms of today, and it is very informative to look at how the anatomy of any given letter can be traced back to some point in typographic history. The basic element in each letterform is a linear stroke, due to the fact that typography evolved from handwriting – making series of marks with our hands. The early typographic forms were also influenced by the marks made by the reed pen and stone engraver’s chisel. The reed pen, from ancient Rome and medieval times, was held at an angle and produced a pattern of thick and thin within each stroke. The chisel was used to make mainly capital letters with minimal curved strokes. Curved strokes developed with pen writing, and were used to cut down on the number of marks needed to write a series of characters. Many of the characteristics used to design today’s typefaces are based on the principals of Roman and Greek writing styles, such as stress placement, proportions, stroke-to-height ratio, the different parts of a letterform, and many, many more. (“The Anatomy of Typography”)

1. Shows how letterforms according to the human body. <http://www.wccs.k12.in.us/cchs/departments/fine.../TypographyHistory.ppt>. 2. Basic letterform for capital letters. <http://www.wccs.k12.in.us/cchs/departments/fine.../TypographyHistory.ppt>.

Black Letter Blackletter is sometimes also called Gothic script or Old English script. It was mostly used for manuscript books and documents in Europe from the end of the 12the century to the 20th century. Blackletter was a dominant letter shape of medieval typography and was only used in extant works that were known to have been printed by Johannes Gutenberg. German designers fell out of favor of blackletter and replaced it with sans serif typefaces, but in 1933 Hitler declared the new typography to be unGerman and declared Fraktur to be the people’s font. In Germany blackletter persisted until 1941. There are four major families that can be identified in blackletter: Textura, Rotunda, Schwabacher, and Fractur. These styles were often associated with the different regions in which they were used and developed. Textura is closely related to the calligraphic style because it includes a lot of ligatures. Schwabacher typefaces are often a more simplified, rounded stroke. Cursiva is most closely related to cursive letters and can be recognized by the presence of desenders and looped ascenders. Granktur is characterized by broken stokes and is the most common blackletter. (“Type Classification : Design Is History.”) Blackletter began to become less popular during the 1500’s because they were difficult to read as a body text and roman and italic typefaces were easier to print with movable type. Blackletter can still be seen today in pl aces like newspaper nameplates or diplomas. More recently they have become associated with beer labels and Disneyland. (“Blackletter / Gothic Lettering.”)

1. Gutenberg Bible (“The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History.”) 2. Blackletter being used for the Disneyland sign. (“The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History.”) 3. Examples of blackletter in newspaper nameplates. (“The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History.”) 4. Examples of blackletter as beer lables. (“The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History.”)

Roman Typefaces

Main: Fragment of Adolf Rusch’s 1470s edition of “Rationale Divinorum Officiorum;” The Daily Gargle Above: Sweynehym & Pannartz, 1465. Left: Rome: Conradus Sweynheym and Arnoldus Pannartz type sample; Livius, Titus. “Historia Romanae decades”

The art of printing from movable metal type was mastered and used widely midway through the 15th century, and this is when letter cutters began to attempt to make their letter forms as much as possible like the handwriting of manuscript scribes. The earliest instances of printed matter were produced in black-letter type—the heavy-bodied, essentially spiky letter forms associated with the Middle Ages—which today in many places is simply called “Gothic.” Black letter was an elaborate, ornamental type, but it was difficult to read and wasteful of space and expensive paper. Models for a new type that would be easier to cut and read were found in the scriptoria, where scribes were experimenting with a letter face that they believed had been used in ancient Rome. By comparison with black letter typefaces, it was a simple, straightforward, unembellished shape. Historians

now trace its ancestry less to Rome than to Charlemagne and the “official” letter form developed for his decrees by an English monk, Alcuin, in the 9th century. The first use of a recognizable roman type was either by Adolf Rusch at Strasbourg in 1464 or by two German printers, Sweynheim and Pannartz, at Subiaco, Italy around 1465, the honor depending on how loosely the words “recognizably roman” are interpreted. A Venetian printer actually patented a cutting of a roman face later in the 1460s but subsequently died and thus invalidated the patent a year later. Within a century of its first introduction, roman type had swept all others before it and left Germany as the sole country in which black letter held dominance until well into the 20th century. Adapted by many type designers of genius, it has been the “standard” typeface of book typography, and steered the way for future forms of type for years to come.

Johann Gutenberg Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1395 in Mainz Germany. He was the son of Greile zum Gensfleisch and his second wife, Else Wirick zum Gutenberg. Johann later adopted her maiden name. Little information exists about him, but it is known that he had acquired skills in metalwork. Gutenberg moved to Strassburg between 1428 and 1430 after being exiled form Mainz in a struggle between the guilds of the city and the patricians. While in Strassburg Gutenberg taught crafts, and engaged in the art of gem cutting. A couple of Gutenberg’s partners, who loaned him considerable amounts of money, insisted on drawing up a five-year contract between them. The three other men were Hans Riffe, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas Heilmann. The contract contained a clause stating that if there was a death of one of the partners, his heirs were not to enter the company, but to be compensated financially. Andreas Dritzehn died in 1483. His heirs began a lawsuit against Gutenberg to try and avoid the terms contract and to be made partners. They lost the suit, but found out that Gutenberg

Portrait of Johann Gutenberg “Gutenberg Találmánya, a Nyomtatott Könyv.”

was working on a new project. A carpenter had advanced sums to Andreas Dritzehn for the building of a wooden press, and a goldsmith had sold Gutenberg 100 guilders’ worth of printing materials. Gutenberg was well along in completing this invention, and wanted to keep the nature of it a secret. By 1450 Gutenberg was able to persuade Johann Fust, a wealthy financier, to loan him 800 guilders for tools for printing. Two years Later Fust made another 800 guilders for a partnership in the enterprise. Fust and Gutenberg eventually split because Fust wanted a fast return on his investment and Gutenberg was striving for protection and wanted to take his time. Fust then won a suit against Gutenberg where his was required to pay the sum of both loans and compound interests. Gutenberg’s masterpiece, the forty-two-Line Bible was completed in 1455 at the latest. The sale of the Forty-two-Line Bible alone would have made many times over the sum owed to Fust by Gutenberg, but these tangible assets were not counted among Gutenberg’s property at the trial.

William Caxton William Caxton (c. 1415 – c. March 1492) is credited with introducing England to movable type in the mid 15th century. He actually printed one of the first commercial advertisements ever – a sign for the goods being sold in his shop. Caxton is also credited with printing one of the first books in the English language with movable type. Eight fonts were produced for Caxton’s press when he commissioned a Flemish calligrapher-turned-typeface designer to create Blackletter-style typefaces, which are considered to be the ancestors to the Old English typefaces used today. His best known publications are Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, the Golden Legend, and Malory’s Morte D’Arthur. He also translated historical works and romances and wrote prefaces to his books. As publisher of more than one hundred publications, Caxton established a new readership for major works in English. Caxton never printed a Bible, as this was forbidden by law; from 1408, explicit Church permission was required to translate or even to read translations of scripture in English, permission which was never granted. It was not until the Church of England broke from Rome that this proscription was lifted. The book known informally as the “Caxton Bible” was printed in 1877 for the Caxton Celebration in South Kensington.

1. William Caxton showing specimens of his printing to King Edward IV and his Queen. Published in The Grabhic in 1877 refering to The Caxton Celebration. The Caxton Celebration, commemorating the 400th anniversary of the first printed book in England, took place in London in the summer of 1877; The Graphic, June 30, 1877, p617.

Johann Fust

Johann Fust (c. 1400 – October 30, 1466) is believed to have been a money-lender or banker. Due to Fust’s connection with Johann Gutenberg, he has been called the inventor of printing, and both the instructor and partner of Gutenberg. While he is viewed as a benefactor who saw the value of Gutenberg’s discovery and supplied him with the means to carry it out, Fust is also portrayed as a speculator who took advantage of Gutenberg’s need and robbed him of the profits of his invention. On the right, we see a portrait where Fust is described by the artist as Gutenberg’s “wealthy business partner.” Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer are both known for continuing a partnership after their mutual work on the Guttenberg bible, and after Fust sued and won a case against Johann Gutenberg in 1455 for the right to take back his loans that he permitted to Gutenberg years prior for the continuation of the Gutenberg bible.

Nicolas Jensen Nicolas Jenson (1420 – 1480) was one of the first in his field to cut and use a typeface based on traditional Roman typefaces, rather than the northern European gothic forms being used at the time. H is ea r ly letterforms had strong vertical stems and transitions from thick to thin that evoked lettering done with a pen. Jenson’s typefaces influenced typography in its 19th and 20th century revival. Many typefaces were modeled after his, including Bruce Rogers’s Montaigne, Morris’s Golden Type, and Robert Slimbach’s Adobe Jenson. Slimbach created Adobe Jenson to have a low x-height and inconsistencies to differentiate letters from one another. These features couple to make this typeface appropriate and readable for large blocks of text.

Above: Gutenberg, his wealthy business partner, Johann Fust (right), and his assistant, Peter Schoeffer (in back), with printed page.; Alamy.com Left: Sample of roman typeface by Nicolas Jenson, from an edition of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Laertiusâ&#x20AC;?, printed in Venice 1475; English Wikipedia

Peter Shoffer Peter Shoffer was born in 1425 in Gernsheim, Germany. Schöffer studied in Paris, as a copyist, and then became an apprentice to Gutenberg in Mainz. Peter Shoffer printed the Mainz Psalter, a triumph of that bibliographers consider letterpress typography’s greatest achievement. He observed Sir Irvine Masson, author of the definitive study of the Psalter: “Schoeffer never again attempted such a tour de force.” He entered the printing business as the partner of Johann Fust, whose daughter he later married. After the break with Gutenberg and the fall of Mainz, three-color printing Schoeffer and Fust established their printing works at the Haus zum Iseneck on the Brand, known later as the ‘Printing House’. Schöffer cast the first metallic type in matrices and used it for the second edition of the Vulgate Bible. By the time of his death he had printed more than 300 books. Examples of his craftsmanship are the 1457 Mainz Psalter and the 1462 48line Bible. The Psalter was the first printed book to give the date and place of printing and the printers’ names.

1. Peter Shoffer of Germany <http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/s/schoffer_peter.htm>

Claude Garamond Frenchman Claude Garamond (ca. 1480 – 1561) was the first to ever specialize in type design and punch-cutting as a service to others. Due to his position as the first type designer and punch-cutter to sell his punches in retail to other printers, Garamond led on the establishment of the trend for many other typographers, punch-cutters, printers, and publishers to make the same sales in retail, which helped spread new typefaces. He quickly became one of the leading type designers of his time. Several contemporary typefaces, including those currently known as Garamond, Granjon, and Sabon, reflect his influence. In the 1500s, French printers began to adopt the Venetian typographic traditions, and people such as Garamound took notice. Garamond moved away from designing type with calligraphic evidence and made advances to some of Francesco Griffo’s first italic letters. As a punchcutter, Garamond placed a priority on type design and casting, and he gained prominence as the founder of one of the first independent type foundaries. Of the many Garamond revivals and variations, few come close to the exact specifications with which Garamond created his initial typeface, making some designers skeptical of using this font. Garamond has been labled “organic” as a type family but also known to be quite blobby among typefaces because of the unrefined serifs. However, the subtle slant to the peaks of Garamonnd’s ‘T’ and ‘Z’ are said to give those letters a varied whimsical appearance.

1. Claude Garamond – born c. 1480 in Paris, France, died 1561 in Paris, France; www.linotype.com

Gwriffo Francesco Francesco Griffo da Bologna started his career as a goldsmith, and later worked for the most important publisher of the day, the house of Aldus Manutius of Venice. He devised types for the mechanical craft of printing and not for an alternative to hand-written manuscript. His initial project in Venice was to invent a typeface called Bembo, which is regarded as the most modern in appearance of all 15th century types. He was the inventor of the cursive or italic style which made a fortune for the printer Aldus Manutius. Bembo was cut by Francesco Griffo, Stanley Morison supervised the design of Bembo for the Monotype Corporation in 1929. In February 1496, Griffo designed a typeface for the essay “De Aetna” by the Italian scholar Pietro Bembo, which achieved great popularity under the name Bembo. In 1929, the British

Monotype Corporation released a family of Bembo fonts. A 1524 pattern book by the Italian calligrapher Giovanni Tagliente provided a template for the italics. Griffo’s typefaces have been very influential. Typefaces based on his work include Monotype Poliphilus roman, Bembo Book roman, and Bembo Titling, Morris Fuller Benton’s Cloister Old Style italic, Jack Yan’s JY Aetna roman, Bitstream Aldine 401 roman, and Franko Luin’s Griffo Classico roman and italic; more distant descendants include the romans of Claude Garamond, Giovanni Mardersteig’s Dante, Robert Slimbach’s Minion and Matthew Carter’s Yale Typeface. During a quarrel, he seized an iron bar and inflicted wounds leading to the death of his son-in-law. He disappeared from history after that and is thought to have been executed by hanging in 1518.

1. Fancesco, of Italy <http://turing.lecolededesign.com/i2/DesignGraphique/TypoBembo/Design%20Graphique/pietro-bembo_web.jpg>

Aldus Manutius

Aldus was an entrepreneur and an innovator, and soon became the most prolific publisher and printer in Renaissance Italy. He invented pocket editions of books with soft covers that were affordable for a wide range of readers, organized the scheme of book design, normalized the use of punctuation, and used the first italic type. If you recognize Aldus’ name, it may be because the company that created Pagemaker, the first widely used layout software, and that spurred the whole desktop publishing revolution, was named Aldus, and used his image as their logo. Early in the sixteenth century Aldus founded the Aldine Academy of Hellenic Scholars, through which he promoted the works of the great classical philosophers and scientists in their native Greek language. The Aldine works were readily recognizable by a distinctive trademark depicting a dolphin’s body wrapped around the shaft of an anchor. Among the greatest achievements of Aldus Manutius were the Aldine fonts. He was the first printer to develop an italic roman font. The Aldine italic fonts were modeled from the handwriting of two Italian scribes. For the design of his italic, Aldus turned to Francesco Griffo, who made the molds in which the type would be cast. Then Aldus decided he needed a new typeface that he would use

first to publish an essay titled De Aetna by the famed scholar Pietro Bembo. The italic fonts were significant politically because they were used for printing government documents in Venice and other Italian city-states. Aldus published the copyright notice in his Ovid collection of 1502. The exhibition that opened this week at the Grolier Club in Manhattan, “Aldus Manutius: A Legacy More Lasting Than Bronze,” gathers nearly 150 Aldines, as books from the press Aldus founded in Venice in 1494 are known, for a more sober tribute. Gutenberg may have invented the movable-type printing press, used to create his monumental Bibles. But anyone who has ever sat in a cafe, or in the bath, with a paperback owes a debt to Aldus and the small, cleanly designed editions of the secular classics he called libelli portatiles, or portable little books. He was possibly the first printer to compare manuscripts to arrive at the most reliable text. He was the first to use italic type. He was the first to use the semicolon in its modern sense. And then there were the unwitting firsts, like what may be the earliest known version of “This page left intentionally blank,” preserved in a 1513 edition of the Greek orators included in the show, along with instructions to the binder to remove the extra leaf.

1. Manutius of Italy <http://www.labyrinthdesigners.org/alchemic-authors-641-1597/aldus-manutius-hypnerotomachia-poliphili/>

Jean Jannon Born 1580; died 1658. French punchcutter and printer in Paris and Sedan. He worked as a printer for the Calvinist Academy in Sedan. He was arrested by order of Cardinal Richelieu and his equipment, including his font punches and printing matrices, was confiscated. When his typefaces were rediscovered centuries later, they were erroneously attributed to Claude Garamond and consequently served as the source for many Garamond revivals at companies such as American Type Founders and Monotype. His punches and matrices are now preserved in the Imprimerie Nationale in Paris.

1. Jannon of France <http://tonyamacalino.com/1/post/2012/11/saving-our-stories-aldus-manutius-and-the-technology-of-storytelling.html>

Bibliography Vervliet, Hendrik D. L. French Renaissance Printing Types: A Conspectus. London: Bibliographical Society, 2010. Print. Clemens, Raymond, and Timothy Graham. Introduction to Manuscript Studies. London: Cornell UP, 2007. Print. Carter. Rpb. Bem Day, and Philip Meggs. “The Anatomy of Typography.” Typographic Design: Form and communication. 2nd ed. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, 1993. Print. “Fust & Schoeffer.” The University of Manchester: University Library. The University of Manchester, 1 Jan. 2011. Web. 6 Nov. 2014. “Roman | Typeface.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. Wallau, Heinrich. “Johann Gutenberg.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 13 Apr. 2015 “Peter Schoeffer, Scribe, Printer and Publisher - Gutenberg’s Apprentice.” Gutenbergs Apprentice. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Typefaces as History: Aldus Manutius and The Noble Bembo.” The Book Designer RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. Schuessler, Jennifer. “A Tribute to the Printer Aldus Manutius, and the Roots of the Paperback.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 26 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Aldus Manutius 1450 - 1515.” First Impressions. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Font Designer – Jean Jannon.” Jean Jannon. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “The Paper Project - History of Paper 1000 - 1500.” The Paper Project - History of Paper 1000 - 1500. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Blackletter / Gothic Lettering.” Blackletter / Gothic Lettering. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. “Bio” Bio.com. A&E Networks Television. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. “Johannes Gutenberg | Biography - German Printer.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. “History of Graphic Design | History of Graphic Design.” History of Graphic Design | History of Graphic Design. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. “Incunabula | Printing.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. “An Introduction to Incunabula.” Introduction to Incunabula. Web. 13 Apr. 2015. Type Classification : Design Is History. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Digitising the Mainz Psalter.” CHICC Manchester. 22 Nov. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Gutenberg Találmánya, a Nyomtatott Könyv.” Gutenberg Találmánya, a Nyomtatott Könyv. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “External View of Incunabula (2) | Incunabula - Dawn of Western Printing.” External View of Incunabula (2) | Incunabula - Dawn of Western Printing. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Category Archives: Incunabula.” Nonsolusblog. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Early Printed Books.” The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. Farley, Jennifer. “The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History.” The Blackletter Typeface: A Long And Colored History. Web. 14 Apr. 2015. “Think Smart Designs Blog: Printing Comes to Europe - Graphic Design History 3.” Think Smart Designs Blog: Printing Comes to Europe - Graphic Design History 3. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

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