Vermiculture by mahmoud abdallah Medany

Vermiculture in Egypt: Current Development and Future Potential

Written by:

Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D. Environment Consultant Egypt

Edited by:

Elhadi Yahia, Ph.D. Agro industry and infrastructure Officer Food and Agriculture Organizatioon (FAO/UN) Regional Office for North Africa and the Near East, Cairo, Egypt

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for the Near East Cairo, Egypt

April, 2011

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ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5

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Table of contents Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv List of Photos............................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2 1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt .............................................................. 3

1.1. Historical background ...................................................................................... 3 1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms ........................................................ 4 1.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................ 6 1.4. Vermicomposting species ................................................................................. 6 1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt ................................................................. 7 1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting ............................................................... 8 2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt ............................... 10

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting ......................................... 10 2.1.1. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 10 2.1.2. Worm Food ............................................................................................... 11 2.1.3. Moisture .................................................................................................... 14 2.1.4. Aeration .................................................................................................... 14 2.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................ 15 2.2. Methods of vermicomposting ......................................................................... 16 2.2.1. Pits below the ground .............................................................................. 16 2.2.2. Heaping above the ground ...................................................................... 17 2.2.3. Tanks above the ground .......................................................................... 17 2.2.4. Cement rings............................................................................................. 18 2.2.5. Commercial model ................................................................................... 18 2.3. The trial experience in Egypt ......................................................................... 20 2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:........................................................................... 20 2.3.2. Bedding ..................................................................................................... 20 2.3.3. Food ........................................................................................................... 21 2.3.4. Moisture .................................................................................................... 22 2.3.5. Aeration .................................................................................................... 22 2.3.6. Temperature ............................................................................................. 23 2.3.7 Harvesting .................................................................................................. 23 3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate ......................................... 26 3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines ....................................................................................... 26

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba .............................................................................. 28 3.3. Vermicomposting in India.............................................................................. 29 3.4. Vermicompost â&#x20AC;&#x17E;teasâ&#x20AC;&#x; in Ohio, USA ............................................................... 32 3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom .......................................................... 33 4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis. . 34

4.1. On-farm organic waste ................................................................................... 34 4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt ................................................ 35 4.2. Urban wastes ................................................................................................... 35 4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt .......................... 35 4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem .................. 36 4.2.3. Waste generation rates ............................................................................... 37 4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are .............................................. 39 iv

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................ 40 4.3.1. Feeding animals ........................................................................................ 40 4.3.2. Compost .................................................................................................... 40 4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration ................................................................. 40 5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt. ................................. 45

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt .................................................................................... 45 5.2. Fertilizer statistics ............................................................................................. 46 5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt....................................................... 48 5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting .................................................................. 49 5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes ................................................... 50 5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ...................................................... 50 5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt .................. 51 6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in aquaculture industries. ...................................................................................................... 53

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed ......................................................................... 53 6.2. Worm meal ...................................................................................................... 54 6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future ..................... 56 7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions. .................................................... 62

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost ....................................................................... 62 7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt .................................................. 64 7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes .............................................................. 66 7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment ........................................... 69 8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas emission reductions........................................................................................................... 71

8.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 71 8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt ................ 73 8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM ........................................................... 74 8.4. The national regulatory framework .............................................................. 75 9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction. .................................................................................. 76

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt ............................................................................... 76 9.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................ 76 9.1.2. Agricultural wastes .................................................................................. 77 9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes ......................................... 77 9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes .............................. 79 References ............................................................................................................................... 80 Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................... 85 General information and FAQ ................................................................................................. 85

List of Photos Photo 1.1 Photo 2.1 Photo 2.2 Photo 2.3 Photo 2.4 Photo 2.5 Photo 2.6 Photo 2.7 Photo 2.8 Photo 2.9 Photo 2.10 Photo 2.11 Photo 2.12 Photo 2.13 Photo 2.14 Photo 3.1 Photo 3.2 Photo 3.3

Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops to be grown. Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai. Open heap vermicomposting. Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India Cement ring vermicomposting Commercial vermicomposting unit Earthworms used in Egypt Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be mixed in the rotating machine. The locally manufactured shredding machine. The shaded growing beds. Harvesting of castings. Harvested adult worms from the growing beds. Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them. Worm eggs. Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame. Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba . Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to promote micro-enterprises and generate income.

4 16 17 18 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 24 25 25 27 29 30

List of Figures Figure 2.1 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3

Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT Trends of production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) of fertilizers in Egypt Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers in Egypt. Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x;s GHG emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in mega tones of carbon dioxide equivalent. Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x;s GHG emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega tones of carbon dioxide equivalent. Layout of the vermifilter.

19 47 48 68 69 70

List of tables Table 1.1 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 4.5 Table 4.6 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5

Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 9.1

Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions of origin. Common bedding materials. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. Summary for production of vermicompost at farm scale in Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India. Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005. Distribution of waste according to the sources. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008 in tons. Egypt‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 2007-2012. Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials percentages For the year 2008. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture wastes in Egypt. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matter). Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN). Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae). Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average value of triplicate sample analyzed). Average values (±SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water, primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of Cyprinus carpio (Ham.) in various treatments. Composition (% dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for fish feeds. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or supplement as compared to fish meal (FM). Summary of greenhouse gas emissions for Egypt, 2000. Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000. Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes.

vii

5 11 12 31 36 37 38 42 43 44 46 47 52 55 55 55 58 59

60 61 65 67 68 78

Abbreviations AF ARC ARE AS CA CDM CER CH4 CO CO2 CO2e COPx DAP EEAA EU FAO GHG GIS GTZ

Africa Agricultural Research Center of Egypt Arab Republic of Egypt Asia Central America Clean Development Mechanism Certified Emissions Reductions Methane Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Equivalent carbon dioxide Conference of parties number x Diammonium phosphate Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency Europe Food and Agriculture Organization Greenhouse gas Geographic Information System German Technical Cooperation Agency

GWP ha HFC ICRISAT IPCC JA MA ME MSW MSW Mt N2O NA NH3 NOx NSS OC PFC's SA

Global Warming Potential Hectare, 10 thousand square meters Hydrofluorocarbon International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change Japan Madagascar Mediteranean Municipal Solid Waste Municipal Solid Waste Million tons Nitrous oxide North America Ammonia Nitrogen oxides National Strategy Studies Oceania Perfluorocarbons South America

viii

SF6 SWM Tg UNCED UNDP UNFCCC USA USA VF VOC VSS WWTP

Sulphur hexafluoride Solid Waste Management Teragrams United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Development Program United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The United States of America Unites States of America Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms Volatile Organic Compound Volatile suspendedsolids Wastewater treatment plant

Introduction The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tons from municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted, 2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites. Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are being exerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity for maximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as "biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities. Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the total emissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e in 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector produces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residues burned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higher rank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, into vermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol. From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in mega cities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public and government. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on agriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to the soil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa. As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting: - One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram. - One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day. - Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month. - Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter. - One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in one year. The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means of converting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as means of reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on the environment.

Executive Summary Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with its dependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with the damming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in which compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive. The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in 2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes. Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3 kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60% food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others. Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2% landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps. The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After the swine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on the organic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be the alternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues and cleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems to adapt the vermicompost in their operation. Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture is also a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost. With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages. The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers, as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the large scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil, with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humus substances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as productive as good soil.

1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt 1.1. Historical background The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms have been on the Earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done their part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but very important. They are nature‟s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil. The ancient Egyptians were the first to recognize the beneficial status of the earthworm. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 – 30 B.C.) said, “Earthworms are sacred.” She recognized the important role the worms played in fertilizing the Nile Valley croplands after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from Egypt was punishable by death. Egyptian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthworm for fear of offending the God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered the earthworm to have an important role in improving the quality of the soil. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) referred to worms as “the intestines of the earth”. Jerry Minnich, in The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historical overview which indicates that at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago, earthworm populations had been decimated in many regions by glaciers and other adverse climatic conditions. Many surviving species were neither productive nor prolific. In places where active species and suitable environments were found, such as the Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role in agricultural sustainability. While the Nile‟s long-term fertility is well known and attributed to rich alluvial deposits brought by annual floods, these materials were mixed and stabilized by valley-dwelling earthworms. In 1949, the USDA estimated that earthworms contributed approximately 120 tons of their castings per year to each acre of the Nile floodplain (Tilth, 1982). Egypt has historically had some of the most productive and fertile land in the world. The Nile River not only provides water critical for agriculture, but in times past, the annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto the land. In recent years, the Aswan High Dam has virtually eliminated the annual flood which has resulted in a loss of the beneficial soil deposits leading to a need for organic material on lands used for agricultural production in Egypt. Charles Darwin (1809 –1882) studied earthworms for more than forty years and devoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms) to the earthworm. Darwin said, “it may be doubted that there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as have these lowly organized creatures”.

For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt was strikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant water to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthworms that converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian worms are thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spread throughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the early settlers (Burton and Burton, 2002).

Photo 1.1. Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops to be grown. Source: Author

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms The diversity of earthworm community is influenced by the characteristics of soil, climate and organic resources of the locality as well as history of land use. The species poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The most significant soil factors affecting the distribution of different species of earthworm are the C/N ratio, pH and contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt and coarse sand (Ghafoor et al., 2008). Europe is the original home of some of most common and productive earthworm species: Lumbricus rubellus (the red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (the brandling, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (the common night crawler); and Allolobophora ealignosa (the field worm). The first two species are the major â&#x20AC;&#x17E;â&#x20AC;&#x17E;earthworms of commerce, whose ideal living environments are manure or compost heaps. The night crawler and field worms, on the other hand, both prefer grasslands and woodland margins. The main types in Egypt are Alma nilotico and A. stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later in this chapter. Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, and it is estimated that further surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Distinct taxonomic groups of earthworms have arisen on every continent except Antarctica, and, through human transport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix and Bohlen, 2002). Earthworms are classified within the phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of

these families (cohort Aquamegadrili plus suborder Alluroidina) comprise aquatic or semiaquatic worms, whereas the other 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of the terrestrial forms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae and Komarekionidae, both monospecific) and genera from three or four others (Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, and possibly Ocnerodrilidae) are Nearctic. No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of the Pacific Northwest or from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur in all of these regions. Native earthworms in the families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, and Megascolecidae occur in Mexico and the Caribbean islands. Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions of origin. Family Region of origin Limicolous or aquatic Alluroididae AF, SA Syngenodrilidae AF Sparganophilidae NA, EU Biwadrilidae JA Almidae EU, AF, SA, AS Lutodrilidae NA Terrestrial Ocnerodrilidae SA, CA, AF, AS, MA Eudrilidae AF Kynotidae MA Komarekionidae NA Ailoscolecidae EU Microchaetidae AF Hormogastridae ME Glossoscolecidae SA, CA Lumbricidae NA, EU Megascolecidae NA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America, EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean, NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South America Source: Hendrix and Bohlen (2002)

1.3. Types of earthworms Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelid and plays an important role in the soil ecosystem. Although all species of earthworms contribute to the breakdown of plant-derived organic matter, they differ in the ways by which they degrade organic matter. According to their habitat types and ecological functions, earthworms can be divided into three types: the anecic, the endogeic, and the epigeic. Anecic (Greek for “out of the earth”) – these are burrowing worms that come to the surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the mineral layers of the soil. Example: the Canadian Night crawler (Munroe, 2007). These species are of primary importance in pedogenesis. Endogeic (Greek for “within the earth”) – these are also burrowing worms but their burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited mainly to the plant litter layer on the soil surface, composed of decaying organic matter or wood, and seldom penetrate soil more than superficially. The main role of these species seems to be shredding of the organic matter into fine particles, which facilitates increased microbial activity. Epigeic (Greek for “upon the earth”), they are limited to living in organic materials and cannot survive long in soil; these species are commonly used in vermiculture and vermicomposting. All earthworm species depend on consuming organic matter in some form, and they play an important role, mainly by promoting microbial activity in various stages of organic matter decomposition, which eventually includes humification into complex and stable amorphous colloids containing phenolic materials. An example is Eisenia fetida, commonly known as (partial list only): the “compost worm”, “manure worm”, “redworm”, and “red wiggler”. This extremely tough and adaptable worm is indigenous to most parts of the world. 1.4. Vermicomposting species To consider a species to be suitable for use in vermicomposting, it should possess certain specific biological and ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability for colonizing organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion and assimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors; have high reproduction rate, producing large numbers of cocoons that should not have a long hatching time, and their growth and maturation rates from hatchling to adult individual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant and survive handling. Not too many species of earth worm have all these characteristics. Those species used in vermiculture around the world are mainly “litter” species that include, but are not limited to: Eisenia fetida “Tiger Worm”, as mentioned earlier, and its sibling species E. andrei “Red Tiger Worm”; Perionyx excavatus “Indian Blue”; Eudrilus eugeniae “African Nightcrawler”; Amynthas corticis) and A. gracilis “Pheretimas” (formerly known a P. hawayana); Eisenia hortensis and Eisenia veneta “European Nightcrawlers”; Lampito mauritii “Mauritius Worm”.

Additional species used in Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp. and Dichogaster spp. Other worm species involved in vermicomposting are of Family Enchytraeidae (enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small â&#x20AC;&#x17E;aquaticâ&#x20AC;&#x; worms), free-living nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore, 2000). In recent years, interactions of earthworms with microorganisms in degrading organic matter have been used commercially in systems designed to dispose agricultural and urban organic wastes and convert these materials into valuable soil amendments for crop production. Commercial enterprises processing wastes in this way are expanding worldwide and diverting organic wastes from more expensive and environmentally harmful ways of disposal, such as incinerators and landďŹ lls (Padmavathiamma et al., 2008). 1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt The Nile basin is subdivided into three Obligataete subregions: the main (Lower) Nile, from the Delta to Kartoum (Characterized by Alma nilotico and A. stuhlmannt), the Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral and East Africa (Characterized by A. emini), and the Ethiopian subregion (Characterized by Eudrilus). In Egypt Species and locations newly investigated include Allolboplora (Aporrectodea) caliginosa, associated with the aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra in spring near the St. Catherine monastery in South Sinai, and Allolboplora (Aporrectodea) rosea (Eisenia rosea) on the slops of the Mountain of Moses, and near Monastery. Allolobophoru jassyensis is found in the Delta and Eiseniella tetraedra in Sinai (Ghabbour, 2009). The scarcity of earthworm in Egyptian soils is mostly attributable to the aridity of the climate and to the fact that the majority of cultivated land is under the plough (arable). In an arid, almost rainless country like Egypt, earth worm, which are highly sensitive to water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place in or on dry ground. Earthworms are scarce in Egypt because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g. orchards and forest) is very small. Moreover, in other places (e.g. arable land soils) the favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are: 1. An undisturbed soil. 2. A regular and adequate water supply. 3. A fine soil texture (to raise the availability of water). 4. A regular and adequate supply of organic matter. There are several well known species in Egypt, such as Aporrectodea caliginoosa that can survive in sand dunes soils but numbers decreased with increased proportions of gravel and sand. Quantitative sampling for earthworms by hand-sorting was carried out in fourteen localities in Beheira Governorate and adjacent areas by El-Duweini and Ghabbour (1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretima califonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora caliginoosa f. trapezoids and 5Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found in cattle

enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species and are therefore recorded separately. 1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for their feedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermiculture is the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of worms in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand a vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other purposes. Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is a Latin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid of worms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs from composting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms and earthworms that are active at 10–32°C (not ambient temperature but temperature within the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting; because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully understood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings (worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through a type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuable material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to produce vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of the time. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough that reproductive rates are optimized. It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter during a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organic matter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of such extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Benítez et al., 2000). Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010). Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm. Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain high amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castings contain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1½ times more calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure, drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times their weight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducing flowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008 ).

1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost Composting, generally defined as the biological aerobic transformation of an organic byproduct into a different organic product that can be added to the soil without detrimental effects on crop growth, has been indicated as the most adequate method for pre-treating and managing organic wastes. In the process of composting, organic wastes are recycled into stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an odorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond more efficiently and safely than the fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The conventional and most traditional method of composting consists of an accelerated biooxydation of the organic matter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45째 to 65째C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide and water. Vermicomposts contain nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants such as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential in the horticultural and agricultural industries as media for plant growth. Vermicomposts, whether used as soil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germination and enhanced rates of seedling growth and development. However, composting and vermicomposting are quite distinct processes, particularly concerning the optimum temperatures for each process and the types of microbial communities that predominate during active processing (i.e. thermophilic bacteria in composting, mesophilic bacteria and fungi in vermicomposting). The wastes processed by the two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a much finer structure than composts and contain nutrients in forms that are readily available for plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growth regulators in the vermicomposts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that there should be considerable differences in the performances and effects of composts and vermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components of horticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000).

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types of earthworms, native earthworm species, formal definitions of vermiculture and vermicomposting, and a comparison between compost and vermicompost were introduced in the previous chapter. This chapter deals with the physical requirements of vermiculture and vermicompost, and ends by the implementation trial of both vermiculture and vermicompost in Egypt, including all details of this trial. 2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting Compost worms need five basic principles: a hospitable living environment, usually called “bedding”, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content by weight), adequate aeration, and protection from temperature extremes. These five essentials are discussed below in more details according to Munroe (2007). 2.1.1. Bedding Bedding is any material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat. This habitat must have the following characteristics: - High absorbency. Worms breathe through their skins and therefore must have a moist environment in which to live. If a worm‟s skin dries out, it dies. The bedding must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well if the worms are to thrive. - Good bulking potential. If the material is too dense to begin with, or packs too tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. Worms require oxygen to live, just as we do. Different materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding through a variety of factors, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and the strength and rigidity of its structure. - Low protein and/or nitrogen content (high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although the worms do consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be a slow process. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and its associated heating, creating inhospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heating can occur safely in the food layers of the vermiculture or vermicomposting system, but not in the bedding. Some materials make good beddings all by themselves, while others lack one or more of the above characteristics and need to be used in various combinations. Table 2.1 provides a list of some of the most commonly used beddings and provides some input regarding each material‟s absorbency, bulking potential, and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratios.

Table 2.1. Common Bedding Materials: Bedding Material Horse Manure Peat Moss Corn Silage Hay – general Straw – general Straw – oat Straw – wheat Paper from municipal waste stream Newspaper Bark – hardwoods Bark -- softwoods Corrugated cardboard Lumber mill waste -- chipped Paper fiber sludge Paper mill sludge Sawdust Shrub trimmings Hardwood chips, shavings Softwood chips, shavings Leaves (dry, loose) Corn stalks Corn cobs Source: Munroe (2007).

Absorbency Medium-Good Good Medium-Good Poor Poor Poor Poor Medium-Good Good Poor Poor Good Poor Medium-Good Good Poor-Medium Poor Poor Poor Poor-Medium Poor Poor-Medium

Bulking Pot. Good Medium Medium Medium Medium-Good Medium Medium-Good Medium Medium Good Good Medium Good Medium Medium Poor-Medium Good Good Good Poor-Medium Good Good

C:N Ratio 22 - 56 58 38 - 43 15 - 32 48 - 150 48 - 98 100 - 150 127 - 178 170 116 - 436 131 - 1285 563 170 250 54 142 - 750 53 451 - 819 212 - 1313 40 - 80 60 - 73 56 - 123

Researchers in Canada made an experiment to determine the feasibility of mixing municipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard, and boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) and processing the mixture with worms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost product for farms. The results show that the greatest worm population increases were in the pure shredded cardboard or in the high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but that biomass changes were more positive in the chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004). 2.1.2. Worm Food Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, they are able to consume more than their body weight each day, although the general rule-of-thumb is ½ of their body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes the most important attributes of some worm food that could be used in an on-farm vermicomposting or vermiculture operation.

Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes Good nutrition; natural Weed seeds make All manures are partially Cattle manure food, therefore little pre-composting decomposed and thus ready adaptation required. necessary. for consumption by worms. Poultry High N content results High protein levels manure in good nutrition and a can be dangerous to Some books suggest that high value product. worms, so must be poultry manure is not used in small suitable for worms because quantities; major it is so â&#x20AC;&#x153;hotâ&#x20AC;?; however, adaptation required research in has shown that for worms not used to worms can adapt if initial this feedstock. May proportion of PM to be precomposted but bedding is 10% by volume not necessary if used or less. cautiously. Sheep/Goat Good nutrition. Require manure precomposting (weed With right additives to seeds); small particle increase C:N ratio, these size can lead to manures are also good packing, necessitating beddings extra bulking material. Rabbit manure N content second only Must be leached prior Many U.S. rabbit growers to poultry manure, to use because of high place earthworm beds therefore good urine content; can under their rabbit hutches nutrition; contains overheat if quantities to catch the pellets as they very good mix of too large; availability drop through the wire mesh vitamins & minerals; usually not good cage floors. ideal earthworm feed. Fresh food Excellent nutrition, Extremely variable Some food wastes are scraps (e.g., good moisture content, (depending on much better than others: peels, other possibility of revenues source); high N can coffee grounds are food prep from waste tipping result in heating; meat excellent, as they are high waste, fees. & high-fat wastes can in N, not greasy or smelly, leftovers, create anaerobic and are attractive to commercial conditions and odors, worms; alternatively, root food attract pests, so vegetables (e.g., potato processing should not be culls) resist degradation wastes) included without and require a long time to precomposting. be consumed. Precomposted Good nutrition; partial Nutrition less than Vermicomposting can food wastes decomposition makes with fresh food speed the curing process digestion by worms wastes. for conventional easier and faster; can composting operations include meat and other while increasing value of greasy wastes; less end product. tendency to overheat.

Food Bio-solids (human waste)

Advantages Excellent nutrition and excellent product; can be activated or non-activated sludge, septic sludge; possibility of waste management revenues

Seaweed

Good nutrition; results in excellent product, high in micronutrients and beneficial microbes Higher N content makes these good feed as well as reasonable bedding.

Legume hays

Grains (e.g., feed mixtures for animals, such as chicken mash) Corrugated cardboard (including Waxed)

Fish, poultry offal; blood wastes; animal mortalities

Excellent, balanced nutrition, easy to handle, no odor, can use organic grains for certified organic product. Excellent nutrition (due to high protein glue used to hold layers together); worms like this material; possible revenue source from WM fees High N content provides good nutrition; opportunity to turn problematic wastes into highquality product

Disadvantages Heavy metal and/or chemical contamination (if from municipal sources); odor during application to beds (worms control fairly quickly); possibility of pathogen survival if process not complete Salt must be rinsed off, as it is detrimental to worms; availability varies by region Moisture levels not as high as other feeds, requires more input and monitoring Higher value than most feeds, therefore expensive to use; low moisture content; some larger seeds hard to digest and slow to break down

Notes Vermitech Pty Ltd. in Australia has been very successful with this process, but they use automated systems; EPAfunded tests in Florida demonstrated that worms destroy human pathogens as well as does thermophillic composting (Eastman et al., 2001). Beef farmer in Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada, are producing certified organic vermicompost from cattle manure, bark, and seaweed Probably best to mix this feed with others, such as manures Danger: Worms consume grains but cannot digest larger, tougher kernels; these are passed in castings and build up in bedding, resulting in sudden overheating.

Must be shredded (waxed variety) and/or soaked (nonwaxed) prior to feeding

Some worm growers claim that corrugated cardboard stimulates worm reproduction

Must be precomposted until past Thermophillic stage

Composting of offal, blood wastes, etc. is difficult and produces strong odors. Should only be done with in- vessel systems; much bulking required.

Source: Munroe (2007).

2.1.3. Moisture The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have a livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Like their aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged in water, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content range for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, the ideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 7090%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums: Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between the moisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andrei cultured in pig manure grew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%. Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as measured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75% developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower moisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with different bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugated cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost, biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety of combinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004). The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult) E. fetida in separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80% for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisture content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%. The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida was reported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). While Gunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separated cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was in the separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%. 2.1.4. Aeration Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessive moisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of the worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill the worms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom under these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other greasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down the oils and fats.

2.1.5. Temperature control Controlling temperature to within the worms‟ tolerance is vital to both vermicomposting and vermiculture processes. 2.1.5.1. Low temperatures Eisenia can survive in temperatures as low as 0oC, but they don‟t reproduce at singledigit temperatures and they don‟t consume as much food. It is generally considered necessary to keep the temperatures above 10oC (minimum) and preferably 15oC for vermicomposting efficiency and above 15oC (minimum) and preferably 20oC for productive vermiculture operations. 2.1.5.2. Effects of freezing Eisenia can survive having their bodies partially encased in frozen bedding and will only die when they are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at the Nova Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that their cocoons survive extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable (GEORG, 2004). 2.1.5.3. High temperatures Compost worms can survive temperatures in the mid-30s but prefer a range in the 20s (oC). Above 35oC will cause the worms to leave the area. If they cannot leave, they will quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20oC) stimulate reproduction. Hou et al. (2005) studied the influence of some environmental parameters on the growth and survival of earthworms in municipal solid waste. Earthworms attained the highest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7˚C. The shortest growth period was 52 days at 25˚C, with the largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15˚C, 20˚C and 25˚C, the fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, in 53 days, 34 days and 27 days, with the growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 and 0.0138 g /g-day. Activities in all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is related to optimal temperature and moisture, such that a peak in activity usually occurs in the spring as temperature and moisture become optimal after cold winter temperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on the soil surface, such that the soil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may continue at high levels throughout the winter in litter. Decomposition may continue at the highest rates through the winter under the snow in the litter. In systems where moisture becomes limiting in the summer, activity may reach levels even lower than in the winter. When temperatures remain warm in the fall and rain begins again after a summer drought, such as in Mediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed in the fall. If these peaks are not observed, this suggests inadequate organic matter in the soil.

The growth of E. fetida in organic matter substrates with different moisture contents and temperatures has been studied by various authors in the laboratory. This species gained weight maximally and survived best at temperatures between 20˚C and 29˚C and moisture contents between 70% and 85% in horse manure and activated sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that the optimum growth of E. fetida in different animal and vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30˚C and at a moisture content range of 75-90%, but these factors could vary in different substrates. 2.1.5.4. Worms‟s response to temperature differentials. Compost worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrows according to temperature gradients. In outdoor composting windrows in wintertime, where internal heat from decomposition is in contrast to frigid external temperatures, the worms will be found in a relatively narrow band at a depth where the temperature is close to optimum. They will also be found in much greater numbers on the south facing side of windrows in the winter and on the opposite side in the summer. Edwards (1988) studied the life cycles and optimal conditions for survival and growth of E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, and P. excavatus. Each of these four species differed considerably in terms of their responses and tolerance to different temperatures. The optimum temperature for E. fetida was 25 °C, and its temperature tolerance was between 0 and 35°C. Dendrobaena veneta had a rather low temperature optimum and rather less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimum temperatures for E. eugeniae and P. excavatus were around 25 °C, but they died at temperatures below 9°C and above 30°C. Optimal temperatures for cocoon production were much lower than those for growth for all these species. 2.2. Methods of vermicomposting 2.2.1. Pits below the ground Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed in the backyard or garden or in a field. It may be single pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick and mortar with proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is 2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of the pits and chambers should be determined according to the volume of biomass and agricultural waste. To combat the ants from attacking the worms, it is good to have a water column in the centre of the parapet wall of the vermin-pits.

Photo 2.1. Open Pit Vermicomposting Source: Kirungakottai (http://www.icasaweb.google.com)

2.2.2. Heaping above the ground The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and then covered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods of preparing vermicompost under field conditions. Considering the biodegradation of wastes as the criterion, the heap method of preparing vermicompost was better than the pit method. Earthworm population was high in the heap method, with a 21-fold increase in Eudrilus eugenae as compared to 17-fold increase in the pit method. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase) than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also higher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). On the contrary, Saini (2008) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods under field conditions over three seasons (winter, summer and rainy) using, Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2 × 0.5 × 0.6 m (length × width × depth); and heap of size 2 × 0.6 × 0.5 m (length × width × hight) were prepared with the same amount of mixture. The pits and heaps were made under shady trees, in open field having a temporary shed made of straw, raised on pillars, to prevent them from direct sunlight and rainfall. The pits had brick linings and plastered bottoms. The pits and heaps carrying the organic waste mixture were covered with gunny bags and were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except on rainy days, to maintain moisture. On the basis of the results of three seasons, it was concluded that summer and winter were better for the pit method, whereas the rainy season favored the heap method for vermicomposting, utilizing Eisenia fetida. However, if the annual performance of the two methods is compared, the pit method produced more worms and more biomass. Therefore, on the latter grounds, the pit method of vermicomposting is more suitable than the heap method in the semi-arid sub-tropical regions of North-West India.

Photo 2.2. Open heap vermicomposting Source: Department of Agriculture, Andaman & Nicobar: (http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm)

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, local stones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks were evaluated for vermicompost preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 2.3. Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India. Source: Basavaiah (2006)

2.2.4. Cement rings Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 2.4. Cement ring vermicomposting. Source: Nagavallemma et al. (2004)

2.2.5. Commercial model This model contains partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one chamber to another (Figure 2.1). Providing an outlet at one corner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The four components are filled with plant residues one after another. Once the first chamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Then the second chamber is started filling layer by layer. Once the contents in first chamber are decomposed the earthworms move to the chamber 2, which is already filled and ready for earthworms. This facilitates harvesting of decomposed material from the first chamber and also saves labor for harvesting and introducing earthworms. This technology reduces labor cost and saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004). Water is saved by reducing evaporation from the surface during handling from one room to another in limited distances with minimum exposure to drier air outside. Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. with small holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to the other.

Photo 2.5. Commercial vermicomposting unit Source: Ecoscience Research Foundation: (http://www.erfindia.org)

Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobic conditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be of limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity of worms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies between six to twelve weeks.

Figure 2.1. Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT. Source: Twomlow, 2004.

2.3. The trial experience in Egypt 2.3. 1. Earthworm types used: Four types of earthworms were brought to Egypt from Australia. from Australia: Lumbriscus Rubellus (Red Worm), Eisenia Fetida (Tiger Worm), Perionyx Excavatus (Indian Blue), and Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler).

Photo 2.6. Earthworms used in Egypt Source: Auther

2.3.2. Bedding Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing the population and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing system aiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost. Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvesting fruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cm height were used for the breeding system. The first 5cm from the bottom was lined by a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedding material. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; and allowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pH neutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/mÂ˛ of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2 days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded newspaper to keep moisture. The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height, and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cm cement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo 2.7). The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding system except that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, and the worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only.

Photo 2.7. Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. Source: Author

2.3.3. Food For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchen scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well in the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip along lengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was supplied again only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall. As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from the manufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used as needed. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manure to be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed that goes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought from the nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds.

Photo 2.8. Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be mixed in the rotating machine. Source: Author

In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo 2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastes using a rotating mixing machine.

Photo 2.9. The locally manufactured shredding machine. Source: Author

2.3.4. Moisture The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is not too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water was used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to become the first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes. The instructions were: - Water little and often â&#x20AC;&#x201C; only the newspaper on the surface should be wet. - Water after checking the bed surface â&#x20AC;&#x201C; if already damp, skip one watering. - Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. - Use a spray or mist, not jets of water. 2.3.5. Aeration The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedding material, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions. Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds must be mixed if: - The bed smells bad. - The bed is too wet. - The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch. - The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface. - The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface of the bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only.

2.3.6. Temperature The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. A shading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter. Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and also protect from birds, cats or dogs. The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. In winter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shading screens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not only temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measures were used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over both summer and winter without major reduction in wormsâ&#x20AC;&#x; activities. Temperatures maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxes when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases, precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matter decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to another horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far from the food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In such dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organic material, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds.

Photo 2.10. The shaded growing beds at Dokki greenhouse station. Source: Author

2.3.7 Harvesting Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations. Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs. a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps: - Selecting a growing bed.

Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed. Waiting 1-2 days Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings. Checking for eggs and worms â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these should be very limited. Collecting castings from centre of bed. Spreading castings to dry. When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pinprick holes

Photo 2. 11. Harvesting of castings. source: Basavaiah (2006)

b- Harvesting adult worms is performed according to the following steps: - Selecting a growing bed. - Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure inside 70% shade-cloth along centre of bed. - Waiting 1-2 days. - Collecting worms and castings from side walls.

Photo 2. 12. Harvested adult worms from the growing beds. Source: Author

Checking size of worm â&#x20AC;&#x201C; should be approaching reproductive state and clitellum should be noticeable. Placing adult worms in breeding beds. Checking castings for eggs - replace in growing bed.

Photo 2. 13. A couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them. Source: Author

c- Harvesting babies is performed according to the following steps: - Selecting a breeding bed. - Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or thin fruit peels (not citrus) inside 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed. - Waiting1-2 days. - Emptying contents straight into growing bed, under newspaper cover. - Checking for babies that may be caught in shade-cloth. d- Harvesting eggs is performed according to the following steps: - Selecting a breeding bed. - Baiting one side of the bed. - Wait 1-2 days. - Scooping out the bed on the opposite side of the bait. - Checking for adult worms and replace in bed. - Placing contents directly in growing bed. - Placing new bedding and food on empty side of breeding bed. Photo 2.14. Worm eggs. Source: Author

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate The previous two chapters covered the historical background as well as the trial The Philippines, Cuba and India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions to Egypt Their technologies are simple and could be easily adapted to the local conditions. The United States of America is the model example of advanced technologies in vermiculture. Such examples will broaden the readers choice with what could be done in the future. Unfortunately, vermicompost and vermiculture are very limited in MENA region, Most of the studies look at utilization of local species to produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh (2007) and Yousefi et al. (2009) had some studies in Iran aiming for waste water treatment. Therefore, the following examples were selected to broaden the picture of commercial production. One could adapt or modify any of them or even create a newer version. 3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus and/or Perionyx excavator. The worms are reared and multiplied from a commercially-obtained breeder stock in shallow wooden boxes stored in a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm and have drainage holes; they are stored on shelves in rows and tiers. A bedding material is compounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, rice husks, bagasse, cardboard and so on, and is moistened well with water. The wet mixture is stored for about one month, being covered with a damp sack to minimize evaporation, and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete, chicken manure and green matter such as water hyacinth is added. The material is placed in the boxes and should be sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow and should be able to retain moisture. The proportions of the different materials will vary according to the nature of the material but a final protein content of about 15% should be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary and the boxes should be kept at temperatures between 20oC and 27oC. At higher temperatures, the worms will aestivate and, at lower temperatures, they hibernate. The excess worms that have been harvested from the pit can be used in other pits, sold to other farmers for the same purpose, used or sold for use as animal feed supplement, used or sold for use as fish food or, may even be used in certain human food preparations (Misra and Roy, 2003). African night crawler was introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s for the production vermicastings as an organic fertilizer. Its use today remains focused for this purpose. Recently, with rising cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on the commercial farming of the species, specifically on its production economics, and the technical challenges in husbandry and operation (Cruz, 2005). This project was funding assistance of the DOST-PCAMRD1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightly inclining area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m2. It is partially shaded by mahogany trees in the morning and the afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearly neutral pH. Water used for the experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well. 1

Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science and Technology)

A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bare ground utilizing roofing material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height of around 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on the ground. Wooden stakes supported these sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided into two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds for ease of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net lining, to prevent the worms from digging beneath the substrate and escaping. Plots were covered with a plastic sheet to protect it from direct sunlight and rain. A horizontal wooden beam stretching the length of plot and held by vertical poles provided the support for the plastic sheet cover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, and opened only during inspection or when watering was done.

Photo 3.1. Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame Source: Wormsphilippines.com

Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse, mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every 3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinely done every 3 days. Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and return projection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following key assumptions: -

3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr Total of 52 units of 2.5 m2 area earthworm plots Stocking of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month) Harvesting of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month) Earthworm stocking biomass of 3 kg/plot and harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot, fter 60 days (200% biomass gain) Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg loadings 70% recovery of vermicastings from total substrate weight 20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass

The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of

vermicastings produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot (from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass per crop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from the 3 kg starter and 6 kg of biomass gain). At the selling price of 0.11$/kg of vermicastings and 0.22$/kg for the earthworms biomass, gross sales for one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ and 1035.62$, respectively. This would provide the venture a net profit of around 742.73$ every 2 months, and a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a potential for developing the use of earthworms in farm-made moist feeds. Such type of feed is simple to produce and is proven to work well when properly formulated and processed. In as much as the production technology for earthworm farming can be readily adopted at the village level, where organic raw materials abound and where labor is cheap. 3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba In Cuba, different methods are used for worm propagation and vermicomposting. The first and most common is cement troughs, two feet wide and six feet long, much like livestock watering troughs, used to raise worms and create worm compost. Because of the climate, they are watered by hand every day. In these beds, the only feedstock for the worms is manure, which is aged for about one week before being added to the trough. First, a layer of three to four inches of manure is placed in the empty trough, then worms are added. As the worms consume the manure, more manure is layered on top, roughly every ten days, until the worm compost reaches within a couple inches of the top of the trough, about two months. Then the worms are separated from the compost and transferred to another trough. The second method of vermicomposting is windrows, where cow manure is piled about three feet across and three feet wide, and then it is seeded with worms. As the worms work their way through it, fresh manure is added to the end of the row, and the worms move forward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep them shaded and cool. Some of these rows have a drip system - a hose running alongside the row with holes in it. But mostly, the rows are watered by hand. Some of these rows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is gathered from the opposite end when the worms have moved forward. Then it is bagged and sold. Fresh manure, seeded with worms, begins the row and the process again. Some of the windrows have bricks running along their sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides or protection. Manure is static composted for 30 days, then transferred to rows for worms to be added. After 90 days, the piles reach three feet high. It has been reported that worm populations can double in 60 to 90 days.

Photo 3.2. Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba . Source: newfarm.org

3.3. Vermicomposting in India A study on production and marketing of vermicompost was carried out during 200708 in Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made an attempt to analyze the economics of vermicompost production, marketing methods followed, financial feasibility of vermicomposting and the problems faced in vermicompost production and marketing in Dharwad District. The players involved in vermicompost production activities are the farming sector, government organizations, private organizations and other agencies. This has encouraged many government and nongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimates indicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually. The study pertains to Dharwad district. Two locations of the district, namely Dharwad and Kalaghatagi were purposively selected and two villages each were randomly selected from each location. For the economics of production, 10 vermicompost producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicomposting, were randomly selected from each village. Thus, the total sample size was 40 producers. The results revealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to family type of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of them had a family, while 40 percent had joint families. A majority of them (~70 %) had annual income in the range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of them having income of more than $1070 per annum and the rest having annual income of less than $257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicomposting was followed by 70 % of the producers and trench method was followed by the remaining 30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to produce vermicompost using heap method because it costs considerably lower compared to the trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost provided part time employment for the family members and hence it generated additional revenue for the family. The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total marketing cost amounted to $4.3 per ton in channel-I (the producer-seller sold the produce to

users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the produce through BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost were $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for the vermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years. Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their wide variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meter area. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthworm species like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compost making. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table 3.1. Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set up vermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they are involved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One of the women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also inspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 3.3. Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, to promote micro-enterprises and generate income Source: Nagavallemma et al. (2004)

Table 3.1. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale in Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India: Parameters Area (ha) Cropping System Vermicompost requirement (kg/year) Crop residue requirement (kg) Gliricidia production from fence (kg) Cow dung required (kg) Number of animals required Total waste for composting (kg) Earth worms required (kg) RCC rings required Number of units Capital Cost / year (A) Cost of rings $ Cost of shed $ Running cost /year (B) Labour and Miscellaneous cost Packaging cost Total (A+B) Returns / year Vermicompost production (kg/year) Returns

Low lying area

Hilly area

0.08 Paddyvegetable

5.08 Coconut/ 2 Areca_nut spices

Low lying + Hilly area 5.08 Paddy-vegetable / (1 ha) Coconut/ arecanut/spices (1 ha)

2500 + 5000 = 7500

2500

7500 + 2500 =10000

7750 Paddy system + homestead waste

1750 from coconut or areca_nut plantations

3000 from paddy system + 6500 from plantations

1250

2500

6000

2000 Kg

8000 kg

1 cow + 4 goats+ 1 cow 10 poultry birds 15000 5000 7.5 2.5 6 rings 2rings 2 (3 rings + 1 (2 rings) 3 rings) Expenditure/year

2cow 20000 10 8 rings 2 (4 rings+ 4 rings)

191.8$ 53.3

255.8$ 74.6$

127.9$ 79.93$ 452.9$

159.86$ 106.6$ 596.8$

159.8

213.2

1438. 8$

1918.2$

Net returns $ /year 985.8$ 985.8$ 1321.6$ Source: MBM-CARI-XIV, Vermicompost Production, central agricultural research institute, andaman and nicobar islands,, Central Agricultural Research India.: http://cari.res.in/ 1

Coconut and arecanut produces around 8100 and 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence, on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year for composting. If all the available wastes are utilized for production, the requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be met from one cow. Including Gliricidia, the total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which requires 7.5 kg of earth worms and 2 units comprising 3 rings + 3 rings for composting. The total production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year available can be sold. 2

Areca nut is the seed of the Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific, Asia, and parts of east Africa

3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ in Ohio, USA These aqueous vermicompost extracts or „teas‟ are much easier to transport and apply, than solid vermicomposts, and can duplicate most of the benefits of vermicomposts when applied to the same crops. Additionally, they can be applied to crops as foliar sprays. Work at The Ohio State University has shown that vermicompost „teas‟ increased the germination, growth, flowering, and yields of tomatoes, cucumbers, and other crops in similar ways to solid vermicomposts. The aerated, vermicompost „teas‟ suppressed the plant diseases Fusarium, Verticillium, Plectosporium, and Rhizoctonia to the same extent as the solid. Vermicompost „teas‟ also suppressed populations of spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and aphids (Myzus persicae) significantly. Additionally, they had dramatic effects on the suppression of attacks by plant parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne on tomatoes both in terms of reducing the numbers of root cysts significantly and increasing root and shoot growth and Physicochemical characteristics of the feed and optimum worm density are important parameters for the efficient working of a vermicomposting system. The results showed that E. fetida growth rate was faster at higher stocking densities; however, biomass gain per worm was faster at lower stocking densities. Sexual maturity was attained earlier at higher stocking densities. Growth rate was highest in 100% cow dung at all the stocking densities when compared to textile mill wastewater sludge containing feed mixtures. A worm population of 27–53 worms per kg of feed was found to be the most favorable stocking density. Even when the physical conditions (temperature and moisture) and quality of waste (size, total organic carbon, total nitrogen, and total available phosphorus) are appropriate for vermicomposting, problems can develop due to overcrowding of earthworms. This study clearly showed that when E. fetida was allowed to grow at different stocking densities the worms grew slowly at higher stocking densities. The maximum body weight of earthworm was higher at lower stocking densities. Maturation rate was also affected by stocking rate. Worms attained sexual maturity earlier in crowded containers. Worms of same age developed clitellum at different times at different population densities. The results indicate that population of 27–53 worms per kg and 4–8 worms per 150 g/feed mixture is optimum (Garg et al., 2008). Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management has focused on the final product, i.e. the vermicompost. There are only few literature references that have looked into the process, or examined the biochemical transformations that are brought about by the action of earthworms as they fragment the organic matter, resulting in the formation of a vermicompost with physicochemical and biological properties which seem to be superior for plant growth to those of the parent material. It has been reported that the storage of organic wastes over a period of time could alter the biochemistry of the organic matter and could eventually lead to the stabilization of the organic waste. Nevertheless, we hypothesize that adding earthworms to the organic wastes would accelerate the stabilization of these wastes in

terms of decomposition and mineralization of the organic matter, leading to a more suitable medium for plant growth(Atiyeh et al., 2000). 3.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom In the UK, although the number of indoor or enclosed systems appears to be increasing, most vermicomposting systems would appear to be based on either outdoor windrows or covered shallow beds. There is very little evidence of mechanisation and the use of labor saving equipment, such as earthworm harvesters, is rare. The bed is approximately 5m wide, 50m long and 0.5m deep. The beds typically comprise wooden sides covered in a woven semi-permeable fabric containing coir or shredded wood chip bedding placed directly on the soil surface. When installed, the bed would have been inoculated with starting culture of adult earthworms at a density of approximately 0.5kg earthworms per m3 of bed. Up until recently, most vermicomposting facilities were modest in size with bed areas around 1,000 m2, but there is now a trend towards much larger units, as much as ten times this size. Very large units can process large amounts of waste, of the order of thousands of tonnes per year, making them comparable to many of the smaller municipal composting operations. There is very little information available on the nature of the vermicomposting industry in the UK and what little exists is considered to be commercially sensitive. There are at least four major suppliers of large-scale vermicomposting systems currently operating. In year 2000, there were around 90 individual operators with 81,000 m2 of beds. The total investment would have exceeded ÂŁ1.25 million (Frederickson, 2003).

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis. The most important material for compost production is the organic material. There are two main sources of organic matter: farm wastes and urban wastes. In order to obtain such materials, one should understand waste management practices in the area. This chapter covers such an important subject. 4.1. On-farm organic waste Agricultural wastes are defined according to the relevant legislation as â&#x20AC;&#x153;waste from agriculture that includes any substances or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discardâ&#x20AC;?. The disposal of biomass represents a problem for industries and society. It has been estimated that the off-farm disposed plant and animal wastes are 27 and 12 million tons annually, respectively. Burning of crop residues is a problem in Egypt, especially rice wastes. Egypt cultivates about 360.000 ha of rice according to 2008 statistics, with a production of 6 million tons of straw. It is up to the grower to decide the way of disposing his agriculture wastes. The most common practice for disposing is by dumping it at municipal waste sites, dumping it in the desert or by simply burning it. The failure of any management plan to tackle the agriculture waste, especially rice straw, is based on the assumption that this waste is free, and the grower has to give it away. In fact the grower realizes that the waste becomes valuable once collected and ready for transport. On the other hand, as long as the residues are in his property, no one could force him to hand it over. For him, burning the residue in site has some agricultural benefits, such as use of minerals of the ash, or getting rid of insects and diseases on above the ground as a result of burning. Even though the practice is well known, farmers in many parts of the world especially in developing countries find themselves at a disadvantage by not making the best use of organic recycling opportunities available to them, due to various constraints which among others include absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span, intense labor, land and investment requirements, and economic aspects. In rural areas, in particular, the implementation of effective solid waste management systems is faced with a number of constraints. These constraints are related to environmental conditions, institutional/ administrative issues, financial matters, technical deficiencies and planning and legal limitations. As for agriculture waste, two options for treating rice straw are recommended. The first is to collaborate with the fresh universities graduates to collect such dispersed produced amount in order to be used in the compost making activities, the other option is to install small manufactures for fiber processing to produce packages for exported crops as rice straw could be used as a virgin material.

4.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt There is an extreme shortage of the combining, raking and baling machines, and no enough trucks to transport the ready straw bales (economical problem). In addition, the un-paved dirt roads that makes the transportation between farms and market (economical and managerial problems) almost impossible. On the other hands, agricultural co-operations have to work to provide a storage place for the ready bales, trucks and some mechanical equipment to overcome the previous obstacles. To facilitate such work, GIS maps should provide the farms sites in each governorate and a full study of the road status that will be used for the transportation. 4.2. Urban wastes Main four systems were involved in solid waste management before the trend to privatization; The Governmental system including Cairo and Giza "Cleansing and Beautification Authorities". These central agencies were responsible for municipal solid waste activities including regulation of private service delivery. In spite of creating such powerful entities, they were not effective and faced lots of problems. The second system is the conventional Zabbaleen (informal waste collectors) system, which offers door-to-door service in return for the monthly fee. Thirdly, there is the formal private sector system, which has been introduced in larger cities and some provincial towns. Each private operator must have a collection license or a service contract for his assigned area from the local municipality. Finally, there is Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which perform some limited solid waste services, especially in rural areas and small cities. 4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt The problem of solid waste management in Egypt has been growing at an alarming rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct and indirect harmful consequences on public health, environment and national economy (particularly as related to manpower productivity and tourism) are becoming quite apparent and acute. In large cities like Cairo and Alexandria the problem reached such serious proportions that they called for considerable government intervention and a series of judicious actions in the short, medium, and long term. In essence, the problem â&#x20AC;&#x201C;as described in the National Waste Management Strategy 2000- lies in the fact that: "The present systems could not satisfy the served community needs with its various strata for a reasonably accepted cleansing level, as well as in reducing the negative health and environmental impacts, or in improving the aesthetic appearance".

The clearly evident symptoms of the problem are: - Various levels of waste accumulations at various places and locations that became liable to various vectors (rodents and insects) and environmental pollution, bad smells and appearance, aside from frequent uncontrolled open burning that all contribute to negative health and environmental impacts. - Ineffective and environmentally non-sound handling, treatment and recycling techniques that may pose health risks. - Prevalent open-dump type of random solid waste disposal as well as indiscriminate dumping leading to various associated health and environmental hazards. 4.2.2. Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem Municipal solid waste contents for the years 2000-2008 and their distribution are illustrated in Table (4.1) and Table (4.2). The main factors contributing the solid waste problems in Egypt could be summarized as follows: - Actions taken in the past were not always sustainable, and the issues were not addressed in a comprehensive and integrated manner. -

Accurate and reliable data concerning solid waste quantities, rates of generation, composition does not exist. Numerous attempts to quantify the problem have been made; however, these attempts are by no means comprehensive or rigorous.

Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms for enforcement.

The involvement of the private sector in SWM activities in Egypt has been minimal till the last decade when the private sector became more involved.

Ineffective recycling activities, especially with all kinds of waste mixed together without any plan to encourage sorting at source. Moreover, nonhazardous and hazardous wastes are mixed through the "waste cycle".

Low level of public awareness and improper behaviors and practices in relation to solid waste handling and disposal.

Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 and 2008 Waste % 2000 Waste % 2005 Organic materials 45-55% 50-60% Paper 10-20% 10-25% Plastic 3-12% 3-12% Glass 1-5% 1-5% Metal 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7% Fabrics 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7% Others 11-30% 11-30% Source: EEAA (2001) and (2006) and CAPMAS (2010)

Waste % 2008 50-60% 10-25% 3-12% 1-5% 1.5- 7% 1.2- 7% 11-30%

Table 4.2. Distribution of waste according to the sources in 2000 and 2005 Estimated quantity Source 2000 2005 Municipal garbage 14-15 million ton 15-16 million ton Industrial 4-5 million ton 4.5 - 5 million ton Agricultural 23 million ton 25-30 million ton Sludge 1.5 -2 million ton 1.5 -2 million ton Clearing banks and 20 million ton 20 million ton sewage outputs Hospitals 100 -120 million ton 100 -120 million ton Construction and 3-4 million ton 3-4 million ton demolition waste Source: EEAA (2007)

4.2.3. Waste generation rates The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in 2007/2008 as shown in Table (4-3) estimates, including municipal solid waste (garbage), industrial waste, agricultural waste, sludge resulting from sanitation treatment, hospital wastes, construction and demolition debris and wastes from the cleaning of canals and drains. Municipal solid wastes (garbage) include remains of households (about 60 %), shops and commercial markets, service institutions such as schools and educational institutes, utilities, hospitals, administrative buildings, streets, gardens, markets, hotels, and recreation areas, in addition to small factories and camps. Resource recovery reduces the quantity of raw materials needed in production processes. It may therefore reduce dependency on imports and save foreign currency. Reused rubber and plastics, for example, reduce the need for imported raw materials and the reuse of organic waste as compost reduces the dependence on imported chemical fertilizers. Resource recovery saves natural resources, particularly in the form of raw materials and energy. The recycling of aluminum, for example, results in energy savings 14 of up to 96%. An environmentally sound waste disposal system should therefore involve resource recovery as much as possible. However, waste recovery also creates employment opportunities that can conflict with environmental and health criteria. Although the reuse of organic waste helps to prevent environmental degradation and pollution, the recovery methods themselves are often not environmentally sound and may pose health hazards for workers. Within solid waste disposal systems environmental, socio-economic and health costs are rarely considered. The total costs of safe and environmentally acceptable solid waste disposal are poorly documented and are therefore underestimated. However, it is against this background that resource recovery needs to be valued and supported in order to use the potential of recovery to its full extent and to improve existing practices. For many people, working in the informal waste sector is the last resort in the daily struggle for survival. Incomes are usually minimal, and working conditions are often appalling. Nevertheless, some traders have managed to set up a feasible business that can earn reasonable profits. All these people provide a valuable service to society as a

whole; in many cities the municipal refuse collection and disposal services are woefully inadequate, particularly in low-income areas, where waste accumulates in the streets. Improved recovery processes could therefore reduce the amounts of waste that need to be collected, and thus the costs of municipal waste disposal, and could help to reduce the risk to human health. For example, Cairo is renowned for its extensive informal waste recycling system. In the Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily. The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while informal workers collect about 2700 tons of household waste per day using a fleet of some 700 donkey carts. The balance of 900 tons remains on the city streets, vacant lots and the peripheries of poorly serviced low-income areas of the city. Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorates 2007/2008 Source (ton/month) Governorate Cairo Giza Qalyobia Alexandria Behira Menofia Gharbia Kar ElSheih Damitta Daqhlia North Sinia South Sinia Port Said Ismailia Suis Sharqia Beni Suif Minia Assuit New valley Sohag

Municipal

1761668 139650 27330 3281224 40860 65600 1124 14.75 47 18390.1 17160 118625 12000 45420 13406 6120 2322 2691 2046 Qena 480m3 Asswan 76003.3 16650 Red sea 12750m3 Luxor 550 5649880.15 Total 13230 m3 Source: EEAA (2007).

Industrial

Agricultural

Sludge m3

149914 620500 2749.42 32.5 337.2 700 240 51666.7 178 53.4 382 15 90m3 6360

1296506 4099.5 20617.7 10069.6 369619 456517 2083.3 2918 45666.5 6166 409

5072500 7168 8.3 2205 369750 18250 335.3 218 416 330

Clearing banks & sewage 169239 3550 25000 37083.3 3186 666 250

340

1500

9.5

64.1667

0.5833

0.833333

134.46

2.55

50 833278 90 m3

250 2215326 -

120 8587.88

150 203541.8

8 53255 -

5462713 m3 37083.3 m3

Hospitals 49860 1366.5 899.57 0.5 33 31.7 244.11 35.9 243.33 11.648 32.88 33.08 14.7 290

Construction and demolition 811488 77100 5035.83 56 283.3 17053 760.417 975 2566 583 1919 135 12545m3 4080 1500 100m3 360 924254.55 12645 m3

The informal sector in Egypt plays a significant role in the solid waste services including waste recycling. This sector has been growing significantly over the last three decades. Therefore, it is essential to understand and recognize the complex role of this sector in solid waste services and to benefit from its existing infrastructure and expertise in any formal initiative (GTZ, 2004).

Over the last three decades, the informal garbage collectors have drastically developed the volume and scope of activities they perform. Solid waste operators in the informal sector generally perform five functions: collection, transportation, recovery, trade, and recycling. It is usually a family business where men do the transportation and trading and women do most of the sorting. The waste sorting and recovery is almost entirely done in the courtyard of garbage collector‟s houses. After waste collection and transportation to the Zabbaleen area, waste is sorted into: (i) organic waste that is fed to the animals, sold to others as animal feed, or sent for composting; and (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized into: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, and residual non-recyclable waste. Subsequently, another sorting process is then undertaken to sort different sub-types of each of the main categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to the municipal disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while the nonrecoverable materials are sent to the municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted into categories and sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, and bones are transferred to recycling workshops. In 2000, there were more than 220 recycling workshops in the Zabbaleen area of Cairo. About 90% own their workshop space (even if informally) while the remaining 10% rent their workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average area of the recycling workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depending on the recycling activity performed. Generally plastic recycling and cloth grinders use up the most space and their workshops usually have an area more than 200 m2. Metal recycling industries need less space. 4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are - Governmental system: municipalities or cleaning authorities (Cairo and Giza) collect and transfer wastes from the streets, bins, public containers, and supervises public dumpsites and the operation of composting plants either directly or through the private sector. - Traditional “Zabbaleen” (garbage collectors) system: in this system, which date back to the early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units and some commercial establishments, and transfer it to their communities (Zabbaleen villages) for sorting and recycling. Although working conditions and methods used, that are of minimal costs and do not comply with the requirements of health and the environment, yet they are considered by clients as a considerably good service. Further, this system achieves the highest recovery degree possible; sometimes reach 80% of the garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by 3000 tons per day in Cairo (about 30% of the total amount generated daily). Local private companies: these collect and transfer garbage in a number of Egyptian cities. They represent a developed model of the garbage collectors‟ system, working in limited areas under the supervision and control of municipalities or cleaning authorities. The final disposal of wastes takes place either at the garbage collectors communities or in public dumpsites.

4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options Since organic material forms all farm wastes and a large proportion of urban refuse, ways can be sought as to use this resource more effectively. Organic material can be reused in three ways: - to feed animals (fodder), - to improve the soil (compost), - to produce energy (biogas or briquettes). The first two options are already very common in economically less developed countries. In Lahore, Pakistan, for example, 40% of urban refuse is collected by farmers and used as animal feed and soil amendment. 4.3.1. Feeding animals Raising animals is the easiest possibility; in most cases organic waste can be fed directly to domestic animals without pretreatment, but cooking or the addition of nutrients may sometimes be necessary. This strategy refers to diverting food not appropriate for human consumption to animal feed. While a potentially useful outlet for food scraps that otherwise would be disposed, this avenue tends to be limited primarily to food processors and beer industries and may not be feasible for urban institutions. In some cases, rural corrections facilities and land-grant colleges have the appropriate combination of circumstances that allows for the collection and feeding of certain food scraps to on-site animals. 4.3.2. Compost Composting is the microbial decomposition of discarded organic materials under controlled conditions. The end product, compost, is used as an organic soil amendment. It promotes microbiological activity in soils necessary for plant growth, disease resistance, water retention and filtration, and erosion prevention. Compost can be used in various ways. As a soil amendment, compost enhances the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. The macro-nutrient value of compost is typically not high relative to fertilizers. Compost enriches the soil by increasing organic matter. Additionally, compost increases soilâ&#x20AC;&#x;s capacity to hold water. By amending soil with compost, soil is better able to hold nutrients. Nutrients do not leach as easily; rather, they are released more slowly to plants, which can reduce the need for fertilizers. Compost can also suppress fungal diseases in soil, which can be particularly important to the golf and nursery industries. The utilization of earth worms, as discussed previously, could play a strong role in converting organic wastes, whether urban or rural, into a valuable vermicompost material. 4.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration This strategy refers sending organic materials to a disposal facility to be landfilled or incinerated. This is considered the least desirable strategy from a social, environmental, and sometimes economic perspective.

The garbage from which the recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers the garbage to a hopper and finally to a rotating, cylindrical drum, where the compost is sieved. At the end of the sieve, children anxiously wait for some useful remnants. The maturity of the compost is determined by measuring the temperature. Normally, the plant processes 30 tons (60 m3) of compost per shift per day. During the season when land is prepared for cultivation (November to February) output is doubled by working two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs for 11 employees (1 consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation and maintenance manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, and 1 messenger). Mechanical parts for the plant can be bought in Egypt, although some electrical parts have to be imported. Although the quality of the compost appears to be good, it has been found to contain small pieces of glass and plastics, and large quantities of heavy metals. The major pressures on solid waste management in Egypt are exemplified in the increase in waste quantities generated due to the escalating population, on the one hand, and the change in consumption patterns in towns and villages alike, on the other hand, in addition to the lack of awareness and the wrong handling of solid wastes in general. Various studies on ducted during the last two decades in a number of Egyptian Governorates and cities point out to a significant decrease in municipal solid waste collection efficiency totally lacking in some rural areas. Consequently, large amounts of waste accumulations appeared in streets, vacant land between buildings and different areas in cities and populated areas throughout the past years. Such areas have become focal points of environmental pollution and represent significant pressures on human health as well as on the environment.

Table 4.4. Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period 20072012. The cost of the program / million Egyptian pound Improve Remove Establish Establish Governorate process of Accumulaintermediate recycle collections & tions station centers transportation Cairo --13 13 30 Alexandria 15 17 5 5 Giza --30 30 10 Kalyobiya --19.5 19.5 10 Dakahilya 60 56.5 16 10 Gharbeya 52 31.5 16 10 Monofiya 6 33 10 10 Beheira 8 47 13 10 Kafr-ELShiekh 6 27 10 15 Sharkia 10 48.5 10 10 Damietta 3 26 10 10 Fayoum 3 20.5 4 5 Bani Suif 3 22 5 5 Menia 10 28.5 6 10 Assiut 3 28.5 6 10 Sohag 4.5 35 7 5 Qena 4.5 30.5 7 5 Luxor 2 2 3 5 Aswan 6 17 3.5 5 Ismailia 7 17.5 3 5 Port Said 6 7 2.5 5 Suez 10 7.5 2.5 5 Red Sea 7.5 14 2 5 Matrouh --26 5 5 North Sinai --31 4 5 South 7.5 15 3 5 New Valley --15 2 5 total 234 666 218 220 Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

Improve work in controlled Dumpsites 40 --10 10 --------------------------------5 5 ----------70

Establish sanitary landfill

Total with million Egyptian pound

30 --30 30 30 30 30 40 30 30 --15 30 30 30 30 30 15 15 30 ----30 15 30 30 10 655

126 42 110 89 172.5 139.5 89 118 83 108.5 64 62.5 65 84.5 72.5 86.5 82 27 46.5 62.5 25.5 30 58.5 51 70 60.5 37 2063

Table 4.5. Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. Governorate Accumulations in m3 Cairo 500000 Alexandria 344830 Giza 500000 Behairah 600000 Qalyubia 500000 Sharqia 510000 Matruh 146429 Port Said 359040 Ismailia 350000 Fayoum 292500 Minya 951000 Sohag 281845 Luxor 107022 Total accumulation Source: EEAA (2008) and (2009).

Governorate Menoufia Kafr_El Sheikh Damietta Gharbia Dakahlia North Sinai South Sinai Suez Red Sea Beni Suef Assiut Qena Aswan

Accumulations in m3 280000 227000 100000 1500000 1300000 140000 512000 1168550 11885000 150000 250000 258480 385240 23598936

Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic materials percentages for the year 2008. Governorate

Total waste (Ton/Day)

Cairo Alexandria Port Said Suez Damietta Behairah Kafr_El Sheikh Dakahlia Ismailia Menoufia Gharbia

10000 2700 1014 325 1319 911 1361 3718 572 897 2960 717 1738 9062 706 924 785 187 98 343 364 164 395 917 260 337 287 43061

Sharqia Qalyubia

Giza Fayoum Beni Suef Menia Assiut Suhag Qena Aswan Luxor Red Sea New Valley Matruh North Sinai South Sinai Total Source: CAPMAS (2010)

% of organic material 50% 65% 34% 50% 70% 60% 80% 70% 75% 65% 65% 70% 70% 60% 60% 65% 50% 75% 80% 90% 8% 50% 20% 25% 40% 20% 75%

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt. The concept of using earthworms to stabilize organic wastes (vermicomposting) is not new, and is in use on varying scales in a large number of both developed and underdeveloped countries. The capital cost of establishing systems has proven to be a barrier to the large scale use of vermicomposting, largely due to the high value placed on the worms themselves. Three factors contribute to the economic sustainability of the system. The first is the provision of a sustainable waste stabilization process, a service which can generate ongoing income but which, at the moment, is provided at minimal cost. The second is the creation of a saleable form of soil conditioner in the form of vermicast. The third is the production of protein in the form of worm-meal, a valuable source of amino acids, vitamins, long chain fatty acids and minerals for chicken and fish. Recycling of farm waste and composting is the other alternative to use mineral fertilizers. The increase in using compost in conventional agricultural will be coupled by a decrease in fertilizers usage and will result in higher quality production and less pollution hazards. Organic agriculture could be one of the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly reclaimed lands in Egypt. Wider production of organic material will increase the opportunities of more growers to join the organic farming. This chapter sheds the light on the fertilizer needs in Egypt and potentiality of using vermicompost as a fertilizer in Egypt, especially for organic farming. 5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt Application of fertilizers for growing crops is a routine operation in modern agriculture and one of the essential requirements for a high quantity and quality yield under extensive agricultural systems. Fertilizers are primary input in extensive agricultural systems, but they are considered as one of the important sources of air, water and soil pollution as well as greenhouse gases (greenhouse gases) of climate change. Egypt has a long history of using mineral fertilizers. On the other hand, excessive amounts of soluble salts in the soil can prevent or delay seed germination, kill or seriously retard plant growth, and possibly render soils and groundwater unusable. The degree of environmental impacts can depend on the fertilizer application method. The Egyptian fertilizers first production was from about 75 years ago. Now, Egypt is ranked as one of the countries that are highly consuming fertilizers in agricultural activities. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32% of the total production is exported. Excessive use of such chemical components have a harmful effect on the Egyptian environment and human health,

which needs to find other alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of the important options that have a good opportunity in a wide zone of the newly reclaimed lands in Egypt. Moreover, recycling of farm waste and composting is another alternative for renewing soil fertility that has very low organic content (Table.5.1). Harvesting the fruits or grains, which is a small proportion of a whole plant system, and returning the remaining plant residues after composting back to the soil will result in a minimum need for additional minerals. Substituting any quantity of chemical fertilizers will result in a cleaner production and environment, as well as less emissions of greenhouse gases, and consequently the organic farming growers can get substituted through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto protocol, which will be discussed in more details in a separate chapter later. Table 5.1. Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. Item

North Delta

South Delta

Middle & Upper Egypt

East Delta

West Delta

Soil texture

Clayey

Loamy clay

Sandy

Calcareous

pH (1:2.5)

7.9-8.5

7.8-8.2

7.7-8.0

7.6-7.9

7.7-8.1

Percent total soluble salts

0.2-0.5

0.2-0.4

0.1-0.5

0.1-0.6

0.2-0.6

Percent calcium carbonate

2.6-4.4

2.0-3.1

2.6-5.3

1.0-5.1

11.0-30.0

Percent organic matter

1.9-2.6

1.8-2.8

1.5-2.7

0.35-0.8

0.7-1.5

Total soluble N (ppm)

25-50

30-60

15-40

10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 20

10 -30

ppm available P (Olsen) ppm available K (ammonium acetate)

5.4 -10

3.5-15.0

2.5-16

2-5.0

1.5-10.5

250-500

300-550

280-700

105-350

100-300

Available Zn (DTPA) (ppm)

0.5-4.0

0.6-6.0

0.5-3.9

0.6-1.2

0.5-1.2

Available Fe (DTPA) (ppm)

20.8-63.4

19.0-27.4

12.4-40.8

6.7-16.4

12 - 18

Available Mn (DTPA) (ppm) Source: FAO (2005).

13.1-45

11.2-37.2

8.2-51.6

3-16.7

10 - 20

5.2. Fertilizer statistics The demand for food and other agricultural commodities is increasing in Egypt due to the increase in the population and improvements in living standards. Efforts continue to improve crop productivity and quality. Appropriate fertilization is one of the most important agricultural practices for achieving the agricultural improvement (FAO, 2005). The main commercial types of fertilizers used in Egypt and the percentage of active ingredients are listed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2. The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt Element Nitrogen

Fertilizer - urea (46.5 percent N) - ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N) - ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N) - calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N) - single superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 ) - concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 )

Phosphate Potassium

- potassium sulphate (48 to 50 percent K 2 O) - potassium chloride (50 to 60 percent K 2 O)

Mixed and -N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn and/or Cu in different formulations for compound either soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be in fertilizers either mineral or chelated form. Source: FAO (2005).

The improvement in fertilizers production is achieved through the last decades. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32% of the total production is exported. The remaining quantity of production after exporting is less than the demand quantity by about 43%. Therefore, Egypt compensates the shortage in the demands by importing fertilizers by about 43% of the total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates the increasing trend of fertilizers production and export. This increase is mainly due to the rapid agricultural horizontal and vertical expansion.

3500 3000

1000 tonnes

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2002

2003

Production

2004

2005

Import

2006

2007

2008

Export

Figure 5.1.Production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) trends of fertilizers in Egypt Source: FAO ( 2010).

The latest fertilizers consumption is shown in Figure (5.2) and illustrates that phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers are the highest consumed type of fertilizers under Egyptian conditions. The most recent FAO statistics of 2010 indicated that there is an increase in nitrogen fertilizer consumption for 2008 (1721105 ton N) and phosphorus (229911 tons). This increase reached 60 and 61% in 2008 compared to 2002 for nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. In addition, the continuous increase in fertilizers consumption is obvious and additional increase in fertilizer demand is expected in the next few years. Consumption in nutrients (tonnes of nutrients) 2000

250

1800 200

1000 tonnes N

1400 1200

150

1000 800

100

1000 tonnes P & K

1600

600 400

200 0

0 2002

2003

2004 N

2005 P

2006

2007

2008

Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and total fertilizers consumption in Egypt. Source: FAO (2010). 5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to growers of high-value crops. The influence of production factors, such as the variability in the characteristics of the organic feedstocks, the length of time of vermicomposting, and the various parameters used as maturity indicators, are essential aspects to be considered in developing guidelines for assessing the quality of vermicompost. The vermicomposting industry anticipates a need for compost quality indicators as the production, utilization and marketing of vermicompost expands. Various organic wastes tested in past as feed material for different species of earthworms include sewage sludge, paper mill industry sludge, water hyacinth, paper waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc. Many studies were conducted in order to evaluate vermicomposting from various waste sources as follows:

5.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting Home composting is a tradition in many countries, and is recommended as an important waste management option in the European Union policy. Advantages are that the waste does not have to be transported and that home gardens are provided with nutrients and humus. Furthermore, it has an educational importance in improving environmental awareness. Limiting conditions to its adoption are the availability of space for composting and compost application, and the lack of knowledge as to the correct composting procedure. This includes the selection of substrates that are suitable for home composting and the provision of suitable process conditions. In a city like Cairo, there is a possibility of producing vermicompost from individual houses. Having the suitable amount of earthworms in a double basket system with a perforated one inside, organic wastes could be vermicomposted without any odors or side annoyance. Although the system is not widely established, but with the proper awareness and public support could be implemented. This could both create an income to the poor families, and produce considerable amount of vermicompost that goes directly to agricultural activities. In addition, it has the following advantages:  Saves money and the environment  It reduces household garbage disposal costs;  It produces less odor and attracts fewer pests than putting food wastes into a garbage container;  It saves the water and electricity that kitchen sink garbage disposal units consume;  It produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (compost);  It requires little space, labor, or maintenance;  It spawns free worms for fishing. Several options for integrating the Zabbaleen into the international companies‟ contracts were explored during interviews with staff members at CID, raising the issue of local-global confrontation and the possible contribution of a private–public partnership. The Zabbaleen could act as sub-contractors, as they implement a “segregation system”, separating organic from non-organic waste. They could continue to collect household waste while medical and industrial waste and landfill management could be handled by multinational companies. Transfer stations could be established where a major proportion of non-organic waste could be recovered and directed to existing traders. The Zabbaleen could receive inorganic waste from companies as input to their recycling businesses, as small communitybased composting facilities are established. In such ways the traditional informal Zabbaleen system could be integrated into the new privatized large-scale waste collection system to the mutual benefit of both sides. Despite such suggestions, recent developments have demonstrated the unlikelihood of fruitful local–global partnerships. Instead, international companies favour training the Zabbaleen as waged employees, while allowing them to search landfill sites for organic waste for their pig-rearing activities (Fahmi, 2005).

5.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes Vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle shed wastes can not only produce a value-added product (vermicomposting) but at the same time acts as best culture medium for large-scale production of earthworms. The composting ability and growth performance of E. eugeniae were evaluated by using a variety of combinations of crop residues and cattle dung, under laboratory conditions. The best results in terms of nutrient enhancement in the end product were recorded in vermicomposted beds as compared to experimental composting without worms. Moreover, vermicompost showed higher amounts of total nitrogen, available phosphorous, exchangeable potassium and calcium content. The ready end product showed relatively lower C:N ratio and comparatively was a more stabilized product. A considerable amount of worm biomass and cocoons were produced in different treatments. However, quality of the feed stuff, used in this study was of a primary importance, determining the earthwormâ&#x20AC;&#x;s growth parameter, e.g. individual biomass, cocoon numbers, growth rate. The results suggest that crop residues can be used as an efficient culture media for large-scale production of E. eugeniae for sustainable land restoration practices at low-input basis (Suthar, 2008). 5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth It is well established that earthworms have beneficial physical, biological and chemical effects on soils and can increase plant growth and crop yields in both natural and managed ecosystems. These beneficial effects have been attributed to improvements in soil properties and structure, to greater availability of mineral nutrients to plants, and to biologically active metabolites acting as plant growth regulators. Earthworm (Eisenia foetida) compost strongly affects soil fertility by increasing availability of nutrients, improving soil structure and water holding capacity. It has been suggested that earthworms can increase the velocity of decomposition of organic residues and also produce several bioactive humic substances. These substances are endowed with hormone like activity that improves plant nutrition and growth. Humic acids (HAs) comprise one of the major fractions of humic substances. An experiment was conducted to pinpoint precisely a biological mechanism by which vermicomposts can influence plant growth positively and produce significant increases in overall plant productivity, independent of nutrient uptake. Mixing the container media with increasing concentrations of vermicompost-derived humic acids increased plant growth, and larger concentrations usually reduced growth, in a pattern similar to the plant growth responses observed after incorporation of vermicomposts into container media with all needed mineral nutrition. Plant growth was increased by treatments of the plants with 50â&#x20AC;&#x201C;500 mg/kg humic acids, but decreased significantly when the concentrations of humic acids in the container medium exceeded 500â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1000 mg/kg. Although some of the growth enhancement by humic acids could have been partially due to increased rates of nitrogen uptake by the plants, most of the results reported exceed those that would result from such a mechanism, very considerably. However, this does not exclude the possibility of other contributory mechanisms by

which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a further alternative explanation for the hormone-like mode of action of humic acids in these experiments. In our laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as indole acetic acid, gibberellins and cytokinins from vermicomposts in aqueous solution and demonstrated that these can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances may be relatively transient in soils. However, there seems a strong possibility that such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on to humates and act in conjunction with them to influence plant growth (Atiyeh et al., 2002). Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative container media component for the horticulture industry. The addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10% and 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth enhancement was on seedlings during the plug stage of the bedding plant crop cycle. Growth increases up to 40% were observed in dry shoot tissue and leaf area of marigold, tomato and green pepper. The increased vigor exhibited was also maintained when the seedling plugs were transplanted into larger containers with standard commercial potting substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, there were benefits apparently resulting from the nutritional content of the vermicompost. All of the plugs were produced without the input of additional fertilization. The potential exists for growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial potting substrates during the plug production stage without the use of additional fertilizer (Bachman and Metzger, 2008). 5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt Considering urban wastes as mentioned in the previous chapter for the year 2005 ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter in the wastes as 50-60% and average collection efficiency as 70%. Egypt has an estimated potential of producing from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year containing about 21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, and 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste management and production of poor quality of composts are main constraint in exploiting such large amount plant nutrients for increasing crop productivity. On the other hand, agricultural wastes in Egypt could produce almost four times compost material compared to urban wastes, assuming that 100% of it is organic material and all of it is accessible to the grower. There are other advantages of this waste, which are the availability of space and directly linked to the farm. This minimizes the need of collection and transportation. The amounts of N, P and K that could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of the urban wastes. From both sources, the total composted material is almost 10 million tons, containing about 10 thousand tons of nitrogen, 20 thousand tons of phosphorus, and 41 thousand tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obtained from organic wastes could save up to 5.9% of that consumed in 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers consumed in 2008 could be saved.

Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and agriculture wastes in Egypt*

Waste

Ton/year 15500000

Fraction organic 0.55

23000000

1.00

0.70

Fraction of waste to be compost Quantity, Ton 0.33 1,988,968 20,815 5,088 10,639

1.00

0.33

Fraction efficiency collection

Urban

Agriculture

Total

7,665,900 80,225 19,610 41,004 9,654,868 101,039 24,698 51,642

Type Compost N P K Compost N P K Compost N P K

*Estimated as the assumptions of fractions and fixed percent of N, P and K in the compost. Source: CAPMAS (2010)

6. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms in aquaculture industries. Production of vermicompost and vermiculture is covered in previous chapters. In order to utilize the products and byproducts of the industry, clear end-users should be defined in order to facilitate the development of the industry. One important possible consumption chain is the utilization in animal and fish feed protein supplement. This chapter handles such possibilities. 6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed The basic reason for the poor performance of livestock in developing countries is the seasonal inadequacy of feed, both in quantity and quality (Makkar, 2002). These deficiencies have rarely been corrected by conservation and, or, supplementation, often for lack of infrastructure, technical know-how, poor management, etc. In addition, many feed resources that could have a major impact on livestock production continue to be unused, undeveloped or poorly utilized. A critical factor in this regard has been the lack of proper understanding of the nutritional principles underlying their utilization. Poultry waste has been successfully used in ruminant rations in Egypt. The total bacterial count was considerably lower in sun dried poultry waste compared to the oven dried waste. Aflatoxins were not detectable in the concentrate mixtures containing poultry litter. Both feed intake and milk production in ewes was not affected by the inclusion of 14% poultry waste as a dietary supplement, suggesting that cottonseed meal and other high protein feed ingredients could be, at least partially replaced, by poultry waste without any loss in productivity. The weight and age at puberty of lambs fed a ration containing 17% poultry waste was similar to those given a ration without any poultry waste. Similarly, poultry waste up to 20% in the diet had no detrimental effect on growth in cattle and buffaloes and on the reproductive performance in buffalo heifers evaluated. The inclusion of 15% poultry waste in mixed concentrate feed decreased the cost of feed by about 10% (Makkar, 2002). It is an ancient practice in China to feed earthworms to livestock and poultry, i.e. to dig earthworms from fields to feed chickens and ducks or to graze chicken and ducks to feed on earthworms at ease. Earthworms are rich in nutrients with high protein. According to measurements, the crude protein in dry earthworms reaches about 70%, while in wet earthworms about 10-20%. The amino acids of earthworm protein are complete, especially the contents of Glutamic acid, Leucine and Lysine, among which Arginine is higher than fish meal, and Tryptophan is 4 times higher than in blood powder, and 7 times higher than in cow liver. Earthworms are rich in Vitamin A and Vitamin B. There is 0.25mg of Vitamin B1 and 2.3mg of Vitamin B2 in each 100 g of earthworms. Vitamin D accounts for 0.04%-0.073% of earthwormsâ&#x20AC;&#x; wet weight. In view of the great effects of El NiĂąo, fish meal from Peru can not meet the market

demand in the world. Thus earthworms are the best substitute with the functions of supplements, anti-diseases and allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to produce pellet feeds in the USA, Canada and Japan, which account for 50% of the pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that earthworms degrade quickly and should be processed within several hours by hot wind or freeze drying. In general earthworms contain more pollutants than fish meal because it is hard to clean residues from the epidermis and seta of earthworms. Some people realize that it is better to feed earthworms in wet. For fowls, the earthworm amount could reach 50% and for swamp eel 100% (Kangmin, 2005). 6.2. Worm meal Worm meal or vermin-meal is an excellent source of protein and nutrients. Earthworms typically contain over 80% moisture and can be fed directly to animals. To preserve the worms and process them into to a more convenient food they can be dried and ground up into worm meal. In addition to the protein, worms are a valuable source of essential amino acids and vitamins. The fats in worms are highly unsaturated and no additional antioxidants need to be added to the worm meal to preserve it. Worm meal may replace fish meal and meat and bone meal. Broilers fed with earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed for the same weight gain than those fed with ordinary broiler diet, but given live in earthworms matured 15 days earlier than the control group without earthworms (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000). Earthworms are the best bait for anglers. Pay attention to the palatability of various species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do not like. In Australia they culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, and Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows the different composition of several earth worms. Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, the palatability of earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows the richness of vermin meal with essential amino acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate the macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae). The protein content of earthworms is complete, containing 8-9 essential amino acids for human beings, including 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with other meat, the protein of earthworms is higher than meat and the lipid, 2% lower than meat. From the view point of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high protein and low lipid for human beings. In southern China and Taiwan people used to eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: mince meat of earthworm as stuffing for dumplings to increase delicacy and prevent it from going bad. It is said that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market in SEA. For human consumption a worm farm should use beer spent grains or mushroom spent substrate to feed earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center in Qingyuan as well as Shanghai Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure hardwood chips. Each year Qingyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This substrate of shiitake Lentinus edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of

earthworms and in turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that there are 200 kinds of food from earthworms in the U.S.A (Kangmin, 2005). Earthworms are the future of seafood. Not yet, but they will be (Shiner, 2009). Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matters) Eisenia Lumbricus foetida terrestils Moisture 83.3 81.1 Crude protine 57.4 56.1 Crude fat 13.2 2.1 Ash 10.8 28.7 Crude fiber 0.7 N-free extract 18.2 13.1 Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l(2000).

Allolobophora longa 78.3 50.4 1.4 35.2 12.9

Neries sp. 47.0 25.2 6.6 -0.6 20.6

Eudrilus eugeniae 85.3 56.4 7.9 13.1 5.9 17.8

Table 6.2. Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN) Eisenia Lumbricus foetida terrestils Arginine 3.67 3.17 Histidine 1.39 1.38 Isoleucine 2.85 2.20 Leucine 4.90 4.11 Lysine 4.16 3.52 Methionine 0.83 1.11 Phenylalanine 2.65 2.02 Theronine 3.07 2.48 Tryptophan 0.67 0.44 Valine 3.11 2.30 Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascua l( 2000).

Allolobophora longa 3.15 1.01 2.24 3.57 3.43 0.5 2.65 2.11 2.46

Eudrilus eugeniae 4.95 1.58 2.82 5.22 4.50 1.04 2.47 3.22 0.63 3.39

Table 6.3. Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae) Calcium % Phosphorus % Sodium % Iron mg/kg Zinc mg/kg Copper mg/kg Cadmium mg/kg Source: Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual (2000).

1.5 0.9 0.2 100.0 122.5 7.8 21.0

The key to the multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is their diet of organic wastes. Land-based pollution, such as festering animal manure, is an enormous problem for coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Britain alone produces 84 megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste and 5 megatons of chicken waste each year, much of which flows to the coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant contributor to the declining productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope with their heavily contaminated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by converting land animal wastes into high-protein aquaculture feed. Earthworms convert cow manure into dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x;s 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated

earthworms, delivering a protein punch of 5.9 million tons. The recipe is uncomplicated: find crap, add worms, wait, then harvest, dry and grind. The rock-solid implications of earthworms for aquaculture have already been verified. Two species of worms were fed to a group of trout, a classic intensive aquaculture species, while another group was fed commercial trout pellets made from fishmeal. The results were splendid: the earthworm-fed fish grew as well or better than their fishmeal-fed counterparts. Another study indicated the effectiveness of earthworm feed on tilapia aquaculture, finding that tilapia actually grew better with earthworm supplements than with fishmeal. Using earthworms as fish feed presents a truly novel method for reducing the impact of aquaculture on marine ecosystems. The benefits are threefold. Earthworms eat polluting manure, improving water quality of coastal fisheries and aiding in recovery from over-fishing. Eliminating fishmeal from aquaculture diets will also significantly reduce overall stress on wild fisheries as well as allow for production cost control independent of the price of wild fish. Thirdly, and not insignificantly, earthworms can be used in place of fishmeal to feed land animals such as cows, pigs and chickens. At present, land animal consumption accounts for a great deal of fishmeal intake, and transitioning livestock to an earthworm diet will take huge pressure off wild fisheries. Earthworms are a triple-win solution to intensive aquacultures‟ appetite for fishmeal. The worms are by no means a silver bullet as they cannot solve all of aquaculture‟s problems immediately. Pollution from intensive crustacean aquaculture will remain a serious threat to coastal habitats until the lagoons are either moved inland or farmed less intensively. This is to say nothing of mollusk aquaculture, a genuine champion of sustainable protein production. Earthworms, with an important high protein component, are used to feed chickens, pigs, rabbits, and as a dietary supplement for ornamental fish or other fish species difficult to raise and Some authors claim that in breeding of aquarium fish it is essential to use a variety of food. Vermicompost produced in ecological boxes can be used for feeding plants and the created biomass can be a highly nutritious food for animals, because it consists of 58– 71% protein, 2.3–9.0% fat depending on earthworm species and the way earthworms are fed with organic waste. 6.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future Aquaculture is a booming global industry: from 2002 to 2006, world aquaculture production increased from 40.4 million metric tons to 51.7 million metric tons. Over a three-decade span from 1975 to 2005, aquaculture production grew tenfold. During this same span of time, however, wild capture fell from 93.2 to 92.0 million metric tons. The inherent exhaustibility of the oceans necessitates that economically efficient and environmentally responsible aquaculture fill the gap between supply and demand for finfish and shellfish worldwide.

Genetic contamination and pollution, both chemical and biological, are serious blemishes on the face of responsible aquaculture; however, the solution is simple. Floating or land-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already in use in British Columbia, eliminate escapes altogether. Wastes and uneaten feed, all collected within the tank, are pumped through a filter, eliminating their respective eutrophying and polluting effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isnâ&#x20AC;&#x;t genetic contamination or pollution, but rather the inefficiency and un-sustainability of fishmeal as used for fish feed. Carnivorous finfish aquaculture, the type employed in salmon and tuna farming, typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as mackerel and sardines, for feed. Each pound of farmed fish for human consumption demands many pounds of fishmeal throughout the farming process, presenting a serious barrier to the expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime dining hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, meaning that it takes four tons of fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sardines and mackerel serve as important sources of protein worldwide and as the diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks. New sources of feed must be developed in order to facilitate industrial expansion and ease aquacultureâ&#x20AC;&#x;s strain on the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x;s over-fished oceans. Organic manures if not decomposed completely before application in aquaculture pond may deteriorate the water quality as they utilize oxygen during decomposition. Therefore, the amount of any organic manure to be added in the pond mainly depends upon its biological oxygen demand (BOD), as their excessive use may cause severe dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond and results in production of toxic gases like CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., and can spread parasitic diseases. A study suggests higher potential of utilizing vermicompost as compared to cow dung and hence can be used more effectively for manuring semi-intensive carp culture ponds without affecting the hydro biological parameters. In developing country like India, agriculture and livestock work in integration, where livestock waste (mainly cow dung) is the most commonly used organic manure in agriculture and aquaculture. Hence, the small scale on farm integration of vermicomposting of livestock and agriculture waste with the rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-intensive) holds ample scope for developing economically and ecologically sustainable farming system for the socio-economic upliftment of rural population in developing countries (Kaur and Ansal, 2010). The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida earthworms in food, given to those fish, caused a doubling of their biomass. The research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to the group fed with Bio-vit, the fish were characterized by a larger number of broods and larger numbers of surviving fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of the examined species of fish. For the advocates of the ecological box, it means another possible use of one of its products. That is because in addition to using the vermicompost, it gives another possibility of feeding selected aquarium fish with the produced biomass of earthworms. The results of the research not only indicate the possibility of reducing

the cost of fish-keeping, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka and Paczka, 2006). Three meals were formulated from the earthworm (Endrilus eugineae) and maggot (Musca domestica) and fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as a potential replacement for fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very expensive at times. The three meals were used in feeding the catfish (Heterobranchus isopterus) for 30 days. On the basis of weight increment, the best growth performance was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm and fish meals, respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was again the best, followed by earthworm and fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary feeding was evidenced in the higher weight increment in fish that were fed than those that were not fed. Maggot and earthworm meals could therefore be a whole or partial replacement for fishmeal. The difficulty in the harvesting or rearing maggots and earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991). The use of vermicompost in pisci-culture is gaining its increased recognition for the conservation of energy and optimum but economical utilization of available resources with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure, which improves quality of pond base and overlying water as well as provides organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect the relative abundance of the plankton and their community structure in aquatic system. Proper combinations of inorganic nutrients (NPK) are the major factors that influence the growth and production of plankton in a pond. Vermicompost contains all the major organic nutrient components of N, P and K along with some necessary micronutrients for plankton growth (Table 6.4). In aquaculture industry, capital investment apart, there are also operating expenses, mainly for seed, fertilizer, feed and labors. Among those, the cost of feed and fertilizer constitute about 70% of the total expenses. For this reason there is need for searching out chapter sources for feed and fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant in developing nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed and chemical fertilizer vermicompost forms an abundant alternative natural resource for less expensive manure and fish feed for higher fish yield. However, the amount of available nitrogen and phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with conventional fertilizers and research should be oriented to increase its nitrogen and phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition. Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied (average value of triplicate sample analyzed) Parameters Diammonium phosphate (DAP) Vermicompost Compost

Available N (mg·g-1) 18 ± 0.07 1.5 ± 0.05 1.0 ± 0.08

Available P (mg·g-1) 46 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.08 0.55 ± 0.09

Available K Dry weight of fertilizer (mg·g-1) and manure used (g) Nil 3.04 1.0 ± 0.05 99.0 1.0 ± 0.05 252.0

Souce: Chakrabarty et al, (2009).

Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost and DAP were analyzed for available P, N content as well as for organic carbon. The dry weights of the fertilizer and manure

were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g in different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis) (Table 6.5). Table 6.5. Average values* (±SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights and fish production of Cyprinus carpio in various treatments. Parameters

Control (T-1)

Compost (T-2)

Temperature (˚C) 30.0 ± 4.3 30.0 ± 5.1 pH 7.06 ± 0.4 7.26 ± 0.6 Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1) 6.01 ± 0.9 6.21 ± 1.1 Ortho phosphate (mg l-1) 0.09 ± 0.09 0.19 ± 0.06 Organic phosphate (mg l-1) 0.08 ± 0.19 0.27 ± 0.15 Total phosphate (mg l-1) 0.10 ± 0.10 0.66 ± 0.16 NO3–N (mg l-1) 0.06 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.06 Total inorganic N (mg l-1) 0.06 ± 0.005 0.40 ± 0.02 Total inorganic nitrogen (N)/total 1.6 0.61 phosphate (P) Community respiration (mg C m-2h- 20.13 ±±9.3 28.13 ± 12.5 1 ) Final mean body weight (g) 18.24 ± 2.3 22.25 ± 3.6 Fertilizer/manure added (g) 0 252 Stocking density 10.00 10.00 Initial average individual length 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 (cm) Initial average individual weight (g) 2.40 ± 0.01 2.40 ± 0.03 Final average individual length (cm) 4.20 ± 0.03 6.80 ± 0.06 Final average individual weight (g) 3.76 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 0.05 Growth increment (g ﬁsh-1day-1) 0.0151 0.0654 Production of fish (kg ha-190 day-1) 385.92 1,952.64 Total weight gain (TWG) (g ﬁsh-1) 0.57 2.45 Survival (%) 85 88 *Each average value applies to 90 days samples. Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009). Where: Absolute growth (AG) = final body weight - initial body weight Growth increment (GI) = final body weight - initial body weight / number of culture days after fish introduction Total weight gain (TWG) = final body weight - initial body weight / initial body weight

Diammonium phosphate (T-3) 30.0 ± 4.9 7.14 ± 0.1 7.74 ± 1.0 0.52 ± 0.10 0.20 ± 0.14 0.88 ± 0.25 0.28 ± 0.03 0.80 ± 0.04 0.90

Vermicompost (T-4)

35.79 ± 18.2

38.58 ± 13.1

39.50 ± 4.3 3.04 10.00 1.40 ± 0.02

45.77 ± 3.9 99 10.00 1.40 ± 0.02

2.40 ± 0.04 7.60 ± 0.04 12.92 ± 0.03 0.1169 3080.45 4.38 87

2.40 ± 0.02 8.80 ± 0.07 16.76 ± 0.07 0.1595 3,970.56 5.98 90

30.00 ± 5.5 7.43 ± 0.6 7.02 ± 1.2 0.30 ± 0.14 0.35 ± 0.21 0.68 ± 0.21 0.16 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.03 0.91

The demand for organically cultured food for human consumption is increasing across the globe and for this reason organic aquaculture is the need of the present time. Wide variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure, domestic wastes, night soil and dried blood meal have been used. 6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed in Egypt: For a long time, extensive fish farming was the type practiced in Egypt, where only chemical and/or organic fertilizers were applied for promoting the natural productivity of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran and rice bran were used for supplementation in some farms. As the technology of fish farming has developed,

aquaculture started to exert some significant demand on fish feed. In 2001, there are twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds are produced for self-sufficiency to support the needs of Governmental fish farms, but some quantities are available for sale to private sector. Because of the cost, such mills produce fish feeds of 18-32% protein of sinking type pellets, however, higher protein floating feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide the major component in the commercial fish feeds and may constitute up to 60% of the total diet for marine species, with higher levels being used in starter and fingerling rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available for fish manufacture in Egypt. However, price and competition from the human food and animal feed industries limits the choice. High quality feed materials are in short supply and are expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported and indigenous), the main available protein sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller), meat meal, poultry offal meal and feather meal. Other possibilities for new feed materials may be the wide spread marine macroalgae or fresh water weed hyacinth. On local basis, there is a scope for their incorporation into fish feeds particularly for tilapia and mullets. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 show the proximate composition of the tested feed ingredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS and SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM) and red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from different sources and their amino acid profiles, respectively. Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested proteins sources or supplements for fish feeds Ingredient

Protein

Lipid

Ash

Moisture

NFE

Fiber

AFS1

72.90

13.12

12.76

73.28

1.22

164

AFS2

73.40

17.10

8.30

1.20

178

AFS3

63.00

22.10

9.68

75.00

177

FFS

56.67

12.7

20.04

0.98

135

SBMG

44.80

20.60

5.40

5.50

29.20

161

SBMB

44.00

1.80

8.00

8.94

37.26

103

SBMD

44.00

4.00

6.53

11.00

38.17

7.30

110

17.44

2.5

32.85

3.69

41.47

5.47

22.61

2.18

37.3

3.05

28.29

9.62

FM1

72.05

10.94

7.00

5.00

8.98

1.02

160

FMD

61.00

8.95

20.72

6.20

9.73

136

61.00 5.00 16.60 5.00 16.70 0.70 127 FMD Source: Wassef (2005). NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germinated; B: boilled fullfat; D: defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D: domestic product; I: imported Manhaden).

Table 6.7. Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources or supplement as compared to fish meal (FM) Amino acid (AA)

AFS

FFS

SBM

MIX

Indispensable (IAA) Arginine (ARG) 03.62 02.86 05.59 06.20 05.85 04.46 05.88 Histidine (HIS) 02.36 01.33 04.30 02.48 02.80 02.70 02.48 Isoleucine (ILE) 02.66 01.87 03.64 03.27 03.47 04.53 04.41 Leucine (LEU) 04.43 03.73 06.09 00.51 05.21 05.92 05.71 Lysine (LYS) 05.27 03.95 04.49 05.44 05.62 06.90 04.42 Methionine (MET) 01.81 01.35 01.25 02.22 04.40 03.26 02.50 Phenyl-alanine (PHE) 02.36 02.30 04.30 03.06 04.45 04.78 03.87 Threonine (THR) 02.60 01.41 02.97 03.74 03.94 04.23 03.76 Valine (VAL) 03.01 02.41 03.86 03.94 07.46 06.69 04.75 Tryptophan (TRP) 00.63 00.36 00.72 00.80 Total IAA 28.75 21.57 36.94 31.58 43.20 43.47 38.58 Dispensable (DAA) Aspartic Acid (ASP) 05.97 15.20 11.54 10.59 02.04 Serine (SER) 02.62 04.15 04.48 04.08 00.66 Glutamic Acid 08.81 13.03 09.35 10.22 03.30 (GLU) 03.50 03.14 05.53 07.49 04.13 Glycine (GLY) 03.74 03.54 07.19 07.23 01.47 Alanine (ALA) 02.04 04.03 03.31 03.65 01.47 Tyrosine (TYR) 02.60 04.46 05.15 04.64 Proline (PRO) 00.73 01.13 01.27 01.51 00.97 Cysteine (CYS) 30.01 48.68 47.82 49.41 12.57 Total (DAA) 58.76 85.62 91.02 92.88 51.15 Total amino acids Source: Wassef (2005). AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS and SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal.

There is still a great opportunity for Egypt to use the tremendous amount of organic wastes to be used as meal not only for poultry, rabbits, ducks, and geese, but also for aquaculture and large animals. The only missing part is to create awareness and to develop capacity building programs in a well established demonstrated sites representing different geographic regions of the country.

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions. The main beneficiaries of this work are the agriculture producers in general and organic farming producers specifically. Previous chapters covered all aspects of production of vermicompost and vermiculture. As an organic grower interest, the environmental positive impacts of utilizing such methods of production, it is important to understand how vermicompost contribute to improve reducing the production of greenhouse gases, and consequently help mitigating the global warming. This chapter aims at highlighting on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and the environmental effects of those practices. 7.1. Emissions from vermicompost Composting has been identified as an important source of CH4 and N2O. With increasing divergence of biodegradable waste from landfill into the composting sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 and N2O from all forms of composting and from all stages. The study focused on the final phase of a two stage composting process and compared the generation and emission of CH4 and N2O associated with two differing composting methods: mechanically turned windrow and vermicomposting. The mechanically turned windrow system was characterized by emissions of CH4 and to a much lesser extent N2O. However, the vermicomposting system emitted significant fluxes of N2O and only traces amounts of CH4. High N2O emission rates from vermicomposting were ascribed to strongly nitrifying conditions in the processing beds combined with the presence of de-nitrifying bacteria within the worm gut (Hobson et al., 2005). Different other reports from several countries stated that any possible emissions of greenhouse gases by earthworms from soil or vermicomposting systems is extremely small when compared with the well-documented emissions of nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide from inorganic fertilizer manufacture, landfills, manure heaps, lagoons, crop residues in soils and manure from pigs and cattle in housed systems. While there will be N2O emissions from all these sources, there is no justification for suggesting that environmentally-friendly and energy-efficient systems for producing vermicomposts and composts should be restricted because of their potential to produce greenhouse gases. The global production of nitrogenous greenhouse gases in agriculture should be compared from all sources before vermicomposting is publicly condemned in such a sensational way (Edwards, 2008). Recent research has shown that certain types of vermicomposting can generate significant amounts of N2O. These initial findings indicate a need for more research to be conducted before any sound recommendations on vermicomposting can be given. Since the amount of emissions from composting depends on the specific composting method used and on how well the process is managed, it is not possible to give a

definitive answer to the question of how much composting contributes to climate change. Most studies on emissions from composting have been carried out in developed countries where conditions differ from the target countries of this study. Nevertheless, several environmental agencies have concluded that when composting is done properly, it generates very small amounts of greenhouse gases (IGES, 2008). Chan et al. (2010) investigated greenhouse gas emissions from three different home waste treatment methods in Brisbane, Australia. Gas samples were taken monthly from 34 backyard composting bins from January to April 2009. Averaged over the study period, the aerobic composting bins released lower amounts of CH4 (2.2 mg·m2 -1 ·h ) than the anaerobic digestion bins (9.5 mg·m-2·h-1) and the vermicomposting bins (4.8 mg.m-2.h-1). The vermicomposting bins had lower N2O emission rates (1.2 mg m-2 h-1) than the others (1.5–1.6 mg·m-2·h-1). Total greenhouse gas emissions including both N2O and CH4 were 463, 504 and 694 mg CO2e m-2·h-1 for vermicomposting, aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion, respectively, with N2O contributing >80% in the total budget. The greenhouse gas emissions varied substantially with time and were regulated by temperature, moisture content and the waste properties, indicating the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emission through proper management of the composting systems. The results suggest that home composting provides an effective and feasible supplementary waste management method to a centralized facility in particular for cities with lower population density such as the Australian cities. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions during the maturation process, the windrow composting process was characterized by emission of CH4. Emission of greenhouse gases from vermicomposting was predominantly N2O with comparatively little CH4 emitted, demonstrating that sufficiently aerobic conditions were maintained in the vermicomposting beds to inhibit CH4 production. The global warming potential of the vermicomposting maturation system was estimated to be approximately 30 times greater than that for the windrow composting system. The emission of greenhouse gases from these types of composting systems requires further investigation. Vermicomposting by worms decreases the proportion of 'anaerobic to aerobic decomposition', resulting in a significant decrease in methane (CH4) and volatile sulfur compounds which are readily emitted from the conventional (microbial) composting process. Vermi-composting of waste organics using earthworms therefore has a distinct advantage over the conventional aerobic composting as it does not allow the greenhouse gas methane (CH4) to be formed. Molecule to molecule, methane is a 20-25 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2. Earthworms can play a good part in the strategy of greenhouse gas reduction and mitigation in the disposal of global organic wastes as landfills also emit methane resulting from the slow anaerobic decomposition of waste organics over several years. However, recent research done in Germany has found that earthworms produce a third of nitrous oxide (N20) gases when used for vermicomposting. Molecule to molecule N:0 is a 296 times more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). This needs further study (Daven and Klein, 2008).

7.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt Total emissions for 2000 amounted to about 193 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent1. With the total emissions for 1990 amounting to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent., The average greenhouse gases emissions increase is about 5% annually. In this respect, the estimated total greenhouse gases emissions for 2008 are about 288 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent. Egypt‟s specific greenhouse gases emissions for 2000 amounted to 2.99 megaton of carbon dioxide per capita, while direct CO2 emissions per capita in 2000 amounted to 1.98 ton per capita. The total greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 of carbon dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, Perfluorocarbons, haloflorocarbons, sulpher hexafloride (excluding emissions from land use change), for the world amounted to 29,910 megaton of carbon dioxide.. The total 1990 emissions of Egypt amounted to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide, based on emissions of dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide (EEAA, 1999). These figures denote that the share of Egypt in the total World emissions in 1990 was 0.4%. Egypt‟s total emissions are about 193 dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, including emissions of manure management, agriculture soil, and field burning of agricultural residues, and emissions from some sources of sub-categories, such as methane emissions from aerobic waste water treatment plants, nitrogen oxide emissions from domestic wastewater and emissions from incineration, all of which were not included in the 1990 figures. Moreover, more updated figures for activity data were used for solid waste generation and wastewater generation for the year 2000. Based on this and taking into account the world total emissions for the year 2000, amounting to 33,017 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalen, Egypt‟s share in the total world emissions for 2000 was 0.58% (EEAA, 2010).

Each of the greenhouse gases has a global warming potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global warming potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO2 equivalent quantities by multiplying the weight of such gas by its GWP to obtain the CO2 equivalent weight.

Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions for Egypt, 2000, as of its Second National Communications1 submitted in July 2010. Greenhouse gases Source & Sink Categories

CO2 (Kt)

CH4 (Kt)

N2O (Kt)

PFCs (Kt)

SF6 (Kt)

HFCs (Kt)

Total (Mt CO2e)

Total National Emissions & Removals

128,227

1,877

160 (tons)

5 (tons)

28 (tons)

193.3

ALL ENERGY (Fuel Combustion & Fugitive)

106,629

447

581 (tons)

5 (tons)

116.3

105,161

559 (tons)

5 (tons)

105.5

5 (tons)

Fuel combustion Petroleum & energy transformation industries

41,436

Industry

26,987

Transport

27,120

Small combustion Agriculture Fugitive emissions from fuels Oil & Natural Gas

9,389 229

930 (tons) 680 (tons)

130 (tons) 180 (tons) 222 (tons) 25 (tons) 2 (tons)

1 188 (tons) 10 (tons)

1,469

444

22 (tons)

1,469

444

22 (tons)

10.8

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

21,594

160 (tons)

28 (tons)

27.8

Cement production

17,251

Iron and steel industry

1,576

Nitric acid production

Aluminum production

160 (tons)

Ozone Depleting Substitutes

28 (tons)

Ammonia production

2,736

Lime production

As per Kyoto Protocol, Egypt submitted it's Second National Communication for Climate Change to the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) in June 2010.

Greenhouse gases Source & Sink Categories

CH4 (Kt)

N2O (Kt)

AGRICULTURE

599

Agriculture soils

Enteric fermentation

385

Manure management

Rice cultivation

Field burning of agricultural residues

WASTE

832

10 (tons)

17.5

Solid waste disposal on land

557

Wastewater treatment

275

10 (tons)

Waste incineration

118

PFCs (Kt)

SF6 (Kt)

HFCs (Kt)

Total (Mt CO2e)

CO2 (Kt)

31.7

Source: EEAA (2010).

7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes The global N2O emission from crop residue has been estimated at 0.4 tera gram nitrogen per year, using the IPCC default emission factor of 1.25% of applied residue N emitted as N2O. However, this default emission factor is based on relatively few experimental studies. Recent experiments showed that the emission factor for crop residues can vary considerably with residue quality, particularly the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio and the amount of mineralizable N. Generally, higher emissions follow incorporation of residue with lower C/N ratios. It could be concluded that earthworm activity has the potential to increase N2O emissions from crop residues up to 18-fold; that the earthworm effect is largely independent of bulk density; and that earthworm species, specifically, impact N2O emissions and residue stabilization in soil organic matter. However, earthworm-mediated emissions of N2O mostly resulted from residue incorporation into the soil, and disappeared when plowing of residue into the soil was simulated. Our results suggest that, irrespective of earthworm activity, farmers may decrease direct N2O emissions from crop residues with a relatively low C/N ratio by leaving it on top for a few weeks before plowing it into the soil. However, field studies should confirm this effect, and possible trade-offs to other (indirect) emissions of N2O should be taken into consideration before this can be recommended (Rizhiya et al., 2007).

Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicomposting has been developed at the Ohio State University. This has included experiments investigating the effects of vermicomposts on the germination, growth, flowering, and fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell peppers and tomatoes, as well as on a wide range of flowering plants including petunias, marigolds, bachelor‟s button, chrysanthemums, impatiens, sunflowers, and poinsettias. A consistent trend in all these growth trials has been that the best plant growth responses, with all needed nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small proportion (10% to 20%) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with greater proportions of vermicomposts in the plant growth medium not always improving plant growth. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural container media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those reported when composts were used instead (Atiyeh et al., 2000). Table (7.2) and Figure (7.1) present Egypt‟s total greenhouse gas emissions by gas type, for the year 2000, while Table (7.2) and figure (7.2) present Egypt‟s total greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. Table 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000.

Gas Carbon Dioxide, CO2 Methane, CH4 Nittrogen oxide, N2O Perfluorocarbons, PFC Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6 Haloflorocarbons, HFC's blend TOTAL Source: EEAA (2010).

Emissions (mega ton CO2 equivalent) 128.2 39.4 24.4 1.1 0.1 0.1 193.3

Emissions (%) 66.3 20.4 12.6 0.6 0.1 0.1 100

SF6; 0.11; 0%

PFC; 1.04 ; 1%

HFC's blend; 0.05; 0%

N2 O; 24.36 ; 13% CH4 ; 39.44 ; 20%

CO2; 128.22 ; 66%

Figure 7.1. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in mega ton CO2 equivalent. Source: EEAA (2010).

Table 7.3. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000 Emissions Emissions Sector (mega ton CO2 (%) equivalent) 105.5 55 Fuel Combustion 10.8 6 Fugitive Fuel Emissions Agriculture 31.7 16 Industrial Processes 27.8 14 Waste 17.5 9 TOTAL 193.3 100 Source: EEAA (2010).

Waste; 17.49; 9% Agriculture; 31.72; 16% Fuel Combustion; 105.51; 55%

Industrial Processes; ; 27.77; 14% Fugitive fuel; 10.81; 6% Fuel Combustion

Fugitive fuel emissions Industrial Processes

Agriculture

Waste

Figure 7.2. Egypt‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector for the year 2000, in mega ton CO2 equivalent. Source: EEAA(2010). Table (7.3) and figure (7.2) show the change of sectors‟ contribution to Egypt‟s total inventory. It is clear that the total greenhouse gas emissions of Egypt increased in 2000 to be 165% of that in 1990. During this period Egypt‟s population increased by 123% with an increase in the GDP of 277% (Ministry of Economic Development, 2007). The ratio of GDP, at the 1981/82 fixed prices, for the year 2000 to that for 1990 is 151%, denoting that the increase in greenhouse gas emissions seems to be correlated to the GDP increase rather than the population growth. It is clear that emissions from agriculture are the second after fuel combustion and before industrial processes. 7.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment There is another important use that helps the environment which is the use of vermiculture as a biological filter for domestic waste water. use of earthworms in filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (Xing et al., 2010). Since then, several studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, and swine wastewater treatment processes, as well as in simultaneous sludge reduction processes. However, less attention has been given to the use of vermifilters to dispose of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have only focused on the contamination purification efficiencies, but the interactions between earthworms and microorganisms, which are very important for understanding the sludge stabilization mechanisms involved in VFs, have not been fully investigated. A study was conducted to explore the feasibility of using a VF to stabilize sewage sludge while focusing on elucidating the earthworm–microorganism interactions responsible for the decomposition of organic matter in the vermifilter. Additionally, this investigation sought to identify the primary mechanism by which sewage sludge stabilization in the vermifilter occurs based on the chemical and spectroscopic

properties of the treated sludge, the microbial community in the biofilm, and the earthworm–microorganism interactions in the vermifilter reactor. The results of this study provide useful information regarding the use of a vermifilter for the optimal sewage sludge treatment. A cylinder shaped vermifilter (30 cm in diameter and 60 cm in depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-inch polypropylene pipe with holes to ensure uniform distribution of the influent (Figure 7.3). The vermifilter contained a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (6–9 mm in diameter). A layer of plastic fiber was placed on the top of the filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic impact on the earthworms and to ensure an even influent distribution. The influent sludge was introduced to the vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After passing through the filter bed, the treated sludge entered into a sedimentation tank below the vermifilter and the supernatant in the sedimentation tank was recycled.

Figure 7.3. Layout of the Vermifilter Source: Zhaoa et al. (2010). The vermifilter may be an efficient technology for stabilization of excess sludge from domestic Waste Water Treatment Plants. The volatile suspended solids (VSS) reduction in the VF reached 56.2–66.6%, which met the criteria for aerobic and anaerobic sludge stabilization (>40%). The presence of the earthworms in the VF induced an additional 25.1% reduction in volatile suspended solids. On average, the earthworm–microorganism interactions were responsible for approximately 46% of the improvement in the VSS reduction. Moreover, a detailed characterization of sludge and earthworm cast samples revealed that earthworms in the VF improved the microbial activity by transforming insoluble organic materials into a soluble form and selectively digesting the sludge particles of 10–200 μm to finer particles of 0–2 μm, while enhancing the bacterial diversity in the biofilm. Additionally, improved sludge settleability with a compact structure and low SVI values (33–45 mL/g) were achieved in the presence of earthworms, which was favorable for further sludge processing (Zhaoa et al., 2010).

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas emission reductions Vermicompost is one of the activities that could mitigate the greenhouse gases (GHGs) that cause global warming. Both urbane wastes and agricultural residues produce considerable amounts of greenhouse gases as described in the previous chapter. According to the environmental regulations, the reduction of greenhouse gases could be a source of financial benefits for vermicompost producers. Therefore, this chapter deals with examples of reducing the emissions through vermicomposting, which may assist the firms working in this business to sell their carbon reduction in what is called "carbon market". Every ton of CO2e reduced could be sold with around 10 Euros according to pre-signed contract. The mechanism that regulates such activity is the clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto prorocol. Under the CDM industrialized countries can purchase greenhouse gas emission reductions from developing countries to help meet their obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. 8.1. Background The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) proposed under article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol is an important potential instrument to promote foreign investment in greenhouse gas emission reduction options while simultaneously addressing the issue of sustainable development. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Kyoto Protocol programs for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Under the CDM, an industrialized country with a greenhouse gas reduction target can invest in a project in a developing country without a target and claim credit for the emissions that the project achieves. German companies, for instance, invested in a wind power project in Egypt, thus replacing electricity that would otherwise have been produced from coal. Egypt then sold the credit for the emissions that have been avoided to Germany which, in turn, used them to meet its own greenhouse gas reduction target. Both sides benefit from CDM projects. For industrialized countries, the CDM greatly reduces the cost of meeting the reduction commitments that they agreed to under the Kyoto Protocol. Developing countries receive financial and technical assistance in upgrading their energy infrastructure and can sell certified emission reductions for profit. This diversification of external earnings will reduce oil-exporting countries' dependence on the highly volatile world oil price. Egypt is striving to develop efficient, transparent and strong criteria and institutions for the marketing, approval and control of CDM projects, thus making the country attractive for international CDM investors and ensuring the efficient implementation of CDM projects. The private sector will play an important role in this process, be it as project hosts, in project design and implementation, or in the verification of emission reductions. Donors and governmental authorities are the potential facilitators of CDM projects. Environment 2007 therefore intends to increase awareness and bring together businesses and the various financing institutions in order to ensure their full participation in the CDM process.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC was agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This agreement aims at the stabilization of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, at a level that would prevent dangerous changes to the climate. The UNFCCC adopted Kyoto Protocol at the third conference of parties (COP3) in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The Protocol sets binding commitments by 39 developed countries and economies in transition, listed in Annex B, to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent on 1990 levels (the first commitment period, 2008 - 2012). The UNFCCC divides countries in two main groups: Annex I parties that include the industrialized countries and countries with “economies in transition” /EITs (the Russian Federation, the Baltic States and several other Central and Eastern European countries). All the others are called non-Annex I countries. Annex I countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol can invest in projects that both reduce greenhouse gases and contribute to sustainable development in non-Annex I countries. A CDM project provides certified emissions reductions (CERs) to Annex I countries, which they can use to meet their greenhouse gas reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol sets out three goals for the CDM: i) To help mitigate climate change; ii) To assist Annex I countries attain their emission reduction commitments, and iii) To assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development. In addition to contribute towards sustainable development, CDM project candidates looking for approval under the CDM must lead to real, measurable reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, or lead to the measurable absorption (or “sequestration”) of greenhouse gases in a developing country. The six greenhouse gases and gas classes coming from varied sources of the economy are: carbon dioxide "CO2" (source: fossil fuel combustion; deforestation; agriculture); methane "CH4" (source: agriculture; land use change; biomass burning; landfills); nitrous oxide "N2O" (source: fossil fuel combustion; industrial; agriculture); hydrofluorocarbons "HFCs" (source: industrial /manufacturing); perfluorocarbons "PFCs" (source: industrial/manufacturing); sulphur hexafluoride "SF6" (source: electricity transmission; manufacturing(. The baseline for a CDM project is the scenario used to show the trend of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that would occur in the absence of the proposed CDM project. The baseline basically shows what would be the future greenhouse gas emissions without the CDM project intervention. Each CDM project has to develop its own baseline. Once a baseline methodology has been approved by the Executive Board, other projects can use it too. For small-scale projects, guidance is provided on standard baselines. Greenhouse gas emissions from a CDM project activity must be reduced below those that would have occurred in the absence of the project. It must be shown that the project would not have been implemented without the CDM. Without this “additionality” requirement, there is no guarantee that CDM projects will create

incremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have been made in Annex I countries, or play a role in the ultimate objective of stabilizing atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet their Kyoto targets allow emissions in these countries to rise. Therefore if CERs are awarded to activities that would happen without the CDM project, i.e. for reductions that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a corresponding cut elsewhere, thereby raising global emissions. The only winners are the buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new investment and climate change is not being mitigated. CDM projects assist developing countries to achieve sustainable development. Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with the Kyoto Protocol. This has led to a growing demand for carbon credits. Developing countries may supply such carbon credits. While many factors influence the size and stability of the global market, facts indicate that this market would move billions of dollars a year, increasing foreign investment capital flow in developing countries. According to the Kyoto Protocol, investments in various sectors of non-Annex I countries may qualify for CDM credits in 1) energy fuel combustion: energy industries; manufacturing industries and construction; transport; other sectors; 2) Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil and natural gas; 3) industrial processes: mineral products; chemical industry; metal production; other production; production and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture: enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils; prescribed burning of savannas; filed burning of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste disposal on land; wastewater handling; waste incineration; 7) land-use, land-use change, and forestry: afforestation; reforestation; avoided deforestation for thermal energy in small-scale projects. 8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which include Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading. The aim from applying CDM is the implementation of projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions from different sectors such as industry, waste recycling, transport, switching to usage of natural gas as a fuel, and afforestation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to achieving sustainable development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional financial return from selling carbon reduction certificates as a result. During 2007, NCCC held 6 meetings (3 for the Egyptian Bureau for CDM (EB-CDM) and the Egyptian Council for CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been approved and Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project approval). Such projects include: 1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Delta Fertilizers and Chemical Industries.

2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries. 3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from the acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers and Chemical Industries. 4. Fuel switching and reduction of clinker, National Cement Company. 5. Fuel switching in industrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company. 6. Equipment replacement and fuel switching, El-Max Salinas Company, Alexandria. 7. Land filling, treatment, and recycling, Southern Region, Cairo Governorate. 8. Installation of cogeneration unit operating by gas recovered from the industrial processes, Alexandria Carbon Black Company. 9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Spinning and Weaving Company. 10. Replacement of light oil and coke gas by natural gas as a fuel for furnaces, Nasr Forging Company. 11. Fuel Switching from Light Oil to Natural Gas in Spring and Transport Needs Manufacturing Co. 12. Methane Reduction by Composting of Municipal Waste from Cairo North and West. 13. Capture and flaring of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal landfills,Qalyubia. 14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Spinning and Weaving Company. 15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils and Detergents Company. 16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, Egypt for Oils and Soap Company. 17. Switching fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool and Selected Textile Company (STIA). 8.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM Egypt has participated to the National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by the Government of Switzerland and the World Bank in 1997. This program has assisted Egypt in the development of the CDM Strategy which was undertaken in collaboration with the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). The Egyptâ&#x20AC;&#x;s NSS on the CDM aims at mainstreaming environment into the relevant sectors and minimizing the environmental impacts of development, through identification of priority policies and planning for their implementation. 1- Ratification on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the issuance of Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, and the participation in various international workshops and conferences related to climate change to avoid having any international obligations on developing countries, including Egypt . 2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, and the establishment of the Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA);

consisting of the Egyptian Bureau and the Egyptian Council for Clean Development Mechanism. 3- Ministry of Electricity and Energy: establishment several projects in the field of New and Renewable Energy (Wind - Solar - Hydro - Bio), and encouraging Energy Efficiency Projects . 4- Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs: establishing guiding schemes for private sector to encourage investments in the field of clean energy projects, waste recycling, and afforestation . 5- Maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects . In addition to the State's concern in maximizing the benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established the Egyptian Designated National Authority for Clean Development Mechanism (DNA-CDM), instantly after ratifying the protocol and its entrance into force in 2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress in several sectors, 36 projects have been approved within the framework of the Mechanism. This is including the sectors of: New and Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycling, Afforestation, Energy Efficiency, and Fuel Switching to Natural Gas. This is for an estimated total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source for attracting foreign investments, providing employment opportunities, and contributing in the implementation of Sustainable Development plans in Egypt. 8.4. The national regulatory framework The law number 4 of 1994 and its executive regulation contain the national policy and regulatory framework governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector. In the protection of air environment from pollution section article (36) said that in carrying out their activities, establishments subject to the provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do not exceed the maximum limits permitted and Article (38) Concern about dump, treat or burn garbage and solid waste, while Article (42) talk about the consideration which should be given by the competent bodies, according to their activities, when burning any type of fuel or other substance, and the Precautions, Permissible limits, and Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about the necessary precautions and procedures laid down by the Ministry of Manpower and Employment to prevent the leakage or emission of air pollutants inside the work. Annex I contain the executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which governing the growth and competitiveness of the agro residue based biomass sector.

9. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction. In the waste sector, the Egyptian relevant ministries, in collaboration with concerned governorates, have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to improve the process of collection, reuse and recycling of waste, yet there are several barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These include financial constraints for the mitigation of greenhouse gass emissions from the waste sector; the significant dependence on external financial support, as grants and concessionary loans, complicating the planning process and slowing down implementation; limited public awareness about the economic benefits of reuse and recycling of waste leads, leading to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider waste management activity as a viable option; the need of technology transfer and high investments for some waste treatment options, such as anaerobic digestion; the weak enforcement of existing laws and regulations for violations in handling waste. 9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt 9.1.1. Municipal solid waste Waste in Egypt can be considered as constituted of solid waste and wastewater. The total annual amount of solid waste produced in Egypt is about 17 Mt according to the year 2000 estimates. The amount of accumulated solid waste (i.e. waste not collected and dumped in disposal sites but rather dumped on roads and empty lands) was estimated to be about 9.7 Mt for the year 2000, with a total volume of 36,098,936 m3 (EEAA 2007). This solid waste can be categorized into municipal waste, industrial waste, agriculture waste, waste from cleaning waterways and healthcare waste. Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, with the remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, service institutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Per capita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3 kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher living standards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60% food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, and the remainder is basically inorganic matter and others. Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimated at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, and the rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Various studies indicate low waste collection efficiencies, varying between less than 35% in small provincial towns to 77% in large cities. Final destinations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2% landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps. In this respect, 16 landfills exist in Egypt: 7 in the Greater Cairo Region, 5 in the Delta governorates and 4 in Upper Egypt. Their capacities range between 0.5 and

12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have been identified for new landfills, and the construction of 56 composting plants throughout the country is underway. 9.1.2. Agricultural wastes Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons per day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animal fodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. 9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes As a non-annex I country, Egypt is not required to meet any specific emission reduction or limitation targets in terms of commitments under the UNFCCC, or the Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already in progress. Egypt is fully aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is the only measure that could ensure the mitigation of global warming and climate change. The mitigation measures in this section are based on those described in national plans and country studies documents (Table 9.1). Six main criteria have been selected for prioritization of mitigation measures in the waste sector according to Egypt's Second National Communication. These entail investment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials; duration of implementation; priority in national strategies/programs; and contribution to sustainable development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria analysis, were combined for each sub-sector in order to generate a number of scenarios for solid waste and wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitting scenario was selected for implementation during the period 2009 to 2025. Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, the associated emission reduction potential, and investment costs calculated for 25 years lifetime in simple linear amortization cost, are summarized in tables (III.6) and (III.7) for solid waste and wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007).

Table 9.1. Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes. Emission reduction potential (ton CO2e per ton MSW)

Mitigation Measure

0.38

Composting and recycling facilities Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with electricity generation only, composting, and recycling Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with substitution in cement kiln, composting, and recycling facilities Anaerobic digestion with recycling (flaring biogas) Anaerobic digestion with recycling facilities (with electricity generation) Source: EEAA (2010).

< 0.3

< 0.3 0.342 0.547

Investment cost (US$/ton MSW)

0.92 2.07

1.97

12.16 16.16

The Egyptian relevant ministries, in close collaboration with concerned governorates, have developed several plans and programs over the past ten years to improve the process of dealing with waste reduction, reuse, recycling and/or proper disposal. These plans and programs lead to the reduction in emissions from the waste sector. Yet there are several barriers to achieving the goals of these programs. These comprise the following:  Although financial support for mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions from the waste sector in Egypt has increased significantly over the last years, it still represents a clear constraint in the implementation of the intended programs.  The significant dependence on external financial support, as grants and concessionary loans, complicates the planning process, and slows down implementation.  The limited public awareness about the economic benefits of mitigation options in the waste sector leads to the hesitation of funding institutions to consider waste management activity as an economically viable option.  Technology transfer represents another barrier mainly in anaerobic digestion technologies as it needs high capital investment and skills to operate correctly. Some technologies are designed on site-specific bases, which are not optimal for other regions. Highly local skilled experts and extensive studies are needed for proving the suitability and applicability of the technology according to different varying local conditions in Egypt.  All parties in the waste sector are relatively of limited environmental management experience and the mechanisms for coordination with EEAA are not well established. Furthermore, privatization of the waste sector lacks clear

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modalities for partnership, particularly with regards to private-public partnership. Weak enforcement of existing laws and regulations for violations in handling waste reduces the opportunity for achieving the goals of the planned programs.

9.3. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes As the activities of agriculture are too complicated and the share of emission from all agriculture activities is almost 16%, it was not mentioned in the mitigation options for the National Communication of Egypt. Although no studies have been reported on the mitigation from the agricultural wastes, vermicompost could save considerable amounts of greenhouse gases from reducing the amount of crop residues burned. Further studies are still required to elaborate on this subject.

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Ghafoor, A.; M. Hassan and Z.H. Alvi. 2008. Biodiversity of earthworm species from various habitats of district Narowal, Pakistan. Int. J. Agri. Biol., 10, pp: 681– 684. GTZ. 2004. Regional Solid Waste Management Project in Mashreq and Maghreb Countries, regional guidelines case study: Informal Sector Recycling ActivitiesEgypt, FINAL REPORT. German Technical Cooperation Agency. Gunadi, B.; C. A. Edwards; and IV C. Blount. 2003. The inﬂuence of different moisture levels on the growth, fecundity and survival of Eisenia fetida (Savigny) in cattle and pig manure solids. European Journal of Soil Biology 39, pp:19–24. Hendrix, F. P. and P. J. Bohlen. 2002. Exotic Earthworm Invasions in North America: Ecologicaland Policy Implications. BioScience 801, 52 (9), pp: 801-811. Hertrampf, J. W. and F. Piedad-Pascual. 2000. Handbook on Ingredients for Aquaculture Feeds. Kluwer academic puplishers. Hobson, A. M.; J. Frederickson and NB. Dise, 2005. CH4 and N2O from mechanically turned windrow and vermicomposting systems following in-vessel pre-treatment. Waste Manag, 25(4), pp:345-52. Hou, J.; Y. Qian,; G. Liu and R. Dong, 2005. “The Influence of Temperature, pH and C/N Ratio on the Growth and Survival of Earthworms in Municipal Solid Waste” Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript FP 04 014. VII. IGES. 2008. Climate Change Policies in the Asia-Pacific, Re-uniting Climate Change and Sustainable Development. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Kangmin, Li. 2005. Vermiculture http://www.wormdigest.org .

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Annex 1 General information and FAQ WORM FACTS       

SMALLEST: Less than an inch LARGEST: 22 Foot found in South Africa An earthworm has a brain, five hearts, and“ breathes” through its skin An earthworm produces its own weight in casts everyday There are over 1 million earthworms in one acre of soil Earthworms can burrow as deep as fifteen feet Earthworms are 82% protein and are a food source for many people around the world  Eating earthworms can reduce cholesterol, as the basic essential oil of earthworms is Omega 3 Benefits of Earthworms  Increased moisture absorption  Improved soil aeration and drainage  Leaching counteracted by nutrient-rich castingsbrought to the surface  Nutrients are pre-digested, making them readily available to microorganisms and plants  Worm castings form aggregates which improve soil structure  Castings neutralize soil by buffering acid and alkaline conditions  Worm tunnels create fertile channels for the growth of plant roots  The bottom line: Earthworms increase crop yields while building soil fertility reserves. FAQ Compost Worm Do compost worms also eat normal earth or only rotting organic material? Although the compost worms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei are not commonly found in mineral grounds, scientific investigations show that they also eat mineral earth. However, they select an organic enriched fraction from the bulk soil (approximately by a factor 2), which is also typical for soil dwelling worms. Therefore, compost worms can also be used to clean contaminated mineral grounds. Can compost worms be used for decontamination of mineral soils? Yes, because they eat mineral soils too. Experiments were done with the harbour sludge of Rotterdam. Eisenia andrei is commonly used in standard toxcicity tests and in bioassays for contaminated soils (Cortet et al., 1999).

How long will the material ingested by the compost worm be in his gut? In adult compost worms (Eisenia andrei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, in juvenile worms appr. 11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected the opposite (a longer retention time for adult worms). For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25째C, independent from the weight or the length of the worm. At 18째C the retention time was about 3.5 hours. Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. Other worm species 11 to 13 hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora caliginosa). How do compost worms multiply? Like all earthworms, compost worms have female and male gender organs (hermaphrodite). If they pair off, the genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These are localized in the wide rings (clitellum) of adult worms. This ring walks in the course of the next days on and on to the back and is shored up, in the end, so that a yellowish cocoon originates which has the form a lemon. After a certain time, out of this small mites are slipping.

How often does a conception take place with the mating of compost worms? It comes to 61% of the matings to the transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of sperm takes place in 88.2% of the cases, in 9.8% the transfer occurred only in one direction. Merely in one case a self conception occurred. Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms? Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly documented in 2003 for the first time. This occurs very seldom and was observed with Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme form of inbreeding. The genetic diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction in fitness of the species. For this reason mechanisms of self-incompatibility have been developed in many species. Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia andrei? Scientific investigations from the year 2003 showed that Eisenia andrei multiplies much faster under the elective conditions of the study. The percentage of the worms, that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also the number of the produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia andrei, likewise the slip rate of the mites from the cocoons. The life ability of the cocoons was possibly equally high with both species.

What do eat compost worms? Fungi are probably a primary source of food for many earthworm species. Rotting material from plants, which is richly colonized with it, is the most popular "meal" for the worms.

Slows the composting process down because the fungi in the compost are eaten by the worms? On the contrary, in the general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal communities inhabited earthworm-processed substrates than were found in fresh substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed and may be a preferred food source for earthworms. Worms probably accelerate the composting process by both grazing and dispersal, and indirectly by their effects on the substrate (burrowing and casting). Can earthworms nibble at living roots? No! The earthworms to which also the compost worms belong, attack no living roots. They live on the dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In addition, they have no tools (teeth, grater plates or other things) by which they could nibble at roots. The earthworm in the flowerpot or plant patch does not harm the plants. Are certain fungi preferred by earthworms as food? Earthworms can make a good distinction between the different kinds of fungi. Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum and Mucor hiemalis, other tested mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of the compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that the black melanine containing fungus C. cladosporioides was the most attractive in contrast to Aspergillus niger which was the least attractive. For Eisenia andrei still no investigations were done. Does a quicker worm composting take place if the plant leftovers are inoculated with certain fungi before? This is possible, however, for the normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly and also not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates the growth of Eisenia andrei. Mucor sp. should accelerate the growth with five other earthworms. Nevertheless, with Eisenia andrei M. circinelloides shows the opposite effect. What role do composting worms play besides the use as humus producer, fish bait and animal food? The compost worms Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei play an important role in the ecotoxicological assessment of compounds in soil and are the recommended OECD

earthworm test species. This species has been used to examine the relative toxicity and predict the short and long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm populations in field soil. The composting worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of three other species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, and Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is existing.

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