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Victoria, Queen of Christmas
Corrupting Crack
History in the Headlines p.8
History in Features p.8
Manchester Historian
Commercialising Christmas Shop fronts and Christmas Lights through History
What made the Herald Angels sing? The history of Christmas carolling Issue 11 December ‘13
Issue 11: December 2013
What’s Inside HISTORY IN THE HEADLINES
4...The Underbelly of Medieval Chivalry 5...Culture Shock
5...I Pay Road Tax
6...Corrupting Crack UNDISCOVERED HEROES OF HISTORY 7...Haddon Sunblom
HISTORY IN FEATURES
8...Victoria, Queen of Christmas 9...The Rise of Chanukah 9...Winter is Coming
10...How the Middle Ages Made Christmas 11...Trading on Tradition
12... Commercialising Christmas: Shop Windows
13... Commercialising Christmas: Christmas Lights 14... How do the Herald Angels Sing?
Check out our YouTube channel for extra content from History around Manchester.
14... The Unknown Lent 15... Eating Christmas
HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW BUT DON’T 16...The Partition of India 17...The Mongol Empire
HISTORY IN MANCHESTER
18...TEDx Salford 3.0 Review
Editors
Charlotte Johnson Alice Rigby
Head of Layout Head of Copy-Editing Head of Marketing Head of Online Web Editor
Caroline Hailstone Kieran Smith Michael Cass Cai Reach Jennifer Ho
Layout Team
Keir Forde Imogen Gordon Clark
Copy-Editing Team
Alexander Larkinson Hebe Thorne Helen Chapman Jacob Taylor Vidhur Prashar
Marketing Team
Amelia Fletcher-Jones Caroline Bishop Gemma Newton Rebecca Hennel-Smith Sarah King
Online Team
Sarah Long
19... Dior at the Costume Gallery A YEAR IN PHOTOS 20... 1943
HISTORY IN CULTURE
22... Fifty Years of Doctor Who HISTORY SOCIETY
23...Advice from the Peer Mentors 23...History Society Update HISTORY DEPARTMENT 24...Department Updates
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Issue 11: December 2013
A Note from the Editors Although we may be buried under a mountain of essays, dreading the thought of exams and dying from a medley of diseases, the debacle of the end of term does signal one good thing; Christmas is coming! In honour of this, we have devoted this issue to winter festivities, from the religious, to the pagan, to the downright commercial. Our writers have researched wintry revelry from all over the world; nonetheless, our features this issue begin with a nod to the truly British Christmas. What do Christmas trees, cards and crackers all have in common? Have a look at our article about the queen of Christmas to find out. We’ve thoroughly investigated the noble ritual of eating ourselves comatose on Christmas day, so this year feel free to help yourselves to that second portion. It’s research, right? Whether you turn the lights out to avoid them or wander your neighbourhood singing carols yourself. We haven’t forgotten the other thirty days of December though. Though many of your friends will have recently celebrated other winter traditions, your knowledge of these may be scratchy at best. The story of Chanukah, an exploration of paganism and the strange tale of winter fasting should enlighten us all to the fascinating history of frosty festivities. Once again, the commercialisation of Christmas has been deplored for months, thanks in no small way to Selfridges installing a Christmas department in August. We have studied the demise of Christmas, with an exposé into its gradual decent to degenerate marketable commodity. To counteract this gloom, you will find that this is a bumper picture edition of the Historian, with one page devoted to Christmas shop displays and another to Christmas lights. One of the legends of the modern Christmas is one we all know too well; that Coca Cola turned Santa Claus/Father Christmas from green to red. While this is not strictly true, our undiscovered hero for this month is the man who changed the perception of Father Christmas from skinny moral judge to big, bouncing and jolly – meet Haddon Sundblom. Do not despair though – we haven’t forgotten our regular features. We’ve gone behind a myriad of headlines this month, investigating everything from the connection between drugs and diplomacy to the mythical road tax. Our year in pictures is 1943; I urge you to take a look, as many of the events of that year are surprisingly unfamiliar to us. We’re still earnestly plugging the gaps in your historical knowledge, so if the partition of India or the Mongol Empire represent pastures unknown for you, our History You Should Know will be a great read this month. Finally, we’ve gone all cultural for a moment, with a review of everything from Tedx Salford to a Christian Dior exhibition to fifty glorious years of Doctor Who. We’d like to thank all those who took time out from the madness of the final few weeks of this term to contribute to this issue. Special thanks must go to our layout team, who, like Christmas elves, worked tirelessly around their deadlines to produce this issue. Enjoy and we wish you a very merry Christmas, Alice and Charlotte
Read it, write it The Manchester Historian is a growing magazine seeking writers studying a single or joint honours History degree to write articles, interviews and reviews with an historical slant to chronicle our vibrant and fast-changing world. No experience is necessary; we are simply looking for an interested and enthusiastic team of writers and contributors. We welcome article suggestions too, so whether you’d like to write it or not, please contact us at any time during the year with your ideas.
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History in the Headlines
The Underbelly of Medieval Chivalry Laura Robinson From Sir Lancelot du Lac of the Arthurian legend, to Jaime Lannister of Game of Thrones, history and popular culture alike are awash with knights. But is the truth of medieval chivalry hidden behind the romantic notions of knighthood we see on our screens and read in our books? If we look closer, perhaps we can find its dark underbelly; perhaps beneath their polished armour lies the typical ‘lad’ culture that is currently sweeping the nation’s universities. Knights have been associated with romance and seduction since the 12th century, and the Renaissance saw the increasing popularity of the literary chivalric romance genre. This saw knights wander the land to prove their military prowess in duels or woo noble women with their notions of courtly love. Robert Curthose, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, embodied this literary life in reality. He travelled across north-west Europe, fighting and leaving illegitimate children in his wake; hardly the embodiment of noble chivalry. Instead, his reluctance to settle down brings to mind the fecklessness of some of the so-called ‘lads’ of today’s society who actively seek out casual sex and avoid long-term relationships. While Curthose was kind and generous to the children he left behind, he has still been labelled a playboy for embracing this pleasureseeking lifestyle. Indeed, his father denounced his involvement in the hedonistic culture, and the only thing that saved his reputation was a demonstration of military prowess in the Holy Land. It was of course skill on the battlefield, whether real or during tournaments, that made men such as Curthose knights in the first place.
stands are a common occurrence after a night out clubbing. ‘Lad’ culture has also been linked with violence and this harkens back to the medieval ideals of masculinity; it is no coincidence that those knights who were most successful in violence were also the most revered. The jousts and tournaments that knights took part in were watched by cheering crowds which, of course, included women. While living up to the ideals of manhood, jousting knights were able to impress these ladies. They could embody both the victorious warrior and the romantic hero in one fell swoop, all the while wielding a lance adorned with the favour of his chosen lady. If a knight had mistreated a woman in some way, he would be publicly shamed at the start of a tournament and beaten by other knights. A recent investigation by the National Union of Students (NUS) concluded that sexual harassment and violence was encouraged by ‘lad’ culture. It has also frequently been claimed that ‘lad’ culture uses rape as humour through ‘lad banter’. While it was probably not termed banter in the Middle Ages, Sir Agravain at one point reportedly stated that, if given the chance with a host’s daughter, he would ‘make love to her right now’. This is apparently stated with no regard for said daughter’s wishes but rather the justification that her life and limbs would remain intact. This indifference for a woman’s wishes is perhaps why ‘lad’ culture nowadays is alarming; while it may not have reached this extreme level of violence, there are inevitably those who believe it may just be around the corner.
The image that springs to mind when thinking of a medieval However, compared to other Chivalry, by Frank Dicksee (1885). Wikimedia Commons knight is a handsome man reports of knightly practices, clad in shining armour who is Robert Curthose looks positively saintly. For example, Sir Agravain willing to risk life and limb to rescue his lady-love, his damsel in of the Arthurian legend has long been established as a morally distress, from all manner of danger. Perhaps for some he even corrupt knight who viewed women as objects. He also reportedly has Jaime Lannister’s face beneath his helm. When put side by considered the denial of sexual pleasure a loss to his honour. This side with today’s ‘lad’ culture, the two appear at first glance to be same attitude can be seen in the way that ‘lads’ mags’ objectify polar opposites. However, it may well be that upon closer inspection women and influence the ‘lad’ culture as a whole, wherein medieval knights, and therefore medieval chivalry, have a dark teenage boys are congratulated on having casual sex as if it is an underbelly, and perhaps this underbelly vaguely resembles the ‘lad’ achievement, or a rite of passage that they must complete. This culture of today. attitude can particularly be seen during university when one night
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Issue 10: November 2013
Culture Shock Stephan Fulham Despite convincingly winning the UK’s City of Culture 2017 award (sorry Leicester et al.), Hull’s new status was greeted online with widespread shock, derision, and a readiness to stereotype (Google still suggests ‘Worst Places to Live’ when searching for ‘Hull’). A cringe-worthy reference to the Housemartins from David Cameron at Prime Minister’s Questions prompted further media coverage, and the interesting revelation that FatBoy Slim was their bass player. A look through the papers the day after the announcement provided a shopping list of reasons to visit: with white phone boxes, rugby league, and a couple of bridges cropping up most frequently. Personally, having only heard of Hull as the birthplace of metaphysical poet Andrew Marvell and leading abolitionist William Wilberforce, chosen home of post-modernist Philip Larkin, and stomping ground of John Prescott, I was initially among the sceptics. But on closer inspection, Hull has a lot to offer, especially for historians.
linking to Northern Europe, Hull featured heavily in early wars against Scotland and was besieged by Charles I in the early stages of the English Civil War. Hull industrialised rapidly and became a centre for maritime industries, being bombed especially heavily for this reason during the Blitz, and following the ‘Cod Wars’ with Iceland in the 1970s, suffered as a result of deindustrialisation. But, as was the case across the country, deindustrialisation bred radicalism and cultural revolution against the establishment. Eventually core parts of the city were replaced as sites for new business and culture - like the old docks, as in Bristol and Liverpool. A new stadium for Hull AFC coincided with spells in the Premier League, with sporting success proving both a cultural and economic boon for the city.
Hull boasts an impressive museum quarter which focuses mainly on the city’s maritime history, with Wilberforce House as the centrepiece, but I think that an overview of the Hull’s wider history offers a better route to understanding the culture of the place. A strategic port Humber Bridge. Wikimedia Commons and stronghold in the north of England
But Hull, like many places tend to, will centre the City of Culture year on one of its most famous sons, Larkin, with the biggest event of the £15 million budget focused on his poetry. But there is something deeper about Hull’s bid which is reminiscent of the London Olympic bid, promoting the cultural diversity and welcoming nature of the city - which is certainly worth celebrating.
I Pay Road Tax Kathryn White It could be said that a war rages on the streets of Britain between cyclists and drivers. The myth of the ‘Road Tax’, which is in fact an emissions duty, and cars’ dominance on increasingly congested streets has caused a rivalry between the motorised and the pedalpowered. It is striking that this is a predominantly British problem. How can six cyclists die on the streets of London in one week but none in Paris for a whole year? The answer stretches further than the number of HGVs on the roads; it is the perception of cyclists and bicycle culture. Whilst the French are seen as more reckless drivers, they have a greater respect for their two-wheeled counterparts. This cycling culture is something Britain has always lacked even despite the recent so-called ‘Wiggo Effect’. For the French, alongside many other western European nations, the virtues of the bicycle were celebrated in the 19th century, whilst the British looked down on it as the working-man’s transport. Competitive cycling also began to take off on the continent with the birth of famous races such as Le Tour de France in 1903; meanwhile, the British Cyclists’ Union banned all road-racing. Cycling was an alien concept to the average Brit. Why torture yourself with a threeweek slog around the mountains of France when you could jog around a pitch for 90 minutes?
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The Dutch then sussed another of cycling’s best assets. Pedalling on its flat lands saved time and eased road traffic, not to mention benefitting the environment. Cycling took off and in the 1970s it reached levels not dissimilar to those in Britain today. However, casualties were so high that organisations such as ‘Stop de Kindermoord’ (‘stop the child murder’) campaigned extensively for better infrastructure. Their success helped create the Netherlands of today, as roads and towns were replanned to make way for their now Hulton Archives. Getty Images famous segregated bike paths. Despite the increasing popularity of cycling in Britain today, we still don’t feel the same as they do on the continent. What will it take to reverse our cultural dependence on the car and embrace the healthier, cheaper, more economic mode of transport? Are we merely waiting for our Dutch-style revolution? Just remember, it was the bicycle that dominated our roads first and in fact, we all pay for the roads, and we must all learn to co-operate on them.
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History in the Headlines
Corrupting Crack Vivienne Delliou-Daly Politicians are right to be frightened of the press barons; nothing sets Fleet Street alight quite like a political corruption scandal. Over the past few weeks the public has been bombarded with coverage of Paul Flowers, who resigned as chairman of the Co-operative Bank days before a £1.5bn capital shortfall came to light, prompting a party political showdown, with Tories as senior as George Osborne desperate to draw blood by stressing Labour’s financial relationship with the Co-operative Group. The initial scandal, however, seems to pale into insignificance when compared to the allegations of illicit drug dealing and political corruption that have followed Mr. Flowers since, all colourfully played out in the press. Some would say that this has been something of a treat. British corruption scandals in this day and age tend to lack the juice of their international counterparts. Recently, ex-minister Chris Huhne was scoffed at by Jeremy Paxman for making a rather self-aggrandising comparison between his own fall from grace and incarceration, which began over a speeding ticket, and the execution of Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII. Meanwhile Huhne’s ex-wife, Vicky Pryce, has published Prisonomics, and the book has given rise to widespread public debate about the criminal justice system, all of it stemming from that fateful speeding ticket. Of course, Scandal has also been rife across the pond. Recently the Mayor of Hampton, a small town in Bradford County, Florida, was arrested on drug charges, inspiring Sherriff Gordon Smith to declare, ‘This isn’t Toronto.’ According to Smith, Toronto Mayor Rob Ford has been making a mockery of the Canadian people with his lewd and disorderly behaviour. Ford admitted to smoking crack cocaine in one of ‘his drunken stupors’ and a video, depicting a heavily inebriated Ford violently threatening to kill an unidentified man, emerged soon after and quickly went viral. Such events have made Ford the butt of American late night jokes and one of the most sought after interview guests on American television. Unfortunately, this seems only to have encouraged Ford, who has since made salacious remarks about oral sex and his linked himself with prostitution, drunk driving and drug taking, all whilst remaining incumbent in his position.
a reference to the Chappaquiddick Incident, in which Mary Jo Kopechne, a female passenger of Kennedy’s, was killed when he accidentally drove his car off a bridge and then fled the scene. Although the incident was probably a major factor in influencing Kennedy not to run for the presidency of the United States in 1972 and 1976, neither national scandal nor jail time put a stop to Kennedy’s flourishing political career. At the time of his death in 2009, Kennedy was the second most senior member of the senate and the fourth longest serving senator in United States history, having served for almost 47 years. It’s difficult to say whether the existence of comic characters such as the dizzyingly corrupt Mayor Quimby indicates a public acceptance of some level of corruption amongst those who hold public office. However the domination, and continued veneration, of America’s so called ‘royal family’ in American politics throughout the twentieth century would suggest that this is in fact the case. Between 1947 when Jack Kennedy became a member of Congress until 2011 when Patrick J. Kennedy departed Congress, 64 years saw a Kennedy continually in elective office in Washington. Whether or not these kinds of corruption scandals have actually been normalised, Chris Huhne was at least right in identifying that the consequences of a political fall from grace are no longer as remarkable as they were in the past.
Perhaps surprisingly, Mr. Ford isn’t a particularly unique case. Public office has a long and treasured history of scandal and corruption. So long and treasured, indeed, that these ideas and characters have transcended news and seeped into popular culture. The concept is most famously, and lovingly, immortalised in the character of Mayor Joe Quimby – commonly known as ‘Diamond Joe’ – from The Simpsons. As Mayor of Springfield, Quimby spends the majority of his time administering bribes and trying to cover up his philandering ways. He is often cited as a parody of the late senator Ted Kennedy and there are a number of not-so-subtle parallels between the two men. Neglecting his mayoral duties, Quimby spends most of his time at his coastal estate, the Quimby Compound, which is not unlike the extravagant Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. In one episode, Quimby tries to bribe witnesses at the trial of his nephew, Freddy Quimby, who stands accused of assault; an allusion to the William Kennedy Smith rape trial in which Ted Kennedy was involved. Most famously Quimby yells, ‘you drive worse than Cousin Teddy’ at his chaotic driver;
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Undiscovered Heroes of History
Haddon Sundblom Ben Beach For many, the arrival of the festive season is marked by the annual re-emergence of a televisual advertising phenomenon which has captivated generations. Coca-Cola’s Christmas promotion has become synonymous with the spread of merry cheer; the familiar sight of red trucks adorned with spellbinding luminosities weaving into view signals the commencement of what is for many the most joyful time of the year. Festooned upon these glowing wagons are images of a white-bearded, red-suited, jolly old Saint Nicholas - an iconic image which has come to define the modern Santa Claus. The man responsible for this was Haddon Sundblom. Born in 1899, in Muskegon, Michigan, Sundblom – known as ‘Sunny’ – would go on to arguably define 20th century advertising illustration. Raised in a Swedish speaking family, with his nine elder siblings, Sundblom dropped out of school at just thirteen in order to help provide for the family following his mother’s premature death. Despite a difficult adolescence Sundblom persevered and continued to educate himself. Years of night school study at the Chicago Art Institute would lead to admission to the American Academy of Art. Formation of his own advertising agency, along with two contemporaries in 1925, resulted in Sundblom boasting a client list which included the likes of Palmolive, Maxwell House, Goodyear Tires, and Whitman Chocolates – Sundblom’s work was splendidly received in what was a golden age of poster and billboard advertising in the United States. However, it was his work with The Coca-Cola Company in the 1930’s which would come to make him a household name in American advertising.
Christmas: the 16th century figure was epitomised as a bearer of gifts and an emblem of merriment and delight. Sundblom succeeded in marrying earlier conceptions and influences to create a universal interpretation of the magical Santa Claus. Indeed, it is easy for Sundblom to be branded as the Coca-Cola painter, but this trivialises his standing in 20th century advertising art. His work arguably defined the American Dream in pictures, shown by his work for almost all the Fortune 500, America’s largest corporations. Inmany circles he is known simply as ‘the greatest advertising illustrator of them all’. Moreover, Sundblom would display his racier side, his Santa portraits were often punctuated with paintings of pin-ups and glamour pieces for calendars; today he is recognised as a major influence for pin-up artists. One of Sundblom’s final assignments, in 1972, four years before his death, was a front-cover painting for Playboy’s Christmas issue; the Santa painter had demonstrated the true range of his talents. Nonetheless, it is Sundblom’s Christmas imagery that arguably defines him. Initially, the Coca-Cola Santa’s cheerful face was modelled upon Sundblom’s friend, a retired salesman bythe name Lou Prentiss. However, after Prentiss’ death, Sundblom would use his own face as the ongoing reference for his contemporary portrayals. Sundblom remarked that he felt the wrinkles upon his Santa’s face were ‘happy wrinkles’ – perhaps offering an insight into the man who continued to work, and insert magic into the holiday season, even in his twilight years.
Clement Clarke Moore’s 1822 poem, ‘A Visit from St. Nicolas’ – more commonly known as ‘Twas the Night Before Christmas’ would provide the description to which Sundblom woulddesign his Santa Claus upon. Moore’s depiction of Saint Nicholas was a humanising process; a drawing of a warm, friendly and pleasantly plump figure was produced. Sundblom conceived this concept in a visual form; the portrayal of a wholesome, gentle, loving grandfather emanated from his illustrations.
The adage that ‘Coca-Cola invented Christmas’ is one that is contested and reiterated in equalmeasure in an age of commercial focus over religious appreciation. However, it is undeniablethat for millions, the company’s Christmas message has become a staple of the festive period.The world over, children and parents can be found equally transfixed by the arrival upon theirtelevision sets of those florescent articulated Lorries, with the declaration that ‘holidays are comin’’. The endearing face, which is adored and idolised the world over, embroidered upon the red wagons of This was a stark contrast to historical incarnations of an awe is 82-years-old this winter. Haddon Sundblom’s modern-day elderly, stately and serious man that had appeared in Dutch St. Nicholas has proven, in accordance with popular belief, to be and Scandinavian folklore since the 18th century. However, immortal – and as a result, Sundblom’s place as the most famous Sundblom’s Santa is more reminiscent of the English Father advertising icon in history may well be too.
The Coca Cola Company
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History in Features
Victoria: Queen of Christmas Becky Hennell-Smith Christmas time, a wondrous time that means to most people happiness and celebration with family and friends. But where did it all begin? The lavishly decorated Christmas trees, intricate Christmas cards and cheesy Christmas crackers are a fairly new phenomenon, and we have Queen Victoria and her fellow Victorians to thank for their popularity during this festive period. At the start of the 19th Century, Christmas was not that widely celebrated and in many professions it was not even considered to be worthy of a holiday. However, towards the end of the century, Christmas had become the biggest annual celebration in Britain and Queen Victoria was right at the heart of it all. Although Midwinter festivals have been celebrated for thousands of years, with the birth of Christianity traditional pagan rituals influenced new Christmas celebrations. One such Pagan tradition which survived was the decking of homes and churches, with a branch of evergreen tree like holly or ivy. This was the closest we Brits got to a Christmas tree before the turn of the 19th century, and it was only through the German influence of Victoria’s husband Prince Albert that they became popular. In 1841, Albert ordered a tree to be brought over from Germany which he decorated and installed in Windsor Castle. By 1848, the Illustrated London News printed a picture of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert decorating their tree. Prince Albert also commissioned decorated trees to be sent into local schools and Army Barracks throughout Windsor. Although Prince Albert was the first to publically adopt the German idea of the Christmas tree, Victoria had also enjoyed Christmas
traditions for many years during her childhood. Influenced by her German grandmother Queen Charlotte, Victoria’s love of Christmas stemmed from decorating trees and receiving gifts, which she described with much enthusiasm and enjoyment in her diary. These traditions were soon adopted in a progressive Britain. Decorations such as candles adorned trees during this period, often used as a symbol to remind children that stars could be seen in the night sky when Jesus was born. The use of candles on Victorian Christmas trees ultimately led the way to the electric lights that we decorate our trees with today. Sweets and cakes were also hung from the tree by colourful ribbon, a tradition that is emulated today through milk chocolates wrapped in foil. 1880 saw Woolworths sell the first manufactured Christmas tree ornaments, which has been carried through to the present day with the custom of hanging baubles and other decorations on the tree. Decorating a Christmas tree seems like a perfectly normal Christmas tradition in the modern period, all thanks to the influence and popularity of the monarchy, and the significance of the Christmas tree as part of the Victorian Christmas. Another popular Christmas tradition in Britain is the sending and receiving of Christmas cards during the festive period. The introduction of ‘Penny Post’ to Britain in 1840 meant that one penny would pay for a stamp to send a card anywhere in Britain. Sir Henry Cole capitalised on the idea of ‘Penny Post’ and in 1843, he commissioned an artist to design one thousand Christmas cards to be sold in his art shop in London. At one shilling a card they were considered fairly pricey for Victorians at this time, however the sentiment of sending cards caught on and children were encouraged to design and make their own. This included Queen Victoria’s own children, and so the tradition of sending and receiving Christmas cards was born. The popularity of the Christmas card tradition was cemented by the introduction of ‘halfpenny post’ in 1870, which ultimately made sending cards more affordable. In addition to cheaper postage, industrialisation and advances in printing technology meant colour prints could be mass produced at low cost. By the Twentieth century the affordability of postage and advances in printing technology helped establish the tradition of sending Christmas cards that we enjoy today. Many factors influence the way we celebrate Christmas today, advertising and marketing has a huge role in the modern Christmas but it is fair to say that Queen Victoria and her family were hugely instrumental in shaping our Christmas traditions during the 19th century. Her love for all things Christmassy has contributed heavily to the way in which we enjoy Christmas today, truly defining her as the Queen of the traditional British Christmas which we all know and love and if we are honest can’t wait for. Roll on the 25th December for lots of festive fun.
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Issue 11: December 2013
The Rise of Chanukah Corinne Abrahams Chanukah has long been seen as the Jewish equivalent of Christmas, due to being at the same time of year, also involving the giving and receiving of gifts and through TV shows like the O.C. which gave birth to the super-festival that is Christmukkah (Thank you to Seth Cohen!). Chanukah - for those of you who haven’t been lucky enough to see the Rugrats Chanukah movie - is the Jewish festival of light. It lasts for eight days and commemorates the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem after the revolt by the Maccabees against Alexander the Great in the 2nd century BCE. It also involves a Menorah, which is lit every night to remember the miracle of the oil that lasted eight days.
America; the land of Disney has taken Chanukah to another level. You only need to search YouTube to find an array of crazy videos, from a Rock of Ages parody of the Chanukah story to a charity campaign publicity stunt in New York playing on the festive concept of sharing light. The White House itself has a long tradition of celebrating Chanukah, beginning in 1951 when Israeli Prime Minister David President Harry Truman receiving the Ben-Gurion presented Menorah from the Israeli Prime Minister, President Truman with a David Ben-Gurion. Wikimedia Commons Menorah. In more recent years President Obama has hosted a Chanukah celebration and lit a Menorah that survived Hurricane Katrina.
However this story which I was told year after year throughout my childhood seems to have little resonance in the Chanukah of today. Both Christmas and Chanukah, in their modern day forms, have undergone drastic changes since their origins. As time has gone by, the traditions have altered and the story of the festival of lights has become secondary to the consumer influences of the holiday season. Where previously Chanukah would be commemorated by lighting a Menorah, eating oily food and the traditional giving of gelt (money), the twentieth century saw the evolution of Chanukah Chanukah can be seen to have evolved from a nationalist celebration into the Jewish Christmas, as gelt was replaced by gifts and with humble traditions to a rival of Christmas. The festival of lights is now celebrated as a hybrid model, linking traditional practices to consumerism became the new focus of the festival. the ever prevalent consumer culture of today’s society. However, I No place is it truer that Chanukah is a Christmas competitor than in wish you all a very Merry Christmukkah!
Winter is Coming Tom Oliver Christmas is a celebration that needs no introduction. It has been a Christian celebration since the 4th century in ancient Rome, and is now such a global phenomenon that it is more or less a secular celebration. However humans across the globe have been celebrating the winter solstice (shortest day of the year) for several thousands of years, and Christmas is a continuation of these festivities.
brought over include the Yuletide log, Yuletide singing and so forth. Another common carryover is the Christmas tree itself, which has a number of potential origins but was a key feature in pagan worship before the spread of Christianity, so it is very possible that such a use A well-known example is the Roman Saturnalia, in the name of of the tree was borrowed from the Saturn, or Bacchus if you prefer the Greek name. During Saturnalia Slavic or Romuva faiths. the conventions of the Romans were turned upside down; gambling was legalised, masters waited on their slaves. All the while candles Why are there so many examples were lit to celebrate light as it started to diminish up until the solstice. of various cultures and religions Didsbury Life Wordpress Related to this is an older observance called Brumalia, which is the observing the Winter Solstice? For same festival but lasting for a month, and wass described as being ancient cultures, the winter solstice was a major event. Not only full of ‘drinking and merriment’ although the details are lost for the was the world colder, the days were shorter and famine was a real most part thanks to repression by the Roman Catholic Church. problem, and so the natural response was to find answers and solace with friends and family. This is why amongst almost every Further over to Pagan Eastern Europe, there are even more winter Solstice observation there are common themes: a large variations of this popular trend, some of which have found their way feast, gifts and celebrations to commemorate that once again the into our contemporary Christmas celebrations. The most striking is worst of winter has passed, and a new year begins again. The the celebration of Yule, which was observed by the Finnish and threat of winter is greatly diminished, but the culture surrounding Germanic pagans but then added into their Christmas celebrations the solstice lives on. once they had been converted to Christianity. The traditions that they @TheMCRHistorian
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History in Features
How the Middle Ages Made Christmas James Brannan With regards to the Christmas feast, your social status determined the types of food and drink which you would be enjoying at this time of the year. Goose was the staple equivalent of turkey for the wealthy, as the latter wasn’t introduced to England from America until the sixteenth century. Surprisingly, those at the opposite end of the social scale didn’t do without meat either at Christmas, as they enjoyed bacon, salted beef or mutton, with some lucky families In this period, the church orchestrated the primary celebrations, even enjoying the fruits of their lord’s Christmas feast through the centralising them to the anniversary of the birth of Christ. Yet as popular Christmas act of charity. the actual date of Jesus’ birth was never recorded in scripture, the date of the ancient winter solstice, the 25th December, was chosen Another popular festive foodstuff, the mince pie, (so called because as this was a significant date of celebration in the Roman calendar. they originally contained shredded or minced meat) was enjoyed in the middle ages, and was representative of the Christmas story The annual tradition of carolling celebrates the frivolities of by being of an oblong shape to represent Jesus’ crib. They also Christmas through song which is spread around the neighbourhood contained three spices, commonly cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg, and encompasses a long standing history, deriving as far back as to represent the gifts presented to Jesus by the ‘Three Wise Men’. the thirteenth century. In this period, carol singing was undertaken solely in the church at Christmas time with the word ‘carol’ being Aside from the recognisable traits of Christmas traditions during taken literally, as an act of singing and dancing in a circle. Over time the middle ages, many of their festive activities are now absent however, the yearly ritual became so disruptive to the services of from modern day celebrations. Such traditions include the annual the church that they were ordered onto the street to perform for their ‘Beating of the Children’ or ‘Holy Innocents Day’ of the 28th December, when, in remembrance of King Herod’s ordering of all neighbours friends and neighbours. children under two years old to be killed in the story of the birth of Jesus, children were beaten. The Although the traditional ideologies day became connotative of bad of Christmas have been heavily luck, with Edward IV even refusing overshadowed by consumerism over to be crowned on this day. the past two centuries, the idea of gift giving was very rarely seen in More local Christmas traditions the Middle Ages, especially where also grew out of this period, as Christmas Day was concerned. Of seen in villages such as Haxey in course, as the act of passing on gifts North Lincolnshire with their festive at Christmas is reflective of the story activity of the ‘Haxey Hood’, a of the nativity, with visitors such as the rugby-like game in which teams Three Wise Men presenting gifts to have to transport a leather tube baby Jesus, the origins do stretch back called a ‘hood’ to one of four pubs, to the period where the celebrations of where it remained until the following Christmas were formed. Yet instead of year’s game. presents on the 25th December, feasts took the place of gifts. As we enjoy this year’s festivities, then, we should not forget the However, a Roman tradition of the origins of our favourite Christmas ‘new year’s gift’ was enjoyed by all in traditions that were formed in and the Middle Ages, yet these ‘gifts’ were around the Middle Ages. After all, mainly superstitious, such as wishing without the warm comforts of the your friends and neighbours luck and mince pie or the uplifting tones of success for the forthcoming year, and our favourite Christmas carols, it is the defining of the modern tradition of not hard to imagine that one of our ‘first-footing’, where the first person to favourite holidays of the year would step foot into your house in the new be barely recognisable to us. year defined your families fortunes for it. pingnews.com ‘Christmas’, the term that conjures imagery of celebration and excess, derives from ‘Christes Maesse’, an Anglo-Saxon phrase first recorded in 1038, meaning the ‘mass’ or ‘festival’ of Christ. Although perhaps in the modern era the true nature of the holiday has been bypassed through its commercialisation, this was certainly not the case in the Middle-Ages.
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Issue 11: December 2013
Trading on Tradition James Eatwell and Michael Cass It is estimated that this year Britons will spend around £80 billion over the festive period. This is a far cry from the origins of Christmas. The custom of observing Christmas on the 25th December began around the 4th century AD, and remains an important date in the Christian calendar. However, from around the mid-19th century the glad tidings and good nature of Yuletide began to be exploited by those with a profit-seeking motive. Christmas trees, dating back to early-modern Germany, were first seen in Britain from the early 1800s, a trend in fact led by the British royal family, with their strong Germanic links. Indeed, in her Christmas Eve journal of 1832 Princess (later Queen) Victoria mentions the placing of presents below the tree. Meanwhile, the first commercial Christmas cards were commissioned by civil servant Sir Henry Cole in 1843, featuring a family drinking wine. At first the price tag was too much for ordinary Victorians, but as times progressed they became increasingly popular, and in 1880 11.5 million Christmas cards were being made. Presents had traditionally been given in Britain to mark the New Year, but the ever-increasing popularity of the Christmas period meant that this practise was brought forward to match up to the holiday. At the same time, the characters of St. Nicholas and Father Christmas were merged and developed, becoming a very prominent figure. St. Nicholas was a 4th century Greek saint who had a reputation for secret gift giving, such as putting gold in the shoes people left out for him. Similarly, the Low Country ‘Sinterklaas’, a key progenitor of the modern image and notion of Santa Claus, put presents in shoes. Meanwhile, Father Christmas had been a traditional figure representing Christmas in Britain, portrayed as a venerable, kindly old gentleman given to good cheer, but not to excess. This was a personification of the period’s festive celebrations.
to oppose the secularisation and commercialisation of Christmas, branding it an irreligious festival of capitalism. However, despite such efforts, Christmas has become an irrepressible force. As commerce has developed and prosperity increased, it has become clear that the Christmas period was a godsend to capitalists. The Christian underpinnings of the festival provide a perfect marketing message: the family values, spirit of giving and the general positivity of the holiday can be repackaged and presented as a subconscious reason to spend. This was recognised by President Roosevelt as early as 1939, when the date of Thanksgiving was moved forward to allow for a longer Christmas shopping season, crucial to the revival of the still flagging US economy. To this day, Christmas spending provides a massive boon to the economy, and its commercialisation continues to grow. Christmas advertising is also now big business. A generation of children associate Christmas television with ‘that’ Coca-Cola advert, and this year John Lewis are spending £7m on their Christmas advertising campaign, which got its first showing during an X Factor commercial break. In addition, Sky and M&S have invested heavily in Christmas TV advertising this year. Now that many large UK-based companies are wading into the battle for TV airtime and the hearts and minds of the British general public, we have decided to draw up a 5-point plan for making a successful Christmas advert: 1. A dramatic song. Preferably a low-key cover version of a well known hit. See Lily Allen’s cover of Keane’s ‘Somewhere Only We Know’.
The giving of gifts grew and grew, and had soon begun to draw criticism. In 1890, the American Ladies’ Home Journal denounced it as a ‘festival for shopkeepers’. More recently, in the 1950s a group of French priests decided to burn an effigy of the ‘heretic’ Santa Claus, the commercial, secular figurehead of a once Christian celebration. Christian Father Christmas arrives at Selfridges by parcel post, with Mickey Mouse, 1935. lobbyists and groups continue Daily Herald Archive @TheMCRHistorian
2. Tug at the heartstrings. Take a leaf out of John Lewis, Sky and Coca Cola’s book and get some soppiness in there. 3. Winter wonderland-type setting. Goes without saying. 4. A recurring theme. Many of this year’s big Christmas advert players are sticking broadly to last year’s themes. 5. A happy ending. Whether it be a community, a family, or a relationship all of 2013’s most prominent Christmas adverts feature an ending in good, festive spirits.
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History in Features
Commercialising Christmas: Shop Windows
Alex Hulmes
R. H. Macy’s department store, New York. Christmas 1910. Bain Collection/Library of Congress
Lord and Taylor’s department store, New York. Christmas 1946. State Archives of North Carolina/Flickr
Marshall Field & Company department store, Chicago. Christmas 1951. National Museum of American History, courtesy of Macy’s
Callers department store, Newcastle. Christmas 1964. Tyne & Wear Archives and Museums/Flickr
Binns department store, Newcastle. Christmas 1966. Tyne & Wear Archives and Museums/Flickr
Fenwick department store, Newcastle. Christmas 1988. Newcastle Library/BBC
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Commercialising Christmas: Regent Street Lights
Charlotte Johnson and Alice Rigby
1959: The Regent Street Association first decorated the street with Christmas trees lights in 1954 after the Daily Telegraph reported that London looked 'drab' at Christmas. Bettman, Corbis
1960: As the afternoons descend into darkness in early November, the lights of central London are switched on and hang brightly above shoppers’ heads. Henry Grant Collection, Museum of London
1961: The lights of London resembling baubles in the ‘60s. George Freston, Fox Photos, Getty Images
1970: The designs became more elaborate each year until the cost of creating the spectacle became prohibitive, as a result there were no lights from 1971 to 1977. London Metropolitan Archives
1997: The Christmas lights were reintroduced in 1978 with financial support from the retailers in Regent Street. The reality of commercial sponsorship is clear in ’97. Louis Macdonnell
2012: The sponsorship of film companies has been a familiar sight since the early noughties. Vene Grant
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History in Features
What Made the Herald Angels Sing? Megan Dina Garlick Although Christmas Carolling may be a dwindling practice, its history is rich and plenty. Today it is less common to hear carollers singing outside your door between the 21st December and Christmas morning. However it is guaranteed that you will hear all the favourites - ‘Hark! The Herald Angels Sing’, ‘God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen’ and ‘Oh Holy Night’ - erupting from the doors of your local church during carol service. Christmas carols remain one of the lasting religious features of the modern day Christmas, even if heard through speakers rather than a group of festive singers outside your door. The first carols that we know of appeared in fourth century Rome. Ambrose, the Archbishop of Milan wrote the Latin hymn ‘Veni Redemptop Gentium’ as a solemn statement about the Incarnation. The evolution of carols from sombre theological lessons into medieval liturgical songs happened naturally as worship became centred around church and community. However even strongly religious medieval carolling was not austere enough for Oliver Cromwell. Carolling became an underground practice when Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans had power over England in the 17th century. Cromwell believed Christmas should be a sombre time, rather than a celebration and banned carolling. Following Cromwell, carols were looked to as a way of expressing Christmas cheer, and the custom of carol services and street singing became established. Written Christmas carols first appeared in English in the 1426
work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire Chaplain who documented twenty five ‘Caroles of Cristemas’, a collection which would most likely have been sung by groups of wassailers (carol singers) travelling from house to house. The classics we know today were initially songs sung by communities around Christmas and other celebratory times, such as harvest tide. Wassailers would sing to their neighbours and friends, wishing them good fortune, and hoping for good tidings and gifts in return, hence ‘please bring us some figgy pudding’. The Reformation saw carols increase in popularity. Wikimedia Commons Luther himself created carols, and the practice of singing as a form of worship was warmly welcomed and encouraged. To this day carolling is a religious Christmas institution that is dwindling. The secularization of many Christmas tunes we enjoy today may mean that the religious content of carols will decrease, however, as History shows, the joy of Christmas carolling is withstanding.
The Unknown Lent Alice Rigby Although most of us are aware of the tradition, and some give a nodof penitence towards it, very few of us participate in the lent fast. However, it would be even harder to imagine giving up the mince pies, advent calendars and hearty winter meals we indulge in over December. For medieval Britons marking St Martin’s Fast, this would have been all too real an experience.
it was often used to enjoy the produce that was ripe for harvesting, before the shortfalls of winter set in. Goose was the symbol of St Martin, supposedly due to a slightly bizarre legend involving Martin himself hiding in a goose pen.
The ‘other’ lent consists of 40 days of fasting before giving thanks for the birth of Christ on Christmas day. The first mention of this practice in the western church can be found in scriptures from the 4th century, though it is likely that it was observed before then. The Quadragesima Sancti Martini (40 days of St Martin) was not as strict a fast as the lent fast. Most worshippers would have taken a break for Gaudete Sunday, which is marked between the 11th and 17th of December. I
However, November was also the slaughtering season for geese andso the goose as a centrepiece of the feast would have had as much to do with practicality as with symbolism. One of the other, more likely, food legends surrounding St Martin of Tours was that he introduced the Chenin Blanc grape variety and so, in France at least,the feast also marked the end of the viticulture of this grape which would certainly have helped the celebratory atmosphere. It was during this period that the church increasingly shortened the fast’s duration and eventually the 24 days of advent were widely adopted in place of the 40 days of St Martin’s Fast.
t was in the medieval period that St Martin’s Fast became a widespread tradition. This was helped in no small way by the extravagance of the November 11th St Martin’s Eve celebrations thathailed the fast as it arrived. Martinmas was marked with extravagant feasts, even by the peasantry. As it coincided with the end of autumn and the beginning of winter,
Rather than require a fast, the Catholic Church now marks the period through penitence. Despite this, the fast that precedes Christmas hasn’t completely disappeared. Eastern Orthodox churches still fast for varying periods before the nativity, so spare a thought for their members as you pop the chocolate out of your advent calendar overthe next couple of weeks.
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Eating Christmas Jack Crutcher to the consistency of a modern day bowl of porridge. The traditional ingredients of frumenty were similar to those used for its modern protégé - with beef, mutton, raisins, currents, prunes, spices and wine all in the mix. Ironically it was eaten as a fasting meal in preparation for the Christmas period. By 1595 frumenty was slowly changing into a pudding - thickened with eggs and breadcrumbs and with dried fruit helping to add that famous sweeter edge. By 1650 it was established as a Christmas desert, but banned soon after by Puritans who saw it as ‘poor custom’. Thankfully by 1714 King George liked it so much he ordered its reestablishment - And by the Victorian era the Christmas pudding began to resemble the What better place to start than with the centrepiece of any Christmas desert we know and love today. dinner, the turkey! Before Britain adopted the turkey, a peacock, boar or goose was the centrepiece of their Christmas feast. But Yule logs are perhaps not as universally popular as the turkey or in 1526 William Strickland managed to get six turkeys imported the Christmas pudding, but remain a proud and popular addition to from America. Thanks to the efforts of these original six the turkey many dining tables at Christmas. Originally the Yule log was not even established itself as a more practical, tasty and cheaper alternative. edible. The Celts believed that for the last twelve days in December Despite this, it was not until the 1940s that the turkey over took the the sun stood still. If a log was kept burning for these 12 days they goose as the most popular choice for the British Christmas table. thought the sun would move again and hence the days would grow And by the start of this century over 87% of British families chose longer, which was good for their crops. However seeing as Celts a turkey at Christmas. Turkey remains a relatively cheap meat and were generally pagans it is fair to say the Yule log went through can feed the whole family. Perhaps more importantly, roast potatoes, somewhat of a transformation. For Christians all over Europe the Yorkshire puddings, Brussels sprouts and stuffing all combine with Yule log symbolised the fire in the stable where Jesus was born. turkey perfectly! Christmas and the turkey has been a match made Every Christmas Eve a log would be decorated with ribbons and dragged back to the fireplace where it would be blessed and set in heaven. alight. ‘Bringing in the Yule log’ became an activity associated with Another essential part of any Christmas feast is the pudding, which harbouring good luck for the coming year. In modern Britain the Yule has a much stronger historical tie with Britain than the turkey. The log is simply a cake shaped like a log... perhaps more practical for Christmas Pudding originated in 14th century England not as a those suburban dwellers amongst us. pudding at all. Originally it was known as ‘frumenty’ and was similar Finally we have the Mince pie! The one Christmas food you can get away with eating before Christmas day. And much like the Christmas pudding, it seems our modernday sweet tooth, coupled with an international influence, has seen it transformed. Historically the mince pie was a huge dish filled with rabbit, ox, hare and pigeon meat amongst others - and was known as the Christmas Pye. However during the medieval crusades spices from the Middle East were added to the Pye and eventually replaced the meat entirely. Oliver Cromwell banned them during his reign, but they were soon reintroduced and made smaller so they could be served to individual guests at dinner parties. The Wayfarer Pie as they were formally known has stayed with us ever since. Most of us love the presents, the seasonal films, the chance to spend time with family and friends. But for millions across Britain one of the most thrilling parts of the Christmas festivities takes place long after the presents have been opened. Christmas Dinner! Food at Christmas is a long, global and often surprising tradition and has become a staple part of our Christmas celebrations. There is truly no better cure for the stress of a Christmas Eve visit to the Arndale than a big roast turkey and stuffing or Christmas pudding and brandy sauce. But it turns out Christmas dinner does not just taste great, it also hides an enthralling history.
Eating Christmas, Carl Larsson. Wikimedia Commons
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History You Should Know
The Partition of India Steven Wears Often described as the jewel in the crown of the British Empire, India occupied a special place in the imperial psyche. Direct rule from London began in 1858 as a result of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the rule of the British East India Company. British influence in the subcontinent began much earlier. Although the Company had initially gained its foothold in India in the early 17th century it was not until the turn of the 19th century that period of territorial expansion lasting two decades substantially increased its influence. The rebellion, although caused by a number of grievances, was essentially sparked by a Company failure to understand the cultural and religious practices of Indian soldiers. The rebellion would ultimately cause the downfall of the East India Company and the transfer of power to the Crown. This began the system of government known as the Raj. The position of the governor-general was replaced by the Viceroy who acted as the representative of the reigning monarch. Queen Victoria and her heirs subsequently assumed the title Empress or Emperor of India in 1876, the last of which to use the title King-Emperor being George VI, our present Queen’s father. The British Raj would last from 1858 until August 1947, upon which date India and Pakistan would achieve independence from the British Empire. The exact form an independent India would take was subject to much debate in the preceding months, with Viceroy Mountbatten preferring a united India against the arguments of Muhammad Ali Jinnah advocating the creation of a Muslim state of Pakistan.
a scramble for positions of power and influence by politicians and other parties ensued. To prevent a slide into potential anarchy the date was b r o u g h t forward by ten months and independence was granted at midnight on the 14th August 1947. The creation of the two new states set in The old fort of Purana Kila was converted into a motion a great refugee camp for Muslims waiting to be transported migration of into Pakistan. Wikimedia Commons more than 14 million people who found themselves living on the wrong side of the border. Over 7.2 million Muslims travelled across the border into Pakistan while roughly the same number of Sikhs and Hindus journeyed in the opposite direction seeking to settle in Indian controlled Punjab. The division of India and Pakistan along what became known as the Radcliffe line was not as neat or clean cut as Jinnah had expected and thus left one third of the Muslim population of the former British India remaining in India. This mass migration turned into a bloody and panic stricken event in which more than half a million people lost their lives.
By 1946 it was becoming clear that British rule in India was slipping away. The summer of 1946 was marred by communal riots and massacres in Calcutta which soon began to spread through Bengal and beyond. India no longer held the same importance to the British as it had done in previous decades save for a romantic attachment, or even obsession still harboured by many British Conservatives. With the looming prospect of independence, violence began to increase fears and rivalries stemming from the problem of the distribution of power. With the dominance of the Raj diminishing, the Muslim community in India began to fear Soon after independence India and Pakistan opted to become members of the Commonwealth of Nations, Pakistan later being domination by the Hindu majority. suspended from the organisation between 1999 and 2004 The process of granting independence to India and Pakistan following a coup d’état. In the decades following partition and became known as the Mountbatten Plan, or the 3rd of June Plan; independence India and Pakistan have had a fraught relationship. this was the name given to agreement reached by representatives Continuing border disputes, most notably in Kashmir, have brought of the Indian National Congress, the Sikh Community, the Muslim the two countries to war four times between the first in 1947 and League and the Viceroy. The agreement formed the basis of the the last in 1999. Both countries have developed nuclear weapons Indian independence Act of 1947 which created the two new much to the consternation of the international community. dominions of India and Pakistan. On the instruction of the Atlee government in London independence was to be achieved swiftly. The reverberations of the partition of the former British India A date was set by which an agreement was to be made, without are still being felt across the region to the present day. Border which Prime Minister Clement Atlee believed that there would be disputes, terrorism and mutual suspicion continue to mar the endless procrastination around the issue. Lord Mountbatten set relationship between the two nations. the date for agreement at June 1948. Once the date had been set
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History You Should Know
The Mongol Empire Alex Larkinson After being abandoned by his own tribe and left to live in poverty with just his mother and brothers, it seemed unlikely that Genghis Khan would even survive, let alone flourish. Yet it was less than twenty years later when he became the sole ruler of the Mongol plains, having managed to subdue – through a combination of tactical acumen, military skill, and sheer ruthlessness – the numerous warring tribes of the region.
from slaughter, provided they pledged undying allegiance to him. The Mongols’ attitude of religious tolerance also spared countries from conflict between sects jostling for Mongol patronage.
Though Khan would die in contested circumstances in 1227 – illness or wounds sustained in combat as two of the more plausible possibilities – his work in reorganising and unifying the Mongols, revamping their laws, and establishing their military conduct This was the beginning of the Mongol Empire; the largest unified ensured their expansion could continue until around 1260. land empire in the history of the world. By Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, it stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea, China, the Middle East, Central Europe: none were safe from which considering his expansion had begun only twenty years the Mongol tide. By the time their conquests had finally ground before, was a conquest unprecedented in both speed and scope. to a halt, as disunity amongst the Mongols themselves created Prior to the Mongol invasion, Eurasia was a divided continent, civil war, the Mongol Empire encompassed around a quarter of split between dozens of tribes and empires. This resulted in the world’s population. It had established transcontinental trade constant conflict which laid the path open for a strong leader routes such as the reconstructed Silk Road, and had brought a with a unified army to take control. Central Asia was the first to degree of relative stability to the regions it controlled. experience the devastation of the Mongol conquests. With a force exceeding 100,000 people, Genghis Khan tore through the Yet the cost in lives had also been great. The Mongols, for all their disparate territories and brought them under his mastery. sophistication in empire building and warfare, had not conquered such territory without extreme bloodshed. Some estimates put the By the end of these first conquests, the Mongol reputation for number of casualties at thirty million; for others, the death toll was military prowess and brutality was emphatically established. The twice that. Asia and Europe had experienced the most brutal of obliteration of the Khwarezmid Empire, which covered much of expansions. the Middle East, provided the most pertinent example. Genghis Khan had initially tried to ally himself with the Sultan of the empire. Genghis Khan brought the Mongols from obscurity to obscene Yet the Sultan, perhaps insulted by the superior tone of Genghis’s power. A potent mix of barbarism, martial skill and survivalist address, responded by executing the heads of the Khan’s peace cunning, they were a force like nothing the world had ever seen. delegation. Despite not being their only leader, Khan is by far their most notorious. Genghis Khan had put the Mongols on the map. The result was an invasion that within two years had completely destroyed the Khwarezmid Empire. ‘They came, mined, burnt, killed, plundered and left’, was the description of one refugee. Terror was the Mongols’ most potent weapon; those who resisted in any way were massacred. The governor of the city of Otrar, which had withstood the Mongol onslaught for five months, was brought before Genghis Khan to have molten silver poured into his eyes and ears. Other cities did not hold as long. The Mongols’ reputation as merciless warriors was well-established, and as Genghis Khan himself declared, ‘walls are as strong as the courage of their defenders’. In the face of a leader who employed tactics such as beheading prisoners who were taller than the wagon wheel they were made to march next to, many people saw their courage fail them. Samarkand was one such city. Expected to hold out for a year due to its mighty stone walls, it lasted just three days. Even defection was not an option, as the thirty thousand Turkish soldiers guarding the city discovered when they attempted to join the Mongols and turn on Samarkand. Khan had them all executed. Loyalty was an integral part of the Mongol structure. Genghis Khan also showed shrewdness – skilled men Ghenghis Khan entering Beijing during the siege of the city in 1213-14. Wikimedia such as artisans and labourers were often spared Commons
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TEDx Salford 3.0 Review Kyriaki Protopapa It was with a piqued imagination and a tantalizing curiosity that I walked up the pathway towards the beautiful Lowry complex and into the ravishing Lyric Theater on the morning of Sunday the 10th of November to attend the third annual TEDxSalford! True to the TED spirit that is devoted to ‘ideas worth spreading’, it proved a stimulating and thought provoking conference, with attendees calling it ‘the ultimate brain spa’ and ‘a journey into the future’. TED is a global foundation that started in 1984, aiming to bring together some of the world’s leading thinkers and doers of any discipline that wanted to share their passion about science, arts, politics, global issues, media, architecture, music and much more. The TED conference takes place annually in Long Beach, California and it has so far hosted a range of renowned speakers, from Bill Gates to former UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Officially licensed by TED, TEDx (where x means independently organized) is a program of local, self-organized events that bring people together to share a TED-like experience. With over 5,000 TEDx events organized to date, all with the sole purpose of inspiring innovation, thought, leadership and visionary insight, TEDxSalford is the largest TEDx event in the United Kingdom. During TEDxSalford 3.0, over 1,800 people gathered to attend the event in person, while many more celebrated the brilliance and diversity of the conference by watching the livestream. The organizers made a significant effort to actuate everyone to join the conversation with a live TweetWall running on the screen,
prompting the audience to engage in the discussions by tweeting under the official hashtag of #TEDxSalford. These discussions were purposely built into the program, in the belief that attendees from a variety of backgrounds with diverse expertise would come together, causing unique solutions to emerge. Salford was considered the ideal place to host the event. It is part of Greater Manchester, which is known to have the biggest student population of Europe, and as I experienced the conference appeals primarily to these young people. Additionally, Salford is in proximity to the city of Manchester ― the trendsetting capital of innovation, music and style with an illustrious past that is always at the cutting edge of what’s new. Salford Quays in particular is a dynamic focal point in the heart of Northwest England, being a global and historical hub, especially due to housing the UK’s first and only Media City. Therefore, the Lowry is a prestigious location of world class repute for art, education, recreation and creativity, making it a breathtaking international landmark that is ‘not just a venue, but a destination’. Manchester sets itself apart internationally, even in terms of sporting prowess, hence ex-Manchester United football player Quinton Fortune was scheduled to address the TEDxSalford audience. The audience experienced one of the most extraordinary speaker and performer line-ups, and the speakers were challenged to give the ‘talk of their lives’ in 18 minutes or less with no keynotes, no panels and no Q & A! Other notable speeches included George Moot (Nobel Prize winner that appeared on the Big Bang Theory), Sergey Brin (Co-founder of the Google Glass) and Joanne Harris (writer of Chocolat). Remarkably, TEDxSalford included a speech by Clayton Anderson as a mystery speaker, a real life astronaut that compared his experience with the newly released film Gravity and explained in depth his adventure with working for NASA. The highlight of the event for me, however, was the sounds of the Manchester based ‘Riot Jazz’ Brass Band that gave us a twisted mixed taste of their funk, soul, hip hop and agro-jazz sounds. By the end of the day, the TED spirit was successfully embraced in Salford Quays by stimulating a new community of thought leaders. It was an invigorating and intellectually refreshing experience, in an exciting but at the same time relaxed atmosphere that exposed anyone that participated to new ideas, during the largest TEDx event in the UK!
Chris Foster, TEDx Salford
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Dior at the Costume Gallery Evie Hull ‘It’s quite a revolution, Christian! Your dresses have such a new look!’ Dior’s first presentation, against the backdrop of a Paris still reeling from wartime austerity, was certainly that. By his own admission, Dior designed for ‘flower women’ - soft, elegant and extravagant. Using up to twenty yards of luxurious material for his designs, the ‘New Look’, as it came to be known, was a revolution in aesthetics and a welcome departure from functionality. It would, of course, be impossible to fully encapsulate the influence of Dior’s work without displaying hundreds of garments and accessories. This exhibition keeps it simple, with nine outfits on display alongside runway footage, sketches and promotional materials. It seeks to cover the primary aesthetics of Dior’s work, which largely focus on an appreciation of the female form and a celebration of classical femininity. Dresses on display include a 1956 floral silk taffeta cocktail dress from the Aimant line, featuring Dior’s trademark emphasised waistline and full skirt, and a 1950s tartan silk day dress with long sleeves from Verticale. These demonstrate the two sides of Dior’s aesthetic. Not only did he design dresses suitable for socialites, but he also created more practical garments - albeit for those who could afford it. Still, the combination of luxury materials and comfortable, practical dresses offered something to women beyond the solely decorative, and allowed them to pursue their interests uninhibited by restrictive garments.
full skirt and a more tailored option also allowed the wearer a degree of individuality and freedom. Christian Dior opened his eponymous label in 1946 and remained as head designer until his death in 1957, after which a young Yves SaintLaurent took over. The influence of both designers over fashion, through Paris and beyond, is immeasurable. Garments from lines including Corelle, Tulipe, Trompe l’Oleil and 1947/49 Christian Dior bodice and skirt. Aimant are on show, Photo courtesy of Evie Hull beautifully and accessibly presented.
The centerpiece of the collection, undoubtedly, is a bodice and skirt combination from 1947 and 1949 respectively. Featuring a plunging cabaret neckline and luxe silk tailoring, the dress epitomises the ‘Christian Dior: Designer in Focus’ is running at Manchester Gallery optimism and opulence of post-war tailoring, reveling in its own of Costume until January 12th 2014. sense of luxury and presentation. The ability to switch between a
Withington Memories The Withington Civic Society is embarking on a new oral histories project to record the memories of elderly residents of the ‘village’. Life in Withington has changed enormously over the last century and with every year that passes the extant body of knowledge diminishes. Time, therefore, is of the essence. We hope to interview some elderly residents who have lived in the area for a long time and it is our hope that lots of the people who volunteer to conduct the interviews will be students living in Withington, even if only for a short time. It would be really great to have students and other younger residents highly involved to try and break down the dividing lines between the student and permanent population in the area. 2014 is, of course, the centennial anniversary of the start of the First World War. We are not expecting to meet many residents who remember that but it does lead into talking about wartime Withington. Our older residents were alive during the Second World War and it will be fascinating to talk to them about this. The last local community history project conducted in Withington was in 1977 and people who were interviewed had memories of both wars. So, it is high-time for another stroll into the collective memory of Withington residents. The project is still in its early days but we are very keen to get students aboard from the off. If you are interested in taking part please contact Charlie Bush on charlie.bush@manchester.ac.uk. For more information about the Withington Civic Society and the Withington Memories project visit: https://sites.google.com/site/withingtonhistory/withington-memories @TheMcrHistorian
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22nd- 26th Nov: Cairo Conference, discussion of the Allied position towards Japan during WWII and what should be done with Asia once the war has ended. (L-R) Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. George C. Marshall Foundation
18th Feb: The Sportpalast speech was given by Joseph Goebbels in which total war was announced. Wikimedia Commons
1943 A Year in Photos
Jamie Simnott-Davies
Isabella Leyh compiled the last issue’s year in photos and we forgot to attribute the piece to her. Belated thanks Isabella.
1st July: the Women’s Army Corps (a branch of the United States Army) was converted to full status within the military. WAC Air Controller, painting by Dan V. Smith
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29th Aug: Germany dissolves the Danish government. Photo shows the HQ of the Schalburg Corps, a Danish SS unit. Wikimedia Commons
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The Bengal famine kills between 1.5 and 4 million people, causes include disease, starvation and malnutrition. Photo courtesy of William Vandivert, LIFE magazine
March 4th:15th Academy Awards were held, the above photo shows Walter Pidgeon and Greer Garson in “Mrs. Miniver”, which received 12 nominations. Copyright Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
March 13th: Nazi forces liquidate the Kraków Ghetto, the above photo shows some of the Jews being deported. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Instytut Pamieci Narodowej
20th-23rd Nov: The Battle of Tarawa. American assault at Tarawa Atoll in the Gilbert Island. American victory meant that Japan was now vulnerable to attacks from the Pacific Theatre of War. Wikimeida Commons
2nd Feb: The Battle of Stalingrad ended, in the above photo you can see a Soviet soldier waving the Red Banner. Photo courtesy of Georgii Zelma
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19th-24th Feb: Battle of the Kasserine Pass, the above image shows American forces marching through the pass. The high loss of American lifeled to a wide re-organisation of the commanding officers and a change of tactics for the Allies. Wikimedia Commons
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History in Culture
Issue 11: December 2013
Fifty years of Doctor Who
British Film Institute
Kathryn White Doctor Who has never been more popular. A staggering 1.1% of the world’s population watched its 50th anniversary special. How did an eccentric old man in a blue box captivate the hearts and imaginations of so many? Its origins lie in a political context besieged with nuclear threat and the thrills and dangers of the Space Race, at a time when interest in technology and the extra-terrestrial had never been so high. For the story of how Doctor Who came to be, I would direct you towards Mark Gatiss’ wonderful docu-drama ‘An Adventure in Space and Time’, as I intend to focus on the context of the world Doctor Who was coming into. ‘Sci-Fi’ as a concept and a term were first used in the USA in 1954 and the decades that followed showed a huge growth in the genre and its popularity. As television became more prolific and its opportunities for home entertainment were realised in the early 1960s, it is no surprise that this became the medium of choice for science fiction greats such as Doctor Who and Star Trek three years later. New technologies (and tin foil) could be embraced to bring alien worlds to the viewer in a way that was far more dynamic than the novel could achieve. Gripped equally by future capabilities of technology and new interpretations of history in a country that was redefining itself, Doctor Who soon became a success with audiences. One beloved aspect is its typical battle between good and evil. Despite being an alien, the Doctor is at his heart(s) a British eccentric, who more often than not is forced to save Britain from a foreign invasion. He is a hero, and alongside his ordinary world companion, they typify British values in their efforts to save the day. Along the way they raise deep moral questions about sacrifice and the greater good. These dilemmas are always relevant to life but never more so than with the threat of war and possibility of mass destruction looming over you. But it isn’t only monsters that The Doctor must fight off. He must also battle robots like the cybermen and those whose lives can only
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be maintained by the use of technology, like the daleks. Of course, the super computer console of the TARDIS will always help him, along with the invisible calculations of the sonic screwdriver. Doctor Who has always pushed the limits of technology, both in its stories and in its filming. It tackles a very real question from the second half of the twentieth century and one that is still very relevant today: how far can technology take us? As wars become more automated, such as the use of drones, there seems an increasing possibility for there to be an invasion completely carried out by robots. As the world’s longest running science fiction show, Doctor Who has continually drawn record audiences for the BBC. In its early years it wasn’t unusual for this to exceed 10 million viewers, peaking in 1979 to almost 19 million in the UK alone, albeit during an ITV strike. It’s unique capability to renew itself through new companions and regenerations of The Doctor played a large role in maintaining its popularity. Doctors could become funnier like the third incarnation Jon Pertwee, or younger like the fifth Peter Davison, to reflect the desires of the audience. Spawning novels, toys and even a movie, audiences continued to adore the whimsical Doctor no matter what form he came in. It is interesting to note that ‘classic’ Doctor Who ended in 1989; the same time as the end of the Cold War. The BBC was heading in a new direction and one in which they didn’t think Doctor Who could fit. Losing viewers due to its broadcast opposite ITV’s Coronation Street, Doctor Who was seen to be a part of the BBC’s past and the script editor, Andrew Cartmel’s departure to write for Casualty can be seen as a case in point of the new focus on ‘realistic’ drama. However, at the show’s revival in 2005 it proved to be just as popular as ever and thrilled a whole new generation with The Doctor’s adventures in space and time. While the show constantly evolves to reflect the world it is broadcast into, it also demonstrates that a good adventure and battle between good and evil will always delight audiences of all ages. Here’s to Doctor Who’s next fifty years!
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History Society
Advice from the Peer Mentors Sophie Praill Peer Mentoring AdviceIt is now coming to that time of year when you will need to start thinking about your exams in January. You might still have a number of deadlines left, which may (understandably!) be taking up most of your time at the moment. It would still be worth your while, however, to setaside a small amount of time to start planning your revision, so that it doesn’t catch you out during the Christmas holidays. Drafting up a revision plan is a very simple yet effective way to ensure that you are as prepared as you can be for when your exams start. Make sure you do schedule in regular breaks and time for relaxing, however, as although the holidays is the best time for you to get to grips with revision, it is also an important time for you to wind-down after a busy and often stressful first semester.
JRUL during the exam period Hoangviet Photohraphy
Moreover, some buildings can be quite confusing, so you may Different lecturers recommend revising different numbers of topics want to schedule in a bit more time before your exam to give you for their exam, so it is worth asking each of them how many they a chance to findthe right room.Please don’t forget to contact your mentors if you have any questions about your exams or any other think you should cover. assignments. It is also important to not look at topics in an isolated way, but think about how their content overlaps, and fit them within broader The History Peer Mentor Scheme is going to be running a Christmas themes. This means that you will have more content to use in your event on Wednesday 11th December from 4:30-6pm in the foyer of the Samuel Alexander Building, just before the main History exam essays. Christmas Party. Another, somewhat obvious, and yet extremely important tip for exams is to make sure you know exactly where and when your The student co-ordinators and some peer mentors will also be in the foyer from 4pm on this day, to run exam advice drop-in sessions, exams are. You may have never visited some of the buildings so if you have any questions feel free to arrive a little early and we before; it might be worth your while to check on a university map so will try and help! that you knowhow to get there and how long it will take.
History Society Update Hopefully your winter semester has gone well as final essay deadlines start to hit! We would like to once again remind you that anyone who has not joined the society can do so by going to the Students’ Union website, finding us under societies and clicking ‘Join’. Be sure to also like us on Facebook and follow us on Twitter too, for up-to-date news on the Society and History student information.
Looking forward to seeing your merry faces at the History department Christmas drinks at the end of term (we’ll be by the free drinks table so come and say hello). Follow the History Department on twitter for updates: @UoMhistdept Good luck with deadlines and we hope your revision over the Christmas break is productive.
Thanks to everyone who came along to our final social of the year, Best wishes and Merry Christmas, the Full Moon party at Sound Control, and enjoyed it as much as The History Society Committee the committee did! The post-January Exams Trip, 30th January - 2nd February 2014 update: Many students have already signed up for ‘Dam 2014 and there are limited spaces still available. If you want to join us on this amazing post-exams trip please book your place before 15th December. Feel free to invite non-History friends! Booking only requires a £40 deposit so get onto the Facebook group or go directly through the Outlook website at: www.outgoing.co.uk/trip/manchesterhistory
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HISTORY CHRISTMAS PARTY!! [November 21]
WEDNESDAY 11TH DECEMBER SAM ALEX NORTH FOYER
4.30PM-6.00PM Come along for some Christmas Cheer with Students and Staff! Food and Drink Provided! History Peer Mentors will be on hand in the History Common Room to answer any Assignment or Exam related questions from 4pm!