Manchester Historian Issue 22 by Manchester Historian

ISSUE 22 | NOVEMBER 2015

FIFA Corruption Scandal History in the Headlines

Edward VIII Abdication History in Features Behind every storyâ&#x20AC;Ś There is History

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015 Issue 14: May 2014

What’s What’sInside Inside HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES

HISTORY 4...Lost BEHIND THE HEADLINES

4...Death of a statesman Lance Armstrong................................................................................. 4 the Scandal........................................................................ eye of the beholder MPs5...In Expenses 5 6...Where are you really from? Censorship in Chinese Media............................................................. 6 7...Everyday racism Death of Princess Diana.......................................................................7 8...Comedy of errors FIFA Corruption Scandal.......................................................................7 8...Selfish charity 9...How Britain brought football to the world

HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW

Teapot Dome Incident ........................................................................ 8 HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW Emperor Nero and the Burning of Rome..................................... .......9 10...The Richard III andMayans the Princes..................................................................10 11...South African apatheid Twins and Partners in Crime................................................................11 Clinton and the Scandal......................................................11 A YEAR INLewinsky PHOTOS 12...1984

HERO OR VILLAIN?

HISTORY IN FEATURES: TRAVEL Jose Rizal............................................................................................12 14...Nothing great is ever easy 15...Opulence on the Orient Express BATTLE OF THE MONTH 15...Pilgrims’ progress Battle of Peleiu....................................................................................13 16...Seeing what a man should see 17...Planes, trains and automobiles 18...When take flight HISTORY INpeople 10 PICTURES travel films JFK19...Itchy Assasination.feet: ..........................................................................14-15 UNDISCOVERED HEROES OF HISTORY 20...FloraIN Trsitan HISTORY FEATURES South Sea Bubble Incident.................................................................16 Watergate Scandal..............................................................................16 HISTORY IN MANCHESTER Heloise and Abelard............................................................................17 21...Bed to bookshelves: recent discoveries at Chethams Edward VIII Abdication Crisis..............................................................18 Haçienda story The22...The Pendle Witch Trials.......................................................................19 22...MHF filmScandal................................................................19 review: City Speaks Madoff Investment Pope Benedict IX................................................................................20 HISTORY UPDATE 23...History farewell WOMEN IN Society HISTORY 23...Celebrations and congratulations at the History..21 Emmeline Pankhurst........................................................................ Society Awards 24...Manchester Historian 2014-15

HISTORY UPDATES

What’s Going on in Manchester........................................................ 22 History Society .................................................................................. 23 History Society FC.............................................................................. 23 Careers Column................................................................................. 24

Careers............................................................................23 Page 2 2

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Charlotte Johnson Alice Rigby

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Laura Callard, Thomas Barnett Caroline Hailstone Jamie Brannan

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Copy - Editing Team Chloe Wright Caroline Bishop Rebecca Hennel-Smith Kathyrn Newton Sarah King Sophie Brownlee Online Team Sophie SarahDeacon Long Will Davis-Coleman Marketing Team Brogen Campbell Jospeh Barker Mattea Bubalo Stephanie Keyte Online Team Jospeh Casson Károly Gergely www.manchesterhistorian.com

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

A Note from the Editors With first semester underway we thought we would liven up your daily routines with a look through some of history’s biggest scandals! The exposure of scandal serves as a selling point, and in recent years it would seem there has been an unlimited supply of drama! This year the media exploded in response to the emergence of the FIFA corruption scandal. US Federal Prosecutors disclosed cases of corruption by officials and associates connected with FIFA. Approximately fourteen people were associated with the allegations that included the alleged use of bribery, fraud and money laundering. In an age of ongoing scandal, it is impossible to ignore the continuous eruption of controversy, exploring centuries worth of scandal highlights its immortality. We can never escape the parameters of scandal.

and bringing to light topical sources of contention. Whilst uncovering recent scandals, we at the historian also wish to delve into the scandalous events of the past! Moving between the tragic love affair of Heloise and Abelard and the mysterious deaths surrounding Richard III and the princes, to the Madoff Investment Scandal and the life and death of Jose Rizal, each article aims to reveal the truth behind some of history’s greatest scandals.

“Scandal is gossip made tedious by morality” Oscar Wilde

From the News International hacking scandal, to the countless accusations of sports doping, this issue aims to explore recent controversies, creating new perspectives

Keep an eye on our regular columns and features to ensure you are always up-todate with the successes of History FC, History Society events and Career opportunities!

If you are interested in writing or working for us, maybe you have some original article ideas of your own, please email manchesterhistorian@gmail.com or get in touch through our Facebook and Twitter pages. Laura, Thomas and Jamie

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY BEHIND THE HEADLINES Lance Armstrong: Sports Doping Jordan Booth Before 2012-2013 Lance Armstrong was considered by many to be the greatest cyclist the sport had ever seen. He had won the illustrious Tour de France a record-breaking seven consecutive times in 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005. Not only this, but against all odds he had survived cancer and set up his own cancer charity. He was an idol to many people and an all-round good guy in the media and the cycling world. Fast forward to 2015 and his reputation is tarnished as he is now labeled a cheat. He has also single-handedly destroyed the legitimacy of sport across the world.

Not surprisingly, the spotlight has now turned to other sports; if the doping authorities missed what Armstrong was doing what else is going on? Although the Armstrong case has led to better testing and increased scrutiny, which can only be a good thing, accusations have now gotten out of hand and anyone who has ever achieved something in sport is now being questioned. Earlier this year for example, Mo Farah was accused by many to have been a drug cheat. Although he was found to be innocent, he still had to endure months of criticism and speculation over whether he cheated in order to achieve glory at the 2012 Olympics.

“Seven times Tour de France winner, cancer survivor and the biggest drugs cheat.”

Amidst all of Armstrong’s success, there were constant allegations that he was using performance-enhancing drugs to win, allegations he consistently denied, sometimes viciously. No investigation occurred until 2010 and, in 2012, The US Anti-Doping Agency found that Armstrong had been the ringleader of a sophisticated group set up to cover what Armstrong had been doing. He would use blood doping, tamper with documents to say that he had passed drugs tests and bully his teammates to follow his lead. Armstrong finally confessed to doping in January 2013 on The Oprah Winfrey Show. Following this, he had his titles stripped from him and cycling as a sport started its long recovery.

Where do we go from here? We have two options; we can either crack down on doping cheats going through all blood records of every sporting event to see who won clean and who did not. Alternatively, we can just admit that doping is too big of an issue to stop so we should just accept and expect that everyone dopes and it is just a case of who can perform best on performance-enhancing drugs. While the first option may seem like a good idea, do we really want to know? If the results may tarnish the world of sport forever are we just best not knowing? I do not have the answer. The second option shows just how sad the whole scenario is, if we are unable to trust that anyone can win fairly and cleanly then maybe this is the way to go, but I for one, as would millions around the world would be sad to think that sport has fallen to this level. Overall, the case of Lance Armstrong has redefined the way we look at sport and its athletes and will continue to do so for decades. While he can be blamed for destroying people’s confidence and belief in sport, we should also be thankful that the Armstrong case has unearthed many other cheats. Yes, it is disappointing but it is better to know that they cheated rather than believe they won cleanly when they did not. There are still a lot of questions that sport has to answer to and people need to be won back, many are disillusioned with doping, and it will take years to prove that any sport is truly clean.

Spectators banner during the 2006 Tour de France The revelation has not just rocked cycling, but it has also destroyed people’s confidence in sport in general. Now, when athletes break world records or win against all the odds instead of people cheering and supporting them, they are questioning if they are on drugs and doubting if it was a clean win. The whole excitement and admiration of sportsmen and women has been damaged due to Lance Armstrong. Cycling has just about recovered from the Armstrong disease thanks to Bradley Wiggins’ heroic Tour de France and Olympics triumph in 2012 and Chris Froome’s recent success in the sport. However, the memory of what Armstrong did for seven years looms large and will possibly never be overcome.

Lance Armstrong finishing third in Séte.

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

MPs Expenses Scandal It doesn’t take much digging to observe the British public’s disdain for politics. A perception of politicians as greedy and deceitful has been present for decades, butno single event has encapsulated this in the public consciousness more than the MPs’ expenses scandal. In May 2009, The Telegraph published its investigation into the expenses claims of Members of Parliament, revealing widespread misuse of public funds. Uptoone hundred MPs were found to have claimed for personal expenditure ranging from mortgage repayments to duck houses. The revelations marked the end of a four-year legal battle.

The reenergised Labour party membership has rallied around Jeremy Corbyn, an ‘expenses saint’ who claimed just £8.75 for an ink cartridge from May-August 2015, hoping his purported authenticity will bring the party closer towards the public once again.

“£20 claim for an Ikea bathrobe to the £42,000 claim...for security patrols.”

MPs resisted reporters’ requests for details of their expenditure, with both Labour and Conservative parliamentarians pursuing exemptions from the Freedom of Information Act; only after losing a High Court case did parliament concede. With the legal ground cleared, The Telegraph began to leak claims made from 2004-2008.

Exploitation of expenses was widespread, ranging from Andy Burnham’s £20 claim for an IKEA bathrobe to the £42,000 claimed by Barbara Follett for security patrols and art insurance. Abuse centred on the second home allowance, which allows non-London MPs to maintain a second home closer to Westminster when they are required in parliament. Some made publicly-funded renovations to their properties before subsequently selling them for a profit; others claimed for multiple homes despite living locally.

Joe Casson

But, six years on, has anything substantially changed? Despite public outcry, it appears that the public nowassociates politics with sleaze to the extent that itis expected and new instances such as the resignation of Maria Miller from the cabinet in2014 over expenses fraud - provoked little new outcry. Nigel Farage has profited from discontent provoked by the expenses scandal by claiming thousands asan MEP despite rarely showing uptoperform his duties.

Attitudes within Westminster are little changed: the reaction to the rise of antiestablishment politics has been characterised by scorn and denial, and the government has made every effort to distance itself from its campaign promises to enable constituents to recall MPs who abuse their power. It is sadly ironic that a system introduced to widen political access to the working classes has become a symbol ofcorruption and deceit. But until Westminster asan institution learns the lessons of 2009 and works to address, rather than resist, the sources of public contempt for politicians, then expenses will continue tobe a rallying point for the disenfranchised.

Most MPs insisted their claims were permissible: Peter Mandelson stated they ‘would not have been paid if they weren’t within the rules’. Yet the revelations’ aftermath saw imprisonments, resignations, deselections, and the repayment of nearly £500,000. Scrutiny of the lax guidelines, which did not question claims of less than £250 and provided upto £750 for televisions in second homes, saw condemnation of individual MPs spread to the entire establishment. The scandal developed not just over the content of these revelations, but also the manner in which parliamentarians handled it. Parliament’s resistance to the publication of the claims, even in the face of a High Court challenge, suggests it had no intention to disclose these details of its own accord. Apologies from all sides of the house did little to repair relations with the public. The timing of the leaks, in the midst of the recession, told the public that MPs were living by different rules to those they claimed to represent. In this sense, the key offence of the expenses scandal was not the greed of some MPs but rather the distance of the political class from the public. This is the fertile soil in which the United Kingdom Independence Party has flourished. The unprecedented success ofparties campaigning onan anti-establishment platform this May speaks for itself: the Greens, UKIP and the Scottish National Party won over 6 million votes. @TheMcrHistorian

Andy Burnham.

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Censorship in the Chinese Media

Laura Callard

In the aftermath of the Leveson debate and the heavily publicised phone hacking scandal in 2011, the freedom enjoyed by the British press has been subjected to relentless criticism. Contrastingly, China maintains an iron grip upon the reigns of its media, arguably using censorship to conceal the affairs of government from the public. Does China’s standpoint prevent the explosion of scandal such as that experienced in the UK? Is it merely another form of government control? Is it restricting the freedom of a nation? Censorship has existed as a fundamental feature of Chinese government control since imperial times. In stark contrast to the freedom of the British press, Chinese media has never exercised the right to express a nationwide freedom of expression. In line with the leadership of its predecessors, the current Chinese Communist Party uses the media as a device to secure its national control and to reassert the legitimacy of its rule. Censorship removes the potential exposure of scandal, thus eradicating any potential threat that poses a danger to the ideological parameters that define the Party’s authority. In China, every form of communication that possesses the capacity to reach an audience is strictly censored in accordance with government guidelines. Outsiders see Chinese censorship through an optic of oppression; viewing the restrictions of the press as an almost medieval approach to governance. Yet many Chinese businessmen argue that censorship has allowed their businesses to thrive, reducing the potential for international rivals to engulf the market and impose the perceived tradition of Western monopoly. Another interpretation suggests that control of the media prevents public exposure to scandal. A popular saying comes to mind: ‘what you don’t know can’t affect you’. However if an entire population remains unaware, surely this reduces the capacity for change, as they remain ignorant of the potential constraints and inequalities imposed upon them? Censorship may be viewed as oppressive, however freedom of the press in not without its failings either. The scandalous activities of the British media in recent years has arguably reinforced the view that press censorship is necessary. Dominating headlines in 2011, evidence implied that employees from the News of the Worldnewspaper had hacked the phones of murdered schoolgirl Milly Dowler, the victims of the London bombings and relatives of British soldiers. Public outrage ensued, leading to a succession of high-profile resignations, including Chief Executive, Rebekah Brooks. In conjunction the owner of News Corporation, Rupert Murdoch, has been subjected to extensive criticism and the impact of the scandal resulted in the termination of the News of the World, a decade after its first publication. The Leveson Inquiry was commissioned in 2011 in direct response to the eruption of scandal in the aftermath ofthe News International phone hacking controversy. An assessment into the ethics and practices of the British press, the Inquiry aims to examine the ethical and moral practises that embody the concept of free media. The British newspaper industry has become a focal point of public inquiry, raising questions about the nature and benefits of freedom of press. 6

hildacipes.org The scandalous activities of the British press have been reported on a global scale and brought the British model for freedom of expression to the forefront of international discussion. Whilst the Chinese Communist Party retains its vicelike grip on the Chinese media, the British opts to welcome freedom of its press. Yet it is undoubtable that the latter leaves room for corruption and scandal, whilst the former acts directly to conceal the actions of andpotential humiliation and shame of its politicians, which could undermine the Party’s rule. Whilst the British policy on freedom of expression acts as an extension of human rights, the Chinese Communist Party refuses to negotiate on its handling of its media, utilising instead its power as a form of propaganda, legitimising the party and its national control. Censorship may conceal scandal from the public eye, however that is not to say it does not exist.

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

The Death of Princess Diana On August 31 1997, Diana, the Princess of Wales, Dodi Fayed and the driver Henri Paul, were killed in a tragic car crash that shocked the world. It is said that Diana is one of the most photographed women in history. It is through these glimpses of her life that the world came to know her. Her image, captured forever in millions of photographs, conveyed a stylish woman whose commitment to charity inspired many. However, her life in the limelight was not easy. 15 years of marriage to Charles Prince of Wales ended in scandal and divorce. From her marriage, to her divorce and eventually, even her death, the paparazzi captured every moment. Whilethepublicmourned,Diana’sdeathengenderedfrenzyof conspiracies.Suspicionswerespoutedoutbyvariousparties:wasthismorethanthe faultof adrunkendriver?Hadthepaparazzibeentooaggressive? What reallyhappened?Thepublicwasencapsulatedbyconspiracy. Was this an assassination, not an accident? Was Dodi in fact Diana’s lover? Rumours that the Royal Family and secret services had orchestrated the death of the two ‘lovers’ in order to prevent the marriage of an English Princess to an Egyptian Muslim spread. Some of the most prominent and strong allegations came from Mohamed Al-Fayad, the father of Dodi. However, he was not alone.The

FIFA Corruption Scandal

Lucy Heyderman

Daily Express also disputed the official version of events and in 2004, the Daily Mirror published a letter from Diana, in which she disclosed ‘my husband [Charles] is planning an accident in my car’. However,Al-Fayad dropped his 10 year campaign after a decisive verdict from the 2007 British inquest found that Henri Paul had committed an ‘unlawful killing’ and that no one else was responsible. Although charges were dropped against the paparazzi, controversy spiralled when, in 2006, the Italian magazine Chi published photographs showing Diana amid the debris of the crash. At the time, her two sons, Prince William and Prince Harry, commented that they were ‘deeply saddened’ by ‘such a low’ action.While Chi’s editor, Umberto Brindan argued these were ‘tender’ images of a ‘sleeping Princess’ and not ‘offensive to the memory of Princess Diana’. Diana’s death has thrown up is a myriad of questions about the press and the right to privacy. Only this year, an open letter from the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge,William and Kate, appealed to the paparazzi to give them and their two-year-old son privacy. But the dead cannot speak out. Diana’s life and death will now be documented throughout time, public to all, with or without her consent. Is this an unfair intrusion, or will this preserve our memory of her as a sleeping princess?

Károly Gergely

The scandal sorrounding the international organization arose after the they may even leave FIFA, which would cause a huge financial deficit. announcement that Russia and Qatar were hosts of the 2018 and 2022 World Therefore the background for great sport events would disappear and it would Cups respectively. The events escaleted quickly, and ended with the arrestment of be unpossible to hold the World Cup or the Champions League. So the seven FIFA officials, the resingnation of ’Sepp’ Blatter and his prosection for ’criminal change is requested by the financial market quite clearly. mismanagement’. Platini, who seemed the favorite for replacing Blatter was The football-loving community has always ben against corruption and also banned from the organization, alongside former FIFA Vice President Chung has continued to fight it. The protests thatarose following the scandal Mong-joon, which signifies the amount of corruption inside the organization. forced Blatter to resign and call for a new election, for which the final vote The corruption is deeply rooted in the Fédération Internationale de Football will be on the 26th of January, 2016. If corruption will not be eradicated, or Association, this is not debatable. The question is however, how this scandal even completely exterminated the supporters will isgoing to change the way we look at football, the loose their faith in the football organizations. I picture circumstances of players, teams and national football “Absolute power does not the football-universe as a complex, multileveled associations. Furthermore, will it change anything at all? corrupt absolutely, absolute construction. The first level are the fans, then the In my opinion football as a game will not change the teams, national associations and the power attracts the corruptible.” players, at all as a result of recent events. The same applies international associations. If the link broke between to the players, who are going to continue to play the different levels, the whole structure would Frank Herbert in the same level. Football as a game will still collapse. have the same unifying effect on people and the But there seems to be no developement. One of the candidates, Gianni supporters will not leave their teams because of the hocus-pocus of some Infantino, already envisioned a World Cup with 40 teams, and with the Swiss guy. planned change, one thing would be sure: even more slush-fund. Deep What will be effected, are the football associations and the international changes arerequired – but for now, there is noone who potentially forces tournaments. The great sponsors have already expressed their concerns these changes through the masses of corruptible officials. regarding corruption even on the highest levels, and if this will not change Ellis Island @TheMcrHistorian

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY YOU SHOULD KNOW The ‘Teapot Dome’ Incident Joseph Barker On the 7th of April 1922, Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall announced that a government drilling policy was “being rapidly formulated” which would provide reserves for the future needs of the US navy. What Fall failed to reveal, however, was the nature of this deal: he had granted this land to two of America’ s oil magnates, Harry Sinclair and Edward Doheny, in return for illegal bribes totaling around $300,000. When Washington lawyer and conservationist Harry Slattery revealed the entire ‘ Teapot Dome’ oil reserve had been leased to Sinclair, this initially insignificant story became become front-page news. The subsequent national political scandal hugely influenced Washington and provides extensive historical insight into the nature of American politics in the early 20thcentury. 50 miles North of Casper, Wyoming, is a 9000-acre oil deposit known as the ‘ Teapot Dome’ which, along with reserves in California, was recognized by a long-established bipartisan agreement as being conserved for supplying the US navy. After Republican victory in the 1920 presidential election, President Harding’ s appointment of Fall as Minister of the Interior resulted in these oil reserves coming under his control. Following his appointment, he received a letter of congratulations from the relatively unknown Democrat Senator Thomas Walsh, who supported his pragmatic approach to using resources on public lands for national interests. Fall was hugely effective at defending his actions during the first inquiry, in which he claimed the initial $100,000 he received was a loan from close friend and newspaper owner Edward McLean. Despite the press reports at this stage being largely favorable to Fall, Walsh was not so easily deterred. He persuaded McLean to admit he never lent Fall such a sum, before convincing Doheny to dramatically admit he had bribed Fall at the second inquiry in January 1924. Consequently, Fall was found guilty of accepting Doheny’ s bribe in 1929, becoming the first American cabinet minister to be convicted and imprisoned for a crime committed whilst in office. The immediate political impact was predictable: Walsh gained national prestige, enabling him to twice be re-elected to the Senate, whilst Fall has been remembered as a political villain.

Edward Doheny testifying before the Senate Committee Although the significance of the Teapot Dome scandal upon the 1924 presidential election remains historiographically disputed, Noggle convincingly concludes that “rather than destroy the Republican Party, Teapot Dome, through Calvin Coolidge, may have helped it to prevail” in his definitive work, Teapot Dome: Oil and politics in the 1920s. Moreover, the scandal remained prominent in political news during the next decade, as it exemplified the frequent exposure of corruption in US politics throughout this era. ‘ Teapot Dome’, therefore, illustrates how political scandal resulting from widespread corruption in 1920s America had hugely damaging consequences, which ultimately reduced the faith of ordinary American people in the morality of those whom they elected as their political representatives.

Contrastingly, the lasting political significance of the scandal remains much more complex. As the inquiry developed, the Democrats saw an opportunity to make Republican corruption their leading issue for the 1924 presidential election campaign. This strategy backfired, however, when William McAdoo, the unquestionable favourite for the Democratic nomination, was implicated in Doheny’ s business affairs. Accordingly, McAdoo was no longer perceived as a clean political candidate. This resulted in a 2 civil war within the Party as support for his rival, New York Governor Alfred Smith, increased exponentially. Whilst the Democrats divided, Republicans united behind President Coolidge, whose proposal of a politically impartial “immediate, adequate, unshrinking prosecution” was praised highly throughout American politics.

Senator Albert Fall 8

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Emperor Nero: Burning Rome

Fraser Corrywright

Emperor Nero is a famously vicious Roman princeps in a dynasty of similarly notorious individuals. The extent to which this is truly the case is up for some debate however. The most pertinent ancient sources, the historians Tacitus and Suetonius, make their views on Nero’s debauched lifestyle and method of leadership very clear. Suetonius finishes his opening paragraph of Nero’s biography, ‘though Nero degenerated from the good qualities of his ancestors, he yet reproduced the vices of each of them’ (Nero 1), which is a pretty damning statement given the already questionable qualities of said ancestors as extolled by Suetonius. Tacitus takes it a step further, decrying that ‘Nero himself, defiled by every natural and unnatural lust, had left no abomination in reserve with which to crown his vicious existence’ (Annals 15.37). It is questionable, however, how far Nero was purely evil as no story is as clear cut as Tacitus and Suetonius would like this one to be. Josephus writes in his Antiquities of the Jews that other historians ‘out of hatred to [Nero], and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned’ (Antiquities, 20.8.3), suggesting that not all in the Roman world perceived Nero as darkly as one would first assume. So what specific immoral crimes was Nero accused of, to back up this ‘impudent raving’ against his person? Perhaps a better question would be what he wasn’t accused of. To start, he was a great patron of the arts and would often take to the stage himself to perform on a lyre and recite poetry. He dealt decisively and effectively with a dangerous and (in Suetonius’s own words, Nero 16) ‘mischievous cult’ which was rising to prominence in his time. He rebuilt a large part of Rome at his own expense with grand colonnades and wellstructured streets, and ordered the construction of a magnificent palace and gardens (Tacitus Annals, 15.41-43). He even followed his heart in publicly marrying a man, perhaps showing himself as the most progressive of all the emperors!

A Bust of Emperor Nero - Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons men being forcibly castrated and pushed or sold into female social roles, arguably the most important scandal surrounding Nero is that of the burning of Rome. Tacitus implies multiple times that the fire was likely the fault of the Princeps himself, though he attempts historical neutrality by asserting at the start of his investigation that ‘both sides of the argument have their sponsors’ (Annals, 15.38).

“‘Though Nero degenerated from the good qualities of his ancestors, he yet reproduced the vices of each of them’”

This all sounds great until you take into account that the arts were seen as feminine, un-Roman and decidedly ‘Greek’; the cult which he dealt so thoroughly with was Christianity; he is accused of causing the ‘Great Fire of Rome’ in the course of his engineering plans; and he castrated his ‘husband’ Sporus before naming him after his deceased wife. Many of these actions are detailed in both Suetonius and Tacitus, with a few also compounded in Dio Chrisostom’s Discourses. It is therefore believable that there is some founding for the assertion that Nero did commit these crimes. Amusingly his advisor, the stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger, writes an essay on mercy (De Clementia) aimed at the Emperor, possibly in the hopes he could temper some of Nero’s viciousness. Whilst it is easy to get carried away with the gruesome stories of Christians covered in oil and used as garden lamps, or pretty young @TheMcrHistorian

Suetonius is less subtle; in his description of a ‘general conversation’ where an unknown voice says (rather dramatically for a general conversation), ‘When I am dead, be earth consumed by fire,’ and Nero replies ominously ‘Nay, rather while I live’. (Nero, 38). Both historians claim that men were seen throwing firebrands into buildings to purposefully light them, with Tacitus claiming that ‘they had their authority’, suggestion the hand of someone with said authority (Nero himself). The fire itself was extremely damaging to Rome either way, and ancient accounts of it are suitably graphic. While it is difficult to establish quite how legitimate a lot of the horrifying claims made of Nero are, it does seem relatively safe to assume that he was indeed a particularly nasty Emperor, and failing that he was certainly an extremely scandalous figure.

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Richard III and the Princes Over 500 years later, the reason for the deaths of Edward and Richard, sons of Edward IV, remains one of the most frequently debated topics in English history. Some believe that the murder of the two was orchestrated by the Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III, while others protest his innocence. The increased interest in the lateking can largely be attributed to the 2012 finding of his remains in a car par in Leicester, which stirred a renewed debate as to his character and claimed actions, a debate that came even further to the fore as Richard’s remains were reburied in a large and official ceremony at Leicester Cathedral. One of the main arguments that support the belief that Richard was responsible for the two boys’ deaths is that he gained so much from it. The princes had already been declared illegitimate on the grounds of Edward IV andElizabeth Woodville’s marriage allegedly not being legitimate, but it can be considered that their deaths would prevent further opposition to his rule. Another significant point is the question of how the princes could havedisappeared from the heavily guarded Tower of London without Richard’s knowledge. The idea that someone could have entered the Tower while under strict royal guard is considered by some to be absurd.

Carys West

Furthermore, blaming Richard for the deaths of his nephews has been argued to be consistent with what is often called ‘Tudor propaganda’, which dually served to entertain a Tudor audience and bolster the reign of the Tudor dynasty. The most famous example of this concept is Shakespeare’s play Richard III, which portrays Richard as an almost irredeemably evil character, with a hunched back and violent nature. Although Richard has been proved to have scoliosis, which would result in his spine being curved, the claim that he was an inherently evilman has been argued against by Richard’s defenders, raising the point that Richard was well-loved in the North. Shakespeare’s depiction of Richard killing Henry VI to illustrate his violent nature, is refuted by contemporary evidence that suggests that Richard was away from London, the place of Henry’s death that day, and proponents of Richard’s innocence use this evidence to question the other events depicted in Richard III, including Richard’s arranged murder of the Princes in the Tower. It is unlikely that there will ever be a conclusive decision on whether Richard is responsible for the deaths of his nephews, as firstly, evidence from over 500 years ago is divisive both in content and nature, with the focus onpolitical allegiance and bias rather than having a strong root in historical fact. The vast majority of the supposed ‘facts’ are either inconclusive, fabricated or stem from fiction. A great deal of claims for or against Richard’s innocence rely on motive, whether it be Richard’s allegedly clear motive or someone like the Duke of Buckingham, a man who eventually turned against Richard and is said to have a great deal of reason to kill the two boys in the tower. It is immensely difficult to conclusively prove or disprove that Richard is responsible for the murder of his nephews, making this argument one that will endure for years to come.

The Princes in the Tower

It is often said that Richard’s servant, Sir James Tyrell, committed the murders, under order from Richard, an argument backed up by historians who say that several sources confirm that Tyrell confessed. When the point that the female children of Edward IV remained unharmed arises, the argument is often made that they wouldn’t have been a strong rallying point for potential rebel forces, due to their lower standpoint in the line of inheritance. Another incentive for keeping them alive would be to marry them off into advantageous marriages to create strong alliances. On the other hand, some protest Richard’s innocence, stating that it is against what we know of Richard’s good character to murder two young boys. Richard was incredibly loyal to his elder brother Edward IV, and those who absolve Richard of blame often say that it would be ‘out of character’ for Richard to orchestrate the murder of his brother’s sons, even though it would be in keeping with the violence of the period.

Richard III www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Twins and Partners in Crime When it comes to lifestyles that involve conversing with celebrities Frank Sinatra and Barbara Windsor; appearing in famous interviews or being photographed by David Bailey, the life of an infamous gangster is the last thing that springs to mind. Yet, for Ronnie and Reggie Kray, living in 1960s London, crime was a fact of life; the consequences were avoidable, and the accompanying life was dangerous yet lavish. The scandalous brothers have recently been brought back into the spotlight after the film ‘Legend’, starring Tom Hardy as both brothers, appeared in cinemas earlier this year. Yet, the film plays around with the true story. What is the actual narrative of the Krays, and who helped them to avoid conviction for so long?

Elizabeth Whittingham

It goes without saying that the Krays were protected. When Ronnie was exposed by the Sunday Mirror to have had a sexual relationship with prominent politician Lord Boothby, the brothers and the Lord threatened to sue. The newspaper backed down, Boothby was paid £40,000 and consequently, the press were daunted. The Conservatives were afraid that more information would leak about Boothby while the Labour party’s Tom Driberg was also rumoured to have been involved with Ronnie Kray; both politics and the press could not touch the brothers. However, all was not to last, and both brothers were sentenced to life in 1968. Ronnie Kray was convicted for murder, famously occurring in the Blind Beggar pub in Whitechapel, where he shot and killed rival gang member leader, George Cornell. Reggie murdered Jack Mcvitie, a minor member of his gang in 1967, stabbing him in the face and stomach four months after the suicide of his wife, Frances.

Kray Twins

The twins adopted crime into their lives from a young age. Raised in Bethnal Green, they both boxed - upon quitting at 19 they had never lost a fight - before purchasing a club in Bethnal Green and working in Liverpool, where they hijacked, stole and burnt down properties in order to acquire more pubs. Though in and out of prison, more clubs were bought, a gang by the name of ‘The Firm’ was formed and the brothers earned themselves a formidable reputation, Ronnie famously stating that himself and his brother ‘ruled London’.

Maybe the Krays believed that they could beat the system; that they were, according to Ronnie, ‘untouchable’. Yet, they were criminals. Although well known in their home town, close to their family and bound by blood to each other, crime played an all too prominent role in their lives. Ultimately, they show us how they used powerful people to avoid being brought to justice, yet also how this system eventually broke down.

Lewinsky Gate: Political Scandal When a leader of a country is elected, the whole nation puts their absolute trust and, if you will, their lives into the hands of their new leader. So imagine having the leader of your nation point blank lie to you as happened to the American people in 1998. President Bill Clinton openly and publicly denied having an affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky, only to have the scandal erupt a few months later. The resulting investigation lead to the impeachment of Clinton, only the second in US history and has had repercussions for the Clinton family, the Democratic Party and American politics ever since.

Lucy Wickham

in exchange for testifying against Clinton, including providing DNA evidence on a dress of the affair. President Clinton then admitted the affair in the grand jury investigation on August 17th 1998. As he had previously denied it under oath, the Republican dominated Senate brought impeachment charges against Clinton, although they failed to convict him in the Senate trial which followed.

The Lewinsky scandal has arguably had far reaching consequences throughout US politics ever since. The Republicans won the 2000 election, against Al Gore for Monica Lewinsky began working in the White House the Democrats due to a deflation and lack of trust in Office of Legislative Affairs as an intern in 1995. She then Monica Lewinsky the Democratic Party after the scandal. Although Hillary began a personal relationship with Clinton and confided Clinton stood by her husband, the scandal continues this to her friend, Linda Tripp, who secretly recorded to follow her into her presidential campaign, particularly with the the conversations. However, once Tripp discovered that Lewinsky had resurrection of Lewinsky only last year. signed an affidavit in a separate trial denying relations with Clinton, she turned over the tapes to Kenneth Starr, Independent Counsel who was investigating Clinton on other matters.

The scandal began circling the newspapers in mid-January 1998 causing Clinton to state the famous words on January 26th, “I did not have sexual relations with that woman”. The story was still debated in the media throughout the spring of 1998, during which Hillary Clinton stood by her husband. Finally on July 28th 1998, Lewinsky received immunity @TheMcrHistorian

There can be no doubt that the Lewinsky scandal profoundly affected US politics. It was the first ‘internet scandal’ and the first to reverberate around the world almost instantly. It lead to the second impeachment of a US president ever and presided over a deeply polarizing period of American politics. Many have since described Clinton’s presidency as incredibly promising but marred by scandal and we can only wonder if Hillary’s campaign and possible presidency will be the same?

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

H E R O O R V I L L A I N ? The Life and Times of José Rizal Aiswarya Kishor

A national hero of the Philippines and the pride of the Malayan race, José Rizal is a historical figure admired by many. He was born on the 19th June 1861, on the picturesque island of Luzon to an affluent family. His parents were well educated and his mother, who was his first teacher, greatly influenced his intellectual development. He grew up to be quite studious and received a bachelor of arts with the highest honors when graduating from university. Rizal’s life took a complete turn in 1882 when he boarded a ship to Spain without his parents’ consent. In Spain he enrolled at the Universidad Central de Madrid where he became leader of a small community of Filipino students and committed himself to reforming the Spanish rule in his home country. In addition, he began contributing ideas to the newspaper La Solidaridad, published in Barcelona. Rizal’s political program, as expressed in thenewspaper, included integration of the Philippines as a province of Spain, representation in the Cortes (the Spanish parliament), freedom of assembly and expression, and equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the law.

Spain. Although he had no connections with that organization, and disapproved of its violent methods, Rizal was arrested shortly thereafter. After a show trial, Rizal was convicted of conspiracy by the military and sentenced to death by a firing squad. On the eve of his public execution, Rizal wrote Mi Ultimo Adios (My Last Farewell). And at 7am on the 30th of December, the 35-year-old patriot was shot in the back, with his rosary clutched tightly in his right hand. José Rizal’s death had the unintended consequence of adding fuel to the fire of Filipino resistance to Spanish rule. Spurred on by his martyrdom, the revolution grew with fervour. In 1898, with assistance from the United States, the Philippine archipelago was able to declare its independence, thus becoming Asia’s first democratic republic.

In the freedom struggle of the Philippines, José Rizal played a vital role. He was a man of incredible intellectual power who travelled José Rizal extensively throughout his life and mastered 22 languages in total. Undoubtedly, he was a versatile genius who in addition to being an ophthalmologist, was also an Spain, to Rizal, was a venue for realizing his dreams architect, cartoonist, businessman, economist, farmer, and it was here that he penned his first book, Noli Me Tangere, historian, inventor, journalist, musician, psychologist and a passionate exposé of the evils of Spanish rule in the theologian. Philippines. He dedicated this novel to his fellow countrymen Today, José Rizal is hailed as a martyr for the nationalist whose experiences and sufferings he wrote about. However, cause. He is remembered for his brilliance, his courage as word spread of the scandalous nature of the novel, Rizal in trying times, his peaceful resistance to tyranny, and his became a target for the Filipino police and his trip back home was compassion. To this day, Filipino school children study his literary forcibly cut short in 1887. works and nearly every town in the country has a street named Rizal’s insatiable thirst for knowledge later took him to after their national hero. Paris and Germany. In Germany, he completed his studies in ophthalmology. In 1891, he published a sequel, El Filibusterismo, which further established his reputation as the leading spokesman of the Filipino reform movement. On his return to the Philippines in1892, Rizal founded the nonviolent reform society, Liga Filipina (Philippine League). It was a progressive organisation that sought to directly involve people in the movement. As a result, Rizal was exiled to Dapitan, an island south of the country where he remained for four years. However, during this period he continued his scientific research and even founded a school and hospital. In 1895, Rizal asked for permission to travel to Cuba as an army doctor. His request was approved but at the same time, Katipunan, a nationalist secret society launched a revolt against

José Rizal Monument. 12

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

BATTLE OF THE MONTH Battle of Peleliu James Brannan The Battle of Peleliu, or Operation Stalemate II, was a controversial battle fought between the US and Japan from September to November 1944 on Peleliu, a volcanic island just six miles wide in present-day Palau. Duringthe course of the battle, Japanese resistance inflicted heavy damage on the US troops. Although it resulted in literal victory for the US, the proportionality of the US method was questioned given the death toll which was higher than any other amphibious assault in US military history.

Eventually, the US Army and Marine forces combined to surround the Japanese hiding throughout the mountains. After much bloodshed throughout October, the ridge was neutralised on November 25, with Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, the commander of the Japanese forces, committing seppuku (ritual suicide) in the tradition of Japanese samurai warriors. Following their commander’s bravery, the Japanese defenders refused to surrender, and virtually all of them were killed. The controversy of the battle focuses on the heavy losses inflicted upon the US forces; nearly 10,000 troops were casualties. Likewise, extensive loss of weaponry and ammunition included 13.32 million rounds of 30-calibre and approximately 150,000 mortar rounds. Aside from this, the island’s lack of strategic value reinforced the belief that the Battle of Peleliu was unwarranted. It is suggested that the defenders of Peleliu lacked the means to interfere with US operations in the Philippines, and the airfield captured on the island never played a key role in subsequent operations, with the Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands being used instead as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa.

“US suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded”

Throughout 1944, the Second World War brought the fight closer to Japan as the US secured bases close to the main islands during the Mariana Islands Campaign between June to August. As a result, bombers were able to target them from the air. The invasion of Peleliu featured in a variety of proposed plans to defeat the Japanese Empire. Roosevelt eventually chose to carry out General Douglas MacArthur’s plan to recapture the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa, and the attack of the Japanese mainland, with the Palau Islands, specifically Peleliu and Angaur, to be neutralized beforehand, and an airfield built to protect MacArthur’s right flank. Peleliu was held by a garrison of more than 10,000 Japanese troops, and the island’s airfield would allow Japanese planes to threaten any Allied operation in the Philippines. Prior to this, US forces had perfected their amphibious strategy over a year of hard fighting. Their routine involved the massive naval bombardment of land-based targets, preceded by troop lands and bombing runs by carrier-based aircraft; finally troops would arrive on the shore in waves until they had sufficient numbers to push inland. Such a routine was expected to work at Peleliu.

Few news reports reported the battle and the prediction of a ‘three day victory’ motivated only six reporters to report from the shore. The battle was overshadowed by MacArthur’s return to the Philippines and the Allies’ push towards Germany in Europe.

Throughout the first two weeks of the US’s arrival on Peleliu on September 15, the troops were caught in heavy crossfire, and were bogged down by a mixture of the heavy fire from the extreme left flank and obstacles such as the 30 foot high ridge known as ‘The Point’, amongst other man-made and natural obstacles. At the end of the first day, the US suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded. It took four days to secure the southwest area of the island, including ‘The Point’ and a key airstrip. The Japanese troops’ use of the cave systems of Peleliu to emerge undetected inflicted serious damage on the US. This continued to debilitate the US troops as they pushed north. They faced heavy artillery fire and a fusillade of small arms from Japanese forces planted within the caves under the Umurbrogol Mountain, nicknamed the ‘Bloody Nose Ridge’. As a result it took eight days to capture ground and US troops sustaining around 50% of their casualties of the entire battle at this site. It turned out to be some of the most vicious and costly fighting seen in the Pacific campaign.

@TheMcrHistorian

US Soldiers resting on Peleliu Island 13

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY IN 10 PICT U R E S JFK Assassination Thomas Barnett

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

F H

I J A The assassination of John F Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, is perhaps most bitter because of the sense of dynamic optimism that had followed upon him taking office B November 22, 1963: JFK’s route through Dallas Texas is designed to enable maximum exposure of the President to the general public.. http://www. telegraph.co.uk C The fatal gunshot rings outs. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy attempts to cover her husband’ s body as Secret Service men rush to the President’ said. http://www.telegraph.co.uk D JFK is declared dead at 1:00 PM. Jacqueline Kennedy, and the President’ s brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, emerge from the hospital behind his coffin draped in the American flag. http://www.telegraph.co.uk E Lyndon Johnson is sworn in as President the very same day with Jackie Kennedy stood by his side.F: 24th November 1963: Lee Harvey Oswald is arrested as the assassin. However he is never brought to trial as he is gunned down by Jack Ruby in the basement of the Dallas Police Headquarters. G People queue throughout the night to pay respects to the fallen President at the Capitol building. Such was the effect his death had upon the Ameri can public. http://www.telegraph.co.uk H 25th November 1963: JFK is buried by his family in the knowledge that they may never fully understand his death. http://www.telegraph.co.uk I November 1964: One year after President Kennedy’ s assassination, the Warren commission present their findings to LBJ. They determine that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone in killing the President.

J To this day, polls illustrate that 60% of Americans believe that JFK’ s death is part of a conspiracy. As illustrated in the film JFK (1991) which popular ised the phrase, “back and to the right” http://www.movpins.com/ @TheMcrHistorian

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

HISTORY IN FEATURES South Sea Bubble Incident Natalie Sharpin “They had an immense capital dividend among an immense number of proprietors. It was naturally to be expected, therefore, that folly, negligence, and profusion should prevail in the whole management of their affairs.”- Adam Smith on the South Sea Bubble The 1720 South Sea Bubble scandal serves as Britain’ s first modern financial crash. At the height of the Empire, it was believed that no British venture could fail. Thus, in return for a £7 million loan to finance war against France, the House of Lords allowed the South Sea Company a monopoly in trade with South America. The company underwrote £30 million of English National Debt, on a promise of 5% interest from the Government. Shares artificially inflated 10 times their value as investor confidence resulted in wild speculation. Soon it in no way reflected the actual worth of the company and the entire country suffered a catastrophic loss of money and property overnight. This story is not unique. The fatal combination of negligent folly of financiers and aggressive speculation has been a recurring theme leading to the 1929 Wall Street Crash, the Dot.com Bubble of the 1990s and the recent global financial crisis of 2009. Note what a man who purchased £500 worth of South Sea stock said: “When the rest of the world are mad, we must imitate them in some measure”. Mob mentality

The Watergate Scandal

and mass hysteria is no doubt a deviant from rational behaviour. However, this risk was not negated by those experts relied upon to manage financial affairs responsibly; moreover, as depicted so outrageously in the film Wolf of Wall Street, it was encouraged. Almost a decade since the Lehman’ s Brothers collapse it is clear that lack of accountability dominated the packaging and re-packaging of subprime mortgages as bankers saw fit to banish risk once they had lost track of it. Just like the South Sea Company before them, banks considered themselves “too big to fail”. Nonetheless, the collapse of Northern Rock and the Royal Bank of Scotland led to radical government bail-out to salvage completeeconomic break-down, the cost being less than the cost of the failure to the economy. Financial regulation is going through a period of significant reflection and change. In Britain, the Financial Conduct Authority has formulated ‘ The Principles for Businesses’ with integrity at its core. Financial institutions have bought into conduct risk as the industry works to regain consumer confidence in responsible banking. All the while, the European Debt Crisis is looming which begs the question: how serious does a crash have to be to effect lasting change? Certainly, as the financial industry becomes ever more complex to fit a global economy we must not fall foul of collective delusion.

Brogan Campbell

The Watergate scandal was a major political catastrophe, which created a constitutional crisis in America. It not only removed the trust between the American public and the political system, it also had ramifications across the world. Hence, why major crises now carry the suffix ‘-gate’, such as in the recent political fiasco featuring Andrew Mitchell, known as Plebgate.

had to release the tapes to government investigators, and Nixon eventually complied with the demands. The investigation exposed the bugging of political opponents offices, the harassment of political activists by the FBI and the CIA, along with other ‘dirty tricks’. The courts investigation led to 69 high-ranking government officials being arrested, with 48 being convicted. The audiotapes further revealed that the This infamous scandal emerged under Richard Nixon’s President had attempted to cover up the scandal after presidency. Nixon, a Republican, was elected as President the break-in took place. This forced Nixon to resign in 1968 and re-elected in 1972. His re-election in 1972 on the 9th August 1974, or be faced with impeachment. was a landslide victory, as secured over 60 percent of Nixon’s resignation was carried live on radio and popular vote; however this popularity wouldn’t last for television, and the president used this opportunity to very long. attempt to reverse the growing public dissent, as focused Richard Nixon on his foreign policy success. President Ford granted Nixon a full On the 17th of June 1972, five men were caught breaking into pardon, which was detrimental to Ford’s presidency and a major factor in his the Democratic Headquarters at the Watergate Complex in Washington defeat in 1976. The entire handling of the scandal left a stain on the American D.C. These men were linked to Nixon’s administration by the Washington political and legal system. Post, who received information from William Mark Felt, Senior. Felt was associate director of the FBI. The whistle-blowers identity remained a In 1977 Nixon agreed to an exclusive interview by British journalist David secret until 2005, instead being referred to as Deep Throat in the media. Frost. Frost posed hard hitting and direct questions, which exposed Nixon’s full There began an investigation by Congress into the illegal activities of Nixon’s administration. It came to light that Nixon had a secret taping system. Nixon refused to provide the tapes when asked by court, claiming executive privilege and instead providing edited transcripts of conversations. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president

involvement with the scandal. Nixon was forced to formally apologise, but his reputation was tarnished beyond repair. The Watergate scandal exposed the corrupt nature that can exist within politics, and has led to public suspicion of political actors not just in the USA but across the world.

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ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Héloïse and Abélard

Jack Warren

The tale of the two lovers, Heloise and Abelard, and their scandalous affair has incited an exodus of literature, music and art. Hailing from 12th century Paris, both Heloise and Abelard were highly gifted intellectuals, well versed in philosophy and theology. Heloise was a pupil of Abelard who was twenty years her senior, she is known to have striven for knowledge, truth and equality. For Abelard, such a woman was intriguing and he soon fell for her. Despite their illicit love being forbidden their yearnings for each other could not be repressed and their physical bodies soon joined their emotions in passionate entanglement. Unfortunately for the couple, their passion was made public when Heloise fell pregnant out of wedlock. To avoid the bastardisation of their child and scandal, they moved to Brittany, where Canon Fulbert –Heloise’s uncle- performed a secret marriage ceremony, not unlike Friar Laurence in Romeo and Juliet. However, Fulbert’s actions were misguided, as he attempts to ruin Abelard’s reputation and keep Heloise for himself. Heloise escapes, fleeing to a convent in Argenteuil, but for Abelard the story is more brutal. Abelard is viciously attacked in Paris and castrated, the humiliation of which meant he could no longer teach at Notre Dame. To avoid further attacks, Heloise and Abelard gave up their child and joined the Holy Orders. Despite separation, the two lovers kept in correspondence for twenty years, their love continued to flourish. They met briefly at a ceremony in Paris, the last time they would meet, and decreed the love they share is the reason for human existence. The two lovers would never meet again, yet through their letters, their love lives on; inspiring literary romantic tales for centuries. The story of Heloise and Abelard, their courage and passion, is used by romantics to enlighten contemporary thought. Questioning our own understanding of religious intolerance, and intellectual freedom.In the era of courtly love or fin’amor, the story of Heloise and Abelard would

Pele during a game against Malmö FF in 1960, Brazil won 7-1. Wikimedia Commons

seem most apt. Courtly love poses itself, as historian Newman states, ‘a love at once illicit and morally elevating, passionate and disciplined, humiliating and exalting, human and transcendent.’ This story would seem to fit the mould, perhaps all too well. Revision of the story of Heloise and Abelard proves to shed more light on their transcendent love. Mary Ellen Waithe proposes, with much evidence, that Abelard raped Heloise when she refused consent. From Abelard’s fifth letter to Heloise he states: ‘When you objected to [sex] yourself and resisted with all your might, and tried to dissuade me from it, I frequently forced your consent (for after all you were the weaker) by threats and blows.’ Moreover, Heloise’s radical feminist philosophies would too seem to jilt this love story. She states: ‘Assuredly, whomsoever this concupiscence leads into marriage deserves payment rather than affection; for it is evident that she goes after his wealth and not the man, and is willing to prostitute herself, if she can, to a richer.’ Her obvious view of marriage as contractual prostitution may well fit into her story. For Heloise is essentially forced to marry Abelard for fear of shame and punishment. Their love is interfered with by religious doctrine and parenthood, of which marriage is the apotheosis. Despite sexual abuse being cited in Abelard’s letters, Heloise’s letters still propose she is greatly in love with Abelard and do not fortify Abelard’s claim of rape. Wulstan states that guilt led Abelard to make such a claim. It is also imperative that we do not place our understanding of rape culture upon a twelfth century society, for our understanding will be vastly different to theirs.

Héloise and Abelard in the manuscript Roman de la Rose. @TheMcrHistorian

In spite of this, as a hopeless romantic first and historian second, I will choose to view this as an embellished true story who’s relevance and delight spans centuries.

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Edward VIII Abdication Crisis When George V died on January 20, 1936, Prince Edward became King Edward VIII. However, nobody was to foresee just how shortlived his reign would be. When Edward VIII proposed marriage to Wallis Simpson in 1936, a constitutional crisis emerged in the British Empire.

Will Bain

to the media, and Edward’s failure to sway the powers that were in Baldwin’s favour, that led to the Prime Minister’s triumph in the Abdication Crisis. Religious implications can be seen as the last contributing factor in influencing Edward’s decision to abdicate. In Edward’s lifetime the Church of England did not allow divorced people to remarry in church while a former spouse was still living. The monarch was required to be in communion with the Church of England as its nominal head. If Edward married Wallis Simpson, a divorcee with two living ex-husbands, in a civil ceremony, it would conflict with his role as Supreme Governor of the Church of England.

“‘an entirely unscrupulous woman who is not in love with the King.’”

The crisis commenced in October 1936, when Wallis Simpson was granted a decree nisi—a divorce which would become final in six months—from shipping executive Ernest Simpson, her second husband. Edward VIII told the staid Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he wanted to marry Wallis Simpson and that if he could not marry her and maintain his position on the throne, he was ‘prepared to go’. The prime minister, receiving support from many areas including the cabinet, the hierarchy of the Church of England, Edward’s relatives within the royal family, and the bulk of public opinion at home and across the British Empire, told the king he could not, as King of England, marry a woman who was twice divorced. On December 10, 1936, after days of wild newspaper speculation about the constitutional crisis, the king abdicated. He could not, as he said in his famous radio speech on December 11, 1936, continue to perform his duties without the support of the ‘woman I love’, and he left the throne to his brother, who became George VI.

Therefore, Edward’s reign as monarch of Britain was to be brief, though certainly not eventful. Edward’s refusal to give up Wallis Simpson for the throne led to his abdication in December 1936. He remains the only British monarch to have voluntarily renounced the throne since Anglo-Saxon times. While the government and media may have won the battle in not allowing Simpson to become Queen, this did not stop Edward. Edward was handed the title ‘His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor’, following his abdication, before marrying Simpson in 1937. Edward and Wallis would remain a married couple until Edward’s death in May 1972.

Both the government and the media exerted great influence on Edward’s decision to abdicate. The government did not approve of Edward’s bride-to-be simply because she was not trusted. Members of the British government were greatly disheartened by the news of the marriage after being told that Wallis Simpson was an agent for Nazi Germany. It was rumoured that Simpson had access to confidential governmental papers sent to Edward, and the government used evidence such as this to gain support in rejecting the notion of marriage. Indeed, future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain wrote in his diary that she was ‘an entirely unscrupulous woman who is not in love with the King but is exploiting him for her own purposes. She has already ruined him in money and jewels.’ Simpson was perceived to be politically unsuitable as a consort due to her two failed marriages. It was widely assumed by the establishment that she was driven by love of money and status rather than love for the King. This opposition by the British government subsequently led to strained relations between the United Kingdom and the United States during the inter-war years. The majority of Britons were reluctant to accept an American as queen, greatly influenced and persuaded against the marriage by their government and the media coverage they were exposed to. The media would also play a crucial role in the subsequent abdication of Edward. The British government manipulated the press in order to win the allegiance of the citizens of the dominions. It was Prime MinisterStanley Baldwin’s connections

Wallis Simpson www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

The Pendle Witch Trials

Chloe Wright

The 1612 Pendle Witch Trials are possibly the most notorious and well documented of witchcraft persecution cases in England during the widespread moral panic of witchcraft sweeping across Early Modern Europe. Of the twelve accused, 10 men and women were found guilty of practicing witchcraft in Lancaster and York courts. There are many potential causes of the Pendle Witch Trials. Politically, the area surrounding Pendle Hill in Lancashire, which constitutes modern day Burnley, Blackburn and Accrington, were seen as lawless and wild places where deviant behaviour and lack of religious morality was rife. For this reason, people in this area were plausibly believed to be practicing morally repugnant witchcraft. Some claim that people could make a substantial living out of providing magical service for local peoples, perhaps contributing to the outburst. This occurred against the backdrop of the reign of King James I, where interest in witchcraft and persecutions as a punishment of it became the social norm due to the king’s obsession with witchcraft, to the extent of creating a handbook on how to ‘deal’ with witchcraft cases, Daemonologie. The trials took place in two different locations; Jennet Preston was tried at the York Assizes on the 27th July whilst the rest of the accused (Alizon Device, Elizabeth Device, James Device, Anne Whittle, Anne Redferne, Alice Nutter, Katherine Hewitt, John Bulcock and Jane Bulcock) were tried at Lancaster Assizes on the 18th to the 19th August. Of the 12 accused of witchcraft, only one was found not guilty and one died before sentencing. The ten found guilty were sentenced to death by hanging. The charges brought against the accused were typical of witchcraft accusations during the Early Modern period. They included the murder of ten people by witchcraft, practicing maleficium and other spell casting, the keeping of demonic familiars which in this case was often in the form

of dogs, and partaking in Sabbat at Malkin Tower where an infant was sacrificed. The Pendle Witch Trials have plenty in common with witch trials spanning across Europe as the entire continent was caught up in the witch craze of the Early Modern Period. An example of a prevalent feature of European witchcraft trials included the accusation of infanticide during the witches’ Sabbat as a sacrifice to Satan. This was an accusation made both at Pendle and various other trials including the Mora witch trial in Sweden. In terms of the accusations, family feuds were seen as possible reasons for the accusations of witchcraft in both the Pendle and Salem witch trials. The Pendle witch trials were a fundamental example of the witch craze of early modern Europe and the deadly consequences of Europe’s obsession with a perfectly moral society.

Madoff Invesment Scandal Bernie Madoff created a Ponzi scheme which went unnoticed over 20 years and managed to secure $65bn of investment. How did this scheme work? Madoff set up an investment firm, which he would lure customers into entering, and promise a 10% return on their investment every year. He did not, however, invest this in stocks with a specially designed method which maximised profits like he claimed. This was too risky. Instead, he would repay investors with their own investment every year, but this meant that after 10 years, all of their money would eventualy vanish. Madoff solved this problem by recruiting more and more investors, so that he could use new investor’s money to pay old investors their dividends. There was also the problem of investors wanting to pull out large sums of their money, which they were within their rights to do. Due to this, Madoff would restrict the people he allowed to invest determined by him accepting those who asked minimal questions and were likely not to ask for a lump withdrawal. The exclusivity that this created led to the attraction of even more investors, all wanting to be part of an elite club. Celebrities such as @TheMcrHistorian

Ravi Gembali

Steven Spielberg, Kevin Bacon and Zsa Zsa Gabor had been sucked into this investment scandal and lost fortunes in doing so. Madoff managed to successfully continue this scandal for almost 20 years, and his downfall only came due to the credit crunch. In 2008, investors were demanding their money back as they were no longer in a financial situation where they could have these investments. But, by this time, their money was gone; it had been used to pay returns for themselves and other investors over the years. One of the most significant fraud scandals Wall Street had ever seen had come to light. Madoff had ruined thelives of many; it wasn’t just those extremely wealthy that were affected. There were many cases of victims being forced to work rather than enjoy retirement, with over 9,000 people filing claims for losses. Madoff was ruthless, possessing a lack of moral principles; he had even comforted a widow for the sole purpose of securing her investment. Once authorities had uncovered the scandal, Madoff, at age 71, was charged with a 150-year prison sentence, ensuring that he will spend the rest of his life behind bars.

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

Pope Benedict IX

Stephen Fulham to implement rules which limited the age of cardinals; the pool from which the Pope is traditionally chosen. These changes removed overt family-based factionalism from the heart of the Church and introduced some semblance of stability in leadership for one of the world’s most influential religious bodies. Sources dispute Benedict IX’s age when he first became the Supreme Pontiff in 1032. Most scholars believe he was somewhere between eleven and twenty years old when his father, an influential Count, secured him the position. Benedict was forced into a brief hiatus during the mid-1030s after he was cast out of Rome by an anti-Pope; someone with an equivalent and legitimate claim to be Pontiff, not once but twice. He eventually returned at the behest of his family militia and the realpolitik of Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II in 1036. A successor to the Chair of St. Peter, Victor III, outlined the reasons for Benedict’s unpopularity and first resignation in 1044 in his Third Book of Dialogues: rape, murder, sodomy, and violence. St. Peter Damian, a contemporary Cardinal, judged Benedict IX as ‘a demon from hell in the disguise of a priest’ not least because he, according to both allies and enemies, hosted orgies at the official Lateran Palace. To make matters worse, these orgies involved other men and animals as well.

Pope Benedict IX When asked how a controversial Holy Father is linked to a superb brunch menu item, one might be tempted to say Benedict. Pope Francis’ predecessor shocked the world in 2013 when he became the first head of the Roman Catholic Church in more than half a millennium to resign. As it turns out, he was not the most controversial Pope of that name to have chosen to govern the Holy See- being far exceeded by the notorious Pope Benedict IX. Benedict IX, born to a noble family living on the outskirts of Rome, served three terms as Pope between 1032 and 1048. He was the nephew of two other Popes, one of them also called Benedict (VIII), and rotated through an office which is traditionally a post for life. After resigning once and committing simony, selling off the Papacy, Benedict IX was eventually excommunicated in 1048. His time as the Bishop of Rome saw spells of Papal debauchery and brought an end to the politicised system which had been controlled by the Counts of Tusculum and other noble families. The scandals of Benedict IX’s papacy contributed strongly to conclave being secured under lock and key, as well as the decision

However, Benedict IX became Pope once again in 1045 when he was probably in his thirties. He lasted less than two months. Pressure over his conduct built to crescendo, leading Benedict IX to sell the Papacy to Gregory VI. The reasons for this were either to finance his wedding or establish a pension. Gregory alleged he bought the Papacy to save the Church from scandal and sin, but he was later dismissed by Henry III at Sutri following a dispute when Benedict IX changed his mind on marriage after he was unable to get his first choice of bride. Benedict IX later managed to return to power in 1047 but lasted less than a year before being removed from office for a third and final time. Henry III of Germany assembled a Council at Sutri and deposed Benedict and the other two men who had staked competing claims to the Papacy. He then appointed a fellow Bavarian to the role,who lasted only a little longer than his predecessor. The historiography has not reached a consensus as to how Benedict lived out the rest of his life. Some accounts say that he moved to Grottaferrata, south-east of Rome, and repented his sins until his death by January 1056. Others suggest that he carried on with the exploits which caused outrage among the Church hierarchy whilst he was Pope. Furthermore, these commentators claim that he never lost hope or ambition in trying to regain the Papacy until his death.

www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

WOMEN IN HISTORY Emmeline Pankhurst

Amy Colebrook

This was the slogan of the WSPU which, led by Emmeline Pankhurst was a militant suffrage group willing to resort to violence to promote her agenda. Born in Moss Side, Manchester on 15th July 1858, Emmeline Pankhurst is arguably one of the most recognisable figures of first wave feminism or indeed of women’s history as a whole.

as the WSPU began to approach whichever party was in power and demand votes for women. It is at this point that the militant nature of the Suffragettes, as we now know them to be, began to emerge. Under Emmeline Pankhurst the WSPU started to get traction and a reputation for heckling politicians and a negative, scandalous reputation emerged.

She established the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. In her autobiography, Pankhurst describes how she expressed an interest in politics from a young age; the book opens with a description of her participating in a fundraiser for emancipated slaves in the United States, at the age of 5.

In her autobiography, Pankhurst titled the years 1907-11 “Four Years of Peaceful Militancy”, which was a period of arrests and loud political demonstrations. Arson was a common tactic which put the organisation, and Pankhurst herself, in bad favour with the popular press and even Politicians such as Lloyd George for breaking windows and goading police officers into arresting them.

But it was at 14, after attending a meeting about women’s voting rights, that Pankhurst describes herself as a ‘conscious and confirmed suffragist’. She was also involved in other political ventures in her life, including the Women’s Franchise League which was established 1888 and the Independent Labour Party which Pankhurst joined. Finally, in 1903 with the aid of her two daughters, the WSPU was created. Today, the word ‘suffragette’ creates the image of radical young women chaining themselves to railings and hunger strikes. While a valid aspect of the history of the WSPU, in 1903 their actions were quite different. Initially a peaceful movement, the WSPU’s first campaigns were demonstrations at trade union meetings, street demonstrations and petitions to parliament. Their campaigning began to take a direct political approach after 1905,

The concept for the infamous hunger strikes was conceived off the back of this increased militancy. Although technically correct in calling the protests ‘peaceful’, the WSPU were gaining notoriety for their actions becoming progressively militant and violent. 1912-13 was when the violence came to ahead: the Cat and Mouse Act was passed in 1913 due to outcries over the violent force-feeding of suffragettes, and Emily Davison stepped in front of King George’s horse on 4th June 1913 drawing nationwide attention. It is worth noting, however that all militancy halted after the outbreak of war in 1914, all imprisoned suffragettes were released, and Emmeline Pankhurst called for support of the war effort. It was only in 1907, that the word ‘suffragette’ was first used to describe the WSPU, published in the Daily Mail to differentiate them from the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), an alternative peaceful suffrage group who retained the original name of ‘suffragists’. The NUWSS and WSPU are interesting to compare; official figures vary, but it is generally assumed that by 1914 the NUWSS had around 50,000 members across the country, the WSPU 5000. Today, the popularity of the Suffragettes outshines the reputation of the NUWSS (see the film Suffragettes 2015 for example) but it is worth noting that there is considerable scholarship assessing whether the WSPU were more of a hindrance than a help to the suffrage movement. The Representation of the People Act was passed in 1918, enfranchising landed women over 30; all women over 21 were enfranchised by 1928. Emmeline Pankhurst died only weeks before this final bill passed. In popular culture she is remembered as an icon of power and strength. She was nominated in 1999 as one of Time Magazine’s top 100 most important people of the 20th Century. Her negative reputation as a violent trouble maker has adapted throughout history; initially it was used to negate her cause and reputation, and now it is used to elevate her as an exceptional woman who was willing to push for women’s rights.

Face to Face: Ocean Portraits by Dr Huw Lewis-Jones @TheMcrHistorian

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

What’s going on around Manchester? UNIVERSITY EVENTS Wednesday 2nd December: Find Out About Internships: Roscoe 2.3 Wednesday 16th December: History Staff/Student Christmas Party: Sam Alex North Foyer: 5-7pm Rotating Wednesdays and Saturdays: University Heritage Campus Tours

GETTING INTO THE FESTIVE SPIRIT!

Get into the Christmas spirit this year at Manchester Christmas Markets! Spread around the city centre, explore this year’s markets to drink some mulled wine, whilst eating festive food and shopping for unique Christmas presents. Open 14th November- 21st December.

UPCOMING GIGS:

Friday 4th December: The ASBO Disco presents Ed Solo – Antwerp Mansion Friday 4th December: Shake ‘n’ Bake presents Bondax - Hidden Friday 11th December: Play It Down: Steve Bug + Matthew Dear + Giles Smith – HiddenSaturday 12th December: Mark Fanciulli - Gorilla

CLUB NIGHT SUGGESTIONS: Thursday 3rd December: Pirate Material MCR w/ D DOUBLE E & ROYAL T – Mint Lounge Friday 4th December: Lord Of The Tings Last Party Of 2015 w/ Special Guest – South

James Hopkins giving a Heritage Tour

If you wish to write reviews for films or events in Manchester please email: manchesterhistorian@gmail.com

Friday 11th December: TECTONIC 10YEAR SHOW w/ PINCH / MUMDANCE / ACRE / IPMAN / WEN – Antwerp Mansion

YOUR DAILY FIX:

Mondays: Afterlife - Sound Control Tuesdays: Gold Teeth – Deaf Institute Wednesdays: Juicy – Joshua Brooks Thursdays: P.A.R.T.Y – Sankeys Fridays: Best in Stand Up – The Comedy Store Saturdays: FAC 251 – Factory Sundays: Afterlife MCR – South

TOP THREE FILMS: The Hunger Games: Mockingjay Part 2 (12A): The war in Panem reaches breaking point as Katniss Everdeen unites an army against the tyrannical rule of President Snow, risking everything that she loves most. Bridge of Spies (12A): Set against the backdrop of the Cold War, Tom Hanks plays an American lawyer, recruited to defend a captured Soviet spy. Hanks must work with the CIA to make a deal with the Soviets. Spectre (12): James Bond has returned to our screens. Receiving a cryptic message from his past, Bond seeks to uncover a threatening organisation. M battles political forces, threatening to reveal the secret service, whilst Bond fights to expose secret behind SPECTRE.

The Deaf Institute www.manchesterhistorian.com

ISSUE 21 | OCTOBER 2015

History Society Update Thank you everyone who made it to our annual Staff/Student Pub Quiz! We had a great turnout, filling the entire of 256, and some great competitive spirit among you all. It was great to see staff and students engaging with each other! Following on from this, we have some more socials and events we are holding before the Christmas holidays!

History Society Christmas Social On Wednesday 16th December the party doesn’t finish at 7pm in Sam Alex; the History Society will be moving over to the Students’ Union and holding drinks, before selling tickets to go out in town. We will post more information and create an event nearer the date, but keep your eyes peeled for more info!

History Christmas Party The history department will be holding the famous History Christmas Party on Wednesday 16th December in the Sam Alex foyer from 4pm-7pm. There will be beautiful free food, and plenty of free wine, where you can all come along and have the chance to let of some end of term steam. It’s a great way to celebrate the end of some first semester deadlines, and be able to chat to some of your favourite staff members more casually!

For more information and tickets: http://invasion.com/historyandpolitics/

History Society and Politics Society Invade Berlin! We are edging nearer to our yearly trip abroad, destination: Berlin! We are offering two very price competitive packages, one with coach travel, the other with flights. We have already sold over half of our tickets, but there are a few left that will be sold soon so make sure you book your place now! The trip gives us the chance to kick back and relax, having a great weekend away to celebrate the end of exams. There will be plenty of things to do, catering to all interests, including tourist activities, history and heritage experiences, and the famous Invasion bar crawl across the city!

Find out more here: http://manchesterstudentsunion.com/adviceservice

Wellbeing This time of year can be quite stressful with deadlines looming in and exams getting ever closer. But remember help is always available through the Student Advice Centre. Remember you can always contact them at any time to arrange a meeting or go to a drop in session. That’s all for now, but make sure to keep up to date on all the latest society info by joining our Facebook page and follow us on Twitter. Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/groups/UoMHistorySociety/ Twitter: @UoMHistSoc

History FC- Wins & Goals Having recruited a talented squad, History FC have started the 2015-16 season with great promise and are currently second in Division 2, as well as winning in the first round of the cup. The season started with a 1-0 defeat against league rivals BA Econ, who were fortunate to come up against a History FC team bedding in plenty of new players and were therefore a little rusty. A very good back-post header by the BA Econ forward undid the History defence, which was somewhat against the run of play. Despite being defensively sound, the team lacked attacking creativity and the game, in general, was devoid of many goal-scoring opportunities. Since opening day defeat, History FC have not looked back and have gone on to win five games in a row. A few tactical changes have been made in order to maximise the team’s creativity capacity, whilst also seeking to maintain majority possession of the ball. These tactical changes, in conjunction with a more familiarised squad of players have meant that the team have scored an impressive 24 goals and conceded 5 in the last 5 games. Highlights from the season so far include 4 goals from Joel Standerwick in a 9-0 victory in the cup first round against Medics Albion, a Henry Scanlan hattrick against Medics Wednesday in only his second appearance for the team and a match winning free kick from Captain Dan Bunter against UMCC FC. @TheMcrHistorian

Dan Bunter

The squad has proved to be very versatile, with numerous players being able to play in a number of different positions. This is a great asset to have particularly when on occasion; the squad is beset by ‘essay crisisistis’. There are none more versatile than History FC veteran and Vice-Captain Neil Davies, who has showed his necessity to the squad on two occasions by filling in as a make shift goalkeeper, quite different from his natural position of defender. The team is taking part in three competitions this season: the league, cup and plate. On current form the team are certainly confident of success in these competitions. Particularly the league and the plate, which appears to be between History FC and BA Econ, who are the top two teams in Division 2. The return league fixture against BA Econ is on the 9th December and on current form it looks to be pivotal in deciding the league title. The team is hopeful that the current momentum will lead to a successful season. Whilst not thinking too far ahead and refraining from the ‘game by game’ cliché, the team is undoubtedly playing well, scoring goals and winning games. Long may it continue! For results and weekly match reports follow us on Twitter @HistoryFCManUni. Also, here is the link to the league table, fixtures and results: http:// campussportmanchester.sportpad.net/leagues/view/802/224

History Careers

Muneera Lula

It’s nearly Christmas and the winter break is the perfect time to be thinking a little about careers. With 2016 fast approaching, mapping where you might want to be in years to come is a great idea and there is plenty of helpavailable to help you do just that. The Careers Service are always happy to meet with students who want to makean appointment and you should always feel free to drop in to the Atrium (first floor, University Place) to get more advice. There are so many opportunities around for historians this winter so be sure to check them all out on Careerslink and keep an eye out on the History Society Facebook group but here are a fee great opportunities: Find out about Internships (WEDNESDAY 2ND DECEMBER, 12.00, ROSCOE 2.3) - Another opportunity to find out more about our internships if you missed this event the first time around. Internships are a great way to get experience, earn some money and get insight into a sector. You may even walk away with a job offer. Meet the Professionals: Media (THURSDAY 3RD DECEMBER, 5.00, UNI PLACE) - If you want to find out more about a career in the media

(including marketing, advertising and public relations as well) from the alumni who are now in this sector, then this is the event for you. UoM alumni will be on hand to share their experiences about finding, applying, securing, and working for companies in this varied sector. Manchester RAG Challenges - Volunteering and fundraising is a great way to both build your CV and make a contribution to a great cause. This year there is the London to Paris bike ride, Mount Kilimanjaro trek and project to build playgrounds in Uganda. RAG is based in the Student Activities space on the first floor of the SU Building or find them online at www.manchesterrag.com Maybe none of these career paths appeal to you or maybe all of them do. Do some of your own research and be proactive in your search, there is lots of help available to get you started from careers questionnaires to personality tests. Be sure to take some time out to have a think about where your degree is leading to. There are so many great opportunities to get involved with so keep checking the careers website for regular updates. Good luck in your Careers search!

MANCHESTER HISTORIAN MANCHESTER HISTORIAN is changing READ IT, WRITE IT

The Manchester Historian is a growing magazine seeking writers studying a single or joint honours History degree to write articles, interviews and reviews with an historical slant to chronicle our vibrant and fast-changing world. In return, the Historian offers a great opportunity for budding journalists to gain experience as well as for students to develop writing and research skills to complement their degree and their employability. View our previous issues at http://issuu.com/manchesterhistorian No experience is necessary; we are simply looking for an interested and enthusiastic team of writers and contributors. We welcome article suggestions too, so whether you’d like to write it or not, please contact us at any time during the year with your ideas.

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Behind every story… There is History