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History of Architecture and its media till the Age of Printing Literature Review from History

Maniyarasan R, Ph.D., Department of Design Project 3 | Guide: Dr. Deepak John Mathew

Understanding Architecture through Image & Representations Defining frameworks to Document Architectural Projects

Prologue

Research Objectives & Approach of thesis

People learn to speak, read, and write inorder

> To understand the need of Documentation

to communicate. The primary type of commu-

Design in day-to-day process, in establishing a

nication is Drawing in any kind of design work,

comprehensive solution in the way its done.

our design ideas to others, we must learn how

> To access the reliability of tools of represen-

to draw. We must know to make images to

tation including Photographic Reproduction as

make our ideas clear. Furthermore, we need

dominant tool and address concerns in refer-

to be able to communicate it graphically to

ence to photographic theory, reality and real-

ourselves, the ideas, as we work on any de-

ism.

whether fashion or building. To communicate

sign our ideas are constantly changing and evolving. Our understanding and knowledge

>To improve the Representational methods

of Architectural works of masters and iconic

and techniques, in-tandem with the technology

structures around the world are through their

and inter disciplinary methods.

Photographs and other images. Architects use sketches, Photographs and other modes of

> To be part of teams throughout the construc-

representations. Images have been a decisive

tion period, in creating, setting up and evolving

factor in their relationship with the understand-

documentation frameworks.

ing of Architecture. The understanding of visuals go a long way into the newer processes

>Architectural Practice - To understand and

of design, besides saving us their records

record project, from Architect’s concept, De-

and memory. Most of our knowledge of great

velopment till Execution.

therefore imagine a situation in which embod-

>To create products at intermediate junctions,

ied architecture - not the everyday buildings

like Process Journal, keeping track of the pro-

architecture comes from pictures. One could

that we are used to, but buildings in the “great

jects.

works” category.

First part of research study explored the History of Photography in relation to effects it caused to Architecture, Architects and its movements, from Modernism to Post Modernism till now.

Second part of research explores the existence, recording & transmission of Architecture, phi-

losophy & theory, before Photography. History of Architecture and its media till the Age of Printing.

Sources of Knowledge, Materials and Methods

Sources of Knowledge, Materials and Methods.

The collection of experience transformed into

As that knowledge passed across genera-

models or rules, and that continues to exist

tions after generations, the progress into bet-

only if these are recorded, accumulated and

ter things happened, merely with their visual

transmitted. Constant interaction between

retention and word-of-mouth ideas. Countless

architectural thought and means of communi-

monuments must have been raised even be-

cation has had its effects on the history of ar-

fore any empire was formed across the world.

chitecture. The collection of experience trans-

Every architecture was influenced by

formed into models or rules, and that continues to exist only if these are recorded, accumulated

external factors, and mostly in a subtle profound manner.

and transmitted.The evidences that are left with us, become pointers to our own History, may be not precisely, but with codes.

Before recorded history, humans constructed The purpose of any record/document is to

earthen mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and

trace the sources of tradition and its develop-

structures that often puzzle modern-day ar-

ment in establishing as something, at times as

chaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes

a movement in art or architecture. They started

monumental structures such as Stonehenge,

building long before the dawn of history. The

cliff dwellings in the Americas, and thatch and

manner of buildings which got built, were con-

mud structures lost to time.

ditioned by the materials that lay around them, by their special needs of safety or comfort, by

Other than their shelters, the need to Build

the racial origins and contacts. Trial-and-error

Early architecture had two main functions:

must have been the best used methodology, as they must have gained knowledge through

(1) to consolidate security and power;

their experience of failures and success levels.

(2) to please the Gods.

The richer the society, the more important

years, an ever increasing mass of evidence,

these functions became. Our knowledge of

recovered by excavation. Even last year, a

history that comes from books, are traced from

separate group of temple monuments were

surviving monuments. Apart from bridges,

excavated at Mahabalipuram, India, belonged

aqueducts, triumphal arches, and un-roofed

to Pallava Kingdom.

theatres and amphitheatres, few Greek or Ro-

Fragments with the dimensions of the foun-

man buildings stand today even superficially

dations, may enable a trained investigator to

intact. In history, there were tributaries swell-

reconstruct with certainty, the main features of

ing the main stream which can be followed

a temple of which nothing had remained above

backwards step by step till it almost eludes our

the soil. The upper parts of archaic ‘Temple of

search, though still far from its source. It could

Ceres’ at Paestum, for instance, are just suf-

be reasonable to start from the Greeks and the

ficiently preserved to prove that. It is for these

Romans. Only a very few, mostly roofed with

very early buildings that our debt to excavation

more durable materials than timber, preserve

in greatest. The evidence we have got is cer-

the main lines of their interior form: notably

tainly imperfect. With that is all that we have,

Pantheon at Rome. We must be fortunate that

it throws invaluable light on their Architectural

these buildings have been saved. As a rule,

development. For our knowledge of Architec-

they must have been continued to be used in

ture before 1000 b.c. we depend almost en-

mediaeval times, often as churches. Far more

tirely upon these evidences that are dug of the

numerous are the buildings of which parts only

last half century. In comparison with this solid

still stand, chiefly groups of columns: as we

material, the evidence of ancient writers and of

see in those hollywood movies, and images.

ancient inscriptions, though exceedingly use-

To the visible remains has been added in mod-

ful, couldn’t be considered equals. Of techni-

ern times, especially during the last hundred

cal writers on architecture, Vitruvius has sur-

vived. The effect on Renaissance architects of the study of Vitruvius and his great value must be recognised.

How should all the history and evidence be encoded and how were they decoded? How do we expect it to be decoded? The idea of encoding and decoding has been infused within our culture, more times unconsciously than a conscious way of work. How do we establish these documents become sources of knowledge with their materials and methods.

All the documents and evidences state what they meant to Architecture. Without history, probably Architecture wouldn’t have existed in first place. Some looked at history as a mere record. Some took greater advantage of history and its records, that have come a long way from being documented. The ‘need to document’ is long gone. The need to streamline them and keep them ethically upright could will always be called for.

Timeline of Architecture with Image.

Points where it mattered.

Timeline of architecture with History As mentioned in the previous chapter, hu-

Sumerian civilization was developing its own

mans constructed earthen mounds, stone

unique building - a type of stepped pyramid

circles, megaliths, and structures that are more

called a ziggurat. But in contrast to the pyra-

of a sporadic constructions. They wouldn’t

mids of the Egyptian Pharaohs, ziggurats were

fall under any ‘great architecture’ models or

not built as tombs but as man-made mountains

theories. The History of architecture as such

to bring the Sumerian rulers and people closer

started when ‘Egyptians, Greeks & Romans’

to their Gods who supposedly dwelt high up

started building. Especially, when they started

in mountains to the east. Ziggurats were con-

building those Truimphal Arches, Churches,

structed from clay-fired bricks, often finished

Palaces, etc., with more durable materials,

with coloured glazes.

that has stayed long enough till the Historians documented them in some way or the other.

Early Irish Architecture - Towards the end of

Most reliable evidence have been the building

the Stone Age, ceremonial megaliths (struc-

in itself. Others are the ones, that are docu-

tures built from large stones) like the Knowth

mented as images, sketches, paintings, po-

megalithic tomb (c.3300 BCE) and Newgrange

ems, books, etc.,

passage tomb, began to appear in Northern Europe (This form of Megalithic art is exempli-

Egyptian Architecture - Design was monumen-

fied by the Stonehenge stone circle).

ployed posts and lintels, rather than arches,

Greek Architecture - About 600 BCE, inspired

tal but not architecturally complex and em-

although Egyptian expertise in stone had a

by the theory and practice of earlier Egyp-

strong influence on later Greek architecture.

tian stone masons and builders, the Greeks set about replacing the wooden structures of

Sumerian Architecture - Meanwhile, in Mesopotamia and Persia (c.3200-323 BCE), the

their public buildings with stone structures - a process known as ‘petrification’. Limestone

and marble was employed for columns and walls, while terracotta was used for roof tiles and ornaments. Decoration was done in metal, like bronze. Like painters and sculptors, Greek architects enjoyed none of the enhanced status accorded to their successors. They were not seen as artists but as tradesmen. Thus no names of architects are known before about the 5th century BCE. The most common types of public buildings were temples, municipal structures, theatres and sports stadiums.

Architecture methods of Ancient Greece -

a light porous stone known as tuff. Marble, be-

building techniques. It wasn’t until the Roman

for sculptural decoration, except in the grand-

Greek architecture used simple post-and-lintel era that the arch was developed in order to span greater distances. As a result, Greek architects were forced to employ a great many more stone columns to support short horizontal beams overhead. Moreover, they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces, without having rows of internal support columns. The standard construction format, used in public buildings like the Hephaesteum at Athens, employed large blocks of limestone or

ing scarcer and more valuable was reserved est buildings, such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis.

Greek Building Design - The typical rectangu-

lar building design was often surrounded by a columns on all four sides (eg. the Parthenon) or more rarely at the front and rear only (eg the Temple of Athena Nike). Roofs were laid with timber beams covered by terracotta tiles, and were not domed. Pediments (the flat-

tened triangular shape at each gable end of

early Greek architecture: the Doric, Ionic and

the building) were usually filled with sculptural

Corinthian.

decoration or friezes, as was the row of lintels along the top of each side wall, between the roof and the tops of the columns. In the late

Roman Architecture - Unlike the more crea-

tive and intellectual Greeks, the Romans were

4th and 5th centuries BCE, Greek architects

essentially practical people with a flair for

began to depart from the strictly rectangular

engineering, construction and military matters.

plan of traditional temples in favour of a cir-

In their architecture, as in their art, they bor-

cular structure (the tholos), embellished with

rowed heavily from both the Etruscans (eg. in

black marble to highlight certain architectural

their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and

elements and provide rich colour contrasts.

in the construction of arches), and also the

These buildings were famously adorned with

Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors

a huge range of Greek sculpture - pedimental

in all visual arts. However, without Roman art -

works, friezes, reliefs and various types of freestanding statue - of a figurative nature, depicting mythological heroes and events in Greek history and culture.

Orders - The theory of Greek architecture -

arguably the most influential form of classical Greek art - was based on a system of ‘Classical Orders’ - rules for building design based on proportions of and between the individual parts. This resulted in an aesthetically pleasing consistency of appearance regardless of size or materials used. There were three orders in

with its genius for copying and adapting Greek

the dominant theme of architecture and the

styles - most of the artistic achievements of

visual arts for the next 1,200 years.

Greek antiquity would have been lost.

Architectural Priorties of Ancient Rome - Ro-

Byzantine architects - including numerous Italians who had moved to the new capital from

man architecture served the needs of the

Italy - continued the free-flowing tradition of

Roman state, which was keen to impress,

Roman architecture, constructing a number

entertain and cater for a growing population in

of magnificent churches and religious build-

relatively confined urban areas. Drainage was

ings, during the era of early Christian art. As it

a common problem, as was security. This, to-

was, the Byzantine style of iconography devel-

gether with Rome’s growing desire to increase

oped in a highly stylised manner and aimed

its power and majesty throughout Italy and

to present complex theology in a very simple

beyond, required public buildings to be impos-

way, making it possible to educate and inspire

ing, large-scale and highly functional.

even the illiterate. For example, colour was very important: gold represented the radiance

Architectural advances - Arches & Concrete

of Heaven; red, the divine life; blue was the

- Roman architecture was assisted by major

colour of human life; white was the uncreated

advances in both design and new materials.

essence of God, used for example in the icon

Design was enhanced through architectural

painting of the Resurrection of Christ.

developments in the construction of arches

After the Early period of Byzantine architecture

and roof domes. Arches improved the efficien-

(c.300-600), which was largely a continuation

cy and capability of bridges and aqueducts

of Roman architecture, there came a Middle

(fewer support columns were needed to sup-

Period (c.600-1100), notable only for the popu-

port the structure), while domed roofs not only

larity of the cross-in-square type architectural

permitted the building of larger open areas

church design.

under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and majesty,

Buildings increased in geometric complexity,

as in several important secular and Christian

while brick and plaster were employed in addi-

basilicas, like the Pantheon. Christianity (previ-

tion to stone for decorative purposes, like the

ously a minority sect) was declared the sole of-

external zig-zag patterns. The previous ‘Clas-

ficial religion throughout the empire. These twin

sical Orders’ or styles were interpreted more

developments impacted on architecture in two

freely, and windows filtered light through thin

ways: first, relocation to Constantinople helped

sheets of alabaster to create softer illumination.

to preserve and prolong Roman culture, which might otherwise have been destroyed by the

Although they relied on several design features

barbarian invaders of Italy; second, the emer-

from Greek and Roman Antiquity, Roman-

gence of Christianity provided what became

esque architects had neither the imagination

of the Greeks, nor the engineering ability of

finer, more vertical, more detailed, brighter,

the Romans. For example, Roman building

more exciting and more inspirational form of

techniques in brick and stone were largely lost

Romanesque.

in most parts of Europe. In general, the style employed thick walls, round arches, piers, col-

The principal feature of the Gothic style is the

umns, groin vaults, narrow slit-windows, large

pointed arch, believed by many experts to

towers and decorative arcading. The basic

originate in Assyrian, and later, Islamic ar-

load of the building was carried not its arches

chitecture. This feature, which channeled the

or columns but by its massive walls. And its

weight of the ceiling onto weight-bearing piers

roofs, vaults and buttresses were relatively

or columns at a much steeper angle than was

primitive in comparison with later styles. Inte-

previously possible with the Romanesque

riors were heavy with stone, had dim lighting

‘rounded’ arches, permitted architects to raise

and - compared with later Gothic styles - sim-

vaults much higher and thus create the im-

ple unadorned lines.

pression of ‘reaching towards heaven’. It also led to the adoption of numerous other features.

Gothic art style is characterized by the use of

Instead of massively thick walls, small windows

pointed arches, thinner walls, ribbed vaults,

and dim interiors, the new Gothic buildings

flying buttresses, huge stained glass windows

had thin walls, often supported by flying but-

and elaborate tracery. Think of it as a sort of

tresses, and huge stained glass windows.

Slowy, but steadily, the ‘Standardisation’ of architecture and its features, demanded the tools of representation to get more reliable. Before the start of the age of printing, there were a lot of trial-and-error, and not so reliable records.

Nevertheless, they are vital in understanding not just the evolution of History of architecture, but the kinds of tools used as well. The need to create features, and draw it to a scale. Recreating something from the intangible leftovers of those travellers and historians, was slowly moving out. Creation and reproduction of the ‘Orders’ by the Romans to scale, is a perfect example. It established not just the scale, but created a distinguished indentity to them and their place as well.

Architecture in the age of Printing

“this will kill that... book will kill the Church”.

- Victor Hugo But it didn’t

Architecture in the Age of Printing In the description of Hagia Sophia, Historians

in images. The graphic documentation of mon-

mention two modes of Architectural percep-

uments is only one stage, albeit an essential

tion. Those who saw and those who heard

one. Imitation was considered a creative art.

about it. The failure of the mediation didn’t deter him to describe in his words infinitely.

A new availability of trustworthy, portable, and

He believes the only alternative is to go see

inexpensive printed images of architecture

it. Middle ages’ builders were great travellers.

greatly facilitated the imitative task of Renais-

Travel was mandatory for training in build-

sance architects. We can ask ourselves what

ing trade. Without any prints, its their mobility

architecture would have been if the print tech-

explains transmission of ideas, image or tech-

nology had not become available, just at the

nical skills. Artistic ideas migrated. True illus-

exact moment when that technology became

trated model books existed, designed to be

indispensable to the diffusion of the new ar-

diffused and reproduced.

chitectural theory of humanism. This feedback phenomenon is inherent to any complex

The mechanical reproduction of images was to

socio-technological shift. Reciprocally, we

have important and long-lasting consequences

can ask ourselves what the practice of archi-

for the transmission of scientific knowledge,

tectural imitation could have been in an age

and even more for technical subjects and for

when images could neither be reproduced nor

the visual arts. Architecture was no exception.

transmitted with any precision. In initial phase

Imitation was at the very heart of Rennaisannce

Renaissance artists and architects made use

Architectural theory. Creative art was inherently

of woodcuts for reproducing images of antique

standardised. Renaissance architectural design is based on the imitation, with varying degrees of creative license, of a certain number of ancient models. In order to imitate the visible form of an architectural model, one must have seen it. And in order to see a building, from antiquity until the diffusion of the woodcut, there was but one way: one had to see that building in person. Buildings could not travel, so people had to. For many architects, the Pantheon and the Colosseum were not places in Rome. They were places in Books.

Images started substituting for direct experience. Systematic visual documentation of great works could be done, with gaining trust

objects that were not originally designed to

ument. Imitation - one for ignorant, other for the

be reproduced. This incongruity of format was

initiated. He disseminated standardised and

quickly corrected; starting in the early six-

commodified the architectural orders. A new

teenth century, architectural treatises began to

architecture was taking shape and was dif-

diffuse a new, media-savvy architectural theory

fused everywhere. It also allows to distinguish.

that was consciously developed in response to

The skillful may cut, paste or modify according

the new means of communication. The Renais-

to his needs, without violating Vitruvian norms.

sance theory of the five architectural orders (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite) is the keystone of this process.

Serlio, Architect of mediocore talent, could now compose, without having to specialise, without even ever having seen an ancient mon-

Conclusion Creation has always been the object of numerous attempts to reduce the many to one. The recent theories seem no more decisive than earlier ones. When John Ruskin denounced in Renaissance architecture the inhumanity of a style that made “plagiarists of its architects, slaves of its workmen,” he was pointing out one of the roots of modernity. Even if built by manual labor, a standardized architecture also standardized the movements and actions of the artisan worker and prefigured the assembly line. All Photographs made in the Film camera time are to be good pictures. Likewise, all good work is free-hand work: in the nineteenth century, the reaction against a machines and its environment. Thus we tend sometimes to forget that Renaissance architecture was created without any machines—except one, which was at least in part responsible for the spread of those that came after. The Renaissance standardization of architectural images was

primarily concerned with the perception and conception of a visual language. In the nineteenth century, machines standardized material production. Many believed a standardized architecture was, in the first place, ugly, for it was remote from the natural habits of man; but worse yet, it contradicted the will of God. The notion of concinnitas—“the absolute and fundamental rule in Nature”—implies among other things that architectural components independent at one level of the design process should respond, or correspond, to each other at a higher and more abstract level of composition. The architect pursues this correspondence through a careful selection of numbers and proportional relationships and arrangements which is more complex, the elements in direct visual relationships must have coordinating numbers, structures, and appearances.

> Brawne M, (2003). ‘Looking at pictures’. In: e.g.

Tolkien, J.R.R. (ed), Architectural Thought: the design process and the expectant eye. 1st ed. Great Britain: Architectural Press. pp.155-158. > Edwards B, (2008). ‘Chapter 10 Drawing and photography with Susan Fahy’. In: e.g. Tolkien, J.R.R. (ed), Understanding Architecture Through

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