In the Service of Krishna Illustrating the Lives of Eighty-four Vaishnavas from a 1702 Manuscript Z
Emilia Bachrach
In the Service of Krishna Illustrating the Lives of Eighty-four Vaishnavas from a 1702 Manuscript
Z The Pushtimarg, or the Path of Grace, is a Hindu tradition whose ritual worship of the deity Krishna has developed in close relationship to a distinct genre of early modern Hindi prose hagiography. This volume introduces readers to the most popular hagiographic text of the Pushtimarg—the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta, or “Narratives of Eighty Four Vaishnavas,” which tells the sacred life stories of the community’s first preceptor Vallabhacharya (1497–1531) and his most beloved disciples. At the core of these narratives are descriptions of how Vallabhacharya’s disciples cultivated intimate relationships with Lord Krishna through ritual performances known as seva, or loving service. Despite the widespread practice of illustrating seva through painting, these narratives, which showcase everyday men and women, have rarely been visually depicted. This book focuses on the only extant Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta manuscript dated to the beginning of the 18th century, now in artist Amit Ambalal’s collection. In the Service of Krishna invites readers to learn about the literary and cultural history of these delightful narratives. The volume will appeal to scholars and students of Indian art and literature, to those who have grown up in the Pushtimarg tradition, and more broadly to those with an appreciation for the distinct ways in which pictures can tell stories, particularly those that unite the everyday with intimate experiences of the Divine.
With 143 illustrations
In the Service of Krishna
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In the Service of Krishna Illustrating the Lives of Eighty-four Vaishnavas from a 1702 Manuscript Z
Emilia Bachrach Foreword by
Amit Ambalal
First published in India in 2019 by Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd 706 Kaivanna, Panchvati, Ellisbridge Ahmedabad 380006 INDIA T: +91 79 40 228 228 • F: +91 79 40 228 201 E: mapin@mapinpub.com • www.mapinpub.com
We are grateful to the following for their support towards publication of this volume: • • • •
Padma Binani Foundation, Mumbai Shree NM Electricals Limited, Mumbai Mrs. Shrikanta Damani, Mumbai Shrimad Vallabh Vishwadharma Sanstha, Ahmedabad
North America ACC Art Books T: +1 800 252 5231 • F: +1 212 989 3205 E: ussales@accartbooks.com • www.accartbooks.com/us/ Rest of the World Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd Text © Emilia Bachrach All paintings © Amit Ambalal All rights reserved under international copyright conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The moral rights of Emilia Bachrach as the author of this work are asserted. ISBN: 978-93-85360-55-8 Copyediting: Roshan Kumar Mogali / Mapin Editorial Editorial Supervision: Neha Manke / Mapin Editorial Design: Paulomi Shah / Mapin Design Studio Production: Gopal Limbad / Mapin Design Studio Printed at Thomson Press (India) Ltd.
Captions p. 1: Detail, the Varta of Tripurdas Kayasth (See, p. 92) pp. 2–3: Detail, the Varta of Harivams Pathak (See, p. 78) p. 4 & 5: Detail, the Varta of Ramdas Sanchora (See, p. 142, below-right) p. 6: Detail, the Varta of Damodardas Harsani (See, p. 42) p. 14: The Varta of a Kshatriya woman from Prayag (See, p. 144, below-left) p. 26: The Varta of Bhagvandas Sanchora (See, p. 146, top-centre) p. 152: Detail, the Varta of Ramdas Chauhan (See, p. 145, top-right)
Detail, the Varta of Raghunathdas, son of Padmanabhadas (See, p. 60)
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Contents
Acknowledgements 13 Note on Translation and Transliteration
15
Foreword Amit Ambalal 17 Introduction 27
The Pushtimarg and its Devotional Aesthetics
27
The Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta
29
The Illustrated Manuscript from the Amit Ambalal Collection
37
Pictures that Tell Stories
40
Select Varta Episodes and Illustrations
41
From the Varta of Damodardas Harsani
43
From the Varta of Krishnadas Meghan
45
From the Varta of Padmanabhadas
51
From the Varta of Tulsa
53
From the Varta of Parvati
57
From the Varta of Raghunathdas
61
From the Varta of Rajo Kshatrani
65
From the Varta of Seth Purushottamdas
67
From the Varta of Rukmini
71
From the Varta of Gopaldas
73
From the Varta of Madhavdas and his brother Benidas
77
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From the Varta of Harivams Pathak
79
From the Varta of Govindadas Bhalla
81
From the Varta of a Kshatrani from Mahavan
85
From the Varta of Jiyadas Suri
87
From the Varta of Purushottamdas and his wife
89
From the Varta of Tripurdas Kayasth
93
From the Varta of Puranmal Jenval
95
From the Varta of Narhari Joshi
101
From the Varta of a Brahmin woman from Adel
107
From the Varta of a Kshatrani from Sinhanand
109
From the Varta of Virbai
113
From the Varta of a Carpenter from Adel
115
From the Varta of Narhar Sannyasi
121
From the Varta of Krishnadas and his wife
125
From the Varta of Gopaldas Kshatri from Naroda
127
From the Varta of Krishnadas Adhikari
131
Illustrated Index of the 1702 Manuscript 136 Glossary
153
Notes
156
Bibliography 161
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Detail, the Varta of Yadavendradas Kumhar (See, p. 141 top-centre)
Acknowledgements While this book lists a single author, its production has been a collaborative effort and a labour of love. This collaboration extends beyond the projects of research, translation and writing to include those who have been hospitable and generous conversation partners during my many trips to India. While there are too many individuals to thank for their satsang, I offer special gratitude to Ranjan and Ashok Paliwal, Kailash and Krutika Bhatt, Maheshwari Bhatia, and Dr Yogini Mehta. It is to these and many other members of the Pushtimargi Vaishnava community to whom I dedicate this book. Many Pushtimargi hereditary leaders have graciously assisted me with my research and answered questions about my translations. I give special thanks to the following individuals: Goswami Vishal of Nathdwara, Vrajeshkumar Maharaj of BarodaKankroli, Goswami Ananda Bava of Rajkot, Shyam Manohar Goswami of Mumbai-Kishangarh, and Goswami Madhusudan (Tilak Bava) of Ahmedabad. For sharing his knowledge of varta literature, I thank Sumit Sharma. For providing ever-patient comments on my writing and for encouraging me to focus on the heart of the matter, I thank Dr Rupert Snell. For their enthusiasm and support for this project, I offer thanks
to Bipin Shah and his team at Mapin. For her keen professional eye and deep appreciation for Pushtimargi visual culture, and for her friendship, I thank designer Paulomi Shah. Without Amit Ambalal, this book would not exist. His depth of knowledge about Pushtimargi art history is unrivalled, and I am forever indebted to him for sharing this knowledge with me. I am especially appreciative of him for granting me access to his impressive collection, especially the 1702 illustrated Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta manuscript under consideration here. My considerations of this manuscript’s paintings and their relationship to other painting genres, including goswami portraiture and Braj yatra ‘guidebooks’, are due solely to insights that he generously shared with me through many conversations over several years. I also give thanks to the entire Ambalal family for their hospitality. Finally, I offer humble gratitude to all my loved ones—family and friends, you know who you are— for continuing to support my research and writing. Emilia Bachrach, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio 2019
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Note on Translation and Transliteration
I have aimed to provide translations that maintain some of the distinctive flavour and rhythm of the Hindi (Braj Bhasha) literature under consideration, while also trying to appeal to contemporary English-reading audiences who may or may not have familiarity with the devotional world of Pushtimargi Hinduism. This means that at times I omit redundancies in my translations by paraphrasing or by including only select portions of the original text. I frequently simplify or alter names and titles for the reader’s clarity. On occasion I also offer modest embellishments for clarification. These translations are therefore meant to carry the mood of the originals more than they are meant to be precise or literal. I have omitted diacritics on Indian-language terms, which appear in italics (except in the case of proper names, or words that have been absorbed into English). When discussing Sanskrit sources and terms therein, I have followed the conventions of contemporary Sanskritists by including the inherent ‘a’ vowel (e.g., purana rather than puran). In the context of discussing Hindi literature and terms therein, I generally omit the inherent ‘a’ vowel (e.g., Braj rather than Braja; laukik rather than laukika), but override this rule when such an omission may be awkward or confusing for the reader (e.g., I write maharajas rather than maharajs). Diacritics will, however, appear on transliterated text names originally composed in Hindi that are listed in the Bibliography.
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Tilkayat Govindji on snan yatra,
A.D. 1770, 29.2 x 16.8 cm (11.5 x 6.62 inch)
Foreword
Pushtimarg (Path of Grace), a Vaishnava religious sect, was founded by Vallabhacharya (A.D. 1497–1531). The sect lays great stress on seva (loving service) to the deity. The image of the deity (svarup) that is mainly Shrinathji, an eight-year-old Krishna, is considered to be a divine living being. Hence it is natural that the seva is articulated and structured and has evolved so as to give the svarup all the comforts that would keep Him in good spirits. Seva in Pushtimarg consists of kirtan, bhog and shringara. The devotional poem-songs sung in the shrine to please Shrinathji are called kirtan. The poetry composed by the ashtachhap poets is sung during the daily eight darshans of the day and also on special festivals. The pada, verses by these poets, are considered to be dear to Krishna and thus sacred. Subjects of many paintings and pichvais are inspired by these padas.
Tilkayat Damodarlalji and Maharana Bheemsingh of Mewar, A.D. 1820, 35 x 31.5 cm (13.81 x 12.43 inch) • 17 •
Janmashtmi, c. A. D. 1750, 13.97 x 7.62 cm (5.5 x 3 inch)
Dol Utsav, c. A. D. 1750, 13.97 x 7.62 cm (5.5 x 3 inch)
Vaman Dwadashi, c. A. D. 1750, 13.97 x 7.62 cm (5.5 x 3 inch)
Rathyatra, c. A. D. 1750, 13.97 x 7.62 cm (5.5 x 3 inch)
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Offerings to the deity in the form of sumptuous food, delicacies and beverages are called bhog. Preparation of the bhog is done aesthetically, keeping in mind the colour as well as the texture of dishes. For instance, on Sharad Purnima (full moon day of the Hindu month of Ashvin), all the food and beverages offered to Shrinathji are white in colour, signifying the moonlight. Shringara is the offering to the lord in the form of adornment through dresses and ornaments. It also includes decoration in the form of flower arrangements, garlands, designing special pavilions for the deity, among other things. Highly ornate and often painted pichvais, divalgiris (wall hangings) and chandovas (canopies) are also a part of the shringara. In Pushtimarg, Krishna is considered to be a loving, intimate, personal deity. Thus, the tilkayat (chief goswami) of Nathdwara as well as of the entire sect adorns Shrinathji in a way that would express his personal sentiment for Shrinathji. If a goswami’s feelings towards Shrinathji were that of vatsalya bhava (parental sentiments for Krishna), he would bedeck Shrinathji to look like a child. If the tilkayat saw himself as a beloved gopi of Krishna in madhurya bhava (amorous sentiments for Krishna), Shrinathji would be adorned like a youth. This would also be reflected in the works of artists of the time through subtle depictions. Amongst various genres of paintings that thus developed centred on the depiction of seva and giving an insight into the Pushtimargi culture, there were certain sets that were more sought after by the devotees. A set of about 24 paintings depicting Shrinathji on major festivals was very popular. These paintings required and maintained great accuracy in depicting Shrinathji in the right set of clothes, ornaments and decorations that were specific to each festival.
Goswami Vallabhji (b. A.D. 1787, Kankroli), left, and Goswami Kalyanrayji (b. A.D. 1751, Mathura), right, c. A.D. 1840, 10.16 x 24.45 cm (4. 56 x 9.625 inch) • 19 •
Besides this, a set of 85 or more portraits of goswamis was also popular, in which, apart from the recognizable features of each goswami, the artist also expressed their emotional attachment with Krishna. The artists ingeniously conveyed this by depicting the goswamis with lotus shaped eyes, graceful postures and sometimes their attire. A set of 13 paintings that would have been most challenging for the artist to depict are the illustrations in the Sahastri Bhavana—a book of the one thousand emotions. This book was authored by Goswami Harirayji (b. A.D. 1591), who has described the various emotions a devotee could experience while performing seva or while having darshan at a Vaishnav haveli. The challenge for the artist was to depict these bhavanas in a single narrative. Another set of 24 paintings of the Braj yatra, a pilgrimage to the land of Braj, an area around Mathura in north India was also very popular. Braj is considered to be the place where Krishna spent his early life and performed his lilas (divine pastimes). Devotees visit these places of pilgrimage consisting of villages, rivers, lakes, tanks, mountains, forests and groves of kadamba and palm trees. The artists infused this physicality with a spiritual dimension by depicting Krishna performing his lilas in these existing landscapes. Amongst all of the sect’s literature, the most popular form that reaches all the devotees is the Varta Sahitya, narratives in the form of parables that recount the anecdotes from the life of Vallabhacharya and his son and successor Vitthalnathji. They also narrate the history of the svarups, which are now enshrined in the palatial havelis of the sect. These stories have their roots in history and convey various aspects of the sect’s philosophy. Among these, the most popular are Chaurasi Vaishnavan Ki Varta (Chronicle of 84 Vaishnavas), Do Sau Bavan Vaishnava Ki Varta (Chronicle of 252 Vaishnavas), Nij Varta (Intimate Chronicles) and Gharu Varta (Domestic Chronicles). The illustrated Chaurasi Vaishnav Ki Varta under consideration here is most unique, as no other illustrated varta literature of the early period has been found so far. The manuscript has 616 folios, measuring 33 cm x 19.5 cm. Of these, the first 499 folios constitute the Chaurasi Vaishnava Ki Varta and the later part comprises the Nij Varta. The Chaurasi Vaishnav Ki Varta has a colophon at the end that reads: “Shri Vallabhadas’s learned son Motilal has commissioned this to reveal the deeper meaning for the benefit of the Vaishnavas. Shri Samvat 1758 (A.D. 1702) Vaishakh Krushna 17, Sunday.” The manuscript has 85 paintings, which on closer inspection seem to have a different handwriting and condition of paper. This could mean that the illustrated pages could have been included separately, or even at a later period. Even the colophon seems to be rewritten along with the page numbers. To ascertain the period of the paintings, we may have to refer to the stylistic development of the Nathdwara painting.
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Mangala darshan (Sahastri Bhavana), A.D. 1840, 25.4 x 33.8 cm (10 x 13.31 inch)
Gval darshan (Sahastri Bhavana), Nathdwara, Rajasthan A.D. 1830, 35.23 x 26.18 cm (13.87 x 10.31 inch)
Raj bhog darshan (Sahastri Bhavana),
A.D. 1830, 34.7 x 25 cm (13.68 x 9.87 inch) • 21 •
Punchari in Braj, Nathdwara, 19th century
Barsana, A.D. 1870, 40 x 29.9 cm (15.75 x 11.81 inch)
The formative stage of painting at Nathdwara is likely to have started during the period of the art loving poet Tilkayat Govardhaneshji (A.D. 1706–1762). The period of Tilkayat Govindji (A.D. 1709–1773) and Tilkayat Girdharji (A.D. 1768–1806) were stylistically very similar, especially in the depiction of Shrinathji. As these three tilkayats worshipped Shrinathji with vatsalya bhava, artists also followed this and depicted Shrinathji like a plumpish child with a round face, in black-indigo colour. During the time of tilkayats who followed—Damodarji, popularly known as Dauji II (A.D. 1796–1825), Govindji (A.D. 1820–1843) and Girdharji (A.D. 1842–1902)—the depiction of the image of Shrinathji changed. As these tilkayats worshiped Shrinathji with madhurya bhava, Shrinathji was portrayed as a youth. Considering the illustrations on stylistic basis, we could assume that the paintings in this Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta manuscript are from the first quarter of the 19th century. The audience of this manuscript would largely have been simple Vaishnava devotees, whose concern would be with the sacred svarups, • 22 •
Detail from the Varta of Padmanabhadas
Vallabhacharya and the eighty-four privileged devotees. The artist of the manuscript would have had many constraints and challenges in illustrating these simple narratives, which provide little scope for any complex compositions. In spite of such limitations the artist has shown great creativity as well as skill in creating these paintings. In the varta of Padmanabhadas, the narrator has related the story of the discovery of the Mathuranathji svarup. According to the story, the Mathuranathji svarup was revealed when the banks of the river Yamuna collapsed. The svarup that appeared was so large that it became very difficult to perform its seva. Hence on Vallabhacharya’s request, the svarup assumed a tiny form suitable for seva. Here in this painting (size 4 inch x 4.5 inch), the entire narrative is shown very imaginatively. The svarup is shown seated on the lap of Vallabhacharya, who seems to comfort it like a child while Padmanabhadas is shown awaiting patiently to receive it. In the varta of Puranmal Jenval, the artist has shown a large white Shrinathji temple in the background that highlights the activity in the • 23 •
Detail from the Varta of Puranmal Jenval • 24 •
Detail from the Varta of Padmaraval Sanchora
sanctum. This is the largest (6 inch x 3 inch) and the most striking painting in the manuscript. . In the varta of Padmaraval Sanchora, the artist has again shown his genius through the depiction of the stone svarup of Ashtabhujaji, an eight-armed Krishna/Vishnu dancing joyously. There are many vartas in which the focal points are only the sacred objects of worship. To counter this problem of static composition, the artist has made the paintings in irregular shapes and sizes and has woven them with the text in such a way that the entire folio comes alive. This manuscript seems to be a collaborative work between the painter, the scribe and possibly the patron who would be well conversant with the Pushtimargi culture and its intricacies. The manuscript provides an ecstatic and joyous experience to its readers, with simple paintings and a glimpse of history woven aesthetically within the narrative. I hope In the Service of Krishna will appeal to scholars, students and enthusiasts of Indian art and literature, to followers of the Pushtimarg tradition and more broadly to anyone with an appreciation for the distinct ways in which pictures can tell stories, particularly stories that united the everyday with intimate experience of the Divine. Amit Ambalal June 2019 • 25 •
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Introduction
The Pushtimarg and its Devotional Aesthetics The Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta (Chronicle of 84 Vaishnavas) manuscript under study here invites the reader-viewer into the broader devotional world of the Pushtimarg (Path of Grace), a Hindu tradition known for its literary and visual culture that focuses on the seva (loving service) of Krishna. As with many Hindu deities, Krishna’s depiction in South Asian literature and art is variegated and spans centuries. The deity’s multifaceted character is also evident in the devotional aesthetics of the Pushtimarg, though the Krishna of this tradition is most frequently characterized by a playful and child-like tenderness. This form of the deity may therefore seem somewhat far removed from the formidable philosopher Krishna of the popular Sanskrit text, the Bhagavadgita. While Krishna’s playful character in the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta differs in many ways from his counterpart in the Bhagavadgita, the two texts share analogous episodes that illuminate an essential quality of the god which is familiar across different textual and visual registers: his ability to bridge the worldly and the other-worldly. The Bhagavadgita episode in question recounts the moment when Krishna, as charioteer and counsellor to the Pandava warrior Arjuna, manifests himself as Vishvarupa (the Universal Form) who towers magnificently over the Kurukshetra battlefield. Arjuna, who has been seeking Krishna’s counsel on the nature of duty and action, becomes overwhelmed by this theophany and requests that Krishna return to his more approachable human-like form. Obliging, Krishna shrinks in size, and Arjuna ultimately emerges from the awesome experience with newfound conviction to fulfill his personal dharma to fight in the Mahabharata war. The episode therefore establishes Krishna’s divinity as well as his sensitivity to Arjuna’s limited capacity to behold the other-worldly Vishvarupa. The Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta’s analogous story also relates to Krishna’s magnitude and divinity
on earth. Here, though, the message shifts to focus squarely on the necessity of loving and caring for Krishna as a divine and delightful child. The Pushtimargi story in question introduces a newly initiated follower of the Pushtimarg, Padmanabhadas, who is well-read in Hindu scriptures, including the Mahabharata, of which the Bhagavadgita is a distinctive part. Because of his own self-perceived erudition, Padmanabhadas finds it difficult to learn the ways of Pushtimargi worship, which emphasizes the loving service of Krishna as a svarup (divine image) cared for in the privacy of devotees’ homes. The scholarly Padmanabhadas proclaims to his guru, Vallabhacharya, that should he witness Krishna’s greatness with his own eyes he would more easily be persuaded to tenderly care for a small, humble form of the god in his own home. Characteristically, Krishna overhears his devotee’s wish and obliges Padmanabhadas by emerging from the banks of the Yamuna River in a form as large as a palm tree, proclaiming to Vallabhacharya, who is with Padmanabhadas to witness Krishna’s emergence from the riverbank, “perform my seva.” Vallabhacharya speaks directly to the palm tree-sized god, explaining that in this day and age there is nobody capable of caring for such a massive svarup! After all, how could a human devotee ritually adorn or offer affection to such a towering deity? Hearing this, the enormous form of Krishna comes to sit in the lap of Padmanabhadas’s guru, immediately shrinking in size so that the deity’s head just reaches the top of Vallabhacharya’s chin. Vallabhacharya then bestows the now child-sized svarup upon the humbled Padmanabhadas who then learns the way of loving devotion and discards all scholarly hubris. While in some ways radically different from the well-known Vishvarupa scene in the Bhagavadgita, the story of Padmanabhadas, like those of his fellow devotees who appear in the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta, similarly reminds the reader of Krishna’s ability to bring divinity lovingly into the human world.
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vartas are often read in Gujarati translation, the status of Braj Bhasha as a language imbued with the qualities of Krishna devotion is still widely recognized. Within the larger canon of literature specific to the Vallabha Sampraday, the Braj Bhasha vartas occupy a very specific place for readers of past and present. Amidst a largely Sanskrit-based literary canon, including the theological treatises attributed to Vallabhacharya and his successors, the vernacular vartas stand out for their aesthetics and for their syntheses of the tradition’s history, theology and social and devotional expressions. These texts are therefore not considered ancillary in any sense: alongside Braj Bhasha and Gujarati hymnals, the vartas are primary to the daily reading and liturgical practices of Pushtimargi devotees. Although in many cases precise authorship is difficult to confirm, it is safe to assert that varta texts were composed and edited by Vallabhacharya’s descendants and disciples living in northern and northwestern India between the 17th and 19th centuries.6 Through the form of sacred biography, the vartas speak both to the broader socio-cultural milieu of early modern India, particularly north and northwest India, where the Pushtimarg first developed, but also to the specific details of sectarian relationships, hierarchies, devotional affect and ritual practices. While there are non-sectarian sources for learning about the early growth of the community (e.g. imperial courtly records, texts from other religious traditions, architecture, oral histories, etc.), much of what is known of the Vallabha Sampraday’s early history comes through the lens of the vartas themselves. It is from these accounts, for instance, that we first see references to how the tradition passed on religious authority from Vallabhacharya through male primogeniture. Vallabhacharya’s living male descendants, called maharajas or goswamis, are still acknowledged as the community’s primary leaders. Collectively, Vallabhacharya, his descendants and their families are called the Vallabha Kul (the Vallabha Dynasty). In addition to caring for Krishna svarups housed in temples of the sect known as havelis, these leaders are generally responsible for initiating new devotees into
the fold and for acting as gurus who offer guidance with respect to the method of worshipping Krishna that characterizes the tradition. This method of worship, seva, is discussed at length in the vartas, which describe how hereditary leaders and devotees of the past lovingly served divine images of Krishna. Seva, which continues to be practised by followers of the Pushtimarg today, includes elaborate rituals during which the devotee lovingly bathes, adorns, feeds and sings to the deity at prescribed times of the day and according to the seasons. Therefore, when the weather is warm, Krishna requires light, airy clothing, and in the winter, he will need blankets, socks and perhaps a small fire to keep his hands warm. Many of the Krishna svarups that became primary during the 16th century are still worshipped in this fashion in havelis, which mark the sacred landscape of the living Pushtimargi tradition. While the region of Braj remains a principal site of pilgrimage, the Pushtimarg’s foremost svarup, Shrinathji, has been housed in a haveli in Nathdwara, in the Mewar region of Rajasthan, since the late 17th century. Thousands of pilgrims still come daily to Nathdwara to have auspicious sight (darshan) of and make offerings to Shrinathji, who is said to have miraculously emerged from Mount Govardhan in the region of Braj in A.D. 1409 According to tradition, Vallabhacharya was called upon by Shrinathji in 1492 to establish a shrine and svarup seva at Mount Govardhan. It was only when political instability upset the region in the latter half of the 17th century that the Shrinathji svarup and his caretakers left Govardhan and headed west, into Rajasthan. In 1671, with support from Mewar’s royal house, the grand haveli that still stands today in Nathdwara was built for Shrinathji and soon became recognized as the Pushtimarg’s principal seat of authority. The Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta The Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta is the oldest and to this day the most widely read varta text. Commonly attributed to Vallabhacharya’s grandson Gokulnathji (1551–1640, according to tradition), this text offers hagiographic accounts of Vallabhacharya’s • 29 •
early disciples. These disciples include four of eight prominent poets of the Pushtimarg known as the ashtachhap (eight seals), of whom Surdas is the most widely known. Braj Bhasha compositions attributed to Surdas and his seven counterparts are sung as kirtan (devotional poem-songs) during seva rituals in havelis and in devotees’ private homes. The Do Sau Bavan Vaishnavan ki Varta (Chronicle of 252 Vaishnavas) is the sister text to the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta and offers accounts of disciples (including the other four ashtachhap poets) initiated by Vallabhacharya’s son Vitthalnath, or Gusainji (1515–1585). While both of these collections officially present accounts of 84 and 252 disciples respectively, there are in fact many more figures whose sacred biographies are told. For instance, in the varta of Padmanabhadas, the reader will find stories dedicated to Padmanabhadas’s wife, daughter and son. Collectively, the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta’s protagonists hail from diverse socio-economic, religious and cultural backgrounds and from a variety of geographical regions—from as far north as Kabul, as far south as Tamil Nadu, as far east as Bengal and as far west as Gujarat. The reader encounters men, women, children, kings, queens, farmers, carpenters, merchants, thieves, jewellers, beggars, Brahmins, Jains, yogis, Muslims, goddess worshippers, tribal people, prostitutes, orphans, child brides and widows. In addition to presenting the idealized social diversity of early followers, the texts also emphasize the diversity of human emotions and behaviours. Though some characters exhibit conventional qualities of humility, patience and unwavering faith in Krishna’s divine grace, others are irascible, vain, or tactless.1 What binds these diverse figures together is their bhakti, expressed in myriad ways, with common focus on Krishna, guru and community. Given the diversity of these figures, it is not surprising that each protagonist comes upon the Pushtimarg in a different manner and at different stages in his or her life. Some hear of Vallabhacharya and Gusainji through family members or friends, while others are attracted to these acharyas (charismatic teachers) after hearing their public recitations and exegesis of the Bhagavatapurana. There
are also those bhaktas (devotees) who first become passionate about Shrinathji, and only turn towards the Pushtimarg when the deity himself explains that all of his devotees must first receive a formal initiation before they can fully cultivate a relationship with the divine.2 In most cases, this Pushtimarg initiation, as it is described in the vartas, consists of the following: taking a ritual bath (snan); receiving initiatory mantras (called nam nivedan and brahmasambandha) along with a necklace (mala) made of ‘holy basil’ (tulasi) wood; and finally receiving either a Krishna svarup or another physical object (e.g. a printed cloth with Vallabhacharya’s footprints) to which seva has to be performed. Much like Shrinathji, many of the svarups who appear in the vartas are described as having emerged as stone forms from the earth or from rivers. Other svarups are described as having been crafted by devotees from stone or metal.3 In the vartas and among devotees today, svarups are often referred to lovingly as Thakurji or by other names that designate their particular form.4 Once the svarup or other sanctified object is bestowed upon the devotee (in Braj Bhasha, Thakurji mathu padhrana), he or she is to learn the ways of seva from Vallabhacharya, Gusainji or a fellow devotee. Seva, as we learn from the narratives, generally involves preparing and offering special food items (bhog), the performance of kirtan, and the dressing and adorning (shringara) of Krishna. These actions normally occur in the privacy of the devotee’s home, sometimes even in seclusion from kith and kin. The moments of interaction between the deity and devotee are intensely intimate. It is significant to note that once initiated, the Pushtimargi devotee does not rely on priestly mediation in domestic worship. Orthodox Brahmins in their role as mediators during rituals are in fact repeatedly mocked in the narratives. Theirs is the path of rules and regulations (maryadamarg) and is portrayed as being stifled and constrained by endless boundaries and meaningless attention to rigid ritual practice over sincere, loving devotion.5 In contrast, the Pushtimargi devotee himself/ herself can touch, play with, sing to, feed and put to sleep his or her household svarup. The performance of seva as it is described in the vartas is somewhat • 30 •
idiosyncratic: as long as seva is performed with loving devotion, it appears that it is not necessary to follow any fixed set of external rules. If the devotee does something wrong, Thakurji himself steps in to correct his sevak (devotee) or calls upon Vallabhacharya or Gusainji to set matters straight. However, even what would be seemingly basic prescriptions for Vaishnava ritual practice, such as refraining from seva during times of physical pollution (e.g. during menstruation or after the death of a family member), are shown to be negotiable in the presence of fervent love for Krishna.
The tenderness and intimacy of the moments in which Thakurji interacts with his devotees is truly at the heart of the Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta, and of worship in the Pushtimarg. The following episode from the 60th varta about an elderly widowed woman—‘the Kshatriya woman from Sinhanand’— is one of many examples of the way in which Thakurji interacts with daivi jivas (godly beings), those souls positioned to accept Krishna’s divine grace:
Once the sevak cultivates sincere devotion to Thakurji through seva, the deity begins to speak directly to his devotee and becomes an integral part of his or her daily routines. This process is referred to in the narratives as ‘causing the intimate experience’ of Thakurji (sanubhavata janana in Braj Bhasha).
Episode One: After some time, the Kshatriya woman ran out of money and became destitute. After completing seva for her Krishna svarup, she would spin cotton and sell it to support herself. Whenever the vegetable seller would come by the house of the Kshatriya woman, Shri Thakurji would call out, “O’ Ma! The vegetable lady
Thakurji asking the kshatriya woman for food “just like a small child” • 31 •
when will youAssistant bring meProfessor food?” whined, Emilia“But Bachrach is an In at thisOberlin way, Thakurji bestowed grace College in Ohio,much where she 6 classeswoman. in South Asian religions onteaches the Kshatriya and gender studies. Her research and publications have focused on the contemporary reception of Braj Bhasha This episode (prasang) is particularly bhakti literature communities poignant for readers becauseinofVaishnava its refrain about (particularly the Pushtimarg) of north how Thakurji behaves “like a small child” (balak ki and northwest India. She has also written in nai in Braj Bhasha). While, theologically speaking, the book Gates of not the Lord: Thethe Tradition of Vallabhacharya’ s writing does privilege Krishna Paintings (Mapin, 2015 ). arental devotion (vatsalya bhava) ov
ART
In the Service of Krishna Illustrating the Lives of Eighty-Four Vaishnavas from a 1702 Manuscript Emilia Bachrach
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to teach the lessons of the sect to their readers. In Other Titles of Interest another episode from the varta introduced above, we learn that the Kshatriya woman does not make Art and Independence enough money herand spinning work Style to feed her Y. G. from Srimati the Indian svarup anything other than plain bread. When her John Guy situation does not improve, the elderly woman takes out a loan: “I have no husband or son to earn in this thethan Void household,Moulding ” she exclaims. Rather praise her plan, Mother in the Making Thakurji severely scolds his caretaker, telling her that Peter Bjørn Franceschi taking out loans is dangerous should with translations by and Minati Kar always be avoided. In other narratives, devotees’ social or ritual faults are scolded not by the deity or guru, but by fellow Vaishnavas who think themselves superior in the proper ritual conduct of seva. The lesson of such episodes is that one should practise humility and not
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