Culturetrauma, moralityandsolidarity: Thesocialconstruction of‘Holocaust’andother massmurders
JeffreyCAlexander YaleUniversity,USA
ThesisEleven 2016,Vol.132(1)3–16
ª TheAuthor(s)2015 Reprintsandpermissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI:10.1177/0725513615625239 the.sagepub.com
Abstract
Culturaltraumaoccurswhenmembersofacollectivityfeeltheyhavebeensubjectedto ahorrendouseventthatleavesindeliblemarksupontheirgroupconsciousness,marking theirmemoriesforeverandchangingtheirfutureidentityinfundamentalandirrevocable ways.Whilethisnewscientificconceptclarifiescausalrelationshipsbetweenpreviously unrelatedevents,structures,perceptions,andactions,italsoilluminatesaneglected domainofsocialresponsibilityandpoliticalaction.Byconstructingculturaltraumas, socialgroups,nationalsocieties,andsometimesevenentirecivilizations,notonlycognitivelyidentifytheexistenceandsourceofhumansuffering,butmayalsotakeonboard somesignificantmoralresponsibilityforit.Insofarastheyidentifythecauseoftraumain amannerthatassumessuchmoralresponsibility,membersofcollectivitiesdefinetheir solidaryrelationshipsthatallowthemtosharethesufferingofothers.Isthesufferingof othersalsoourown?Inthinkingthatitmightinfactbe,societiesexpandthecircleofthe ‘we’andcreatethepossibilityforrepairingsocietiestopreventthetraumafromhappeningagain.Bythesametoken,socialgroupscan,andoftendo,refusetorecognizethe existenceofothers’suffering,orplacetheresponsibilityforitonpeopleotherthan themselves.Empirically,thisarticleextensivelyconsiderstraumaconstructioninthe caseoftheHolocaust–themassmurderofJewsbytheGermanNazis–butalso examinestraumaprocessesinrelationtoAfrican-Americans,indigenouspeoples, colonialvictimsofWesternandJapaneseimperialism,theNanjingMassacre,andvictims oftheearlycommunistregimesinSovietRussiaandMaoistChina.
Correspondingauthor: JeffreyCAlexander,CenterforCulturalSociology,DepartmentofSociology,YaleUniversity,NewHaven, CT06520–8265,USA.
Email:jeffrey.alexander@yale.edu
Keywords
Culturaltrauma,narrative,radicalevil,solidarity
Culturaltraumaoccurswhenmembersofacollectivityfeeltheyhavebeensubjectedtoa horrendouseventthatleavesindeliblemarksupontheircollectiveconsciousness, markingtheirmemoriesforeverandchangingtheirfutureidentityinfundamentaland irrevocableways.
AsIhavedevelopedthisnewsociologicalapproachwithcolleaguesandstudents, culturaltraumaisfirstofallatheoreticalconcept.1 Itsuggestsempirical-causalrelationshipsbetweenpreviouslyunrelatedevents,structures,perceptions,andactions.But thisscientificconceptalsonewlyilluminatesasignificantdomainofmoralresponsibilityandpoliticalaction.
Byconstructingculturaltraumas,socialgroups,nationalsocieties,andsometimes evenentirecivilizations,notonlycognitivelyidentifytheexistenceandsourceofhuman suffering,butmayalsotakeonboardmoralresponsibilityforit.Insofarasgroups identifythecauseoftraumainamannerthatimpliestheirownmoralresponsibility, membersofcollectivitiesdefinetheirsolidaryrelationshipsinwaysthatallowthem, perhapsevencompelthem,tosharethesufferingofothers.Isthesufferingofothersalso ourown?Inthinkingthatitmightbe,societiesexpandthecircleofthe‘we’.Whenthe circleoftheweexpands,extraordinaryrepairsintheinstitutionalandlegalnetworksof societycanbemade.
Someofthemostimportantsocialdevelopmentsinthepost-warworldhavebeen producedbysuchatraumaprocess.Becausesocialactorshavenewlyidentified themselvesascausalagents,socialsolidarityhasexpanded,moraluniversalismand socialcriticismhavebroadened,andfundamentalinstitutionalandlegalchangeshave beenmade.
Mostextraordinaryofallthesedevelopme ntshasbeenthegradual,halting–still incompleteandcontested–buteventually intenselypowerfuli dentificationof ChristianpeoplesintheWestwiththemi llionsofJewishpersonsmurderedbythe NazisduringtheSecondWorldWar.Formillennia,ChristiancivilizationhadpollutedJewsasnefariousandsubhuman,excludingthemfromcivilsociety,punishing themeconomically,persecutingthemcult urallyandpolitically,andsometimesdoing farworse.WhentheEnlightenmentunlockedthegatesofEuropeanghettosinthe early19thcentury,theoozinganti-Semi ticwoundthatinfectedmodernityseemedon themend.ButthebacklashagainstJewishincorporationwasfierce.Pogromsinthe East,theDreyfusscandalinRepublicanFr ance,newquotasandoldrestrictionsin theUnitedStates,risinganti-Jewishfee lingsandpoliticsincentralEurope.TheNazi monsteraroseoutofthisprimordialslime .WhiletheNazis’an ti-Semiticstrategy wasmoreambitiousandextremethanhadeve rbeforebeencontemplated,theirantiSemiticfeelingwasnot.Itsanti-democratictotalitarianstateallowedNazistoput intoeffecttheir‘permanentsolution’to theJewishQuestion,anditwasthemilitary defeatofthatstatethatpreventedultimatesuccess.Yet,whiletheNazistatewas demolished,broadanti-Semiticfeelings remained,andnotinpost-warGermany alone.
Insubsequentdecades,however,thewidespreadJewishhatredthathadlegitimated theNazis’massmurder,allowingablindeyetobeturnedtoit,wassharplyattenuated. Thepervasivenetworkofanti-Semiticlegalandinstitutionalrestrictionsthatexisted throughouttheWestwas,asaresult,eventuallydestroyed.
Atthesourceofthis weltgesichte reversalwastraumawork.Christianpeopleswho hadnothingdirectlytodowiththeHolocaust–Americans,British,French,Scandinavians,andAustriansamongthem–cameeventuallytofeelindirectlyresponsibleforit. Indoingso,theydistancedthemselvesfromanti-Semiticfeelingsandpracticesinwhich theyhadthemselvesbeendeeplyimplicated.CitizensofChristiannationshadrestricted andpersecutedJewsintheirownnations;theyhadstoodbyasGermanyinstitutedthe Nuremburglawsin1933andcreated Kristallnacht in1938.Afterlearningofthedeath campsin1943,Alliedwarleadershadrefusedtodivertthebombingcampaigntostop thequicklygatheringslaughter–forevenaday.Certainly,itwasfearofpervasive domesticanti-Semitismthatmotivatedtheleaders’decision.
Ofcourse,inSpring1945,millionsofWesterncitizensshrankinhorrorfromthe newsphotosfromBuchenwald.ButtheAmericanGIswhotookoverthecampsoften showedmoresympathyfortheGermanofficialsundertheirarrestthanfortheangry, emaciated,andforeign-seemingJewswhomtheyliberated.Andintheyearsimmediatelyafterthewar,itwasNazibarbarians–nottheGermanpeopleandleastofall Westernanti-Semiticcivilizationmorebroadlyconsidered–whowereheldresponsible fortheHolocaust.
Intheimmediatewakeofthetrauma,the‘circleofthewe’wasdrawnvery narrowlyindeed.AsBernhardGiesen(inAlexanderetal.,2004)hasshown,ittook threegenerationsfortheGermanpeople–and,eventhen,onlythoseinsidethe democraticallyreconstructedWesternnation–totakeonboardabroadersenseof responsibility,tosharplysepa ratethemselvesfromtheself -justifyingexculpationsof formerparticipantsandthehate-filledcollectiveidentityofearlierversionsofthe Germannation.
Inoneofthemoreradicalculturaltransformationsofmodernhistory,Germany eventuallybecamealoyalfriendofIsrael,thelandthatJewishNazisvictimshad occupiedtoescape.TheformerNazinationnowhasthelargestJewishpopulationin centralEurope,withGermanJewscontinuallyreportinghighlevelsofacceptanceand safety.Inpost-communistPoland,thelongingforreconciliationisalsopalpable,atleast inthecosmopolitancenters.Philosemitismispronounced,Klezmermusicrevived, festivalscelebratinglostmemoriesofJewishcultureorganizedannually.IntheUSA, Jewishwriters,scientists,doctorsandbusinessmenhavebecomeincorporatedintothe elitecoregroupsthathadrejectedthemforcenturiesbefore.
Thistransformationoftheculturalidentityandsocialstatusofoneoftheworld’s mostfiercelydenigratedgroupswastheresultoftraumaprocess.TheHolocaustcameto occupyacentralpositioninthecollectiveidentityofWesternsocieties,andinthecourse ofthisdeepeningcentralitytheunderstandingoftheJewishmassmurdersubtlybut decisivelychanged.
Onevitalthreadoftraumaprocesstransformedtheimageofthevictim.Ratherthan seeingtheNazis’Jewishvictimsasadepersonalizedmass,andmess,popularculture begantopersonalizeanddifferentiatethem.PortrayingJewsasrecognizablyhuman
beingsallowednon-Jews,forthefirsttime,toexperiencedeepemotionalidentification withthesixmillionJewswhowereNazivictims.
Apowerfulchannelforthisnewformofculturalexpressionwastheme´moire.Inthe 1950s,thereunfoldedaseriesofdramatizationsofthesufferingandcourageofthe Dutch‘everygirl’AnneFrank,whose Diary eventuallybecamerequiredreadingin millionsofAmericanelementaryschools.Inthedecadeafter,EliWiesel’s Night also achievedmassivepopularity,deeplypenetratingtheconsciousnessandconscienceof ChristianandsecularcitizensintheWest.Anotherpopularculturegenredrivingthisline oftraumaworkwastelevisedmelodramas.In1978,one-hundred-millionAmericans viewedthe Holocaust miniseries,andsodidrecord-breakingaudiencesinGermany.It wasinthewakeofthismini-seriesthattheGermanReichstagremovedthestatuteof limitationsonNaziagents,whoseactionswerenowdescribed–notethegeneralization–ascrimesagainst‘humanity’.
SuchdramaturgicalpersonalizationofJewishvictimsbegantransformingtheHolocaustfromanhistoricaleventintoadeeplymovingtrauma-drama,onethatincreasingly engagednon-Jewishaudiencesinbatheticexperiencesoftragedyandcatharsis.This culturaltransformationwaspushedfurtherbyanewunderstandingofHolocaustperpetrators.Personalizationhadsoalteredtheidentityofthetrauma’svictimsastoallow themtobecomedramaticprotagonists.NowtheothercentralfigureintheHolocaust narrative–theNaziantagonist–wasalsosubtlychanged.‘Perpetrator’wasremoved fromitshistoricallyspecificparticularity,itsstatustransformedintoamorearchetypicallyevilrolethatwouldbecomeastand-inforallhumankind.
Thecriticaleventinitiatingthisreconstructionofperpetratorwasthe1961trialof AdolfEichmanninJerusalem.AsorchestratedbyIsraeliPrimeMinisterDavidBenGurion,Eichmann’scaptureandtrialwasintendedtore-connectthenewnation’scitizenstothepersonsandplacesoftheoriginalcrime,toGermany,theNazis,andthe victimizedJews–inBen-Gurion’swords,to‘thedimensionsofthetragedywhich our people experienced’.Byitsconclusion,however,theEichmanntrialhadactuallyinitiatedsomethingverydifferent–amassiveuniversalizationofNazievil.Theremovalof theHolocaustfromparticularsoftime,place,andpersonwascrystallizedbyHannah Arendt’sinsistenceonthe‘banalityofevil’.ThisframingofNaziguiltbecamehighly influential,evenasitwassharplyandbitterlydisputed.Asabanallyevilperson, Eichmanncouldbe‘everyman’.TheantagonistsintheHolocausttrauma-dramabegan toseemnotsomuchlargerthanlifemonstersasnormalhumanbeingswhowerenotso differentfromanybodyelse.Perhapstheyweresimply,asNietzscheputit,human,all toohuman.
ThisnewlyemergingmentalitywaseloquentlyexpressedbytheBritish-American poetW.H.Audeninhis1965piece‘TheCaveofMaking’.
Morethanever Life-out-thereisgoodly,miraculous,loveable, Butweshan’t,notsinceStalinandHitler, Trustourselveseveragain:we Knowthat,subjectively, Allispossible.
Otherculturaldevelopmentsalsowidenedthecircleofperpetrators.Mostspectacularly,therewasYalepsychologistStanleyMilgram’sexperimentdemonstratingthat ordinary,well-educatedadultmenwould‘justfolloworders’fromimperiousauthorities, eventothepointofgravelyendangeringthelivesofinnocentpeoplewhosefatesthey imaginedtobeundertheircontrol.Raisingprofoundlytroublingquestions,Milgram’s findingsgeneralizedthecapacityforradicalevil,movingitfromNazideviancetoeverydayAmericanism–andperhapstohumanityassuch.Decadeslater,ChristopherBrowningprovidedhistoricaldocumentationforthisbroadenedunderstandinginhis1992book OrdinaryMen:ReservePoliceBattalion101andtheFinalSolutioninPoland. When DanielGoldhagenchallengedBrowning,in Hitler’sWillingExecutioners:Ordinary GermansandtheHolocaust (1996),insistingontheuniquenessofGermanantiSemitism,BrowningrevealinglyrespondedbyreferencingMilgram,averringthatthe characterofperpetratorsshouldnotbeparticularizedbutwasuniversal.
WhatallowedtheNazistomobilizeandharnesstherestofsocietytothemassmurder ofEuropeanJewry?HereIthinkweneedtoturntotheinsightsofsocialpsychology–wemustask:whatreallyisahumanbeing?WemustgiveupthecomfortinganddistancingnotionsthattheperpetratorsoftheHolocaustwerefundamentallyadifferent kindofpeople.
AstheHolocausttrauma-dramabroadenedtheculturalidentificationofandwith perpetratorandvictim,theUSgovernmentbeganlosingpoliticalcontroloverthetelling oftheHolocauststory.WhentheAlliedforcesdefeatedNaziGermanyin1945,they tookovercontroloftherepresentationprocess,assuringthattheJewishmassmurder wouldnowbepresentedinananti-Naziway.Intheirtelling,theformerAllies–America mostpowerfullybutBritainandFranceaswell–presentedthemselvesasmoralprotagonists,purehearted,heroiccarriersofthegood.Twodecadeslater,however,during thepoliticalwarsofthe1960s,Westerndemocracieswerecompelledtoconcedethis dominantnarrativeposition.Thistimearound–ascomparedwith1945–controlover themeansofsymbolicproductionchangedhandsmoreforculturalreasonsthanbyforce ofarms.
Inthe‘criticalyears’betweenthemid-1960sandtheendofthe1970s,theUSA experiencedasharpdeclineinitspolitical,military,andmoralprestige.Domesticand internationaloppositiontoAmerica’sprosecutionoftheVietnamWartransformedthe nationintoasymbol,formany,notofsalvationarygoodbutapocalyptic,anti-democratic evil.Thistransvaluationwasintensifiedbyrevolutionarystudentandblackpower movementsinsidetheUSAandanti-capitalistguerillamovementsoutsideit.
TheUSAnowcametobeidentified,insomeinfluentialquarters,withtermsthathad beenreservedexclusivelyfortheHolocaust’sNaziperpetrators.Accordingtothe postwarvictornarrative,onlytheAllies’SecondWorldWarenemiescouldberepresentedasevil.WhenAmericabecame‘Amerika’,however,napalmbombswereanalogizedwithgaspelletsandflamingVietnamesejungleswiththekillingchambersof Auschwitz.TheAmericanarmyhadbeenhailedastheliberatorofdeathcamps,and, vowingnottorepeatpre-warNaziappeasement,claimedinthe1960stobeprosecutinga righteouswaragainstcommunistVietnamese.BymanyWesternintellectualsandawide swathoftheeducatedWesternpublic,however,theUSArmywasnowbeingframedas itselfperpetratinggenocideagainsthelplessvictimsinVietnam.BertrandRusselland
Jean-PaulSartreestablishedaWarCrimestribunalthatappliedthelogicofNuremberg totheUnitedStates.Incidentsofciviliankillings,liketheMyLaimassacreof1968, wererepresentednotasanomalousbutasanAmericanpolicyofmassmurder.The analogybetweenNaziandAmericanleaderswasalsomadeinmorescholarlyways. RevisionisthistoriansrevealedthatAmericanandBritishleadershadknownaboutthe deathcampsby1943,andhadrefusedtobombthem,asImentionedearlier.Therealso emergednewhistoricalinterestinthefirebombingsofGermanandJapanesecitiesand inAmerican’satomicbombingofHiroshimaandNagasaki.
Eventually,thisbroadeningofthefigureofperpetratorexpandedtoincludeother AlliedpowersintheSecondWorldWarandthosewhohadremainedavowedlyneutral aswell.CharlesdeGaullehadwovenanarrativethatpurifiedtheFrenchnationasfirst thevictimandlaterthecourageousopponentofbothNazidominationandthe‘foreign’ collaborationistsinVichy.Bythelate1970sand1980s,youngFrenchhistorianswere challengingthisaccount.Seriouslypollutingthepre-wargovernmentoftheThird Republic,andbyimplicationitspostwarsuccessors,theserevisionistsdocumenteda patternofmassiveFrenchcollaborationwiththeNazis’anti-Jewishactivities.
AsthesymbolicpoweroftheHolocausttrauma-dramaintensified,itwasonlya matteroftimeuntilothernationswhohadbeendefeatedandoccupied,andeventhose thathadremainedneutral,werealsoforcedtorelinquishsymboliccontroloverhowtheir ownstoriesweretold.Austria,forexample,hadlongdepicteditselfasthehelplessfirst victimofNaziaggression.WhenKurtWaldheimascendedtothepositionofUNSecretaryGeneral,hishiddenassociationwiththeHitlerregimewaswidelyrevealed,and thesymbolicstatusoftheAustriannation,whichappearedtorallybehindtheirformer president,sufferedmoralpollutionasaresult.WhileWaldheim’spoliticalcareersurvivedintheshortterm–hewasre-electedtotheAustrianpresidency–hismoralreputationdidnot;andthenationalself-criticismtriggeredbythe‘WaldheimAffair’ eventuatedinAustrianowaccepting‘co-responsibility’forHolocaustandwar.Switzerlandalsobecamesubjecttoaninversionofsymbolicfortune.Thetinyrepublichad prideditselfonitslonghistoryofcantondemocracyandthebenevolentneutralityofits RedCross.Inthemid-1990s,however,journalistsandhistoriansdocumentedthatthe wartimeSwissgovernmenthadlaunderedNazigold.Inreturnforthevaluableminerals plunderedfromthebodiesofcondemnedandmurderedJews,SwissbankersgaveNazi authoritiesunmarkedcurrencythatcouldbeusedtofinanceHolocaustandwar.
Theseprocessesofpoliticaldeconstructionandsymbolicinversionuniversalizedthe Holocaust.Theyallowedtheso-called‘lessonsoftheHolocaust’–oftenreferredtoas ‘post-Holocaustmorality’–tobeappliedinlessnationallyspecific,lessparticularistic ways.TheHolocaustsymbolcametostandforthesystematicemploymentofmass violenceagainstmembersofanystigmatizedcollectivity,whetherdefinedinaprimordialorideologicalway–anywhereandanytime.
Asasymbolofradicalevil,‘Holocaust’becameengorged,overflowingwithbadness. Nowdramatizedasthesignaltragedyofmoderntimes,thisengorgedevilbecamea dramathatcompelledeternalreturn,inNietzsche’ssense.AswiththeGreeksandtheir tragedies,theimmersionofWesterncitizensintheHolocaustdramaprovidedcatharsis, moralclarification,andperhapsevengrace.TheHolocaustlegendwastoldandretold, dramatized,filmed,novelizedinhundredsandeventuallythousandsofaesthetically
compellingways,inresponsenotonlytoemotionalneedbutmoralambition.Itscharacters,itsplot,anditspitiabledenouementallowedaheightenedsensitivitytomodern socialevil.Thetrauma-drama’smessagereflectedamodernized,morereflexiveversion ofGreektragedy.Evilisinsideallofusandineverysociety.Ifweourselveshavethe capacitytobevictimsandalsoperpetrators,thennoneofuscanlegitimatelydistance ourselvesfromthesufferingofvictimsortheresponsibilityofperpetrators.Thiscatharticexperienceanditsmorallessonscanallowustochange,however,sothatwecan preventgenocidesfromeverhappeningagain.
Theabilitytoscript,cast,andproduceatrauma-dramaaboutmassmurderspreadto othernations,toothermarginalizedandoppressedgroups,eventosuchcontemporary enemiesoftheJewish-IsraelipeopleasthePalestinians.‘Holocaust’becameabridging metaphordeployedbythepowerless,whocastthemselvesintheroleofsufferingvictim andtheiropponentsintheroleofperpetrators.
Thetrauma-dramaoftheHolocaust–theaesthetic-cum-moralresourcesitofferedfor denunciationsofethnic,racialandideologicalsuffering–poweredaseriesofother world-historicaltransformationsinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.Thestruggle againstWesternimperialismcametobeexperiencedthroughthisprism.Imperialism hadoncebeenviewedasacivilizinggift.IntheshadowoftheHolocaustanditscorrosivecritiqueofmodernity’spretentions,Westernimperialismbecamereconceivedas genocide–asobjectificationandothering,astheculturalandphysicaldestructionof stigmatizedcivilizationsandpeoplesthatwerenon-white,non-Christian,non-Western. Africans,Algerians,Vietnamese,Indians,Chinese–thesecivilizationswereconstructed ashelplessvictims,FrenchandBritisharmiesandadministratorsasheinousperpetrators.Inthepost-Holocaustera,influentialWesternaudiencescametounderstand imperialismaccordingtothelogicofthatoverarchingtrauma-drama.Seeingcolonial governmentsasperpetratorsofgenocideandthosecolonizedasabjectvictims,citizens notonlyextendedsympathyandmaterialsupporttotheanti-imperialistmovements, whetherviolentornot,butstruggledtopurgetheirowngovernmentsofmoralpollution andtostopcolonialwar.
Thismoralinversionandnarrativerevisionhelpedliberatenon-Westernnationsfrom theimperialistyoke,removingcenturiesofWesterndominationoverEasternand Southernregionsoftheglobe.Indoingso,thetraumaprocessradicallyreshapedthe postwargloballandscape,creatingnewlegalitiesandsovereignties,layingdown infrastructuraltracksforeconomicglobalization.Thepost-Holocauststoryofliberation alsomadeitmoredifficult,paradoxically,toidentifypost-colonialdomesticrepression andnewpatternsofethnicandregionalwar.
OtherextraordinarilysignificantsocialtransformationsalsounfoldedinsidethepostHolocaustframe.Consider,forexample,theAfrican-Americancivilrightsmovement. Blackleaderssawhow,inthewakeoftheHolocaust,attacksonanti-Semiticfeelings andinstitutionswerebeginningtostrikestrongchordsofsympathyandidentification amongAmerica’swhiteChristiancoregroups.African-Americansprojectedthemselves intothegeneralizedroleofearlierJewishvictims.Engagingindramaticperformances thatgeneratedtraumaticviolenceagainstinnocentandpeacefuldemonstrators,thecivil rightsmovementdepictedwhiteSouthernofficialsasGestapo-like,outofcontrol,madein-AmericaNazismotivatedbyradicalracialhatred.Thecontemporaneousrecoveryof
slavenarrativesaboutthe‘middlepassage’ofcapturedvictimsfromAfricatotheNew Worldfunctionedasanalogywiththe‘cattlecars’thattransportedcapturedJewsto deathcamps,reinforcingtheequationofAmerica’sracialcastesystemwithNazigenocide.NorthernwhiteAmericansincreasinglyidentifiedwiththeblackstigmatized victimsofJimCrowracism,withdrawingfromthewhiteSouthernperpetratorsacentury ofsentimentalsupport.Whatflowedfromthisracialtraumadramawereradicallegal andinstitutionalrepairsinthesocialstructureoftheUnitedStates.
Asimilarstoryaboutanalogicalemplotmentandinstitutionalchangecanbetoldfor thestrugglesofindigenouspeoplesintheWesternhemisphere.Fromthe1960sonward, thereemergedagrowingawarenessthatthefirstimperialexerciseswerenotagainst developedcivilizationsbutagainstpeopleswhoweretherebeforethem.Itwasnot, however,empiricalevidenceofanobjectiverealitythatputthedecimationofthefirst occupantsoftheAmericasonthemapoftheWesternimagination.In1962,in The SavageMind,ClaudeLevi-Straussassertedthatthemostdramaticgenocideofall,and themostcomplete,wastheannihilationofearth’sfirsthumanresidents.Spanishand PortugueseconquistadorsdestroyednativeculturesandinstitutionsthroughoutNorth andSouthAmerica,unleashingprocessesofdestructionthateventuallyresultedinthe physicaldeathofmostoftheirpeoplesaswell.WhetheridentifiedasIndians,Native Americans,aborigines,orfirstpeoples,inthepost-Holocaustworldthepopulationswho facedEuropeanandlaterAmericanandAustralianexpansionhavebeencategorizedas victims,theiropponentsasperpetrators,andthecrimeasgenocide.Onlyinthedecades aftertheSecondWorldWardidthevictimsofthisslow-movingmassdestruction becomehumanizedinamannerthatcouldelicitculturalidentificationandempathy. Theirstylesofdress,theirpiercedandtattooedbodies,theirpainting,sculptures,music, anddancehaverecentlyenteredintothecoreofthecontemporarymodernimagination. Theirstrugglesforcompensationhavegeneratedpowerfulpoliticalsupport,andsignificantinstitutionaltransformationshavesometimesbeenmade.
Thequalifier‘sometimes’providesase guetothedarkothersideofcultural trauma,whichIwillelaborateintheconcl udingsectionofthispaperbutwillfully toexplore.
Asweknowalltoowell,socialgroupsoftenrefusetorecognizethesufferingof others;and,evenwhentheydo,theyfrequentlyplacethecausalresponsibilityfor inflictingthatsufferingoneventsandactorsoutsidethemselves.Whatfollowsfromsuch refusalsisafailuretoidentifyandempathize.Optingoutoftheprocessoftrauma creationpreventsthepossibilityofachievingamoralstance.Itrestrictssolidarity, leavingotherstosufferalone.Lawsarenotchangedandinstitutionsarenotrepaired. Strainsthattriggeredearliertraumasareleftinplace,asituationthatmayallowthe originaltraumaticeventstohappenagain.
Letuscontinuewiththepostwartraumaprocessthatcentersonfirstpeoples.Frontier societiesjustifiedandoftenennobledtheirdominatingexpansion,narratingitasevolutionaryprogress,evokingcivilizingstoriesaboutreligionssalvationandthesecular cultivationof‘virginland’.Fourdecadesago,chastenedbytheincreasinglypowerful legendoftheHolocaust,Westerncoregroupsbegantodisplacethemoreracialized strandsoftheirfoundingnarratives,weavingneworiginmyths–inmovies,television, songs,novels,andpaintings–thatacknowledgedthesufferingoforiginalpeoples.
AustralianleadersapologizedandofferedreparationstoradicallymarginalizedAborigines,andthenation’sintellectualsandculturalentrepreneurstransfiguredaboriginal totemicdrawingsoncethoughtworthlessintohighlyvaluableart.Americanpoliticaland culturalleadersmadesimilargesturestodecimatedNativeAmericanremnants,andlegal challengesproducedrestorationofstolenlandsguaranteedbyoldtreaties.InCanada,the Anglicanchurchaskedthecountry’sfirstpeoplestoforgivethemforhavingcreated boardingschoolsdedicatedtoreligiousconversion,ruthlessdiscipline,andforcedculturalassimilation.
Inrecentdecades,however,thesebroadeffortsatculturalrevisionhaveattenuated andinstitutionalrepairssloweddown.TheOttawagovernmenthasturnedovertonative tribeseffectivecontroloverlargeswatchesofthenation’sland,butthesearelargely outsidethegreatpopulationcentersandremainfrozentundraformuchoftheyear.The Americangovernmenthasrestoredsignificantsovereigntytotribalreservations,butthe newcontrol,unevenlydistributed,hasbeendeployedtobuildgamblingcasinosforwhite Americans,allowingonlyasmallminorityofthecontinent’ssurvivingoriginalsettlers tothrive.WhenAustralia’sConservativeJohnHowardcametopower18yearsago,he publiclyretractedtheLaborgovernment’sapology,advisingAboriginestoassimilate andbecomerich.ItisimpossibletoimaginetheChristianpeoplesoftheWestdisplaying suchambivalenceabouttheHolocaust,muchlesscontemporaryGermans.Indeed, denyingtheHolocaustisacrimeinmostEuropeanstates.
ThesameambivalenceandpolarizationhasmarredWesterneffortstodealwiththeir imperialhistories.SinceBritain’sToriesreturnedtopowerfiveyearsago,theyhave orderedthattextbooksberevisedsothatthecivilizingcontributionsofempirecanbe highlightedagain.WhenPrimeMinisterDavidCameronvisitedIndialastyear,hespoke oftheastonishingopportunitiesprovidedbyitscontemporarycapitalistmarketsbutsaid nothingabouttheBritishcottonindustrybankruptingIndia’sweavingenterprisestwo centuriesbefore.TheverysuggestionthattheAnglo-Britishshouldfeelshamefortheir ferociousdestructionofIrishsocialstructure,fourcenturiesago,muchlessofferapology andreparation,wouldstillbeheatedlyrejectedintheUnitedKingdomoftoday.
TheFrenchcontinuetooffertheBaccalaureateto lesse´condaires intheirformer colonies,manyofwhichprovideromanticescapesfrom‘serious’civilizationfor itswealthybourgeoisie.Frenchschooltextbooksonlytimidlyconfrontthebloody warsofterrortheirnationconductedagainstAlgeriaandVietnam.
TheSovietUnionlostitsempirebarelyagenerationago,buttheleadersand massesofitsRussianremnantmostlyfeeldeprived,notguilty.Theirsympathy andsolidarityisreservednotforthelocalculturesandpeopletheydominatedand soughttoundermine,butfortheirethnicRussianconfreresleftbehindwhenthe SovietUnionlosttheColdWar.Theeffectsofsuchrestrictedtraumaprocessesare beingplayedoutbeforeourveryeyes,asRussiareoccupiesCrimeaandthreatens easternUkrainetoday.
AndwhataboutRussia’svictoriousColdWarrival,theUnitedStates?While revisionisthistorycontinuestothriveandtragicnarrativesaboutVietnampersist, neo-imperialisthistorianshavebecomecelebritiesforurgingAmericansnotto relinquishtheirneo-colonialyoke,andoverreachingmilitaryeffortstomakethe
worldsafefordemocracyhavealmostbankruptedthenation.Meanwhile,most Americans,intellectualsandeverydayJoesalike,seemgenuinelyunableto recognizethattheirnationdoesoftenbehaveinabullyingandhegemonicway.
Perhapsthemostconsequentialshort-circuitingofanimperialtraumaprocesshas unfoldedontheothersideoftheworld,intheFarEast.Japaneseofficialshavesteadfastlyrefusedtoacknowledgethebrutaldecades-longoccupationofChinaandKorea thatprecededtheirnation’s1945militarydefeat.Iftheveryexistenceoftraumaticoccupationisdenied,thesufferingofitsvictimscanhardlybecontemplated,letalone becometheobjectofempathy;thestatusofperpetratorisrejected,andsolidarityremains restricted.WhileJapan’sSocialistPartyanditspowerfulteachers’unionpersistently challengedsuchchauvinisticdenials,thedeeplydamagingfactofithasremained.
Whataboutthetensofthousands–possiblyasmanyas200,000–Korean‘comfort women’,theyoungwomenenslavedasprostitutesbytheimperialJapanesearmy?Inlate 2014,PrimeMinisterShinzoAbe’sconservativegovernmentsentJapan’sambassador forhumanrightstoNewYorktoaskaformerUnitedNationsspecialrapporteuron violenceagainstwomen,RadhikaCoomaraswamy,‘toreconsiderher1996reportonthe comfortwomen–anauthoritativeaccountofhowimperialJapanforcedwomenand girlsintosexualslavery’,accordingtothe NewYorkTimes (Kotler,2014).Abehopedto rescindthelandmarkapologyJapanhadoffered20yearsearliertotheKoreanvictims. Suchamove,accordingtothe NewYorkTimes,‘wouldmostlikelydrawanexplosive reactionfromsouthKorea,wherethewomenareseenasanemotionallypotentsymbol oftheirnation’sbrutalearly-20th-centurycolonizationbyJapan’(Fackler,2014).
FormanyKoreans,thepushbyJapaneserightistsisseenasproofofalackofremorse overtreatmentofthewartimebrothelworkersandothervictimsofJapan’scolonization oftheKoreanPeninsula.SouthKorea’spresident,ParkGeun-hye,refusedeventomeet withMr.AbeuntilJapanshowedmorecontrition(Fackler,2014).In2015,Mr.Abe finallybackeddown,andPresidentParkallowedKoreatoenterintonegotiations.Onthe 50thanniversaryofthetreatythatnormalizedpostwarrelationsbetweenthetwoSouth Asiannations,theJapanesePrimeministerformallydeclaredthat‘‘thegovernmentof Japanpainfullyacknowledgesitsresponsibility’’forapolicythat‘‘severelyinjuredthe honoranddignityofmanywomen,’’andexpressed‘‘sincereapologiesandremorsefrom thebottomof[my]hearttoallthosewhosufferedimmeasurablepainandincurable physicalandpsychologicalwoundsas‘comfortwomen’’’(Sang-Hun2015).
Butotherwar-relatedtraumaprocessesremainedblocked,mostflagrantlythe NanjingMassacre,whereJapanesesoldiershackedandshottodeath,overthecourseof justsixweeks’time,onetotwohundredthousandChinesebeginninginDecember, 1937?TheYasukuniShrineinTokyo,whichPrimeMinisterAbehasresumedvisiting, depictstheChineseasaggressorsinNanjingandJapanasreluctantlyrespondingonthe groundsofself-defense(seeAlexanderandRuiGao,2007).Suggestingawarbetween equalpartiesratherthanamassmurder,thenarrativedisplayinExhibitionHall10 claims‘theChineseweresoundlydefeated’andthat,‘insidethecity,theresidentswere onceagainabletolivetheirlivesinpeace’.SuchblockedtraumaprocessallowsJapanto refuseitsearlierperpetratorrole.ItsEastAsianCo-ProsperitySphereisframednotas imperialexpansionbutasanefforttoconfrontAmericanhegemony;itswaragainst
America–likeitsmilitaryactioninNanjing–isframedasnationalself-defense.This restrictedconstructionoftraumasuggeststhatitiswar-timeJapan,notthoseitdominatedandmurdered,thatdeservesthevictimrole.Afterall,Japanesecitieswerefire bombed,andHiroshimaandNagasakiexperiencednuclearHolocaust.
Onceagain,howtraumaworkunfoldshasinstitutionaleffects.Withthecultural pathwaysforexperiencingwidersolidarityblocked,contemporaryJapancannotreach outtoChinaorKorea.China’seconomicfortunesareintertwinedwithJapan’s,butthe PRCisbuildingupitsnavalforcesanddeclaringdisputedislandstheirown.Prime MinisterAberecentlycomparedChinesemilitaryactivitytotheGermannavalbuild-up precedingtheFirstWorldWar,evenasheworkstoreshapeJapan’smilitaryprofileand reviseitsPeaceConstitution.
Thismodelofabrogatedtraumaappliesalsotomassmurderscommittedbytotalitariancommuniststates.Mao’sPRCandStalin’sUSSRinstigatedprogramsthatdirectly andindirectlydecimatedtensofmillionsofcitizens.DuringtheGreatFaminethat followedMao’sGreatLeapForwardinthelate1950s,millionsperishedinsilence (Jisheng,2012).Inthedecadefollowing,theCulturalRevolutioncreatedmanymillion moredeaths.Decadeshavepassed,andtherevolutionaryMaoistregimehasdisappeared,butinthecontemporaryPRCitremainsdecidedlydifficultpubliclytodiscuss, letalonetoprocess,thesetraumaticeventsandmourntheirmassesofvictims.Though itsideologyhasfundamentallyshifted,thepoliticalpartythatperpetratedthehorrors continues,notonlytocontrolthemeansofsymbolicproductionbuttoprojectan optimisticnarrativethatmakesthedarksideofChina’smodernizationrelativelyinvisible.Moralresponsibilitieshavenotbeenassumedand,asaresult,civilrepairsin Chinesesocialstructurehavenotbeencompleted.
TheRussiancaseseemsdifferentonthefaceofit–therehasbeenradical regimechange–buttheeffectontraumaprocesshasbeenlessofkindthanof degree.Thenationalistupsurgeinpost-YeltsinRussia,VladimirPutin’sinsistence thatRussianstakeprideintheirgreatnessagain,makesitextraordinarilydifficult torevisitthehundredsofthousandsimprisonedandkilledintheGulag,the millionswhostarvedduringtheUkraini anfamine,andthenumberlessvictimsof Stalin’sothermassivecrimes(Appleba um,2004).Thewar-timeleadercontinues tobeconfiguredasaleadingprotagonistinRussia’smodernizingnarrative,and eventhememoryrecordsofhismillionsof victimsarehardtofind.Memorial,the Moscow-basedhumanrightsorganizatio ndedicatedtopreservingartifactsand memoriesabouttheGulag,isbeinghoundedbythePutingovernment,alongwith otherRussianNGOs.
Materialforcesaredeeplyimplicatedinsocialsuffering,andthestrategiccalculationsandpracticalconsiderationsthattriggertraumaticeventsrequiresignificantsocial organization.Organizational,material,andstructuralforceshaveoftenbeenfrontand centerofHolocauststudies,forexample,inZygmanBauman’s TheHolocaustand Modernity.Ihavebeenconcernedhere,however,totracethemannerinwhichsuch causesandeffectsarecruciallymediatedbysymbolicrepresentationsofsocialsuffering, withunderstandinghowasocio-culturalprocesschannelstheemotionaleffectsof
sufferingandtowhateffect.Thesediscursiveandemotionalforces,Ihaveshown, transformtheworldsofmorality,materiality,andorganization.
Intellectuals,artists,politicians,andsocialmovementleaderscreatenarrativesabout socialsuffering,notonlyduringbutalsoafterthefact.Creatingnewidealinterests, traumanarrativescantriggersignificantrepairsinthecivilfabric.Theycanalsoinstigate newroundsofsocialsufferinginturn.
Theculturalconstructionofcollectivetraumaisfueledbyindividualexperiencesof painandsuffering,butitisthethreattocollectiveratherthanindividualidentitythat definesthesufferingatstake.Individualsufferingisofextraordinaryhuman,moral,and intellectualimport;initself,however,itisamatterforethicsandpsychology.My concerniswithtraumasthatbecomecollective,withhowtheycanbeconceivedas woundstosharedsocialidentity.
Thisisamatterofintenseculturalwork.Sufferingcollectivities–whetherdyads, groups,societies,orcivilizations–donotexistonlyasmaterialnetworks.Theymustbe imaginedintobeing.Thepivotalquestionbecomesnotwhodidthistome,butwhat groupdidthistous?Intellectuals,politicalleaders,andsymbolcreatorsofallkinds makecompetingclaims.Theyidentifyprotagonistsandantagonistsandweavetheminto narrativesprojectedtoaudiencesofthirdparties.
Individualvictimsreacttotraumaticinj urywithrepressionanddenial,gaining reliefwhenthesepsychologicaldefensesareovercome,bringingpainintoconsciousnesssotheyareabletomourn.Forco llectivities,itisdifferent.Ratherthan denial,repression,andworkingthrough, itisamatterofsymbolicconstructionand framing,ofcreatingstoriesandcharacters,andmovingalongfromthere.A‘we’is constructedvianarrationandcoding,anditis thiscollectiveidentitythatexperiences andconfrontsthedanger.Milli onsofindividualsmayhavelosttheirlives,andmany moremighthaveexperiencedgrievouspain.Eventhen,however,theconstructionofa sharedculturaltraumaisnotautomaticallyguaranteed.Theliveslostandpains experiencedareindividualfacts;sharedtraumadependsoncollectiveprocessesof culturalinterpretation.
Lostwars,economicdepressions,andmassmurderscanbeunderstoodaccordingto drasticallyvaryingaccountsthatimplysharplyantitheticalsocialprescriptions.If traumascanbere-imaginedandre-presented,thecollectiveidentitywillshift.Therewill beasearchingre-rememberingofthecollectivepast,solidaritycanbeexpanded,and muchneededcivilrepairscanbemade.Onlysuchafullenunciatedtraumaprocesscan preventthesameterrorsfromeverhappeningagain.
DeclarationofConflictingInterests
Theauthor(s)declarednopotentialconflictsofinterestwithrespecttotheresearch,authorship, and/orpublicationofthisarticle.
Funding
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Note
1.MymostnotablecompaniononthistheoreticaljourneyhasbeenRonEyerman,whohas elaboratedculturaltraumainaseriesofresearchmonographsdevotedtoslavery(Eyerman, 2001),politicalassassinations(Eyerman,2008,2011),andnaturaldisasters(Eyerman,2015). EyermanandIwerepartofthesocialscientificteamthatdevelopedculturaltraumatheoryin thelate1990s(Alexanderetal.,2004;Giesen,2004;Eyermanetal.,2011).Foracollectionof myessaysontrauma,seeAlexander(2012).Forthemoregeneralcultural-sociological approachwithinwhichthistraumaprojectisembedded,seeAlexander(2004)andAlexander,Jacobs,andSmith(2012).
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Authorbiography
JeffreyCAlexander istheLillianChavensonSadenProfessorofSociologyandfoundingDirectoroftheCenterforCulturalSociologyatYaleUniversity.Heworksinthe areasofsocialtheory,culture,andpolitics.Recentpublicationsinclude TheOxford HandbookofCulturalSociology (2012), Trauma:ASocialTheory (2012), TheDarkSide ofModernity (2013), ObamaPower (2014),and TheCrisisofJournalismReconsidered: CulturalPower (2015).HehasrecentlyheldhonorarychairsattheUniversityofCambridgeandtheUSLibraryofCongress,andtaughtatKonstanzUniversity,theEcoles desHautesEtudesinSciencesSociales,andGoldsmithsCollege.