Democracy for the Few

www.michaelparenti.org

DemocracyfortheFew, NinthEdition

MichaelParenti,Ph.D.

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Toallthosewhostruggleforpeace,socialjustice, andrealdemocracy.

Maytheirnumberscontinuetogrow.

WealthandWantintheUnitedStates27 CapitalandLabor27

EconomicImperialism143

InterventionEverywhere146

GlobalBloodletting147

CHAPTER• 12

WhoGoverns?Elites,Labor,andGlobalization151

TheRulingClass151

LaborBesieged154

UnionsandtheGoodFight156

HowGlobalizationUnderminesDemocracy157

CHAPTER• 13

MassMedia:FortheMany,bytheFew163

HeWhoPaysthePiper163

TheIdeologicalMonopoly167

ServingOfficialdom170

PoliticalEntertainment173

RoomforAlternatives?174

CHAPTER• 14

Voters,Parties,andStolenElections177 DemocratsandRepublicans:AnyDifferences?177

TheTwo-PartyMonopoly179

MakingEveryVoteCount181

RiggingtheGame182

Money,aNecessaryCondition184

TheStruggletoVote187

TheWarAgainstImaginary “VoterFraud” 189

ShadyElections191

PaleDemocracy196

CHAPTER• 15 Congress:ThePocketingofPower197 ACongressfortheMoney197 Lobbyists:TheOtherLawmakers200

CHAPTER• 16

ThePresident:GuardianoftheSystem215

SalesmanoftheSystem215

TheTwoFacesofthePresident218

Fedsvs.States221

ALoadedElectoralCollege222

TheWould-beAbsoluteMonarch225

CHAPTER• 17

ThePoliticalEconomyofBureaucracy232

TheMythandRealityofInefficiency232

DeregulationandPrivatization235

SecrecyandDeception,WasteandCorruption238

Nonenforcement:PoliticsinCommand240

Servingthe “Regulated” 242

PublicAuthorityinPrivateHands245

RegulationandBusinessIdeology247

CHAPTER• 18

TheSupremelyPoliticalCourt249

WhoJudges?249

ConservativeJudicialActivism(EarlyTimes)252

CircumventingtheFirstAmendment255

FreedomforRevolutionaries(andOthers)?257

AstheCourtTurns258

ConservativeJudicialActivism(PresentDay)265

CHAPTER• 19

DemocracyfortheFew268

PluralismfortheFew268

TheLimitsofReform271

DemocracyasPopularStruggle273

TheRolesoftheState275

WhatIstobeDone?277

TheRealityofPublicProduction283

NOTES 289

INDEX 317

Preface

Thestudyofpoliticsisitselfapoliticalact,containinglittlethatisneutral. True,wecanallagreeoncertainneutralfactsaboutthestructureofgovernmentandthelike.However,thebookthatdoesnotventuremuchbeyond theseminimaldescriptionswilloffendfewreadersbutalsowillinterestfew. Anyinvestigationofhowandwhythingshappendrawsusintohighlycontroversialareas.Mosttextbookspretendtoaneutralitytheydonotreally possess.Whileclaimingtobeobjective,theyaremerelyconventional,safely ignoringthemoreembattledandcontroversialsidesofU.S.politicallife.

Fordecades,mainstreampoliticalscientistsandotherproponentsofthe existingsocialorderhavetriedtotransformpracticallyeverydeficiencyinthe U.S.politicalsystemintoastrength.Theywouldhaveusbelievethathighpoweredlobbyistsarenothingtoworryaboutbecausetheyperforman “informationalfunction” vitaltorepresentativegovernment,andthatthe growingconcentrationofexecutivepowerisagoodthingbecausethepresidentisdemocraticallyresponsivetobroadnationalconstituenciesratherthan specialparochialones.Conventionalproponentshavearguedthattheexclusionofthirdpartiesisreallyforthebestbecausetoomanyparties(morethan two)wouldfractionalizeanddestabilizeourpoliticalsystem,andbesides,the majorpartieseventuallyincorporateintotheirplatformsthepositionsraised byminorparties whichisnewstoanynumberofsocialistandotherreformistpartieswhoseviewshaveremainedunincorporatedforgenerations.

Reactingtothemainstreamtendencytoturneveryviceintoavirtue,left criticsofthestatusquohavefeltcompelledtoturneveryvirtueintoavice. Thustheyhavearguedthatelectoralstruggleismeaningless,thatourcivillibertiesareacharade,thatfederalprogramsfortheneedyarenexttoworthless,thatreformsaremostlymeresopstotheoppressed,andthatlabor unionsareusuallycollaborationistwithmanagement.Thesecriticshavebeen

amuchneededantidotetothehappypluralistswhopaintedasilverlining aroundeverymurkycloud.Buttheywerewronginseeingnovictoriesinthe democraticstrugglesthathavebeenwaged.

DemocracyfortheFew triestostrikeabalance.Ittriestoshowhowdemocracyisviolatedbycorporateoligopoly,andyethowpopularforceshave foughtbackandoccasionallymadegains.Theyalsohavesufferedserious losses,asweshallsee.Thisbookoffersaninterpretationthatstudentsare notlikelytogetinelementaryschool,highschool,ormostoftheircollege courses,andcertainlynotinthemassmediaormainstreampolitical literature.

Itmaycomeasasurprisetosomeacademics,butthereisamarkedrelationshipbetweeneconomicpowerandpoliticalpower.Therearepolitical scientistswhospendtheirentireliveswritingaboutAmericangovernment, thepresidency,andpublicpolicywithouteveroncementioningcapitalism,a featofomissionthatwouldbejudgedextraordinarywereitnotsocommonplace.InthisbookItalkaboutthatforbiddensubject,capitalism,especially corporatecapitalism, itsmostadvancedandchallengingform.Onlythusly canwefullycomprehendtheunderpinningsoftheU.S.politicalsystem.

Ihaveattemptedtoblendseveralapproaches.Attentionisgiventothe formalpoliticalinstitutions suchastheCongress,thepresidency,thebureaucracy,theSupremeCourt,politicalparties,elections,andthelawenforcement system.ButthesestandardfeaturesofAmericangovernmentarelinkedherein tothebroaderrealitiesofclasspowerandinterest.

Inaddition,thisbookdevotesattentiontothe foundationsandhistorical development ofAmericanpolitics,particularlyinregardtothemakingofthe Constitution,thegrowingroleofgovernment,andthepoliticalculture.

Inadditionwewillcriticallyinvestigatenotonlywhogoverns,butalso theoutputsofthesystem:whogetswhat?Insteadofconcentratingsolelyon theprocessofgovernment,asdomanytexts,Ialsogiveattentiontothecontentofactualgovernmentpractices.Thusamajoremphasisisplaced throughoutthebookonthe politicaleconomy ofpublicpolicy.Thesignificanceofgovernment,afterall,liesnotinitsabstractedstructureassuch, butinwhatitdoesandhowitspoliciesaffectpeopleathomeandabroad.I haveincludedagooddealofpublicpolicyinformationofakindnotordinarilyfoundinstandardtexts,first,becausestudentsandcitizensingeneraltend tobepoorlyinformedaboutpolitico-economicissues,andsecond,becauseit makeslittlesensetotalkaboutthe “policyprocess” assomethingabstracted fromactualissuesandoutputs,divorcedfromquestionsofpowerandinterest.Thisdescriptiveinformation,however,ispresentedwiththeintentof drawingthereadertoanoverallunderstandingofU.S.politicalreality.

Thisbookgenerallytakeswhatsomewouldcalla structural approach. Ratherthantreatingpoliticaldevelopmentsastheresultofhappenstanceor thecontrivancesofparticularpersonalitiesoridiosyncraticevents,Itryto showthatmost(butnotnecessarilyall)ofwhatoccursistheoutcomeof broaderconfigurationsofpower,wealth,class,andinstitutionasstructured intothedominantpoliticalorganizations,theeconomy,andthesociety itself. x Preface

Unfortunatelytherearesomeindividualswhobelievethatastructural analysisdemandsthatwetreatconspiraciesasimaginarythings,andconscioushumaneffortsasofnogreatconsequence.Theygosofarastoargue thatweareallnowdividedintotwocamps,whichtheycallthestructuralists andthe conspiracists.InthisbookIconsiderconspiracies(bywhichmost peopleseemtomeansecret,consciouslyplannedprogramsbypersonsin highplaces)tobepartofthearsenalofstructuralrule.Nosocialorderof anycomplexityexistswithouttheapplicationofconscioushumanagency. Rulingelementsmustintentionallystrivetomaintaintheconditionsoftheir hegemonicrule.Thesocialorderofasocietydoesnotoperatelikeamystical abstractedentity.Itisdirectedforthemostpartbypeoplewhodeliberately pursuecertaingoals,usingallkindsofpower,includingpropaganda,persuasion,fraud,deceit,fear,secrecy,coercion,concessions,andsometimeseven concertedviolenceandothercriminalploys.Ratherthanseeingconspiracy andstructureasmutuallyexclusive,wemightconsiderhowconspiracyis oneoftheinstrumentsusedbythedominantinterestsinpoliticallife.Some conspiraciesareimagined;somearereal.Andsomeoftherealonesarepart ofthepoliticalstructure,notexceptionstoit.

Thisnintheditionhasbeenrevisedwiththeintentofupdatingthebook’s informationandadvancingitsanalysis.Myhopeisthatthisneweditioncontinuestoproveusefultobothstudentsandlayreaders.Followingissomeof what’snewintheninthedition:

• Anextensivediscussionofthecausesandinsufficientcuresregardingthe GreatRecessionof2008–2009,withemphasisoncorporatebailouts,hiddenunemployment,andwhobenefitsandwhopays.

• Updateddiscussionsandnewmaterialsforjustabouteverypolicyarea includingtheenvironment,growingeconomicinequality,newattempts atregulation,healthcare,andthehardshipsofworkingAmerica.

• Updateddiscussionsonthe “unitaryexecutive,” conservativejudicialactivism,andtheObamaadministration.

• Newmaterialsonattemptstosuppressthepopularvotethroughfraud, disinformation,andcoercion,includingthe2004,2006,and2008 elections.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ManythankstothestaffatWadsworth/CengageLearning,especiallyAngela HodgeandCarolynMerrillfortheirvaluableserviceinhelpingtoputthis booktogether.MythanksalsotoSushilaRajagopal,theprojectmanager. AndawordofappreciationgoestoJennyTayloe,DeidreVrooman,and SusanMcCallisterfortheassistancetheyrendered.

MichaelParenti

AbouttheAuthor

MichaelParenti(Ph.D.,YaleUniversity)hastaughtpoliticalandsocialscience atanumberofcollegesanduniversities,andnowdevoteshimselffulltimeto writingandguestlecturing.Heisaninternationallyknown,award-winning authorwhohaspublishedtwenty-onebooks,including GodandHisDemons (2010); ContraryNotions:TheMichaelParentiReader (2007); TheCulture Struggle (2006);and TheAssassinationofJuliusCaesar (2003).Variouswritingsofhishavebeentranslatedintosometwentylanguages.Hispublications, includingpreviouseditionsof DemocracyfortheFew, havebeenreadand enjoyedbystudents,layreaders,andscholars,andhavebeenusedextensively inhundredsofcollegecoursesacrossthecountry.Dr.ParentilecturesfrequentlythroughoutNorthAmericaandabroad.Hisvarioustalksandinterviewshaveplayedwidelyonradio,television,andtheInternet.Some300 articlesofhishavebeenpublishedinmagazines,newspapers,websites,and scholarlyjournals,including AmericanPoliticalScienceReview, Journalof Politics, SocialResearch,and NewPoliticalScience.

Formoreinformation,visithisWebsite:www.michaelparenti.org.

REVIEWERLIST

DanBrook,Ph.D.

Dr.WilliamA.Pelz,ElginCommunityCollege

Dr.JosephF.Jozwiak,Jr.,AssociateProfessorofPoliticalScience,Texas A&M-CorpusChristi

LeslieJ.Thornton,Ph.D.,UniversityofMichigan-Dearborn

RonaldW.Vardy,Ph.D.,UniversityofHouston

Robert,Spitzer,Ph.D.,SUNYCortland

xii

1

PartisanPolitics

HowdoestheU.S.politicalsystemwork?Whatarethemajorforcesshaping politicallife?WhogovernsintheUnitedStates?Whogetswhat,when,how, andwhy?Whopaysandinwhatways?Thesearethequestionspursuedin thisbook.

BEYONDTEXTBOOKS

ManyofusweretaughtasomewhatidealizedversionofAmericangovernment,whichmightbesummarizedasfollows:

1.TheUnitedStateswasfoundeduponaConstitutionfashionedtolimit politicalauthorityandcheckabusesofpower.Overthegenerationsit hasproventobea “livingdocument,” which,throughreinterpretation andamendment,hasserveduswell.

2.Thepeople’sdesiresareregisteredthroughelections,politicalparties, andafreepress.Governmentdecisionmakersarekeptincheckbytheir needtosatisfytheelectorateinordertoremaininoffice.Thepeopledo notruledirectlybuttheyselectthosewhodo.Thus,governmentdecisionsaregroundedinmajorityrule subjecttotherestraintsimposed bytheConstitutionfortheprotectionofminorityrights.

3.TheUnitedStatesisanationofmanifoldsocialandeconomicgroupsin whicheverysignificantgrouphasasayandnoonegroupchronically dominates.

4.Theseinstitutionalarrangementshavegivenusagovernmentoflaws andnotofindividuals,which,whilefarfromperfect,allowsforafairly highdegreeoflibertyandpopularparticipation.

ThisviewoftheUnitedStatesasahappy,pluralisticpolityassumesthat existingpoliticalinstitutionsoperatewithbenigneffect;thatpowerisnot

highlyconcentratednorheavilyskewedtowardthosewhocontrolvast wealth;andthatthestateisaneutralentitywithnospeciallinkagetothose whoowntheland,technology,andcapitalofthisandothersocieties.These keyassumptionswillbechallengedinthepagesahead.

Thethemeofthisbookisthatourgovernmentmoreoftenservestheprivilegedfewratherthanthegeneralpublic,principallyadvancingtheinterestsof thehavesattheexpenseoftherestofus.Thelawisusuallywrittenandenforced inhighlydiscriminatoryways.This democracyforthefew isaproductnotonly ofthevenalityofparticularofficeholdersbutareflectionoftheentirepoliticoeconomicsystem,thewaytheresourcesofpoweraredistributedandused.

Tobesure,theAmericanpeoplearenotalwayspassivevictims(orwilling accomplices)toallthis.Themassofordinarypeoplehavemadeimportant politicalandeconomicgains,usuallyafterlongandbitterconteststhathave extendedbeyondtheelectoralprocess.Thisdemocraticstruggleisanimportantpartofthestorythatwillbetoucheduponinthepagesahead.

Thisbooktriestodemonstratethatjustabouteverypartofthe politico-economicsystem,beitthemedia,lobbying,criminaljustice,overseas intervention,orenvironmentalpolicy,reflectsthenatureofthewhole,andin itsparticularwayservestomaintaintheoverallsystem especiallythesystem’sbasicclassinterests.Inaword,seeminglydistinctissuesandsocialproblemsareofteninterrelated.

The politicalsystem comprisesthevariousbranchesofgovernmentalong withthepoliticalparties,laws,lobbyists,andprivate-interestgroupsthataffectpublicpolicy.By publicpolicy, Imeanthedecisionsmadebygovernment. Policydecisionsareseldomneutral.Theyusuallybenefitsomeinterestsmore thanothers,entailingsocialcoststhatareseldomequallydistributed.The shapingofabudget,thepassageofalaw,andthedevelopmentofanadministrativeprogramareallpolicydecisions,all political decisions,andthereisno waytoexecutethemwithneutraleffect.Ifthewantsofallpersonscouldbe automaticallysatisfied,therewouldbenoneedtosetprioritiesandgivesome interestsprecedenceoverothers;indeed,therewouldbenoneedforpolitics.

Politicsextendsbeyondelectioncampaignsandtheactionsofgovernment.Decisionsthatconfinecertainmatters suchasrentalcostsorhealth care totheprivatemarketarehighlypolitical,evenifseldomrecognizedas such.Powerintheprivaterealmisgenerallyinequitableandundemocratic andoftenthesourceofconflictsthatspilloverintothepublicarena,forinstance,management-labordisputes,andracialandgenderdiscrimination.

Someoneoncedefinedapoliticianasapersonwhoreceivesvotesfrom thepoorandmoneyfromtherichonthepromiseofprotectingeachfrom theother.AndformerPresidentJimmyCarterobserved: “Politicsisthe world’ssecondoldestprofession,closelyrelatedtothefirst.” Whilenotdenyingthemeasureoftruthinsuchobservations,Itakeabroaderview.Politicsis morethanjustsomethingpoliticiansdo.Itistheprocessofconflict(andconflictresolution)amongprivateinterestscarriedintothepublicarena.Politics involvesnotonlythecompetitionamonggroupswithinthesystembuttheembattledeffortstochangethesystemitself,notonlythedesiretoachieve predefinedendsbutthestruggletoredefineendsandposealternativestothe existingpolitico-economicstructure.

THEPOLITICO-ECONOMICSYSTEM

Politicstodaycoverseverykindofissue,fromabortiontoschoolprayers,but thebulkofpublicpolicyisconcernedwitheconomicmatters,whichiswhy somewritersrefertothe “politico-economicsystem.” Amongthemorevital functionsofgovernmentaretaxingandspending.Certainlytheyarenecessary foreverythingelsegovernmentdoes,fromdeliveringthemailtomakingwar. Theveryorganizationofthefederalgovernmentreflectsitscloseinvolvement withtheeconomy:thus,onefindsthedepartmentsofCommerce,Labor,Agriculture,Interior,Transportation,andTreasury,andtheFederalTradeCommission,theNationalLaborRelationsBoard,theInterstateCommerce Commission,theSecuritiesandExchangeCommission,andnumerousother agenciesdirectlyinvolvedintheeconomy.Likewise,mostofthecommittees inCongresscanbeidentifiedaccordingtotheireconomicfunctions,themost importanthavingtodowithtaxationandappropriations(spending).

Politicsandeconomicsaretwosidesofthesamecoin.Economicsisconcernedwiththeproductionanddistributionofscarceresources,involving conflictsbetweensocialclassesandamonggroupsandindividualswithinclasses.Muchofpoliticsisacarryoverofthatstruggle.Bothpoliticsandeconomicsdealwiththesurvivalandmaterialwell-beingofmillionsofpeople;both dealwiththefundamentalconditionsofsociallifeitself.

Thiscloserelationshipbetweenpoliticsandeconomicsisneitherneutral normerelycoincidental.Governmentsevolvethroughhistoryinordertoprotectaccumulationsofpropertyandwealth.Innomadicandhuntingsocieties, wherethereislittlesurpluswealth,governanceisrudimentaryandusually communal.Insocietieswherewealthandpropertyarecontrolledbyaselect classofpersons,astatedevelopstoprotecttheinterestsofthehavesfromthe have-nots.AsJohnLockewrotein1689: “Thegreatandchiefend … of Men’sunitingintoCommonwealths,andputtingthemselvesunderGovernment,isthePreservationoftheirProperty.” AndAdamSmith,thepremierexponentofearlycapitalism,statedin1776: “Thenecessityofcivilgovernment growsupwiththeacquisitionofvaluableproperty.” And “Tilltherebepropertytherecanbenogovernment,theveryendofwhichistosecurewealth, andtodefendtherichfromthepoor.”1

Manypoliticalscientistsmanagetoignoretherelationshipbetweengovernmentandwealth,treatingthecorporategiants,ifatall,asiftheywerebut oneofanumberofinterestgroups.Theylabelas “Marxist” anyapproach thatseesgovernmentaslargelyaninstrumenttoprotecttheinterestsof wealth.Tobesure,KarlMarxsawthestatetobejustsuchaninstrument, butsodidconservativetheoristslikeThomasHobbes,JohnLocke,Adam Smith,and,inAmerica,AlexanderHamiltonandJamesMadison.Theyalso, Marxincluded,sawgovernmentastheinstitutionthatcarriedoutmoregeneralfunctionssuchasbuildingbridges,protectingthepopulacefromcrime, settingstandardweightsandmeasuresfortrade,andthelike.Butmostimportantofall,justabouteverytheoristandpractitionerofpoliticsintheseventeenth,eighteenth,andearlynineteenthcenturiesthoughtofthestateasthe protectorofpropertiedwealth.

“Thepeoplewhoownthecountryoughttogovernit,” declaredJohnJay. Apermanentcheckoverthepopulaceshouldbeexercisedby “therichandthe well-born,” urgedAlexanderHamilton.Unlikemosttheoristsbeforehim,Marx wasoneofthefirstinthemoderneratoseetheexistingrelationshipbetween wealthandpoweras undesirableandexploitative, andthiswashisunforgivable sin.Thetendencytoavoidcriticalanalysisofcorporatecapitalismpersiststo thisdayamongbusinesspeople,journalists,andmostacademics.2

Powerisnolesspoliticalbecauseitiseconomic.By “power,” Imeanthe abilitytogetwhatonewants,eitherbyhavingone’sinterestsprevailinconflictswithothersorbypreventingothersfromraisingtheirdemands.Power presumestheabilitytomanipulatethesocialenvironmenttoone’sadvantage. Powerbelongstothosewhopossesstheresourcesthatenablethemtoshape andinfluencetheactionsandbeliefsofothers,suchresourcesasjobs,organization,technology,publicity,media,sociallegitimacy,expertise,essential goodsandservices,organizedforce,and theingredientthatoftendetermines theavailabilityofthesethings money.

Sometimesthecomplaintismade: “You’regoodatcriticizingthesystem, butwhatwouldyouputinitsplace?”—theimplicationbeingthatunlessyou haveafinishedblueprintforabettersociety,youshouldrefrainfrompointing outexistingdeficienciesandinjustices.Thisbookispredicatedonthenotion thatitisdesirableandnecessaryfordemocraticcitizenstoexaminethesociety inwhichtheylive,possiblyasasteptowardmakingfundamentalimprovements.Itisunreasonabletodemandthatwerefrainfrommakingadiagnosis ofanillnessuntilwehaveperfectedacure.Forhowcanwehopetofindsolutionsunlesswereallyunderstandtheproblem?Inanycase,improvementsand solutionsareofferedintheclosingchapterandelsewhereinthisbook.

Politicallifeisrepletewithdeceit,corruption,andplunder.Smallwonder thatmanypeopleseektoremovethemselvesfromit.Butwhetherwelikeitor not,politicsandgovernmentplayacrucialroleindeterminingtheconditions ofourlives.Peoplecanleavepoliticallifealone,butitwillnotleavethem alone.Theycanescapeitsnoiseandnonsensebutnotitseffects.Oneignores thedoingsofthestateonlyatone’sownrisk.

Ifthepicturethatemergesinthepagesaheadisnotpretty, thisshouldnot betakenasanattackontheUnitedStates, forthiscountryanditspeopleare greaterthantheabusesperpetrateduponthembythosewholiveforpower andprofit.To exposetheseabusesisnottodenigratethenationthatisavictimofthem.Thegreatnessofacountryistobemeasuredbysomethingmore thanitsrulers,itsmilitarybudget,itsinstrumentsofdominanceanddestruction,anditsprofiteeringgiantcorporations.Anation’sgreatnesscanbemeasuredbythedemocraticnatureofitsinstitutions,byitsabilitytocreatea societyfreeofpoverty,racism,sexism,exploitation,imperialism,andenvironmentaldevastation.Thereisnobetterwaytoloveone’scountry,andstrive forthefulfillmentofitsgreatness,thantoentertaincriticalideasthatenable ustopursuesocialjusticeathomeandabroad.3

AConstitutionfortheFew

TounderstandtheU.S.politicalsystem,itwouldhelptoinvestigateitsorigins andfundamentalstructure,beginningwiththeConstitution.Themenwho gatheredinPhiladelphiain1787strovetoerectastrongcentralgovernment. TheyagreedwithAdamSmiththatgovernmentwas “institutedforthedefenseoftherichagainstthepoor” and “growsupwiththeacquisitionofvaluableproperty.”1

CLASSPOWERINEARLYAMERICA

EarlyAmericansocietyhasbeendescribedasegalitarian,freefromtheextremesofwantandwealththatcharacterizedEurope.Infact,fromcolonial timesonward,menofinfluencereceivedvastlandgrantsfromthecrown andpresidedoverestatesthatbespokeanimpressivemunificence.By1700, three-fourthsoftheacreageinNewYorkbelongedtofewerthanadozenpersons.IntheinteriorofVirginia,sevenindividualsownedover1.7million acres.By1760,fewerthanfivehundredmeninfivecolonialcitiescontrolled mostofthecommerce,shipping,banking,mining,andmanufacturingonthe easternseaboard.IntheperiodfromtheAmericanRevolutiontotheConstitutionalConvention(1776–1787),thebiglandowners,merchants,andbankersexercisedastronginfluenceoverpolitico-economiclife,oftendominating thelocalnewspapersthatservedtheinterestsofcommerce.2

Intwelveofthethirteenstates(Pennsylvaniaexcepted),onlypropertyowningWhitemalescouldvote,probablynotmorethan10percentofthe totaladultpopulation.ExcludedwereallNativeAmericans(“Indians”),personsofAfricandescent,women,indenturedservants,andWhitemaleslacking sufficientproperty.Propertyqualificationsforholdingofficeweresosteepas toexcludeevenmostoftheWhitemaleswhocouldvote.Amemberofthe

NewJerseylegislaturehadtobeworthatleast£1,000.SouthCarolinastate senatorshadtopossessestatesworthatleast£7,000clearofdebt(equivalent tooveramilliondollarstoday).InMaryland,acandidateforgovernorhadto ownpropertyworthatleast£5,000.Inaddition,theabsenceofasecretballot andofarealchoiceamongcandidatesandprogramsledtowidespread discouragement.3

NotlongbeforetheConstitutionalConvention,theFrenchchargéd’affaireswrotetohisgovernment:

AlthoughtherearenonoblesinAmerica,thereisaclassofmendenominated “gentlemen.”… Almostallofthemdreadtheeffortsofthepeopletodespoilthem oftheirpossessions,and,moreover,theyarecreditors,andthereforeinterestedin strengtheningthegovernmentandwatchingovertheexecutionofthelaw. The majorityofthembeingmerchants,itisfortheirinteresttoestablishthecreditof theUnitedStatesinEuropeonasolidfoundationbytheexactpaymentofdebts, andtogranttoCongresspowersextensiveenoughtocompelthepeopletocontributeforthispurpose.4

In1787,justsuchwealthyandpowerful “gentlemen,” our “Founding Fathers,” congregatedinPhiladelphiafortheprofessedpurposeofrevising theArticlesofConfederationandstrengtheningthecentralgovernment.5 UndertheArticles, “theUnitedStatesinCongress” wieldedabroadrangeofexclusivepowersovertreaties,trade,appropriations,currency,disputesamong thevariousstates,war,andnationaldefense.Buttheseactionsrequiredthe assentofatleastninestates.6 TheCongressalsohadnopowertotax,which leftitdependentuponleviesagreedtobythestates.Itwasunabletocompel thepeople throughtaxation tocontributetothefullpaymentofthepublic debt,mostofwhichwasowedtowealthyprivatecreditors.

ThedelegatestoPhiladelphiawantedastrongercentralpowerthatwould (a)resolveproblemsamongthethirteenstatesregardingtradeandduties,(b) protectoverseascommercialanddiplomaticinterests,(c)effectivelypropagate thefinancialandcommercialinterestsoftheaffluentclass,and(d)defendthe verywealthyfromthecompetingclaimsofotherclasseswithinthesociety.It is(c)and(d)thatareusuallyignoredordeniedbytoomanytextbookwriters.

MosttroublesometotheframersoftheConstitutionwastheinsurgent spiritevidencedamongthepeople.In1787,aworriedGeorgeWashington wrotetoaformercomrade-in-armsthataconstitutionwasmuchneeded “to containthethreatofthepeopleratherthantoembracetheirparticipationand theircompetence,” lest “theanarchyofthepropertylesswouldgivewayto despotism.”7 EvenplutocratslikeGouverneurMorris,whoshortlybefore theConstitutionalConventionhadopposedstrongfederation,nowrealized thatanempowerednationalgovernmentwouldbethebestsafeguardfor propertiedinterests.SoMorris “gaveup ‘staterights’ for ‘nationalism’ withouthesitation.”8

Theworkingpeopleofthatdayhavebeenportrayedasparochialspendthriftswhoneverpaidtheirdebtsandwhoadvocatedinflatedpapermoney. MosthistorianssaylittleabouttheplightofthecommonfolkinearlyAmerica. MostoftheWhitepopulationconsistedofpoorfreeholders,artisans,

tenants,andindenturedservants,thelatterentrappedinpaylessservitudefor years.AstudyofDelawarefarmsataboutthetimeoftheConstitutionalConventionfoundthatthetypicalfarmfamilymighthavealargeplotoflandbut littleelse,survivinginaone-roomhouseorlogcabin,withoutbarns,sheds, draftanimals,ormachinery.Thefarmerandhisfamilypulledtheplow.9

IntheUnitedStatesof1787,thereexistedpoorhousesandalargedebtor class.Smallfarmerswereburdenedbyheavyrents,ruinoustaxes,andlowincomes.Tosurvive,theyfrequentlyhadtoborrowmoneyathighinterestrates. Tomeettheirdebts,theymortgagedtheirfuturecropsandwentstilldeeper intodebt.Interestratesondebtsrangedfrom25to40percent,andtaxesfell mostheavilyonthoseofmodestmeans.Nopropertywasexemptfromseizure,savetheclothesonadebtor’sback.10

Throughoutthisperiod,newspaperscomplainedoftheincreasingnumbersofyoungbeggarsinthestreets.Economicprisonerscrowdedthejails,incarceratedfordebtsornonpaymentoftaxes.11 Amongthepeople,theregrew thefeelingthattherevolutionagainsttheBritishcrownhadbeenfoughtfor naught.Angryarmedcrowdsinseveralstatesbeganblockingforeclosures andforciblyfreeingdebtorsfromjail.Inthewinterof1787,impoverished farmersinwesternMassachusettsledbyDanielShaystookuparms.Their rebellionwasforciblyputdownbythestatemilitiaafterseveralskirmishes thatleftelevenmendeadandscoreswounded.12

CONTAININGTHESPREADOFDEMOCRACY

ThespecterofShays ’sRebellionhoveredoverthedelegateswhogatheredin Philadelphiathreemonthslater,confirmingtheirworstfears.Theyweredeterminedthatpersonsofbirthandfortuneshouldcontroltheaffairsofthe nationandcheckthe “levelingimpulses ” ofthepropertylessmultitudewho composed “themajorityfaction” (majorityclass). “ Tosecurethepublic goodandprivaterightsagainstthedangerofsuchafaction, ” wroteJames Madisonin Federalist No.10, “andatthesametimepreservethespiritand formofpopulargovernmentisthenthegreatobjecttowhichourinquiries aredirected. ” HereMadisontouchedtheheartofthematter:howtokeep the “form ” andappearanceofpopulargovernmentwithonlyaminimum ofthesubstance,howtoconstructagovernmentthatwouldwinsomepopularsupportbutwouldnottamperwiththeexistingclassstructure,agovernmentstrongenoughtoservicethegrowingneedsoftheentrepreneurial andlandedclasseswhilewithstandingtheegalitariandemandsoftheordinarypopulace.

TheframersoftheConstitutioncouldagreewithMadisonwhenhewrote (alsoin Federalist No.10)that “themostcommonanddurablesourceoffactionhasbeenthevariousandunequaldistributionofproperty[thatis, wealth].Thosewhoholdandthosewhoarewithoutpropertyhaveever formeddistinctinterestsinsociety” and “thefirstobjectofgovernment” is “theprotectionofdifferentandunequalfacultiesofacquiringproperty.” So governmentistheretoseethatthosewhohaveatalentforgettingrichare nothamperedinanywaybythosewhomightbemadepoorintheprocess.

‘‘Religiousfreedomismyimmediategoal,butmylong-rangeplanistogointorealestate.’’

Theframerswereoftheopinionthat democracy (rulebythecommon people)was “theworstofallpoliticalevils,” asElbridgeGerryputit.For EdmundRandolph,thecountry’sproblemswerecausedby “theturbulence andfolliesofdemocracy.” RogerShermanconcurred: “Thepeopleshould haveaslittletodoasmaybeabouttheGovernment.” AccordingtoAlexanderHamilton, “allcommunitiesdividethemselvesintothefewandthemany. Thefirstaretherichandthewellborn,theotherthemassofthepeople.… Thepeopleareturbulentandchanging;theyseldomjudgeordetermine right.” Herecommendedastrongcentralizedstatepowerto “checkthe imprudenceofdemocracy.” AndGeorgeWashington,thepresidingofficerat thePhiladelphiaConvention,urgedthedelegatesnottoproduceadocument merelyto “pleasethepeople.”13

Therewasnotmuchdangerofthat.Thedelegatesspentmanyweeksdebatinganddefendingtheirinterests,butthesewerethedifferencesofmerchants,slaveholders,andmanufacturers,adebateofhavesversushavesin whicheachgroupsoughtsafeguardsinthenewConstitutionforitsparticular concerns.Addedtothisweredisagreementsaboutconstitutionalstructure.

Howmightthelegislaturebeorganized?Howmuchrepresentationshouldthe largeandsmallstateshave?Howshouldtheexecutivebeselected?

Thefoundersdecidedonabicamerallegislation,consistingofaHouseof RepresentativeselectedeverytwoyearsinitsentiretyandaSenatewithsixyearstaggeredterms.ItwasdecidedthatseatsintheHousewouldbeallocatedamongthestatesaccordingtopopulation,whileeachstate,regardless ofpopulation,wouldhavetwoseatsintheSenate.

Majorquestionsrelatingtothenewgovernment’sabilitytoprotectthe interestsofpropertywereagreeduponwithsurprisinglylittledebate.Onthese issues,therewerenopoorfarmers,artisans,indenturedservants,orslavesattendingtheconventiontoprofferanopposingviewpoint.Ordinaryworking peoplecouldnottakeofffourmonthstogotoPhiladelphiaandwriteaconstitution.Thedebatebetweenhavesandhave-notsnevertookplace.

Notsurprisingly,ArticleI,Section8,thatcrucialportionoftheConstitutionthatenablesthefederalgovernmenttoservetheinterestsofinvestment property,wasadoptedwithinafewdayswithlittledebate.Congresswas giventhepowertoregulatecommerceamongthestatesandwithforeignnationsandIndiantribes,layandcollecttaxesandexcises,imposedutiesand tariffsonimportsbutnotoncommercialexports, “PaytheDebtsandprovide forthecommonDefenceandgeneralWelfareoftheUnitedStates,” establisha nationalcurrencyandregulateitsvalue,borrowmoney,fixthestandardof weightsandmeasuresnecessaryforcommerce,protectthevalueofsecurities andcurrencyagainstcounterfeiting,andestablishuniformbankruptcylaws throughoutthecountry allmeasuresofprimaryconcerntoinvestors,merchants,andcreditors.

Someofthedelegateswerelandspeculatorswhoinvestedinwesternholdings.Accordingly,Congresswasgiventhepowertoregulateandprotectall westernterritorialproperty.Mostofthedelegatesspeculatedingovernment securities,inflatedpaperscripthattheearlierConfederationhadissuedto paysoldiersandsmallsuppliers.Wealthyspeculatorsboughtfromimpoverishedholdershugeamountsofthesenearlyworthlesssecuritiesforatrifling. UnderArticleVI,alldebtsincurredbytheConfederationwerevalidagainst thenewgovernment,aprovisionthatallowedthespeculatorstoreapenormousprofitsbycashingintheinflatedscripatfacevalue.14

Byassumingthisdebt,thefederalgovernment underthepoliciesofthe firstsecretaryofthetreasury,AlexanderHamilton usedthepublictreasury tocreatebygovernmentfiatavastamountofprivatecapitalandcreditfor biginvestors,tobefundedbythegovernment’snewlyestablishedabilityto laytaxes.Thepaymentofthedebtcameoutofthepocketsofthegeneralpublicandwentintothepocketsofmoneyedindividualswhowerecreditorsto thegovernmentbyvirtueoftheirpossessingtheinflatedscrip.Thisfederally assumeddebtconsumednearly80percentoftheannualfederalrevenueduringthe1790s.15 Thisprocessofusingthetaxingpowertogathermoneyfrom theworkingpopulaceinordertobolsterprivatefortunescontinuestothis day,asweshallseeinthechaptersahead.

Intheinterestofmerchantsandcreditors,thestateswereprohibitedfrom issuingpapermoneyorimposingdutiesonimportsandexportsorinterfering

withthepaymentofdebtsbypassingany “LawimpairingtheObligationof Contracts.” TheConstitutionguaranteed “FullFaithandCredit” ineachstate “totheActs,Records,andjudicialProceedings” ofotherstates,thusallowing creditorstopursuetheirdebtorsacrossstatelines.

Slavery consideredamajorformofproperty wasaffordedspecialaccommodationintheConstitution.Three-fifthsoftheslavepopulationin eachstateweretobecountedwhencalculatingthestate’srepresentationin thelowerhouse.ThisgavetheslavestatesathirdmorerepresentationinCongressthanwasotherwisemerited.Thisdisproportionatedistributionofseats helpedtheslaveintereststopasslawsthatextendedslaveryintonewterritoriesanddiscouragedCongressfrommovingtowardabolition.

TheConstitutionneverabolishedtheslavetrade.Indeed,theimportation ofslaveswasexplicitlyguaranteedforanothertwentyyearsuntil1808,after whichtherewouldbetheoption butnorequirement thatitbeabolished. Manyslaveholdersassumedtheywouldhaveenoughpoliticalclouttokeep thetradegoingbeyondthatyear.Slaveswhoescapedfromonestatetoanotherhadtobedelivereduptotheoriginalowneruponclaim,aprovision (ArticleIV,Section2)thatwasunanimouslyadoptedattheConvention.16

TheframersbelievedthestateswerenotsufficientlyforcefulinsuppressingpopularuprisingslikeShays’sRebellion,sothefederalgovernmentwas empoweredtoprotectthestates “againstdomesticViolence,” andCongress wasgiventhetaskoforganizingthemilitiaandcallingitforthto “suppress Insurrections.” Provisionwasmadeforerectingforts,arsenals,andarmories, andforthemaintenanceofanarmyandnavyforbothnationaldefenseand toestablishanarmedfederalpresencewithinpotentiallyinsurrectionary states.Thismeasurewastoproveagodsendtotheindustrialbaronsacentury laterwhentheU.S.Armywasusedrepeatedlytobreakmassstrikesbyminers andrailroadandfactoryworkers.

FRAGMENTINGMAJORITYPOWER

Inkeepingwiththeirdesiretocontainthepropertylessmajority,thefounders insertedwhatMadisoncalled “auxiliaryprecautions” designedtofragment powerwithoutdemocratizingit.Theyseparatedtheexecutive,legislative, andjudicialfunctionsandthenprovidedasystemofchecksandbalancesbetweenthethreebranches,includingstaggeredelections,executiveveto,the possibilityofoverturningthevetowithatwo-thirdsmajorityinbothhouses, Senateconfirmationofappointmentsandratificationoftreaties,andabicamerallegislature.TheycontrivedanelaborateanddifficultprocessforamendingtheConstitution,requiringproposalbytwo-thirdsofboththeSenateand theHouseandratificationbythree-fourthsofthestatelegislatures.17 Tothe extentthatitexistedatall,themajoritarianprinciplewastightlylockedintoa systemofminorityvetoes,makingswiftandsweepingpopularactionless likely.

Thepropertylessmajority,asMadisonpointedoutin Federalist No.10, mustnotbeallowedtoconcertincommoncauseagainstthepropertiedclass anditsestablishedsocialorder.Thelargerthenation,thegreaterthe “variety

ofpartiesandinterests” andthemoredifficultitwouldbeforamassmajority toactinunison.AsMadisonargued, “Arageforpapermoney,foranabolitionofdebts,foranequaldivisionofproperty,orforanyotherwickedprojectwillbelessapttopervadethewholebodyoftheUnionthanaparticular memberofit.” AnuprisingofimpoverishedfarmersmightthreatenMassachusettsatonetimeandRhodeIslandatanother,butanationalgovernment wouldbelargeenoughtocontaineachoftheseandinsulatetherestofthe nationfromthecontaminationofrebellion.

Notonlyshouldthelow-incomemajoritybepreventedfromcoalescing, itsupwardthrustupongovernmentalsoshouldbebluntedwithindirectforms ofrepresentation.

• Thesenatorsfromeachstateweretobeelectedbytheirrespectivestate legislaturesratherthandirectlybythevoters.

• DirectpopularelectionoftheSenatewasachievedin1913whentheSeventeenthAmendmentwasadopted 126yearsafterthePhiladelphia Convention demonstratingthattheConstitutionissometimesmodifiableinademocraticdirection,thoughitdoesseemtotakeabitoftime.

• Senatorialelectionsweretobestaggered,withonlyathirdoftheSenate facingelectioneverytwoyears,therebyminimizingasweepingchange.

• Thepresidentwastobeselectedbyanelectoralcollegewhosemembers, by1800,wereelectedbythepeopleinonlyfivestates,andbystatelegislaturesorcountysheriffsintheotherelevenstates.

• Asanticipatedbytheframers,theElectoralCollegewouldactasa damperonpopularsentiment.Composedofpoliticalleadersand “men ofsubstance,” electedineachstatebythevoters,theElectoralCollege wouldconvenemonthsaftertheelectionintheirvariousstatesand chooseapresidentoftheirownliking.Itwasbelievedtheyusuallywould beunabletomusteramajorityforanyonecandidate,andthatthefinal selectionwouldbelefttotheHouse,witheachstatedelegationtherein havingonlyonevote.

• TheSupremeCourtwastobeelectedbynoone,itsjusticesbeingappointedtolifetenurebythepresident,withconfirmationbytheSenate.

Theonlyportionofgovernmenttobedirectlyelectedbythepeoplewas theHouseofRepresentatives.Manyofthedelegateswereagainstthisarrangement.Theywereconcernedthatwithdirectelectionsdemagogueswould rideintoofficeonapopulisttideonlytopillagethetreasuryandwreakhavoc onthewealthyclass.JohnMercerobservedthathefoundnothingintheproposedConstitutionmoreobjectionablethan “themodeofelectionbythe people.” AndGouverneurMorriswarned, “Thetimeisnotdistant,when thisCountrywillaboundwithmechanics[artisans]andmanufacturers[factoryandmillworkers]whowillreceivetheirbreadfromtheiremployers. WillsuchmenbethesecureandfaithfulGuardiansofliberty? … Theignorantanddependent[thatis,poorandunschooled]canbe … littletrusted withthepublicinterest.”18

Whenthedelegatesfinallyagreedtohaving “thepeople” electthelower house,asnotedearlier,theywerereferringtoaselectportionofthe

populationthatexcludedalmostallWhitemaleswithoutproperty,allNative Americans,allindenturedservants,andallfemalesofwhateverrace.Alsoexcludedwereslaves,whoconstitutedalmostone-fourthofthenation’spopulation.EvenamongthoseAfricanAmericanswhohadgainedtheirfreedomin bothNorthandSouth,fewwereallowedtovote.

PLOTTERSORPATRIOTS?

Inagroundbreakingbookpublishedin1913,historianCharlesBeardfamouslyarguedthattheframerswereguidedbytheinterestsoftheiraffluent class.DisputingBeardarethosewhosaythattheframerswereconcerned withhigherthingsthanjustliningtheirpurses.True,theyweremoneyed menwhoprofiteddirectlyfrompoliciesinitiatedunderthenewConstitution, buttheyweremotivatedbyaconcernfornationbuildingthatwentbeyond theirparticularclassinterests.

Thatisexactlythepoint:high-mindednessisacommonattributeamong peopleevenwhen,orespeciallywhen,theyarepursuingtheirpersonaland classinterests.Thefallacyistopresumethatthereisadichotomybetween thedesiretobuildastrongnationandthedesiretoprotectwealthandthat theframerscouldnothavebeenmotivatedbyboth.Infact,likemostother people,theybelievedthatwhatwasgoodforthemselveswasultimatelygood fortheircountry.Theirnation-buildingvaluesandclassinterestswenthandin hand,andtodiscovertheexistenceofthe “higher” sentimentdoesnoteliminatetheself-interestedone.

Indeed,theproblemisthatmostpeopletooeasilyandself-servinglybelieveintheirownvirtue.Thefounderswerenoexception.Theyneverdoubted thenobilityoftheireffortanditsimportanceforthegenerationstocome.Just asmanyofthemcouldfeeldedicatedtotheprincipleof “libertyforall” while owningslaves,socouldtheyserveboththeirnationandtheirestates.The pointisnotthattheyweredevoidofthegrandersentimentsofnationbuilding,butthattherewasnothingintheirconceptofnationthatworkedagainst theirclassinterestandagreatdealthatworkedforit.

Theframersmaynothavebeensolelyconcernedwithgettingtheirown handsinthetill,althoughenoughofthemdid,buttheywereexplicitlyconcernedwithdefendingtheinterestsofthewealthyfewfromthelaboring many. “TheConstitution,” asStaughtonLyndnoted, “wasthesettlementof arevolution.WhatwasatstakeforHamilton,Livingston,andtheiropponentswasmorethanspeculativewindfallsinsecurities;itwasthequestion, whatkindofsocietywouldemergefromtherevolutionwhenthedusthad settled,andonwhichclassthepoliticalcenterofgravitywouldcometo rest.”19

Thesmallfarmersanddebtors,whoopposedacentralgovernmentthat wouldbeevenfurtherfromtheirreachthanthelocalandstategovernments, havebeendescribedasmotivatedbyself-serving,parochialinterests,unlike thesupposedlyhigh-mindedstatesmenwhojourneyedtoPhiladelphia.20 How andwhythewealthybecamevisionarynationbuildersisneverexplained.Not toolongbefore,manyofthemhadbeenproponentsoflaissez-faireandhad

opposedastrongcentralgovernment.Intruth,itwasnottheirmindsthatwere somuchbroaderbuttheireconomicinterests.Theirmotiveswerenohigher thanthoseofanyothersocialgroupstrugglingforplaceandpowerinthe UnitedStatesof1787.Butpossessingmoretime,money,information,andorganization,theyenjoyedsuperiorresults.

Thoughsupposedlydedicatedtoselflessanduprightgoals,thedelegates neverthelessboundthemselvestothestrictestsecrecy.Proceedingswereconductedbehindlockeddoorsandshutteredwindows(despitethesweltering Philadelphiasummer).Madison’snotes,whichrecordedmostoftheactualdeliberations,werepublished,athisinsistence,onlyafterallparticipantswere dead,fifty-threeyearslater,mostlikelytoavoidpoliticalembarrassmentto them.21

Thefoundersweremotivatedbyhigh-mindedobjectives,somepeoplesay, buttheyrepeatedlystatedtheirintentiontoerectagovernmentstrongenough toprotectthehavesfromthehave-nots(whichforthemwasoneoftheirhighmindedobjectives).Deliberatingbehindcloseddoors,thesewealthymengave voicetothecrassestclassprejudicesandmostdisparagingopinionsabout popularinvolvement.Theirconcernwastodiminishpopularcontrolandresistalltendenciestowardclassequalization(or “leveling,” asitwascalled). Theirdedicationtotheirpropertiedclassinterestsweresounabashedly avowedastocauseonedelegate,JamesWilsonofPennsylvania,tocomplain ofhearingtoomuchabouthowtheprimaryobjectofgovernmentwasproperty.Thecultivationandimprovementofthehumanmind,hemaintained, wasthemostnobleobjectiveofthepolity afinesentimentthatevokedno oppositionfromhiscolleaguesastheycontinuedabouttheirbusiness.

Theframerssupposedlyhada “realistic” opinionoftherapaciousnature ofhumanbeings readilyevidencedwhentheytalkedaboutthecommonpeople yettheyheldarathersanguineviewoftheself-interestedimpulsesof theirownclass,whichtheysawasinhabitedlargelybyvirtuousmenof “principleandproperty.” Asthe “minorityfaction” thesegentlemenwouldnotsacrificetherightsofothercitizens,especiallytherighttopursuepropertyand wealth,apursuitthattheybelievedconstitutedtheessenceofliberty.22

Insum,theConstitutionwasconsciouslydesignedasaconservativedocument,elaboratelyequippedwithasystemofminoritylocksanddamsinordertoresistpopulartides.TheConstitutionfurnishedspecialprovisionsfor theslaveholdingclassandforarisingbourgeoisie.Forthefounders,liberty meantsomethingdifferentfromdemocracy.Itmeantlibertytoinvest,speculate,trade,andaccumulatewealthwithoutencroachmentbythecommon populace.

Thedemocraticcivillibertiesdesignedtogiveallindividualstherightto engageinpublicaffairswonlittlesupportfromthedelegates.WhenGeorge MasonofVirginiarecommendedthatacommitteebeformedtodraft “aBill ofRights,” ataskthatcouldbeaccomplished “inafewhours,” theotherconventionmembersofferedlittlediscussiononthemotionandvotedalmost unanimouslyagainstit.

IftheConstitutionwassuchanelitistdocument,howdiditmanagetowin ratification?Itwasstronglyopposedinmostofthestates.Virginia’sPatrick

HenrychargedthattheConstitutionenabled “acontemptibleminority[to]preventthegoodofthemajority.”23 Butthesamesuperiorityofwealth,organization,andcontrolofpoliticalofficeandownershipofthepressthatallowedthe richtomonopolizethePhiladelphiaConventionenabledthemtoorchestratea successfulratificationcampaign.TheFederalistsalsousedbribes,intimidation, andfraudagainsttheiropponents.

Whatismore,theConstitutionneverwassubmittedtoapopularvote. Ratificationwasbystateconventions,eachcomposedofdelegatesdrawn mostlyfromthesameaffluentstratumastheframers.Thosewhovotedfor thesedelegatesthemselvesusuallyhadtoqualifyaspropertyholders.Probablynotmorethan20percentoftheadultWhitemalesvotedfordelegatesto theratifyingconventions.24

DEMOCRATICCONCESSIONS

Forallitsundemocraticaspects,theConstitutionwasnotwithoutitshistoricallyprogressivefeatures.Considerthefollowing:25

• Theveryexistenceofawrittenconstitutionwithspecificallylimitedpowers representedanadvanceovermoreautocraticformsofgovernment.

• Nopropertyqualificationswererequiredforanyfederalofficeholder,unlikeinEnglandandmostofthestates.Andsalarieswereprovidedforall officials,thusrejectingthecommonpracticeoftreatingpublicofficeasa voluntaryservicethatonlytherichcouldafford.

• Thepresidentandlegislatorswereelectedforfixedterms.Noonecould claimalifetenureonanyelectiveoffice.

• ArticleVIreads, “noreligiousTestshalleverberequiredasaQualificationtoanyOfficeorpublicTrustundertheUnitedStates,” afeaturethat representedadistinctadvanceoveranumberofstateconstitutionsthat bannedCatholics,Jews,andnonbelieversfromholdingoffice.

• Billsofattainder,thepracticeofdeclaringbylegislativefiataspecificpersonorgroupofpeopleguiltyofanoffense,withoutbenefitofatrial, weremadeunconstitutional.Alsooutlawedwereexpostfactolaws,the practiceofdeclaringsomeacttobeacrimeandthenpunishingthose whohadcommittedit before itwasmadeunlawful.

• TherewasstrongpopularsentimentforaBillofRights.Inordertoensure ratification,supportersofthenewConstitutionpledgedtheswiftadoption ofsuchabillasaconditionforratification.So,inthefirstsessionofCongress,thefirsttenamendmentswereswiftlypassedandthenadoptedby thestates.Theserightsincludedfreedomofspeechandreligion;freedom toassemblepeaceablyandtopetitionforredressofgrievances;theright tokeeparms;freedomfromunreasonablesearchesandseizures;freedom fromself-incrimination,doublejeopardy,cruelandunusualpunishment, andexcessivebailandfines;therighttoafairandimpartialtrial;and otherformsofdueprocess.

• TheBillofRights,specificallytheNinthAmendment,explicitlyacknowledgesthatthepeoplehaveareserveofrightsthatgobeyondtheConstitution.Hencetheenumerationofspecificrights “shallnotbeconstrued todenyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople.”

• TheBillofRightsalsoprohibitedCongressfromgivingstatesupportto anyreligionordesignatinganyreligionastheofficialone.Religionwas tobesomethingapartfromgovernment,supportedonlybyitsownbelieversandnotbythetaxpayer astricturethatoftenhasbeenviolated inpractice.

Contrarytothenotionpropagatedtodaybymanyreligionists,thefoundersdidnotestablishthisnationuponreligiousprinciples.ThomasJefferson advisedthatwe “questionwithboldnesseventheexistenceofagod.” John Adamswrote, “Thiswouldbethebestofpossibleworldsiftherewasnoreligioninit.” JamesMadisonconcludedthatduringalmostfifteencenturiesthe fruitsofChristianityhavebeen “superstition,bigotryandpersecution” in bothclergyandlaity.BenjaminFranklinopenlyquestionedthedivinityof Jesus.IfthedelegatesinPhiladelphiawereintentuponinauguratingaChristianrepublic,whydoestheConstitutioncontainnotasinglereferencetoGod, Jesus,orChristianity?AsoneChristiantheologianconceded, “Themenwho … puttogethertheConstitutionwerenotChristiansbyanystretchofthe imagination.”26

TheConstitutionconsolidatedthevictoryofrepublicanismoverBritish imperialism.Itguaranteedarepublicanformofgovernmentandexplicitlyrepudiatedmonarchyandaristocracy;hence,ArticleI,Section9states: “Notitle ofNobilityshallbegrantedbytheUnitedStates.”

AccordingtoJamesMcHenry,adelegatefromMaryland,atleasttwentyoneofthefifty-fivedelegatesfavoredsomeformofmonarchy.Yetfewdared ventureinthatdirectionoutoffearofpopularopposition.Furthermore,delegateslikeMadisonbelievedthatstabilityfortheirclassorderwasbestassured byarepublicanformofgovernment.Thetimehadcomefortherichbourgeoisietoruledirectlywithoutthetroublesomeintrusionsofparasiticnobles andkings.

OnanumberofoccasionsduringthePhiladelphiaConvention,thisassemblageofmenwhofearedandloatheddemocracyfounditnecessaryto showsomeregardforpopularsentiment(aswiththedirectelectionofthe lowerhouse).IftheConstitutionwasgoingtobeacceptedbythestatesand ifthenewgovernmentwastohaveanystability,ithadtogainsomemeasure ofpopularacceptance.

Whilethedelegatesandtheirclassdominatedtheeventsof1787–1789, theywerefarfromomnipotent.Theclasssystemtheysoughttopreservewas itselfthecauseofmarkedrestivenessamongthepeople.Landseizuresbythe poor,foodriots,andotherviolentdisturbancesoccurredthroughouttheeighteenthcenturyinjustabouteverystateanderstwhilecolony.Thispopularfermentspurredtheframersintheirefforttoerectastrongcentralgovernment, butitalsosetalimitonwhattheycoulddo.

Thedelegates “gave” nothingtopopularinterests,rather aswiththeBill ofRights theyreluctantlymadedemocraticconcessionsunderthethreatof popularrebellion.Theykeptwhattheycouldandgrudginglyrelinquished whattheyfelttheyhadto,drivennotbyaloveofdemocracybutbyafear ofit,notbyaloveofthepeoplebutbyaprudentdesiretoavoidriotand insurgency.TheConstitution,then,wasaproductnotonlyofclassprivilege butofclassstruggle astrugglethatcontinuedasthecorporateeconomyand thegovernmentgrew.

RiseoftheCorporateState

Contrarytowhatiscommonlytaught,thehistoryoftheUnitedStateshas beenmarkedbyintenseandoftenviolentlaborstruggles,withthegovernment playingapartisanroleintheseconflicts,mostlyonthesideofbigbusiness.

THEWARAGAINSTLABOR

Theupper-classdominanceofpubliclifesocharacteristicofthefounding fathers’ generationcontinuedthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.Asearlyas 1816,ThomasJeffersoncomplainedofan “aristocracyofourmoniedcorporationswhich … biddefiancetothelawsofourcountry.” Inthe1830s, theperiodof “Jacksoniandemocracy,” supposedlythe “eraofthecommon man,” PresidentAndrewJackson’skeyappointmentsweredrawnoverwhelminglyfromtheranksoftherich,andhispoliciesregardingtrade,finances,and theuseofgovernmentlandsreflectedtheinterestsofwealthyinvestors.1

Inanaddressbefore “ theMechanicsandWorkingClasses ” in1827,a workerlamented: “Wefindourselvesoppressedoneveryhand welabor hardinproducingallthecomfortsoflifefortheenjoymentofothers,while weourselvesobtainbutascantyportion.” In1845inNewYork,Baltimore, NewOrleans,St.Louis,andotherurbancenters,therichest1percent ownedthelion’sshareofthewealth,whileathirdofthepopulationwas utterlydestitute.Povertyandovercrowdingbroughtcholeraandtyphoid epidemics,causingthewealthytofleethecities,whilethepoor having nowheretogoandnowaytogetthereeveniftheydid stayedanddied. Livinginmisery,manyimpoverishedpeoplewereaddictedtoalcoholand drugs(mostlyopium).Childrenasyoungasnineandtentoiledfourteenhourshifts,fallingasleepatthemachinestheytended,sufferingfrommalnutritionandsickness. 2

Duringtheseindustrialconflicts,NativeAmericansstruggledvaliantly againsttheexpropriationoftheirlandsandthesystematicslaughteroftheir people,aprocessthatbeganwiththeearliestseventeenth-centuryEuropean settlementsandcontinuedthroughtheeighteenthandmostofthenineteenth centuries,endingwiththetribalremnantsbeingconfinedtodesolate,impoverishedreservations.3

Largelandownersandcorporationsprofitedgreatlyfromslavelabor. Slaveswereusedtolayrailroads,constructoillines,harvesttobaccoandcotton,anddigforcoal,salt,andmarble.Insurancecompaniessoldpoliciesto slaveholdersfortheirhuman “property.”

Emancipationdidnotbringliberationtoallpersonsheldinservitude.For morethansixtyyears,wellintothetwentiethcentury,hundredsofthousands ofindigentAfricanAmericanswereforcedtotoilatconstructionsites,railroads,mines,andlargefarmsunderslavelaborconditions.Arrestedfortrivial offensessuchasgamblingorfoullanguage,theyhadtoworkofftheinflated costsoftheirkeep,whichtheyinvariablywereunabletodo.Subjectedto whippingsandtorture,unsafeworkconditions,andwretchedfoodandhousing,tensofthousandsperished.Oneofthebiggestusersofthisconvictslave laborwasasubsidiaryofU.S.SteelCorporation.4

Thecorporatestruggleagainstlaborinnineteenth-centuryAmerica,with itsfarmers’ rebellionsandmassiverailandindustrialstrikes,wasasfierceas anyintheindustrialworld.Civilauthoritiesintervenedalmostinvariablyon

thesideoftheowningclasstoquelldisturbancesandcrushstrikes.Stateand federalcourtsbranded “laborcombinations” (unions)asconspiraciesagainst privatepropertyandtheConstitution.5

Throughoutthenineteenthcenturyandwellintothetwentieth,police,militia,companythugs,andfederaltroopsattackedstrikersandotherprotestors,killedhundreds,andinjuredandjailedthousandsmore.In1886,police inChicago’sHaymarketSquarekilledatleasttwentydemonstrators,while woundingsometwohundredinresponsetoathrownbombthatkilledseven police.Fouranarchistleaders noneofwhomhadbeenpresent weretried andhangedforhavingprintedappealssomedaysearlierthatsupposedly inspiredtheincident.

Thatsameyear,thirty-fivestrikingAfricanAmericansugarworkers weremassacredinThibodaux,Louisiana,byamilitiadetachmentcomposed ofthetown’ saffluentcitizens.Thetwostrikeleadersweredraggedfromjail andlynched.In1892,Pinkertongunthugshiredbyasteelcompanykilled ninestrikingsteelworkersinHomestead,Pennsylvania.ThestrikewaseventuallybrokenbytheNationalGuard.In1894,U.S.Armytroopskilled thirty-fourrailroadworkerswhowereamongthoseonstrikeagainstthe Pullmancompany.Overthenextfewyears,scoresofstrikingcoalminers weremurdered. 6

IntheinfamousLudlowMassacreof1914,ColoradoNationalGuardsmen firedintoatentcolonyofminerswhowereonstrikeagainstaRockefellerownedcompany,killingforty,includingtwowomenandelevenchildren.In 1919,facedwithageneralstrikethatbeganinSeattleandspreadelsewhere,the U.S.AttorneyGeneralarrestedmorethan100,000workersinseventycities acrossthenation.ThatsameyearinArkansas,overonehundredstriking cottonpickersweremassacredbyU.S.troopsandanarmedcontingentof thetown’smostprosperouscitizens.In1915,sheriff’sdeputiesinEverett, Washington,killedelevenandwoundedtwenty-sevenmembersoftheIndustrial WorkersoftheWorld(IWW)whowereprotestingrestrictionsonfreespeech. In1932,HenryFord’sprivatepolicefireduponunemployedfactoryworkers, killingfourandwoundingtwenty-four.In1937,theChicagopolicefiredupon apeacefulcrowdofstrikingsteelworkers,killingtenandwoundingoverforty. AnadditionalsixstrikerswerekilledonpicketlinesinOhio.7

Aseventhisincompletelistsuggests,theforcesof “lawandorder” were repeatedlyutilizedtosuppressorganizedlabor.Theindustrialbaronsregularlycalledstatemilitiaandfederalsoldierstotheirassistance.Shortofhaving theregulararmypermanentlygarrisonedinindustrialareas,aswasthedesire ofsomewealthyowners,governmentofficialstooksteps “toestablishan effectiveanti-radicalNationalGuard.”8

FAVORSFORBUSINESS

Thesamefederalgovernmentthatwasunabletostoptheillegalslavetrade andtheviolenceperpetratedagainstabolitionistswasabletocombtheland withbandsoffederalmarshalstocapturefugitiveslavesandreturnthemto theirmasters.Thesamegovernmentthatcouldnotfindtheconstitutional

meanstoeliminatecontaminatedfoodsandbefouledwatersuppliescoulduse federaltroopstobreakstrikes,shoothundredsofworkers,andslaughter thousandsofNativeAmericans.Thesamegovernmentthathadnotadollar fortheindigent(povertybeingamatterbestlefttoprivatecharity)gaveaway 21millionacresoflandand$51millioningovernmentbondstoafewrailroadmagnates.Andstatutesintendedtooutlawmonopoliesandtradeconspiracieswererarelyusedexceptagainstlaborunions.

Whileinsistingthatcompetitionworkedbestforall,mostbusinesspeople showedlittleinclinationtodeliverthemselvestotheexactingimperatives ofanuntrammeledfreemarket.Insteadtheyresortedtoruthlessbusiness practicestosqueezeoutcompetitors.Sobythe1890s,JohnD.Rockefeller’s StandardOilcontrolledroughly80percentoftheU.S.oilmarket.Atthesame timethebigcorporationsgorgedthemselvesatthepublictrough,batteningon fatgovernmentcontracts,subsidies,landgrants,andprotectivetariffs.

TheConstitutionmakesnomentionofcorporations.Forthefirstfewdecadesofthenewnation,corporatecharterswereissuedsparinglyforspecific purposesandfixedperiods,usuallyoftwentyorthirtyyears.Corporations couldnotownstockinothercorporationsoranylandbeyondwhatthey neededfortheirbusiness.Corporaterecordswereopentopublicscrutiny; andstatelegislatureslimitedtheratesthatcorporationscouldcharge.In time,withthegrowingpowerofthebusinessclass,allsuchdemocraticcontrolswereeliminated,andcorporationsemergedaspowersuntothemselves.9

Usingthelawof “eminentdomain,” thegovernmenttooklandfrom farmersandgaveittocanalandrailroadcompanies.Theideaofafairprice andsafeproductforconsumerswasreplacedwiththedoctrineof caveatemptor (letthebuyerbeware).Workerswerekilledormaimedinunsafework conditions,withoutemployersbeingheldliable.Bythelatenineteenthcentury,millionsofdollarscollectedbythegovernment “fromtheconsuming population,andaboveallfromthe … poorwageearnersandfarmers,” constitutinganenormousbudgetsurplus,wasdoledouttobiginvestors.10 Likewise,abillionacresofpublicland,propertyoftheAmericanpeople, constitutingalmosthalfthepresentcontinentalUnitedStates,wasprivatized.

Thisbenevolentgovernmenthandedovertoitsfriendsortoastutefirst comers, … allthosetreasuresofcoalandoil,ofcopperandgoldandiron,the landgrants,theterminalsites,theperpetualrightsofway anactoflargesse whichisstilloneofthewondersofhistory.TheTariffActof1864wasinitselfa shelteringwallofsubsidies;andtoaidfurtherthenewheavyindustriesand manufactures,anImmigrationActallowingcontractlabortobeimportedfreely wasquicklyenacted;anationalbankingsystemwasperfected.11

Inregardtotheneedsofthecommonpeople,however,thegovernment remainedlaissez-faire,givinglittleattentiontopoverty,unemployment,unsafe workconditions,childlabor,andthespoliationofnaturalresources.

Yetdemocraticstrugglepersisted.Awomen’ssuffragemovementgatheredstrength.Inpursuitofalivingwageanddecentworkconditions,labor unionsrepeatedlyregroupedtheirshatteredrankstofightpitchedbattles againsttheindustrialmoguls.Oneimportantvictorywasthedefeatofthe

SouthernslavocracyintheCivilWarandtheabolitionoflegalizedslavery. DuringReconstruction(1867–1877)theformerConfederatestateswereput underfederalmilitaryoccupation.Thenewstategovernmentssetupinthe SouthbytheU.S.Congressdecreeduniversalsuffrageformalesofallraces andincomes,alongwithpopularassemblies,fairertaxes,schoolsforthe poor,andsomelimitedlandreform.ButoncetheNortherncapitalistsallied themselveswiththeSouthernoligarchsandputanendtoReconstruction,bettertofacetheirjointstrugglesagainstlaborersandfarmers,mostofthese democraticgainswererolledback,nottoberecoupeduntilwellintothe nextcentury ifthen.12

AfricanAmericansstruggledinthedecadesafterReconstructiontorise abovethecuspofpoverty,onlytomeetmalevolentdefeatincrushingwaves ofterrorismandrepeatedviolenceatthehandsofWhitesofallclasses.13

PLIABLEPROGRESSIVESANDREDSCARES

Inthetwentiethcentury,wealthyinterestscontinuedtolooktothefederal governmenttodoforthemwhattheycouldnotdoforthemselves:repress democraticforcesandadvancetheprocessofcapitalaccumulation.During the1900–1916period,knownastheProgressiveEra,federallawswere enactedtoprotectconsumersandworkersfromunsafeconditionsinsuch industriesasmeatpacking,foodanddrugs,banking,timber,andmining. Oftentheseregulationsmandatedexpensiveimprovementsandsafetyfeatures thatweredesignedtoadvantagethestrongestcompaniesattheexpenseof smallercompetitors.14

Theindividualswhooccupiedthepresidencyduringthaterawerefaithful collaboratorsofbigbusiness.TeddyRoosevelt,forone,washailedasa “trust buster” becauseofhisverbalthrustsagainstthe “malefactorsofgreat wealth,” yethewashostiletowardunionistsandreformers,andinvitedbusinessmagnatesintohisadministration.NeitherWilliamHowardTaftnor WoodrowWilson,theothertwoWhiteHouseoccupantsofthatperiod, launchedanyseriousoperationsagainstbigbusiness.Wilson,aDemocrat, railedagainstgianttrustsbuthiscampaignfundscamefromafewrichcontributors.HeworkedwithassociatesofMorganandRockefelleraboutas closelyasanyRepublican. “Progressivismwasnotthetriumphofsmallbusinessoverthetrusts,ashasoftenbeensuggested,butthevictoryofbigbusinessesinachievingtherationalizationoftheeconomythatonlythefederal governmentcouldprovide.”15

TheperiodiscalledtheProgressiveErabecauseofthemuchpublicized butlargelyineffectuallegislationtocontrolmonopolies,andbecauseofthe SixteenthAmendmentallowingforagraduatedincometax,theSeventeenth AmendmentprovidingforthedirectelectionofU.S.senators,andsuchdubiouselectoralreformsasthelongballotandnonpartisanelections.Inaddition, manystatesinitiatedlegislationlimitingthelengthoftheworkdayandprovidingworker’scompensationforindustrialaccidents.Severalstatespassed minimum-wagelaws,andthirty-eightstatesenactedchildlaborlawsrestrictingtheagechildrencouldbeemployedandthehourstheycouldwork.

Theseenactments,representinglong-standingdemandsbyworkers,were wrestedfromaresistantowningclassaftermuchbitterandbloodycontest. Evenso,muchofthereformlegislationwentunenforcedorprovedineffectual.Millionstoiledtwelve-andfourteen-hourdays,sixorsevendaysa week.Accordingtogovernmentfigures,2millionchildrenhadtoworkin ordertosupplementthefamilyincome.Workers’ realwages(thatis,adjusted forinflation)werelowerin1914thanevenduringthe1890s.Asof1916, millionsworkedforwagesthatcouldnotadequatelyfeedafamily.Each year35,000werekilledonthejob,while700,000sufferedseriousinjuries andwork-relateddisabilities.16

WorldWarIbroughtindustryandgovernmentevercloser.Largesectors oftheeconomywereconvertedtowarproductionalonglinesproposed bybusinessleaders.Thewarhelpedquellclassconflictathomebyfocusing people’sattentiononthemenaceofGermany’s “barbarianHuns.” Americans wereexhortedtomakesacrificesforthewareffort.Strikeswerenowtreated asseditiousinterferencewithwarproduction.Federaltroopsraidedand ransackedunionheadquartersandimprisonedlargenumbersofworkers suspectedofradicalsympathies.In1918,asthewarwaswindingdown,CongresspassedtheSeditionAct,whichmandatedatwenty-yearprisonsentence forany “disloyal” opinionorcontemptuousreferencetotheU.S.government, flag,orConstitution.Harshsentencesweredealtouttolabororganizers, socialists,andanarchists.Laterthatyear,theU.S.AttorneyGeneralproudly toldCongress: “Neverinitshistoryhasthiscountrybeensothoroughly policed.”17

Duringthepostwar “Redscare” of1919–1921,thefederalgovernment continuedtosuppressradicalpublications,violentlymistreatstrikers,and inflictmassarrests,deportations,politicaltrials,andcongressionalinvestigationsofpoliticaldissidents.Thepublicwastreatedtoluridstoriesofhowthe Bolsheviks(RussianCommunists)wereabouttoinvadetheUnitedStates,and howtheyweremurderinganyoneintheirowncountrywhocouldreador writeorwhoworeawhitecollar.18 Bourgeoisleadersaroundtheworld greetedtheRussianRevolutionof1917asanightmarecometrue:theworkersandpeasantshadoverthrownnotonlytheautocraticCzarbutthecapitalistclassthatownedthefactories,mineralresources,andmostofthelandsof theCzaristempire.AsSecretaryofStateRobertLansingnoted,theRussian Revolutionwasabadexampletothecommonpeopleinothernations,includingtheUnitedStates.19 AlongwithEngland,France,andelevenothercapitalistnations,theUnitedStatesinvadedSovietRussiain1917inabloodybut unsuccessfulthree-yearattempttooverthrowtherevolutionarygovernment, achapterofhistoryaboutwhichmostAmericanshaveneverbeeninformed.

The “JazzAge” ofthe1920s(the “roaringtwenties”)wassupposedlya prosperousera.Stockspeculationsandotherget-rich-quickschemesabounded. Butthebulkofthepopulationlivedunderconditionsofseverewant,often lackingbasicnecessities.In1928,CongressmanFiorelloLaGuardiareported onhistourofthepoorerdistrictsofNewYorkCity: “IconfessIwasnotpreparedforwhatIactuallysaw.Itseemedalmostincrediblethatsuchconditions ofpovertycouldreallyexist.”20

ThestockmarketcrashofOctober1929usheredintheGreatDepression, signalingamajorcollapseofproductiveforces.Consumerdemandcouldnot keepupwithproduction.Employeeswerenotpaidenoughtobuybackthe goodsandservicestheyproduced.Assuppliesandinventoriespiledup,businessescutbackontheirworkforce,intensifyingthedownwardspiral.Thejob lossesonlysharpenedthedeclineinthepublic’sbuyingpower,whichinturn ledtomorelayoffs,lessbuyingpower,andmorebusinessshutdowns,bank failures,andinvestmentlossesuntiltheentiremarketcrashed.IntheGreat Depression’sfirstfouryears,15millionworkerslosttheirjobsandmillions losttheirretirementsavings.Therewasnonationalsystemofunemployment insuranceandfewpensionplans.Farmerslosttheirfarms;cropsrottedwhile millionswenthungry.

ThoseluckyenoughtostillhavejobsduringtheGreatDepressionofthe 1930sfacedincreasinglyoppressiveworkconditions:speedups,wageand salarycuts,andadeteriorationinsafetystandards.Inaddition,employees endured “thoughtandspeechcontrolsointenseinsomeplantsthatworkers neverspokeexcepttoaskorgiveinstructions.” Theyoftencouldnotquestion deductionsfrompaychecks,andtheyweresubjectedto “beatingsbystrikebreakingPinkertonsandthugs,and … tothesearchesoftheirhomesbycompanymenlookingforstolenarticles.”21

THENEWDEAL:HARDTIMESANDTOUGHREFORMS

In1932SenatorHugoBlack(D-Ala.)observed, “Laborhasbeenunderpaid andcapitaloverpaid.Thisisoneofthechiefcontributingcausesofthepresent depression….Youcannotstarvemenemployedinindustryanddependupon themtopurchase.”22 EvenbankerFrankVanderlipadmitted, “Capitalkept toomuchandlabordidnothaveenoughtobuyitsshareofthings.”23 But mostmembersoftheplutocracyblamedthedepressiononitsvictims.Thus, millionaireHenryFordsaidthecrisiscamebecause “theaveragemanwon’t reallydoaday’swork….Thereisplentyofworktodoifpeoplewoulddo it.” AfewweekslaterFordlaidoffseventy-fivethousandworkers.24

Withathirdofthenationill-fed,ill-clothed,andill-housed,andeasilyanotherthirdjustbarelygettingby,atorrentofstrikessweptthenation,involvinghundredsofthousandsofworkers.Between1936and1940,thenewly formedCongressofIndustrialOrganizations(CIO)organizedmillionsof workersandwonsignificantgainsinwagesandworkconditions.Thesevictorieswereachievedonlyafterprotractedstrugglesinwhichmanythousands occupiedfactoriesinsit-downs,orwerelockedout,blacklisted,beaten,and arrested;hundredsmorewerewoundedorkilledbypolice,soldiers,andcompanythugs.25 Thegainswererealbuttheycameatahighprice.

ThefirsttwotermsofPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’sadministrationhave beencalledtheNewDeal,aneracommonlybelievedtohavebrought greattransformationsonbehalfof “theforgottenman” (Roosevelt’sphrase). Actually,theNewDeal’sprimededicationwastobusinessrecoveryrather thansocialreform.FirstcametheNationalRecoveryAdministration(NRA), whichsetup “codeauthorities,” usuallycomposedoftheleadingcorporate

representativesineachindustry,torestrictproductionandsetminimumprice requirements withresultsthatweremorebeneficialtobigcorporationsthan tosmallercompetitors.26 Inattemptingtospurproduction,theReconstructionFinanceCorporationalonelent$15billiontobigbusiness.

Thefederalhousingprogramsubsidizedconstructionfirmsandmortgage bankers alloflittlebenefittothemanymillionsofill-housed.Likewise,the NewDeal’seffortsinagricultureprimarilybenefitedthelargeproducers throughaseriesofpricesupportsandproductioncutbacks.Manytenant farmersandsharecropperswereevictedwhenfederalacreagerentalprograms tooklandoutofcultivation.27

Theslumpinconsumptionandtheglutofunboughtgoodscauseda severedropinpricesinmanymarkets,includingfarmproducts.Tobolster prices,theNewDealerspaidfarmerstodestroymillionsofacresofcotton crops,vastwheatreserves,andmillionsofhogsandpiglets.Thestarkcontrast ofoverabundanceandhungercausedmanytoquestiontheserviceabilityof capitalism. “Foodhadtobedestroyedtosavethemarket.”28 ThepublicoutcrycausedtheWhiteHousetoformtheFederalSurplusReliefCorporation, whichboughtuplargeamountsofsurplusfoodstofeedtheunemployed.

Facedwithmassunrest,thefederalgovernmentcreatedavarietyofrelief programsthateasedsomeoftheprivation.ButastheNewDealmovedtowardmeasuresthatthreatenedtocompetewithprivateenterprisesandunderminelowwagestructures,businesswithdrewitssupportandbecameopenly hostile.WhileinfuriatingRoosevelt,whosawhimselfastryingtorescuethe capitalistsystem,businessoppositionenhancedhisreformistimageinthepublicmind.

ThedisparitybetweentheNewDeal’spopularimageanditsactualaccomplishmentsremainsoneoftheunappreciatedaspectsoftheRooseveltera.For instance,theCivilianConservationCorps(CCC)providedjobsatsubsistence wagesforonly3millionofthe15millionunemployed.Atitspeak,theWorks ProgressAdministration(WPA)andrelatedagenciesemployedalmost9million peoplebutoftenforunstabledurationandgrosslyinadequatewages.Ofthe millionswhowereearningsubsistencewages,onlyabouthalfamillionwere helpedbytheminimum-wagelaw.TheSocialSecurityActof1935covered buthalfthepopulationandprovidedpaltrymonthlypaymentswithnomedical insuranceorprotectionagainstillnessbeforeretirement.Unemploymentinsurancecoveredonlythosewhohadenjoyedsustainedemploymentinselectoccupations.Implementationwaslefttothestates,whichwerefreetosetwhatever restrictiveconditionstheychose.29

Whilegovernmentprogramsweremarkedlyinadequatefortheneedsof thedestitute,theyhelpeddilutepublicdiscontent.Butoncethethreatofpoliticalunrestsubsided,federalreliefwasslashed,andlargenumbersofdestitute peoplewerethrustontoalabormarketalreadygluttedwithunemployed.30

TheRooseveltadministration’staxpolicywasvirtuallyacontinuationof formerPresidentHoover’sprogram,withitsgenerousloopholesforbusiness. WhentaxeswereincreasedtopayformilitaryspendinginWorldWarII,the majorburdenwastakenupbymiddle-andlow-incomeclassesthathadnever beforebeensubjectedtoincometaxes.31

Allthisisnottodenythat,inresponsetoenormouspopularagitationand thethreatofwidespreadradicalization,theRooseveltadministrationproducedrealdemocraticgains,includingsomelongoverduesocialwelfarelegislation,anumberofworthwhileconservationandpublicworksprojects,a ruralelectrificationprogram,andareductioninunemploymentfrom25to 19percent.Millionsofhungryanddestitutepeoplewerefedandsheltered. Thesteepinequalityinincomewasnoticeablyeased,thankstostrongerunions,greaterregulationofindustry,andprogressivetaxesoncorporateprofits andwealth.UnderSocialSecurity,workingpeoplewonnotonlyretirement pensionsbutdisabilityinsuranceandsurvivorsinsurance(forchildrenof deceasedworkers).

TheNewDealbuiltorimprovedroadsacrossthecountry,andconstructedthousandsofschools,parks,playgrounds,athleticfields,andairports,alongwithhundredsofhospitals,postoffices,bridges,tunnels,and courthouses.TheCCCcreatedfifty-twothousandacresofpubliccamp grounds,builtoverthirteenthousandfoottrails,andrestoredalmostfour thousandhistoriclandmarksormonuments.Itstockedwaterwayswithmillionsoffish,madeimportantcontributionstofirefighting,rodentandpest control,waterconservation,andpreventingsoilerosion.Thousandsofunemployedwriters,actors,musicians,andpaintersweregivenmodestsupportand opportunitytoenrichthelivesofmanyinperformancesthatordinarypeople couldaffordtoattend.

BeforetheRooseveltera,unionswerereadilybrokenbycourtinjunctions, heavyfines,andviolentrepression.TheNewDealproducedaseriesoflaws suchastheWagnerActandtheNorris-LaGuardiaActtolegalizelabor’sabilitytobargaincollectively.Management-controlledcompanyunionswere banned,andaminimumwageandforty-hourweekwereestablished.CongresssetuptheNationalLaborRelationsBoard(NLRB)withbroadpowers tooverseethecertificationofunionsandpenalizeemployerswhoviolatedthe organizingrightsofworkers.Suchlegislationwasbotharesponseandastimulustolabor’sgrowingorganizationandmilitancy.32

YettheNewDealerahardlyaddsuptoagreattriumphforthecommon people.TheywerereadytogoalotfurtherthanRooseveltdid,andprobably wouldhaveacceptedanationalizedbankingsystem,amoremassivejobprogram,andanationalhealthcaresystem.Inregardtodesegregation,open housing,fairemploymentpractices,anti-lynchlaws,andvotingrightsfor Blacks,theNewDealdidnothing.Domesticsandfarmworkers,thetwo mostcommonoccupationsforAfricanAmericansatthetime,wereexcluded fromSocialSecuritycoverage.AfricanAmericanswereexcludedfromjobsin theCivilianConservationCorps,receivedlessthantheirproportionalshareof publicassistance,andundertheNRAwerefrequentlypaidwagesbelowthe legalminimum.33

AftertheUnitedStatesenteredWorldWarIIinDecember1941,industrialplantutilizationmorethandoubled.Thegrossnationalproduct,which hadstoodat$88billionin1940,mushroomedto$135billionwithinafew years.Thosewhoprofitedmostweretheindustrialtycoonsandarmscontractors.Butsomeofittrickleddown.Almostallthe8.7millionunemployed

wereeitherdraftedintothearmedforcesordrawnbackintotheworkforce, alongwith10millionnewworkers,manyofthemwomen.Onlybyentering thewarandremainingthereafteronapermanentwareconomywasthe UnitedStatesabletosignificantlyreduceunemployment.Therulingpoliticoeconomiceliteswerewillingtomakethekindofall-outspendingefforttokill peopleinwartimethattheywouldnotmaketoassistpeopleinpeacetime.

Insum,overthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,government’sgrowinginvolvementineconomicaffairswasnotatthecontrivanceofmeddling Washingtonbureaucratsbutwasaresponsetothesystemicinstabilityandcrisesofcorporatecapitalism.Alongwiththemanysmalllaborconflictshandled bylocalgovernment,theredevelopedlarge-scaleclassstruggles whichhadto becontainedbythenationalgovernment.Governmentprovidedthesubsidies, services,andprotectionsthatbusinesscouldnotprovideforitself.Thecorporateeconomyneededacorporatestate.

Whilethepopulacewonformalrightstoparticipateasvoters,thestate withitscourts,police,andarmyremainedmostlyatthedisposalofthemoneyedclass.However,workingpeoplewerenotwithoutresourcesoftheirown, specificallytheabilitytodisruptandthreatentheprocessofcapitalaccumulationbywithholdingtheirlaborthroughstrikes,andbyengaginginotheracts ofprotestandresistance.Suchagitationwrestedconcessionsfromtheowning classandthestate.Thesevictoriesfellshortofachievingasocialdemocracy buttheyrepresentedimportantdemocraticgainsforworkingpeople.

Asourhistoryshows,thoseontheleft liberals,progressives,and radicals havefoughtforegalitariananddemocraticreforms.Theyopposed lynchingandpushedforlawstoabolishchildlabor.Theypushedfortheeliminationofpropertyqualificationsandpolltaxesforvoting.Theysupported anti-monopolylaws,women’ssuffrage,desegregation,therightofworkers tounionize,occupationalsafety,aidtopoorfamilies,disabilityinsurance,unemploymentinsurance,federalpensions,survivorsinsurance,therightto voicedissentingviews,peacemovements,andtheseparationofchurchand state.

Injustabouteveryoneoftheseinstances,itwasthewealthyplutocrats (withsomenotableexceptions)whoresistedsuchreformsandwhofavored regressivetaxes,massivepublicsubsidiestobigbusiness,andrepressivemeasuresagainstpoliticaldissentandagainstlaborunions.

WealthandWant intheUnitedStates

MostpeoplewhowriteabouttheU.S.politicalsystemnevermentioncorporatecapitalism.Butthecapitalisteconomyhasanoverbearingimpactupon politicalandsociallife.Itdeservesourattention.

CAPITALANDLABOR

Oneshoulddistinguishbetweenthosewhoownthewealthofsocietyandthose whomustworkforaliving.Theveryrichfamiliesandindividualswhocomposethe owningclass livemostlyoffinvestments,whichincludestocks,bonds, rents,mineralroyalties,andotherpropertyincome.Theiremployeeslivemostly offwages,salaries,andfees.Thedistinctionbetweenownersandemployeesis blurredsomewhatbytherangeofincomeswithinbothclasses. “Owners” refer toboththefabulouslywealthystockholdersofgiantcorporationsandthestrugglingproprietorsofsmallstores.Butthelatterhardlyqualifyaspartofthe corporate owningclass.Amongthevictimsofbigbusinessissmallbusinessitself. Smallbusinessesarejustsomanysquirrelsdancingamongtheelephants.Every yearoverthirtythousandofthemgettrampledandgooutofbusiness.

Alongwithfactoryandserviceworkers,theemployeeclassalsoincludes professionalsandmanagerswhoinincome,education,andlifestyletendto beidentifiedas “middle” or “upper-middle” class.Companymanagersand executivesareemployeeswhosetaskistoextractmorevalue-producingperformancefromotheremployees.Sometopbusinessexecutives,corporatelawyers,andentertainmentandsportsfiguresenjoysuchhugeincomesastobe ableeventuallytoliveofftheirinvestments,ineffectbecomingmembersofthe owningclass.

Youareamemberoftheowningclasswhenyourincomeisverylarge andcomesmostlyfromthelaborofotherpeople,thatis,whenotherswork foryou,eitherinacompanyyouown,orbycreatingthewealththatallows yourinvestmentstogiveyouahandsomereturn.Thesecrettogreatwealthis nottoworkhardbuttohaveothersworkhardforyou.Thisexplainswhy workerswhospendtheirlivestoilinginfactoriesorofficesretirewithrelativelylittleifanyfundstospeakof,whiletheownerscanamassconsiderable fortunes.

AdamSmith,oneofthefoundingtheoristsofcapitalism,notedin1776 that “labor … isalonetheultimateandrealstandardbywhichthevalueof allcommoditiescanatalltimesandplacesbeestimatedandcompared.Itis theirrealprice;moneyistheirnominalpriceonly.”1 Whattransformsatree intoaprofitablecommoditysuchaspaperorfurnitureisthelaborthatgoes intoharvestingthetimber,cuttingthelumber,andmanufacturing,shipping, advertising,andsellingthefinishedproduct alongwiththelaborthatgoes intomakingthetoolsandwhateverelseisneededforproductionand distribution.

Workers’ wagesrepresentonlyaportionofthewealthcreatedbytheir labor.Theaverageprivate-sectoremployeeworkstwohoursforherselfor himselfandsixormorehoursfortheboss.Theportionthatgoestothe owneriswhatMarxcalled surplusvalue, thesourceoftheowner’swealth. Capitaliststhemselveshaveasimilarconcept: valueaddedinmanufacture. In 2000,workersemployedinmanufacturingaloneproducedatleast$1.64trillioninvalueadded,asreportedbytheU.S.CensusBureau,forwhichthey werepaid$363billioninwages,orlessthanone-fourthofthemarketvalue createdbytheirlabor.WorkersemployedbyIntelandExxonreceivedonly aboutone-ninthofthevalueadded,andinindustriessuchascigarettesand pharmaceuticals,theworker’ssharewasamereone-twentieth.Inthelast halfcentury,theoverallaveragerateofvalueadded(theportiongoingto theowner)intheUnitedStatesmorethandoubled,farabovetheexploitation rateinotherindustrializedcountries.

Workersendureanexploitationoftheirlaborascertainlyasdoslaves andserfs.Theslaveobviouslytoilsfortheenrichmentofthemasterandreceivesonlyabaresubsistenceinreturn.JamesMadisontoldavisitorshortly aftertheAmericanRevolutionthathemade$257ayearoneveryslavehe ownedandspentonly$12or$13fortheslave’syearlykeep.Slaverywasa veryprofitablesystem.Serfsandsharecroppers,whomustgivemuchoftheir croptothelandownerandcarryoutotherunpaidtasksforhim,arealso obviouslyexploited.

Undercapitalism,however,theportiontakenfromtheworkerisnotvisible.Workersaresimplypaidsubstantiallylessthanthevaluetheycreate.Indeed,theonlyreasontheyarehiredissotheownercanmakemoneyofftheir labor.Ifwagesdidrepresentthetotalvaluecreatedbylabor(afterexpenses andimprovements),therewouldbenosurplusvalue,noprofitsfortheowner, nogreatfortunesforthosewhodonotlabor.

Thevaluedistributedtotheownersisapartfromworkers’ wagesoreven executives’ salaries;itconsistsof profits themoneyonemakes whennot

working.Theauthorofabook,forinstance,doesnotmakeprofitsonhis book;heearnsarecompense(fancilymisnamed “royalties”)forthelaborof writingit.Likewise,editors,proofreaders,printers,andsalespersonsallcontributelaborthataddstothemarketablevalueofthebook.Profitsonthe bookgotothosewhoownthepublishinghouseandwhocontributenothing tothebook’svalue.Thesumsgoingtoownersareaptlycalled unearned incomeontaxreports.

Whilecorporationsareoftencalled “producers,” thetruthistheyproduce nothing.Theyareorganizationaldevicesfortheexploitationoflaborandaccumulationofcapital.Therealproducersarethosewhoapplytheirbrawn, brains,andtalentstothecreationofgoodsandservices.Theprimacyoflabor wasnotedin1861byPresidentAbrahamLincolninhisfirstannualmessage toCongress: “Laborispriorto,andindependentof,capital.Capitalisonly thefruitoflabor,andcouldneverhaveexistediflaborhadnotfirstexisted. Laboristhesuperiorofcapital,anddeservesmuchthehigherconsideration.” Lincoln’swordswentlargelyunheeded.

Capitalistsliketosaytheyare “puttingtheirmoneytowork,” butmoney assuchdoesnotwork.Whattheyreallymeanisthattheyareusingtheir moneytoputhumanlabortowork,payingworkerslessinwagesthanthey produceinsales.That’showmoney “grows.” Capitalannexeslivinglaborin ordertoconvertitselfintogoodsandservicesthatwillproducestillmorecapital.AllofRockefeller’scapital(wealth)couldnotbuildahouseoramachine orevenatoothpick;onlyhumanlaborcandothat.Ofitself,capitalcannot produceanything.Itisthethingthatisproducedbylabor.

Theultimatepurposeofacorporationisnottoperformpublicservicesor producegoodsassuch,buttomakeaslargeaprofitaspossiblefortheinvestor.Thisrelentlesspursuitofprofitarisesfromsomethingmorethanjust greed althoughthereisplentyofthat.Undercapitalism,enterprisesmustexpandinordertosurvive.Tostandstillwhilecompetitorsgrowistodecline, notonlyrelativelybutabsolutely.Afirmmustbeabletomoveintonewmarkets,holdontooldones,commandinvestmentcapital,andcontrolsuppliers. Soeventhebiggestcorporationsarebesetbyaceaselessdrivetoexpand,consolidate,andfindnewmeansofextractingprofitfromthemarket.

CAPITALCONCENTRATION:WHOOWNSAMERICA?

Contrarytoawidelypropagatedmyth,thiscountryisnotcomposedmostly ofabroadaffluentmiddleclass.Thetop1percentownbetween40and50 percentofthenation’stotalwealth(stocks,bonds,investmentfunds,land, naturalresources,businessassets,andsoon),morethanthecombinedwealth ofthebottom90percent.True,about40percentoffamiliesownsomestocks orbonds,butalmostallofthemhaveinvestmentsoflessthan$2,000.Taking intoaccounttheirdebtsandmortgages,90percentofAmericanfamilieshave littleornonetassets.2

Ifyouarenotrich,itisbecauseyoulackedtheforesighttopicktheright parentsatbirth.Studiesshowthat,despitethewell-publicizedcasesof “selfmade” fortunes,rags-to-richesisarelativelyrareexception.Mostpeopledie

intheclasstowhichtheyareborn.Thesuperrichusuallycomefromfamilies thathaveinheritedvastfortunes.Andthepoorusuallystaypoor,nomatter howhardtheytoil.Infact,thereislessupwardsocialmobilitytodaythana generationago.3

ThelevelofinequalityintheUnitedStatesishigherthaninanyotherindustrializednation,anditcontinuestogrow.4 Inrecenttimes,corporateprofitshavemorethandoubled.Incomefrominvestmentshasgrowntwotothree timesfasterthanincomefromwork.Inthelasttwentyyears,the500largest U.S.industrialcorporationsmorethandoubledtheirassets,whileeliminating over5millionjobs.Andtheyearsthatfollowedbroughtthehighestlevelof corporateprofitsinthepostwarera.

U.S.CensusBureauincomestudiesrefertothe “richest20percent” who earnthirteentimesmorethanthepoorest20percent.Butthatgreatlyunderstatestherealchasmbetweenrichandpoor.Tobeinthe “richest” 20percent,youneedearnonly$75,000orso.Infact,thetop20percentarenot richbutmostlyupper-middleclass.Ifyoumade$350,000ormore,you wouldbeinthetop1percent.Stillsuchanincomedoesnotrepresentgreat “TheDukeandDuchessofA.T.&T.,theCountandCountessofCiticorp,theEarlof Exxon,andtheMarchionessofAvco.TheDukeofWarnaco …”

wealth.Therealwealthiswiththeverytopsuperrichstratum,atinyfraction of1percentofthepopulation,some145,000individuals,whoincreasedtheir aggregateincomebyalmost600percentinthelastthreedecades(adjusting forinflation).Therealincomeearnedbythebottom90percentfellby 7percent.

Aswithincome,sowithwealth.Intheeightyearsfrom2001to2008,the wealthoftherichest400Americanshadincreasedbynearly$700billionfora grandtotalof$1.6trillion,morethanthebottom50percent(150million people)combined.5 Thegapbetweenthesuperrichandeveryoneelseiseven greaterthanthesefiguressuggest.TheTreasuryDepartmentsaysthatthe superrichfindways,legalandillegal,tosheltermuchoftheirincomefrom taxes.Somuchoftheirwealthishiddenawayinsecretaccounts.

Inanycase,thetinytopfractionthatcomposesthesuperrichisnotthirteentimesbut thousandsoftimesricher thanthepoorestquintile.Fewof thepeoplewhostudyincomedistributionseemtorealizehowrichtherich reallyare.6

Incomeandwealthdisparitiesaregreaterthanatanytimeovertheprevioussixtyyears.Toparaphraseoneeconomist:ifwemadeanincomepyramid outofchildren’sblocks,witheachlayerrepresenting$1,000ofincome,over 99percentofuswouldbeatmostfiveortenyardsoffthegroundwhilethe peakfortheveryrichesttinyfractionwouldbemanytimeshigherthan MountEverest.7

The2008ForbeslistofthefourhundredrichestAmericansrevealedthat almostallweremultibillionaires,withacombinedtotalwealthof$1.57trillion.BillGatesofMicrosoftremainedtheveryrichest,with$57billion.Heirs oftheWaltonfamily whomaketheirmoneybypayingpoverty-levelwages totheirWal-Martemployees occupiedfourofthetoptenspotsontheForbeslist.TogethertheWaltonswereworth$93billion.8 TheForbes400list representsthe “activerich,” thoserelativelynewlyinvolvedinmoneymaking. Leftoutofthepictureis “oldmoney” wealth:theMellons,Morgans,Rockefellers,andotherswhooperatethroughfinancialrepresentatives.

Thepowerofthisbusinessclassislikethatofnoothergroupinoursociety.Thegiantcorporationscontroltherateoftechnologicaldevelopmentand availabilityoflivelihoods.Theyrelegatewholecommunitiestodestitution whentheyexporttheirindustriesoverseastocheaperlabormarkets.Theydevourenvironmentalresources,strippingourforestsandtoxifyingtheland, water,andair,whilecreatingconditionsofscarcityformillionsofpeopleat homeandabroad.

AsmallnumberofgiantcorporationscontrolmostoftheU.S.economy. Thetrendistowardevergreaterconcentrationsasgiantcompaniesareswallowedupbysupergiantsinindustriessuchasoil,pharmaceuticals,telecommunications,media,healthinsurance,weaponsmanufacturing,andbanking. ThusdidChaseManhattandevourManufacturersHanoverandChemical BankonlythentobeacquiredbyJ.P.Morgan.Threeyearslater,J.P.Morgan ChaseboughtupBankOneina$58billiondealthatcreatedthesecondlargestU.S.bankingcompany.MeanwhileVerizontookoverMCIfor$6.7 billion,whileSprintandNextelmergedfor$35billion.OiltitansExxonand

Mobilmerged,whileChevrontookoverGulfandthenconsolidatedwith Texaco.

Theenormoussumsexpendedontheseacquisitionscouldbebetterspent onnewtechnologiesandproduction.Overthepasttwenty-fiveyears,U.S. corporategiantsspentonly$2trilliononresearchanddevelopmentbut $20trillion onmergersandacquisitions greatexpendituresofnorealsocial value.Suchmergersbenefitthebigshareholders,creditors,andtopexecutives butleaveconsumersandsmallsupplierswithfewerchoicesandhigherprices.9

Acompanythatistryingtoacquireanothercompanyseldomhassufficientcashreserves,soitmustborrowheavilyfrombanks(allsuchdebtsbeing taxdeductibleasbusinessexpenses).Afirmthatwishestowardoffahostile takeoverbycorporateraidersalsohastoprocurelargesumstobuyadominantshareofitsownstock.Ineithercase,corporateconsolidationsleadto biggercorporatedebts.Tomeetitsdebtobligations,thefirmreduceswages andbenefits,sellsoffproductiveplantsforquickcash,laysoffemployees, andenforcesspeedups.Employeesbearmuchofthebruntofmergermania. ThusaftermergingwithNationsBank,BankofAmericareduceditsworkforce (throughfiringsandattrition)bythirty-onethousand.Sometimesthemerged corporationmovestoacheaperlabormarketabroad,causingevenmoreattritionforU.S.workers.10

RichfamiliesliketheDuPontshavecontrollinginterestsingiantcorporationslikeGeneralMotors,Coca-Cola,andUnitedBrands.TheDuPontsserve astrusteesofdozensofcolleges.Theyownaboutfortymanorialestatesand privatemuseumsinDelawarealoneandhavesetupthirty-onetax-exempt foundations.TheyfrequentlyarethelargestcontributorstoRepublicanpresidentialcampaignsandright-wingcauses.

Anotherpowerfulfinancialempire,thatoftheRockefellers,extendsinto justabouteveryindustryineverynationoftheworld.TheRockefellerscontrolseveraloftheworld’slargestoilcompaniesandbiggestbanks.Atone timeoranother,theyortheircloseassociateshaveoccupiedtheofficesof thepresident,vicepresident,topcabinetposts,thegovernorshipsofseveral states,andkeypositionsintheFederalReserveBoard,theCentralIntelligence Agency(CIA),theCouncilonForeignRelations,andseatsintheU.S.Senate andHouseofRepresentatives.

Amongtheself-enrichingindividualsinthecorporateworldarethechief executiveofficers(CEOs)ofgiantcompanies.In1973CEOsearnedabout30 to40timesmorethantheirworkers.By2009theyweremaking317times more. 11 Inoneyearthenation’stopfivehundredcompanieshandedout $10.4billioninstockoptionsalone,mostlytotheirCEOs.ThetenhighestpaidCEOsin2008pocketedfrom$72millionto$193millioninsalaries, notcountingmillionsmorefromvariousperks.12

CEOsenjoyaregallifestylethatincludescompanyjets,chauffeuredcars, privateretreats,freecountryclubmemberships,freeboxseatsatmajorsportingandculturalevents,andlavishpensions.GeneralElectric’sCEO,Jack Welch,luxuriatedina$15millionNewYorkapartmentthatthecompany maintainedforhim,alongwithfreeservants,food,wines,toiletries,andsatelliteTVathisfourhomes.Asoneeditorialistwrylyobserved, “Otherthanthe

costofadivorcelawyer,itishardtoimaginewhatJackWelchhastopayfor outofhisownpocket.”13

Companiessometimesrunataloss,yettheirtopexecutivesstillrichlyrewardthemselves.AmericanAirlineswasbroughttotheedgeofbankruptcyby itsexecutives,whothenvotedthemselveshugebonusesandmillionsinextra pensionbenefits.

Inthe2008–2009recession,majorWallStreetfinancialinstitutions werecaughtmarketingtrillionsofdollarsofinflatedandworthlesssecurities. Millionsofemployeeslostthebetterpartoftheircompanypensionsandlife savings,yettheCEOspresidingoverthiscrisisgavethemselvesmultimilliondollarbonuses.

Still,itshouldberememberedthattheaverageCEOcollectsonlyabout 3or4percentofacorporation’sprofits.Therestisdistributedtoitssuperrich stockholders,thosewhodonotworkforitandwhoarevastlyricherthanthe company’sexecutiveofficers,aswiththeWaltonsofWal-Mart.

DOWNSIZINGANDPROFITEERING

Corporationsarehailedbysomeasgreatjobproviders.Infact,thetoptwo hundredtransnationalcorporationsaccountformorethanaquarterofthe world’seconomicactivitywhileemployinghardlyone-hundredthof1percent (0.01)oftheworld’sworkforce.Thecapitalistseekstoraiseprofitabilityby downsizing (layingoffworkers), speedups (makingthediminishedworkforce toilfasterandharder), downgrading (reclassifyingjobstolower-wagecategories),andusingmoreandmorepart-timeand contract labor(hiringpeople whoreceivenobenefits,seniority,paidvacations,orsteadyemployment). Hundredsofthousandsofbetter-payingmanufacturingjobshavebeeneliminated,whilesome80percentofnewjobshavebeeninlow-payingclerical, retail,andtemporaryservices.Inrecentdownsizing,theranksofmanagers andsupervisorshavebeenthinnedbutlesssothanworkers’ numbers.14

Asacostofproductionthatcutsintoprofits,wagesmustbekeptdown; asasourceofconsumerspending,wagesmustbekeptup.Byholdingdown wagesandreducingtheworkforce,employersdiminishthebuyingpowerof theverypublicthatbuystheirproducts,therebycreatingachronictendency towardoverproductionandrecession.Recessionsoccurwhenworkersarenot paidenoughtobuybackthegoodsandservicestheyproduce.Demandcannotkeepupwithproduction.

Forthebigcapitalists,economicdownturnsarenotunmitigatedgloom. Smallercompetitorsareweededout,unionsareweakenedandoftenbroken, areservesupplyofunemployedworkershelpstofurtherdepresswages,and profitsrisefasterthanwages,atleastforawhile.TheideathatallAmericans areinthesameboat,experiencinggoodandbadtimestogether,shouldbeput torest.Duringrecentrecessions,corporateprofitsgrewtorecordlevels,as companiessqueezedmoreoutputfromeachemployeewhilepayinglessin wagesandbenefits.

FormersecretaryofthetreasuryNicholasBradyonceremarkedthatrecessionsare “nottheendoftheworld” and “nobigdeal.” Certainlynotfor

Brady,whorestedcomfortablyonahandsomefortune,andcertainlynotfor hiswealthyassociates,whowelcomedtheopportunitytoacquirebankrupted holdingsatdepressedprices.15 Bradyandfriendsunderstoodthatthecomfort andprosperityoftherichrequireanabundantsupplyofthosewho,spurred bythelashofnecessity,tendthecountryclubgrounds;servethebanquet luncheons;workthemines,mills,fields,andoffices;performingahundred thankless andsometimeshealth-damaging tasksforpaltrywages.

Wealthandpovertyarenotjustjuxtaposed,theyareinaclosedynamic relationship.Wealthcreatespovertyandreliesonitforitsowncontinuedexistence.Withoutslavesandserfs,howwouldthemasterandlordliveinthe styletowhichtheywereaccustomed?Withouttheworkingpoor,howwould theleisurelyrichmakedo?Weretherenounderprivileged,whowouldbe privileged?

INFLATION,THEPROFIT-PRICESPIRAL

Acommonproblemofmoderncapitalismis inflation.Evenamodestannual inflationrateof3or4percentsubstantiallyreducesthebuyingpowerofwage earnersandpersonsonfixedincomesoverafewyears’ time.Corporateleadersmaintainthatinflationiscausedbywagedemands:higherwagesdriveup productioncostsandmustbepassedoninhigherprices.Generally,however, pricesandprofitshaverisenfasterthanwages.

Thefouressentials food,fuel,housing,andhealthcare whichtogether devour70percentoftheaveragefamilyincome,arethemostinflationaryof all.Yetthesharegoingtolaborinthosefourindustrieshasbeendropping. Thehighfuelandgaspricesofrecentyearswerenotcausedbyoilworkers orgasstationattendants,whocontinuedtoearnaboutthesamewagesasbefore.Foodpricesarenotdrivenhigherbyimpoverishedfarmlaborersorby minimum-wagefoodserversatMcDonald’s.Andtheastronomicalcosts ofhealthcarecannotbeblamedonthedismalwagespaidtohealthcare workers.

Howcanwagesbedrivinguppriceswhentheportionofbusinessearningsgoingtofull-timeworkersinmostindustrieshasbeenshrinking,while thesharegoingtoexecutives,shareholders,andinterestpaymentstobankers hasrisendramatically?16 The “wage-price” inflationspiralisusuallyreallya profit-pricespiral,withtheworkermorethevictimthanthecauseofinflation. (Thisisnottodenythatbydepressingwages,businessissometimesableto maintainaslowerinflationcreepwhilepocketingbiggerprofits.)

Asfinancialpowerisconcentratedinfewerhands,pricesaremoreeasily manipulated.Insteadofloweringpriceswhensalesdrop,thebigmonopoly firmsoftenraisethemtocompensateforthedecline,ashappenedwithsome companiesinthe2009recession.Pricesalsoarepushedupbywithholding distribution,asin2005whenthepetroleumcartelscreatedartificialoiland gasolinescarcitiesthatmysteriouslydisappearedafterthecompaniesjacked uptheirpricesandreapedrecordprofits.

Massivemilitaryexpenditures “happentobeaparticularlyinflationproducingtypeoffederalspending,” admittedthe WallStreetJournal years

ago.

17 TheCivilWar,theFirstandSecondWorldWars,theKoreanWar,and theVietnamWarallproducedinflationaryperiods.Evenduringpeacetime, hugedefenseoutlaysconsumevastamountsoflaborpowerandmaterialresources,themilitarybeingthelargestsingleconsumeroffuelintheUnited States.Militaryspendingcreatesjobsandconsumerbuyingpowerwhileproducingnoadditionalgoodsandservices.Theresultingincreaseinbuying powerwithoutacommensurateincreaseinconsumersupplygeneratesan upwardpressureonprices.

MONOPOLYFARMING

Mostofourfoodsupplyandfarmlandsaredominatedbyahandfulofagribusinessfirmsthatcontrol80percentofthefoodindustry’sassetsandclose to90percentoftheprofits.An agribusiness isagiantcorporationthatspecializesinlarge-scalecommercialfarming,withaheavyrelianceonmono-culture crops,pesticides,herbicides,andgovernmentsubsidies.Agribusinessmegacorporationscontroleverystageoffoodproduction,fromgenesplicingin thelaboratorytoretailsalesinthesupermarket.18

Independentfamilyfarmsarebeingdrivenoutofbusinessbecausethe pricethatagribusinessdistributorspaythemfortheirperishablecropsisoften belowthecoststheymustpayforcorporate-controlledmachinery,seeds,and fertilizers.Today,thecombinedfarmdebtismuchgreaterthannetfamilyfarmincome.Only2or3percentofthepriceonafarmcommoditygoesto thefarmer;mostoftherestgoestothecorporatedistributors.Ofthe2.2millionremainingfarms(downfrom6millionin1940),about45percentsurvive byfindingadditionalworkoffthefarm.19

Contrarytopopularbelief,largecommercialagribusinessfarmsdonot producemoreefficientlythansmallfarms.Agribusinessmass-productiontechniquesdamagetopsoil,causeenormouswasterunoffs,andproduceheavily chemicalizedcropsandlivestock.Anestimated70percentoftheantibiotics usedinthiscountryarefedto “factoryfarmanimals” asaregularfeedsupplementtoincreasetheirweight.Andbecausetheanimalsarecrowdedbythe thousandsininhumaneandunhealthyquarters,themedicationsareusedto lessenthechanceofinfection.Butthebuildupofantibioticsinthefoodchain isputtingbothhumansandanimalsincreasinglyatriskasdrug-resistantdiseasesquicklydevelop.20

Theshiftfromfamilyfarmtocorporateagribusinesshasbroughtnumerousdiseconomies.Thefamilyfarmuseslesspesticidesandherbicides,does notvoluntarilyresorttogeneticengineering,andisconcernedaboutfarm wastedisposalandpreservingthecleanlinessofitsgroundwater,whichit usesforitsownlivingpurposes.Familyfarmstreattheiranimalsinahealthier andmorehumaneway,injectinglessantibioticsandhormonesinlivestock. Theyarealsomoreeconomicalintheiruseoffuelandtopsoil,andbyprovidingprimarilyforlocalmarkets,theyhavelowertransportationcosts.21

Withthegrowthofcorporateagribusiness,regionalself-sufficiencyin foodhasvirtuallyvanished.ThenortheastUnitedStates,forinstance,imports morethan70percentofitsfoodfromotherregions.Forevery$2spent

growingfoodintheUnitedStates,another$1isspenttransportingit.Giant agribusinessfarmsrelyonintensiverowcropplantingandheavyuseoftoxic sprayingandartificialfertilizers,causingmillionsofacresoftopsoiltobe blownawayeachyear.Thenation’sabilitytofeeditselfisbeingjeopardized, asmoreandmorelandiserodedortoxifiedbylarge-scale,quick-profit,biotechfarming,nottomentionthedamagetopeople’shealthresultingfrom consumingfoodsproducedbychemicalizedmethods.22

Onthebigagribusinessfarms,theplightofthenation’s2millionfarm laborershasgonefrombadtoworse.Someareforcedtowork “offthe clock,” thatis,withoutpay,forseveralhourseachday.Thepesticidesand herbicidestheyareexposedtoandtheirpoorlivingconditionsconstituteserioushealthhazards.Andfarmlaborersareamongthelowest-paidworkersin thecountry.

Muchofthefoodweeattodaycontainsgeneticallymodified(GM;also called “geneticallyengineered”)ingredients,createdbybigbiotechcompanies likeMonsanto.Thelong-termeffectsofsuch “Frankenfood” onourhealth areunknown.Theagribusinessfirmscontrolnotonlythemarketingofthese dubiousproductsbutmostoftheresearchconcerningtheireffectsonour healthandenvironment.Ourfreedomtochooseorganicallygrownnatural foodsisbecomingincreasinglydifficulttoexercise.TheFoodandDrug Administration(FDA)failedtorequiresafetytestingofGMfoods,andhas refusedtoimposemandatorylabeling,therebypreventingconsumersfrom knowingwhatfoodsarepotentiallyunsafebiotechproducts.23

GMsoycropsweresupposedtobringhigheryieldsatlowercosts.They werebredwithaspecialgene,makingthemresistanttoMonsanto’spowerful Roundupherbicidethatkillseverythingelsethatgrows.YettheGMcrops producedloweryieldsandhaveeventuallyneededjustasmuchpesticideapplicationasconventionalcrops.24 “Theironyisthatthiscostlyresearchisnot needed.Farmersindevelopingcountriesarealreadygrowingcropvarieties withmostofthetraits,suchasdroughttoleranceandinsectresistance,that geneengineersaredreamingof … Farmersinmostregions[oftheworld] canproduceplentytofeedtheirowncommunitiesandcities.”25 Geneticmodificationisanexpensive,profit-drivensolutionlookingforaproblem.

Soarethenotorious “terminatorseeds,” whichraisebarrencrops,thereby preventingfarmersfromplantinganewwithseedsfromtheirowncrops.InsteadthefarmershavetobuyanewsupplyofGMterminatorseedsevery year,creatingmoredependencyandexpenseforthemselvesbutbiggerprofits forMonsantoandotherfirms.Theresultinggeneticuniformitywipesout naturaldiversity,makingcropsstillmorevulnerabletodiseaseandpests. Thisincreasestheneedforpesticidesandherbicidesbeyondwhatisusedon conventionalcrops.ThesepesticidesaremanufacturedbyMonsantoandother companiesthatalsomaketheterminatorseeds.26

Smallfarmershavehadtheircropscontaminatedbygeneticallymodified pollendriftingoverfromdistantlylocatedagribusinesslands.Thesefarmers thenhavebeensuccessfullysuedandbankruptedbyMonsantobecausesome smallportionoftheircrop(accidentally)containedGMplantsandtherefore constitutedaninfringementofthecorporation’s “propertyrights.” Thefarmers

arethenusuallydrivenoutofbusinessbythelegalactionstakenbyMonsanto orCargillorotherprofit-drivengiantfirms.27

TheterminatortechnologyhasbeenuniversallycondemnedbyagriculturalresearchinstitutesandUnitedNationsagencies,asbadforfarmers, harmfultotheenvironment,anddisastrousforworldfoodsecurity.By spreadinggeneticallymodifiedstrainsathomeandabroad,companieslike Monsantounderminetherichvarietiesoflocalcrops,wipeoutmillionsof smallandefficientfarmsthatperformwellinthisandothercountries,and moveeverclosertomonopolizingtheworld’sfoodproduction.28

MARKETDEMANDANDPRODUCTIVITY

Thosewhosaythatprivateenterprisecananswerourneedsoverlookthefact thatprivateenterprisehasnosuchintention,itsfunctionbeingtoproducethe biggestprofitspossible.Peoplemayneedfood,buttheyoffernomarketuntil theirneed(orwant)iscoupledwith buyingpower tobecomeamarket demand.Whenaskedwhattheyweredoingaboutthewidespreadhungerin theUnitedStates,onefoodmanufacturerrespondedwithrefreshingcandor: “Ifwesawevidenceofprofitability,wemightlookintothis.”29

Thedifferencebetweenneedanddemandshowsupontheinternational marketalso.Whenthe “freemarket” ratherthanhumanneeddetermines howresourcesareused,poornationsfeedrichones.Beef,fish,andotherproteinproductsfromPeru,Mexico,Panama,India,andotherThirdWorld countriesfindtheirwaytoprofitableU.S.marketsratherthanbeingusedto feedthehungrychildreninthosecountries.Thechildrenneedfood,butthey lackthemoney;hence,thereisnodemand.Thefreemarketisanythingbut free.Moneyisinvestedonlywheremoneyistobemade.Undercapitalism, thereisaglutofnonessentialgoodsandservicesforthosewithmoneyanda shortageofessentialonesforthosewithoutmoney.Storesgroanwithunsold itemswhilemillionsofpeopleareill-housedandill-fed.

Thehumanvalueofproductivityrestsinitssocialpurpose.Isthepurpose toplunderthelandwithoutregardtoecologicalneeds,fabricateendlessconsumerdesires,produceexpensivegoodslikeautomobiles,pandertosnobbism andacquisitiveness,squeezeasmuchtoilaspossibleoutofworkerswhile payingthemaslittleaspossible,createartificialscarcitiesinordertojackup prices allinordertograbeverbiggerprofitsforthefew?

Orisproductivitygearedtosatisfyingessentialcommunalneedsfirstand superfluousdesireslast,caringforthenaturalenvironment,thepublic’shealth andwell-being,housing,educationalopportunities,andculturallife?Capitalistproductivity-for-profitgiveslittleconsiderationtothelattersetofgoals.

Capitalism’ sdefendersclaimthatcorporateproductivitycreatesprosperityforall.Butproductivityisamixedblessing.Thecoal-miningcompanies inAppalachiaarehighlyproductiveandprofitablewhilecreatingmuchmisery,swindlingtheAppalachiansoutoftheirland,forcingthemtowork underdangerousconditions,destroyingtheircountrysidewithstripmining andmountaintopremoval,andrefusingtopayanyoftheresultingsocial costs.

Inthelastthreedecadesworkerproductivity(outputperhouroflabor) roseadramatic75percent,whilefull-timerealwagesstagnatedordeclined insomeindustries(adjustingforinflation),sothatrealwageswerelowerin 2009thanin1973.Iftheminimumwagehadrisenatthesamepaceasproductivity,itwouldbeover$14anhourinsteadof$7.25.Mostprofitsfrom increasedproductivitygotothefirms’ investorsandtopofficers.30

Anincreaseinproductivity,asmeasuredbythegrossdomesticproduct (GDP),thetotalcostofallgoodsandservicesinagivenyear,isnosuremeasureofsociety’swell-being.Importantnonmarketserviceslikehouseworkand childrearinggouncounted,whilemanythingsofnegativesocialvalueare includedintheGDP.Thus,crimeandhighwayaccidents,whichleadto

increasedinsurance,hospital,andpolicecosts,addquiteabittotheGDPbut takealotoutoflife.Whatiscalledproductivity,asmeasuredquantitatively, maysometimesrepresentadeteriorationinthequalityoflife.

Itisarguedthattheaccumulationofgreatfortunesisanecessaryconditionforeconomicgrowth,foronlythewealthycanprovidethehugesums neededforthecapitalizationofnewenterprises.Yetinmanyindustries,beit railroads,aeronautics,nuclearenergy,communications,orcomputers,much oftheinitialfundingforresearchanddevelopmentcamefromthegovernment (thatis,fromthetaxpayers).Itisonethingtosaythatlarge-scaleproduction requirescapitalaccumulationbutsomethingelsetopresumethatthesourceof accumulationmustbethepursesoftherich.

Giantcorporationsleavemuchofthepioneeringresearchtosmallerbusinessesandindividualentrepreneurs.Theinventivenessrecordofthebiggest oilcompaniesisstrikinglyundistinguished.Referringtoelectricappliances, oneGeneralElectricvicepresidentnoted: “Iknowofnooriginalproductinvention,notevenelectricshaversorheatingpads,madebyanyofthegiant laboratoriesorcorporations….Therecordofthegiantsisoneofmovingin, buyingout,andabsorbingthesmallcreators.”31 Thesamecanbesaidofrecentadvancesinthesoftwareindustry.

Defendersofthefreemarketclaimthatbigproductionunitsareneeded forthemodernage.However,bignessislesstheresultoftechnologicalnecessityandmoretheoutcomeofprofit-drivenacquisitionsandmergers,aswhen thesamecorporationhasholdingsinmanufacturing,insurance,utilities, amusementparks,broadcastmedia,andpublishing.

Whentimesaregood,thecapitalistssingpraisetothewondersoftheir free-marketsystem.Whentimesarebad,theyblamelaborandgovernment forcapitalism’sills.Workersmustlearntotoilharderforlessinorderto staycompetitiveintheglobaleconomy,theysay;thenbusinesswouldnot movetocheaperlabormarketsinThirdWorldcountries.Forlaboritisa racetothebottom.Workerswhodotakewageandbenefitcuts “inorderto remaincompetitive” oftenendupseeingtheirjobsexportedoverseasanyway, becausetheirwageshavenotbeenreducedtothelevelofsubsistencewagesin IndonesiaorChina.

Onecauseoflowproductivityistechnologicalobsolescence.Unwillingto spendtheirownmoneytomodernizetheirplants,bigcompaniescrypoverty andcallforfederalfunds supposedlytohelpthemcompeteagainstforeign firms.Yetthesesamecompaniesmightthenproducehugecashreservesfor mergers.Forexample,afterlayingofftwentythousandworkers,refusing tomodernizeitsagingplants,andmilkingthegovernmentofhundredsof millionsofdollarsinsubsidiesandtaxwrite-offs,U.S.Steelcameupwith $6.2billiontopurchaseMarathonOil.

THEHARDSHIPSOFWORKINGAMERICA

Inthelastdecade,therealwagesofthepoorestfifthofthenationdropped almost9percent,whiletheconsumerdebt(theamountowedonloans,credit cards,andthelike)grewtwiceasfastaspersonalincome.Meanwhile

personalbankruptcieswereatrecordhighs,andthegapbetweentherichand mostotherpeoplewaswiderthanatanytimesincethe1920s.32

Incapitalistsocieties,ifpeoplecannotfindwork,thatistheirmisfortune.Nofree-marketeconomyhasevercomeclosetofullemployment.If anything,unemploymentisfunctionaltocapitalism.Withoutareserve armyofunemployedtocompeteforjobsanddeflatewages,laborwould cutmoredeeplyintoprofits.Inthe2009recessiontheunemploymentrate climbedto9.5percentoralmost15millionpeople.Thisfiguredoesnotincludethemillionswhohadexhaustedtheirunemploymentcompensation andlefttherolls,orpart-timersandreduced-timeworkerswhoneededfulltimejobs,ortheunemployedwhogaveuplookingforworkafteryearsof frustration.33

Nordoestheofficialunemploymentfigurecountthemanyforcedinto earlyretirementorwhojointhearmedforcesbecausetheycannotfindwork (andaretherebylistedas “employed”),norprisoninmateswhohadnojobs beforeincarceration.Werewetocountallthesegroups,the hiddenunemployment intheUnitedStateswasupwardsof20percent.Theeconomyhadfewer jobsin2009thanithadin2000eventhoughthelaborforcehadgrownby some12millionworkersinthattime.34

Thenumberofworkersforcedtosettleforpart-timework(the underemployed)hasmorethandoubledinrecentdecadestoabout30million. Ofcourse,somepeoplepreferpart-timeworkbecauseofschoolorfamily obligations.Buttheydonotmakeupthebulkofpart-timeandsometime employees.Themedianhourlywageofpart-timerswasaboutone-thirdless thanfull-timeemployeesinthesameoccupations.Amongthepart-timersare millionsof “ contractworkers, ” whoarepaidonlyforhoursputinwhile deprivedofaregularemploymentslot.Aboutone-fifthofthem,morethan amillion,havereturnedtotheiroldcompanies,workingatthesamejobs butnowatlowerwagescales,withnohealthinsurance,nopaidvacations, andnopensionfund.U.S.LaborDepartmentstatisticsshowthatonlyabout 35percentoflaid-offfull-timeworkersendupwithequallyremunerativeor betterpayingjobs. 35

Inthe2008–2009recession,afteralmostayearinthedoldrums,stock marketpricesbegantorecover,homebuildingpickedup,thenumberofforeclosuresleveledoff,yetconsumerdemandwaslaggingandpeoplewerestill losingtheirjobsatahighrate anindicationthattherecessionmightdrag on,developingintowhatiscalleda joblessrecovery whenthingsgetbetter forthosewithmoneyandremainbadforthosewithout.36

Somepeoplesaythereisplentyofworkavailable;unemploymenthappensbecauseindividualsarejustlazy.Butwhenunemploymentjumpsbymillionsduringaneconomicslump,isitreallybecauseamassofpeoplesuddenly foundworktooirksomeandpreferredtolosetheirincome,medicalcoverage, andpensions?Whenjobsdoopenup,vastnumbersofthe “lazy” lineup forthem.Someexamples:AtaplantinIowa,4,000peopleappliedfor53 jobs.InNewYorkCity,4,000peoplelinedupfor700relativelylow-paying hoteljobs.And24,500peopleappliedfor325low-payingjobsatanew Wal-MartoutsideChicago.37

Technologicaladvancesandautomationcanexpandproductivitywhile reducingthenumberofjobs;indeedthatisthepurposeofautomation.Anothercauseofdeclineinjobsistherunawayshop.U.S.firmsmovetocheaper ThirdWorldlabormarketsinordertomaximizetheirprofits.

WehearthattheUnitedStatesisa “middle-classnation, ” butmost Americansactuallyareworkingclass.Theylaborforhourlywages.Even amongwhite-collarserviceemployees,thegreatmajorityarenonmanagerial andlowwage.Conditionsforworkingpeoplehavedeterioratedcomparedto thirtyyearsago.U.S.workersnowhavemoreforcedovertime,fewerpaid daysoff,longerworkweeks,fewerbenefits,lesssickleave,andshortervacations,ifany.Peopleareworkingharderforrelativelyless,asrealwagescontinuetostagnateordeclineandgovernmentincomesupplementsarereduced.38

OnereportshowedthatamajorityofAmericanssaytheyarenotlivingas wellastheirparentsandtheirearningpowerisnotkeepingupwiththecost ofliving.Largernumbersofthemreportspendingatleastoneyearinpoverty intheirlifetimes.39

ThetotalU.S.consumerdebtwas$2.5 trillion in2008or,ifmortgages areincluded,upwardsof$6trillion. “OnereasonAmericansaregoingdeeper intodebtisbecausesalarieshavenotincreasedenoughtomeetrising inflation.”40 Inthelastseveraldecadesthehouseholddebtburdenhasmushroomedto30percentofdisposableincome.By2007,some29millionhouseholdswereusingatleast49percentofdisposableincometoservicedebt,with arecordshareofhouseholdincomebeingspenttopayinterestonaccumulateddebt.41

Withcutbacksinfederalcollegegrants,manystudentshavetoborrow moreheavilytogetaneducation.Atpublicuniversities,studentborrowers alsoworkatpayingjobsanaverageofovertwenty-twohoursaweek.Inthe endmorethan65percentofcollegestudentsleaveschoolheavilyindebt. Aftergraduation,studentswhomissapaymentordefaultonaloanend up becauseofcompoundedusuriousinterestratesandpenalties owing threeorfourtimesmorethantheyeverreceived.Therearemorethan5millionstudentloansindefault.Millionsofformerstudentsnowliveinakindof “debtor’sprisonwithoutwalls,” astheirdebtsgrowfasterthantheycanbe paidoffandtheirearningsaregarnishedforyearstocome,consigningthem toasemipovertylevel.Studentdebtistheonlyconsumerdebtthatisdenied bankruptcyrelief.Notwithoutreasonisitdescribedasthe “mostoppressive debtinU.S.history.”42

POVERTYINPARADISE

Asof2007,theCensusBureaureported37.3millionpeoplelivinginpoverty intheUnitedStates,12.5percentofthepopulation,oroneoutofeveryeight Americans.Withtherecessionof2008–2009,thenumbersareexpectedto risesubstantially.Officialestimatesgenerallyunderstatethepovertyproblem byexcludingmanyundocumentedworkersandseveralmillionotherseriously poororhomelesswhogouncountedinthecensus.Over70percentofthe familiesbelowthegovernment’sofficialpovertylinehaveamemberwhois fullyemployed.Theyworkforalivingbutnotforalivingwage.43

AccordingtoanIRSreport,theshareofoverallincomereceivedbythe bottom80percentoftaxpayersfellfrom50percenttoabout40percent. Amongthe “workingpoor” aregrowingnumbersofsweatshopworkers whoputinlonghoursforbelow-minimumwages,plusfemaledomesticsin affluenthouseholdswhoworktwelve-tofifteen-hourshifts,sixdaysaweek, forwagessometimesamountingtoaslittleas$2anhour.Anadditional25 millionpeopleintheUnitedStateslivejust above theofficialpovertylinein direstraits.(Asof2009theofficialpovertylineforanindividualwas $10,830;forafamilyoffour,$22,050.)Theyhavenomedicalinsurance,are oftenunabletoaffordadoctor,cannotpayutilitybillsorkeepupcarpayments,andsometimeslacksufficientfundsforfood.Itisnotlazinessthat keepsthemdown,butthelowwagestheirbossespaythemandthehigh prices,exorbitantrents,andregressivetaxestheyface.44

Arecentcomprehensivestudyoflow-incomeworkersinAmericafound abuseseverywhere,infactories,retailshops,constructionsites,offices,warehouses,andprivatehomes.Morethanaquarteroftheseworkershadbeen paidlessthantheminimumwage.Manywereforcedtoworkunpaidbeforeor aftertheirshifts.Wagesandtipswereroutinelystolen.Workerswereforcedto workwhensickorinjured.Manyweredeniedtimeoffformeals.Morethan two-thirdshadtheirbreaksdeniedorshortened.Workerswhocomplainedto governmentagenciessufferedillegalretaliation:firing,suspension,orpaycuts.45

ThepovertylineispurportedlyadjustedregularlybytheConsumerPrice Index(CPI)toaccountforinflation.However,forthoseofmodestmeans,a

disproportionatelylargerpartoftheirincomegoestobasicnecessitiessuchas rent,food,fuel,andmedicalcare.Thecostofthesenecessitiesrisesmuch morerapidlythanthegeneralpriceindex,buttheCensusBureauhasfailed toadjustforthis,therebygrosslyunderestimatingtheextentofpovertyin thenation.Nordotheforty-year-oldpovertylinemeasurementsreflectthe dramaticescalationofmedicalcosts,housing,andthenecessitytoownacar inmanypartsofthecountry.46

Americanshavebeentaughtthattheyarethemostprosperouspeoplein theworld.Thetruthis,theUnitedStatesisforty-ninthintheworldinliteracy, andthirty-seventhinhealthcareevenwhilespendingmoreonitshealthindustrythananyothernation.Oftwentyindustrialcountries,theUnitedStates hasthehighestpovertyrate,highestpercapitaprisonpopulation,highestinfantmortalityrate,andhighestrateofyouthdeathsduetoaccidents,homicide,andotherviolence.Americansworklongerhoursperyearandget lessvacationtimethanworkersinanyotherindustrializedcountry.Inthe Westernsocialdemocracies,employeesgetfivetosixweeksofpaidvacation everyyear.Americansaverageonetotwoweeksayear,ifthat.47

Giventheimprovementindiseasepreventionandlifestyle,includingmore physicalexerciseandlesssmoking,U.S.lifeexpectancyreachedanall-time highof77.9yearsin2007(upfrom75.4in1990).ButamongtheWestern democracies,theUnitedStatesstillrateslastinlifeexpectancybehindBritain at78.7.AndtheU.S.populationshowsincreasinglyhighratesofhypertensionandobesity.48

Thepoorpaymoreformostthings:exorbitantrentsinrun-downunsafe housingunitsthatslumlordsrefusetorepairandinstallmentsalesthatcharge interestratesof200to300percent.Fringe “banks” andcheck-cashingcompaniesmakebillionsofdollarsannuallyofflow-incomepeoplebycharging feesofupto10percenttocashtheirpaychecksorwelfareorSocialSecurity checks.Predatorylendersmakeshort-termloansatusuriousratestopeople whorunshortofcashbetweenpaychecks.Manyofthesestorefrontloan sharksarefundedbymajorbanksandcorporations.Theirgrowthhasbeen fueledbyadeclineinthenumberofhouseholdswithbankaccountsandan increaseinthelow-incomepopulation.49

Despiteallthetalkaboutaffirmativeaction,AfricanAmericansandLatinosendureunemploymentandpovertyratesabouttwiceashighasthatof Whites,andcontinuetosufferracialdiscriminationinemploymentandother areasoflife.50 OneinvestigationdemonstratedthatwhenWhitesandAfrican Americans,whoweredeliberatelymatchedinqualifications,appliedforthe samejobs,theWhiteswerethreetimesmorelikelytobehired,andlesslikely toencounterdiscouragementandslightingtreatment.Ethnicminoritiesare stillturneddownmoreoftenthanWhitesforhomemortgages,regardlessof income.51

Womenalsonumberamongthesuperexploited.Twooutofthreeadults inpovertyarewomen,manyofthemsinglemothers.Ofthemorethan 58millionfemaleswhowork,adisproportionatelyhighnumberareconcentratedinlow-payingsecretarialandservicejobs.Inthemid-1960swomen averaged69centsforeverydollarmenmade.Afterthirtyyearsofstruggle

andhardwork,theynowearn77centsforeverydollarmenreceive,even withsimilarskillsandexperience.52 Meanwhilemalewageshavethemselves declinedashigherpayingindustrialjobsformaleworkersareoutsourcedto othercountries.

THEHUMANCOSTSOFECONOMICINJUSTICE

About13millionofthenation’schildrenliveinpoverty,ahigherratethan twentyyearsearlier.Childrenbornintopovertyaremorelikelytobeoflow birthweight,dieininfancyorearlychildhood,andbeplaguedwithserious ailments,includingdiseasesassociatedwithmalnutrition.Theyaremorelikely tosufferfromuntreatedillnesses,beexposedtoenvironmentaltoxinsand neighborhoodviolence,andsufferdelaysinlearningdevelopment.53 Young andelderlypoorsuffera “silentepidemicoforaldisease,” fromtoothdecay tomouthcancer,duelargelytopooroverallhealthandinabilitytopayfor dentalcareordentalinsurance.54

Morethan36millionpeople,includingover12millionchildren,livein householdsthatgohungryduringsomepartofthemonth,anincreaseof 5millionsince1999.Hungerornear-hungerinregionsallacrosstheUnited Statesposesatorrentofneedsthatfoodbanksandsoupkitchenscannothandle.Manyrecipientsareamongtheworkingpoor,whoneedemergencyfood tosupplementtheirinsufficientearnings.Accordingtoarecentstudy,onein sixyoungchildren(thosewhoarefiveyearsoldandyounger)faceaconstant threatoffoodinsecurityanddonothaveadequateaccesstohealthyfood.55

A2007UNICEFreportrankedtheUnitedStates(alongwithBritain)as theworstplacetobeachildamongtwenty-oneindustrializednations.The Netherlands,Sweden,Denmark,Finland,andSpainwerelistedasthebest. Thecategoriesstudiedwerehealthandsafety,familycohesion,riskofpoverty,riskofalcoholismanddrugs,andthelike.56

InmajorAmericancitiesandsmalltowns,indigentspickfoodoutofgarbagecansanddumps.Asonecolumnistnoted, “Ifthepresidentonhisvisitto ChinahadwitnessedChinesepeasantseatingfromgarbagecans,healmost certainlywouldhaveciteditasproofthatcommunismdoesn’twork.What doesitprovewhenithappensinthecapitalistsuccesscalledAmerica?”57

Millionsofworkingpoorareonlyapaycheckawayfromthestreets. Over95millionpeople,one-thirdofthenation,experiencehousinghardships. Housingisthelargestsingleexpenditureformanylow-incomefamilies,consuming60to70percentoftheirincome.Duetorealtyspeculations,gentrification,condominiumconversions,unemployment,lowwages,andabolition ofrentcontrol,peopleofmodestmeanshavebeensqueezedoutofthehousingmarketingreaternumbersthanever.Over2millionaffordablehousing unitshavevanishedduringthelasttwenty-fiveyears,forcingmoreandmore familiestodoubleandtripleup,imposinghardshipsandseverestrainsondomesticrelations.Wholefamiliessleepincarsorabandonedbuildings,intent cities,andintemporaryshelters.The2009recessionbroughtasharpincrease inhomelessnessandinthenumberofbabiesbeingborninshelters,alongwith adrasticincreaseinfoodshortages.58

SeveralmillionAmericansarehomelessatsomepointduringanaverage year,almostathirdofwhomarefamilieswithchildren.Homelessnessoffersa lifeofstress,hunger,filth,destitution,loneliness,exhaustion,mentaldepression,andunattendedillness.Manypersonswhostayinhomelesssheltersor makeshiftstreetsheltersholdfull-timejobs.Withrentssohighandpayso low,andjobsdisappearingduringeconomicdecline,theycannotafforda placetolive.59

Mostcitiesdonotprovidesufficientaffordableshelterorfoodfortheir homelesspopulations.Insteadtheyincreasinglyapplythecriminaljusticesystemtopunishthosewhotrytosurviveonthestreets.Authoritiesprohibit panhandling,selectivelyenforcelawsagainstloitering,andenactlegislation makingitillegaltosleep,sit,orstorepersonalbelongingsinpublicspaces.60

Almosthalfthepeoplewholiveinpovertyareoversixty-five.Despite Medicareassistance,theelderlyfacethehighestout-of-pockethealthcare costs.Abouthalfofallseniorshavereturnedtoworkorarelookingfor workbecausetheycannotsubsistontheirsavingsandpensions.

Lessthanhalfofprivate-sectorworkershaveanykindofprivatepension orretirementsavingssuchasa401(k).Corporationsoftentreatworkerpension fundsaspartofafirm’sassets.Theysometimesdefaultonprivate-pensionpayments,failingtosetasidesufficientsumstopayworkersthebenefitstheyare owed.Also,ifthecorporationmergeswithanotherorisboughtout,thefund isabsorbedbythetakeoverandtheworkersmaynotseeapennyofthemoney theypaidintoit.In2001alone,$175billioninworkers’ 401(k)savingswere lostorstolenbymanagement.Ifnothingisdone,theentireprivatepensionsystemcouldeventuallycollapseundertheplunder.61 Infact,manysuchprivate pensionsdidshrinkawaywhenstockvaluescrashedin2008.

Itisdifficultforthosewhohaveneverknownseriouseconomicwantto imaginethemiseryitcancause.Peoplelivingunderthecrushingburdenof poverty withoutenoughmoneyforrent,food,andothernecessities,inunsafecrime-riddenneighborhoodsanddeterioratedhousing sufferaninordinateamountofunattendedpathologies.Dropsinincomeandevenmodest jumpsinunemploymentratesbringdiscernibleincreasesindepression,high bloodpressure,emotionaldistress,substanceabuse,suicide,andcrime.Tens ofmillionsareaddictedtoalcohol,tobacco,orillegaldrugs.Millionsmore areaddictedtomedicaldrugssuchasamphetaminesandbarbiturates.The pushersarethedoctors;thesuppliersarethedrugindustry;theprofits arestupendous.62

Eachyear,thirtythousandAmericansonaveragetaketheirownlives. Anotherseventeenthousandorsoaremurdered.Thenumberofyoungpeople whokillthemselveshastripledsincethe1950s.MillionsofU.S.womenare batteredbymen;almost5millionsustainseriousinjuryeachyear.Over2millionchildren mostlyfromlower-incomefamilies arebattered,abused, abandoned,orseriouslyneglectedeachyear.Manyelderlyalsoaresubjected toseriousabuse,which,likechildabuse,increasesdramaticallywheneconomicconditionsworsen.63

Therecessionof2008–2009onlyintensifiedtheplightoflow-and middle-incomepeople.Foralmostthirtyyearstherehadbeenagrowinggap

betweenrisingproductivityandstagnantrealwages.Thisbroughtanimmenseincreaseincorporateprofitsforthesuperrich.Asoneeconomistnoted, partofthiswealthwaslentbacktoworkingpeopletofinancetheirhomes, cars,medicalcare,education,anddailyexpenses.Andpartofthewealth was “investedintheunproductive,speculative,financialsector,” resultingin stillmorebusinessandindustrialovercapacity,corporatefailures,unemployment,andoveralleconomicinstability.64

Insum,thestoryoftheUnitedStates’ great “affluence” hasagrimside. Thefreemarketisverygoodforwinners,offeringalltherewardsthatmoney canbuy,butitisexceedinglyharshonmillionsofothers.Contrarytotheprevailingsocialmythology,theU.S.capitalistsystemsquandersournatural resources,exploitsandunderpaysourlabor,andcreatesprivationanddesperatesocialneedsamidstcommodityglut,servingthefewatgreatcosttothe many,leavinguswithasocietythatislessdemocraticandincreasinglyriven bywealthandwant.

5

InstitutionsandIdeologies

Intryingtounderstandthepoliticalsystem,wewoulddowelltolookatthe widersocialcontextinwhichitoperates:thepredominantsocialinstitutions, values,andideologiesofoursociety.

CORPORATEPLUTOCRACY

Americancapitalismrepresentsmorethanjustaneconomicsystem;itisa plutocracy,thatis,asocialorderruledmostlyforandbytherich.Alongwith businessenterprisesandbanks,thenation’s culturalinstitutions thatis,its universities,publishinghouses,mass-circulationmagazines,newspapers,televisionandradiostations,professionalsportsteams,foundations,hospitals, churches,privatemuseums,andcharities aremostlycharteredascorporations,ruledbyboardsofdirectors(or “trustees” or “regents” astheymight becalled)composedoverwhelminglyofaffluentbusinesspeoplewhoexercise finaljudgmentoverinstitutionalmatters.

Considertheuniversity.Privateandpublicinstitutionsofhighereducationarerunbyboardsoftrusteeswithauthorityoverallmattersofcapital fundingandbudget;curriculumandtuition;degreeawards;andhiring,firing, andpromotionoffacultyandstaff.Dailydecision-makingpowerisdelegated toadministratorsbutcanbeeasilyrecalledbythetrusteeswhentheychoose. Mosttrusteesaresuccessfulbusinesspeoplewhohavenoadministrativeor scholarlyexperienceinhighereducation.Astrustees,theytakenofinancial risksbecausetheirdecisionsarecoveredbyinsurancepaidoutoftheuniversitybudget.Theirmainfunctionseemstobetoexerciseoligarchiccontrol overtheinstitution.

Almostallof “our” culturalinstitutionsareruledbynonelectedselfperpetuatingboardsofaffluentcorporaterepresentativeswhoareanswerable

tonoonebutthemselves.Wethepeoplehavenovote,noportionoftheownership,andnolegaldecision-makingpowerwithintheseinstitutions.

Wearetaughttothinkthatcapitalismbreedsdemocracyandprosperity. Theprivate-enterprisesystem,itissaid,createsequalityofopportunity,rewardsthosewhoshowability,relegatestheslothfultothelowerrungs,createsnationalprosperity,andbolstersdemocracy.Littleissaidabouthow capitalismhassupportedandflourishedundersomeofthemostrepressive regimesandimpoverishedThirdWorldnations.

Thecorporateenterprisesystemplacesagreatdealofemphasisoncommercialworth:howtocompeteandgetahead.AsRalphNadernotes,the freemarket “ onlystimulatesonevalueinsociety theacquisitive,materialistic,profitvalue. ” Whataboutthevaluesrelatingtojustice,health,occupationalandconsumersafety,regardforfuturegenerations,andequitable socialrelations? 1

Amongthekeypurveyorsofplutocraticcultureisoureducationalsystem. Fromgradeschoolonward,studentsaregivenapositivepictureofAmerica’s history,institutions,andleaders.Teacherstendtoconcentrateontheformal aspectsofgovernmentandaccordscantattentiontotheinfluencethat wealthy,powerfulgroupsexerciseoverpoliticallife.Instructorswhowishto

introduceamorerevealingviewinvitecriticalattentionfromtheirsuperiors. Highschoolstudentswhoattempttoexplorecontroversialissuesinstudent newspapershavefrequentlybeenoverruledbyadministratorsandthreatened withdisciplinaryaction.2

Schooltextsseldomgivemorethanpassingmentiontothecourageous historyoflaborstruggleorthecorporateexploitationofworkingpeopleat homeandabroad.Almostnothingissaidofthestrugglesofindigenous Americans(orNativeAmerican “Indians”),indenturedservants,smallfarmers,andLatino,Asian,MiddleEastern,andEuropeanimmigrants.Thehistoryofresistancetoslavery,racism,andU.S.expansionistwarsgoeslargely untaughtinourclassrooms.3

Schoolsandmediaareinundatedwithinformationalmaterialsprovided freebythePentagonandlargecorporationstopromoteahighlyfavorable viewofthemilitaryandtoboostprivatization,deregulationofindustry,and otherblessingsofthefreemarket.4 Numerousconservativethinktanksand academiccentershaveemerged,alongwithconservativejournals,conferences, andendowedchairs,allfundedbyright-wingfoundations,bigcorporations, andsuperrichindividuals.

Manyuniversitiesandcollegeshavedirectinvestmentsincorporate America,holdingstockportfoliosworthbillionsofdollars.Suchbountiful endowmentsaretobefoundespeciallyineliteIvyLeagueschoolslikeYale, Harvard,Brown,Columbia,andothers.Moreandmorecollegepresidents andothertopadministratorsaredrawndirectlyfromcorporateAmerica withnoexperienceinteaching,research,oruniversityadministration.Their salariesareskyrocketingandtheirfringebenefitsareincreasinglylavish,includingsuchthingsasyear-longpaidleavesatfullsalary.Someadministrators andfacultyearnhandsomesumsasbusinessconsultants.Corporatelogosare appearinginclassroomsandstudentunionbuildings.Academic-basedscientificresearchisbeingincreasinglyfundedanddefinedbycorporationsthat haveavestedinterestintheresultsoftheresearch.Withitsfinancingofchairs andstudyprograms,privateindustryisinfluencingwhoishiredandwhatis taught.5

Meanwhilelibrarybudgets,scholarships,courseofferings,teachingstaff, andstudentservicesarebeingcutback.Atmostuniversitiesandcolleges,tuitionhasclimbedmorethan30percentinthelastdecadeyears.Tenuredand otherfull-timefacultypositionsarebeingreplacedwithunderpaidpart-time adjuncts.Some40percentofallcollegeteachersareadjuncts,workingfor nobenefits,andcarryingheavyteachingloadsforpaltrypay.6

IDEOLOGICALORTHODOXY

Inacademia,politicallyradicalfaculty,andevenstudents,havesufferedpoliticallymotivatednegativeevaluationsandlossofstipends,grants,andjobs. Professors,journalists,managers,bureaucrats,andmostotherprofessionals whowishtoadvancetheircareerslearntogoalongwiththingsastheyare andavoidespousingradicalviewsthatconflictwiththedominanteconomic interestsofcapitalistsociety.7

Oneagentofpoliticalsocializationisthegovernmentitself.Onfrequent occasionstheU.S.presidentorsomeotherofficialwillfeedusreassuringpronouncementsabouttheeconomyoralarmingassertionsaboutenemieswho threatenusfromabroadorfromwithin.Assistingtheireffortsatpoliticalindoctrinationarethenewsmedia(seeChapter13).

Althoughweareoftenadmonishedtothinkforourselves,wemightaskif oursocializationprocessputslimitsondoingso.Ideologicalorthodoxyso permeatestheplutocraticculturethatitisoftennotfeltasindoctrination.The mosteffectiveformsoftyrannyarethosesodeeplyingrained,sothoroughly controlling,asnoteventobeconsciouslyexperiencedasconstraints.

Inacapitalistsociety,massadvertisingsellsnotonlyparticularproducts butawayoflife,aglorificationofconsumeracquisitiveness.Bornofamarket economy,thecapitalistculturedownplayscooperativeeffortsandhumaninterdependence.Peopleareexpectedtooperateindividuallybuttowardrather similargoals.Everyonecompetesagainsteveryoneelse,butforthesame things. “Individualism” inthiscorporate-dominatedculturereferstoacquisitivenessandcareerism.Weareexpectedtogetwhatwecanforourselvesand notbetootroubledbytheproblemsfacedbyothers.Thisattitude,considered inhumaninsomesocieties,islabeledapprovinglyas “ambition” inourown andistreatedasaqualityofgreatsocialvalue.

Whetherornotthis “individualism” allowsonetohavemuchcontrol overone’sownlifeisanotherstory.Thedecisionsaboutthequalityofthe foodweeat,thegoodswebuy,theairwebreathe,thepriceswepay,the wagesweearn,thewayworktasksaredivided,themodesoftransportation availabletous,andtheimageswearefedbythemediaareusuallymadeby peopleotherthanourselves.

Peoplewhooccupyprivilegedpositionswithinthesocialhierarchybecomecommittedtothehierarchy’spreservationandhostiletowarddemands foramoreequitablesocialorder.Economicallydeprivedgroupsareseenasa threatbecausetheywantmore,andmoreforthehave-notsmightmeanless forthehaves.Classbigotryisoneofthewidelyheldformsofprejudicein Americansocietyandtheleastexamined.

Theplutocraticcultureteachesthatmaterialsuccessisameasureofone’s worth,andbecausethepoorarenotworthmuch,thensociety’sresources shouldnotbesquanderedonthem.Incapitalistsociety,thepooraregenerally seenaspersonallydeficient,theauthorsoftheirownstraitenedcircumstances. Rarelyaretheyconsideredtobethevictimsofpoverty-creatingeconomic forces:highrents,underemployment,lowwages,unattendedillnesses,disabilities,andothersuchfeaturesofthefreemarket.AstheAmericanhumorist WillRogersoncesaid, “It’snocrimetobepoor,butitmightaswellbe.”

Inasocietywheremoneyistheoverridingdeterminantofone’slife chances,thedriveformaterialgainisnotmerelyasymptomofagreeddrivenculturebutafactorinone’sverysurvival.Ascorporatepowertightens itsgripoverthepoliticaleconomy,manypeoplehavetoworkstillharderto keeptheirheadsabovewater.Ratherthangraspingforfancifulluxuries,they struggletoprovidebasicnecessities.Iftheyneedmoremoneythanwasessentialinearlierdays,itispartlybecauseessentialscostsomuchmore.

Becausehumanservicesarebasedonabilitytopay,moneybecomesa matteroflifeanddeath.Tohavealowormodestincomeistorunahigher riskofinsufficientmedicalcare,homelessness,andjobinsecurity,andtohave lessopportunityforeducation,recreation,travel,andcomfort.Thus,thedesireto “makeit,” evenattheexpenseofothers,isnotmerelyawrong-headed attitudebutareflectionofthematerialconditionsofcapitalistsocietywherein nooneiseverreallyeconomicallysecureexceptthesuperrich,andeventhey foreverseektosecureandadvancetheirfortunesthroughfurthercapital accumulation.

Forthosewhoenjoythebestofeverything,theexistingpolitico-economic systemisasmashingsuccess.Forthosewhoareitshaplessvictims,orwhoare concernedaboutthewell-beingofallandnotjustthemselves,thesystem leavesagreatdealtobedesired.

CORPORATERULEANDRUIN:SOMEEXAMPLES

Themoderngiantcorporationsportraythemselvesasbenignentitiesthatprovidethejobsandgoodsandservicesweallneed.Infact,themultinational corporationisnothingmore orless thananorganizedinstrumentofplutocracytomaximizetheaccumulationofprofitsandwealth,withoutmuch regardforthewell-beingoftheworkforce,thegeneralpublic,ortheenvironment.ConsiderthisincompleteroguesgalleryofCorporateAmerica:

Wal-Mart,theworld’slargestretailer,exploitsinternationalsweatshop labor,payingsubsistencewages,discriminatingagainstwomeninpay andpromotions,denyingworkerstimeforbreaks,andforcingemployees towork “off-the-clock” unpaidovertime.Wal-Marthasbeenforcedto payatleast$352milliontosettlenumerouswageandhourlawsuits.

Wal-Mart’scalculatedunderpricingregularlydrivessmallerfamily-owned storesoutofbusiness.

Cargill,aninternationalfoodandagribusinessgiant,hasbeenrakingin recordprofits.Theprice-fixingthatCargillimposedonthefoodsupply itcontrolscausedshortagesandriotsinlow-incomecommunitiesacross theglobe.Cargill,likeMonsanto,forcesothersinthefoodandagriculturalindustrytobuygeneticallyengineeredproducts.InIndia,Cargill used “freetrade ” lawstodenyfarmerstherighttouseandsellthe naturalseedstheygleanedfromtheirowncropsandhadreliedonfor centuries.

ExxonMobil haslongbeenBigOil’sworstpolluterandhassupported the “junkscience” offrontgroupsthatdenyglobalwarming.In2008 ExxonMobilreportedthelargestannualprofitinU.S.history: $45billion.

Coca-Cola,numberonesoft-drinkproducerintheworld,isnowaggressivelyexpandingintobottledwater.Thecorporationisbuyingupand dryingupsourcesoffreshwaterinmanypartsoftheworldforthepurposeofmarketingitssodaandbottledwater.

AIG isagiantinsurancecompanywhoserecklessspeculationandpredatorylendingpracticesledtoitsowncollapse,sendingshockwaves throughtheglobaleconomyandprompting$182.5billionintaxpayer bailoutsin2009.

GoldmanSachs wasabigsellerofmortgage-backedsecuritiesatthe heightoftherealestatebubble.Whentheeconomiccrashcamein 2008–2009,GoldmanSachsreceived$10billionintaxpayerbailout money,thenpromptlypaidout$6.5billioninbonuses.

Merck,oneofBigPharma’slargestprofitmakers,isfacingtensofbillions ofdollarsinliabilitiesformarketingpotentiallydeadlymedicinewhile concealingthehealthrisksfromconsumers.

UBS isaSwissbankthatplayedakeyroleinmajorPonzischemesand internationalswindles.UBSalsoassistedmorethanfiftythousandof America’swealthiestindividualstocommittaxevasionbysheltering morethan$14billioninassets.8

Theaboveexamplesshowonlyfragmentsoftheprofiteeringandmalfeasanceperpetratedbybusinesscorporationsinacapitalistsystemthatclaimsto betheprogenitorofdemocracyandprosperity.Laterchaptersprovideafuller pictureofwhatcorporateAmericahasbeendoingtousandtherestofthe world.

LEFT,RIGHT,ANDCENTER

Politicalideologiestraditionallyhavebeencategorizedasrightist,centrist,and leftist.Letusconsiderthesebroadtendencies,withoutpretendingtodojustice toalltheirshadingsandambiguities.Whatiscalledthepoliticalrightconsists of conservatives,corporateelites,andmanyotheraffluentpersonswhoadvocatefree-marketcapitalismanddefendbigbusinessasthemainstayofthe goodsociety. Free-marketcapitalism isessentiallytheunregulatedlaissezfairevarietyinwhichprivate-profitinvestmentshavepriorityoveralmostall othersocialconsiderations.Conservativeideologypreachesthevirtuesofprivateinitiativeandself-reliance:richandpoorprettymuchgetwhattheydeserve;peoplearepoornotbecauseofinadequatewagesandlackofeconomic opportunitybutbecausetheyarelazy,profligate,orincapable.Theconservativekeystonetoindividualrightsistheenjoymentofpropertyrights,especiallytherighttomakeaprofitoffotherpeople’slaborandenjoythe privilegedconditionsofafavoredclass.

ConservativesblamemanyofourtroublesonwhatbillionaireSteve Forbescalledthe “arrogance,insularity,thegovernment-knows-bestmentality” inWashington,DC.Everythingworksbetterintheprivatesector,they maintain.Conservativesareusuallythoughtofaspeoplewhowanttopreserve theprivilegesandtraditionalpracticesoftheupperstrata.Mostconservative ideologuestoday,however,mightbetterbeclassifiedas reactionaries,having anagendaintentuponrollingbackalltheprogressivegainsmadeover thelastcentury.Theywanttodoawaywithmostgovernmentregulationof business,alongwithenvironmentalandconsumerprotections,disabilityand

retirementsupport,minimum-wagelaws,unemploymentcompensation,occupationalsafety,andinjurycompensationlaws.Theyassureusthatprivate charitycantakecareofneedyandhungrypeople,andthatthereisnoneed forgovernmenthandouts.

Conservativesseemtothinkthateverythingwouldbeokayifgovernment werereducedtoabareminimum.Governmentisnotthesolution,itisthe problem,theysay.Inactualpractice,however,conservativesarefororagainst governmenthandoutsdependingonwhosehandisout.Theywanttocuthumanservicestolower-incomegroups,buttheyvigorouslysupportallsortsof governmentsubsidiesandbailoutsforlargecorporateenterprises.Theytreat economicrecessionasjustpartofanaturalcycle.TheyadmonishAmerican workerstoworkharderforless,andhavenotaharshwordaboutthedevastatingeffectsofcorporatemergersandbuyouts,financialswindles,theexportationofourjobstocheaplabormarketsabroad,andtheincreasein economichardshipforworkingpeople.

Conservativesandreactionariesmaywantaweakgovernmentbutthey alsowantastrongauthoritarianstate.Theyarenotagainststronggovernment measurestorestrictdissent,suppressprotests,keepusundersurveillance,and regulateourprivatelivesandpersonalmorals,aswithanti-abortionlawsand bansongaymarriage.Theygenerallysupportharsherpolicemethods,more severeprisonsentences,andmorevigoroususeofthedeathpenalty.They wantgovernmenttorequireprayersinourschools,subsidizereligiouseducation,andbringGodintopubliclife.Theyblamethecountry’sillsonsecular immorality,homosexuality,feminism, “liberalelites,” andthelossoffamily

values.Thereligiousrightsupportsconservativecauses.Inturn,superrich conservativeinterestshelpfinancethereligiousright.

MostconservativesareenthusiasticbackersofgargantuanmilitarybudgetsandaglobalnetworkofU.S.militarybases.Theyclaimtobemorepatrioticthantheirmoreliberalopponents,supportingmilitaryattacksagainst othernations.Theyseemtoequatethisbellicositywithpatriotism.Truthbe told,whenitcomestowar,conservativeideologuesprefertoletothersdo thefightinganddying.SuchwasthecasewithPresidentGeorgeW.Bush, VicePresidentDickCheney,commentatorRushLimbaugh,andscoresof otherprominentright-wingerswhotookpainstoavoidmilitaryserviceduring theVietnamWar.9

Notallconservativesandreactionariesareaffluent.Peopleofrathermodestmeanswhoopposebiggovernmentbecausetheydonotseeitdoinganythingforthemwillcallthemselvesconservatives,forwantofanalternative. Asonenewspapercolumnistwrites,theythinkthatgovernmenthasaprime responsibilitytoprotect “theirrighttokillthemselveswithguns,booze,and tobacco” buta “minimalresponsibilitytoprotecttheirrighttoajob,ahome, aneducationorameal.”10

Conservativepoliticianstalkabout “upholdingvalues,” buttheymakeno efforttorootoutcorruptioninthebusinessworldorprotecttheenvironment orlendsupporttoworkingfamilies.Foralltheirverbalpromotionofheterosexualfamilyvaluesandtraditionalmorality,numerousconservativeleaders havebeencaughtinadulterousaffairsorhomosexualliaisons.11

Moretowardthecenterandleft-centerofthepoliticalspectrumarethe moderates and liberalcentrists,whomightbelumpedtogether.Liketheconservatives,thecentristsacceptthecapitalistsystemanditsbasicvalues,but theythinksocialproblemsshouldberectifiedbypiecemealreformsandregulatorypolicies.Alongwithconservatives,manyliberalcentristssupport “free trade” andglobalization,thinkingitwillbenefitnotjustcorporationsbut everyone.TheysupportbigmilitaryspendingandsometimesbackmilitaryinterventionsabroadifconvincedthattheWhiteHouseiswagingamoralcrusade againstsomenewlydefined “evil” andisadvancingthecauseofpeaceand democracy aswiththeirsupportofthemassiveseventy-eight-dayU.S.bombingofwomen,children,andmeninYugoslaviain1999,andtheinterventionsin AfghanistanandIraq(untilIraqprovedmorecostlythananticipated).

Manyliberalsseeaneedforimprovingpublicservicesandenvironmental protections;theysupportminimum-wagelaws,unemploymentinsurance,and otherwagesupports,alongwithSocialSecurity,nutritionalaidforneedychildren,occupationalsafety,andthelike.Theysaytheyareforprotectionofindividualrightsandagainstgovernmentsurveillanceoflaw-abidingpolitical groups,yetinCongress(wheremostofthemareaffiliatedwiththeDemocraticParty),theysometimeshavesupportedrepressivemeasuresandhave gonealongwithcutsinprogramsfortheneedy.Someofthemalsohavevoted forsubsidiesandtaxbreaksforbusiness.Atothertimestheydeplorethe growinginequalityandpovertyandhaveresistedthereactionaryrollbackof humanservices,theassaultsonSocialSecurity,andtheunderminingofboth laborunionsandenvironmentalprotections.

Furtheralongthespectrumisthepoliticalleft theprogressives,socialists,Marxists,andothers.Theywanttoreplaceorsubstantiallymodifythe corporatecapitalistsystemwithasystemofpublicownership,inwhich manyofthelargecorporationsarenationalizedandsmallerbusinesses areundercooperativeownership.Someprogressiveswillsettlefora social democracy,thekindofpoliticaleconomythatexistsinSweden,Denmark, Norway,Finland,andotherwesternEuropeannations,withstronglaborunions,goodworkconditions,andfirmcontrolsonbusinesstosafeguardthe publicinterest.Theyarguethatuntrammeledfree-marketcapitalismhasno goalotherthantheaccumulationofcapitalbytheprivilegedfew,ateveryone else’sexpense.Ademocraticallyresponsivesocialdemocracy,saytheprogressives,hasanimportantroletoplayinprotectingtheenvironment,advancing education,providingjobsforeveryoneabletowork,sufficientaidtothe disabled,alongwithoccupationalsafety,secureretirement,andaffordable medicalcareandhousing.

ManyleftistsandprogressivestirelesslydenouncethenowdefunctcommunistsocietiesasmodelsforU.S.socialism.Yetsomeprogressivesnotethat whatevertheshortcomingsandcrimesofcommunistsocieties,theydidoffer somethingsthatwouldhavebeenworthpreserving:aguaranteedrighttoa job,nohungerorhomelessness,freemedicalcareandfreeeducationtothe highestlevelofone’sability,subsidizedutilitiesandtransportation,freeculturalevents,andaguaranteedpensionafterretirement entitlementsthat wereabolishedsoonafterthecommunistcountriesopenedthemselvestothe plunderandharshinequalityofthecorporatefreemarket.12

MostU.S.leftists,socialdemocrats,andliberalsrefrainfromutteringa positivewordabouttheformerstatesocialistsocietiesorrevolutionarycommunismingeneral.Manyofthemoredoctrinaireseemlittleworriedaboutglobal capitalism,thesystemthattodayhastheworldinitsbanefulgrip.Instead,they wageconstantbattleagainstsomethingtheycall “Stalinism” (acodewordfor communism).Tothem,Stalinismisanevilthatlurksinmanynooksandcranniesontheleftandmustberootedout.Someofthedoctrinaireleftistsappear happiestwhenattackingotherleftistgroupsforbeingideologicallyimpure,insufficientlymilitant,oroftaintedpoliticalgenealogy.

Generallyspeaking,revolutionarysocialistsaredistinguishedfromliberal reformersintheirbeliefthatoursocialproblemscannotbesolvedwithinthe verysystemthatiscreatingthem.Theydonotbelievethateveryhumanproblemiscausedbycapitalismbuttheyareconvincedthatmanyofthemostimportantonesare.Capitalismpropagatesconditionsthatperpetuatepoverty, racism,sexism,andexploitativesocialrelationsathomeandabroad,theyargue.Tothesocialist,U.S.militaryexpansionismabroadisnottheresultof “wrongthinking” butthenaturaloutgrowthofprofit-orientedcapitalism. TheybelievethatU.S.foreignpolicyhasbeenquitesuccessfulincrushing egalitariansocialreformsinmanycountriesinordertokeeptheworldsafe fortransnationalcorporations.

Anideologicaltendencythatdefiesreadyclassificationonalinealpolitical spectrumarethe libertarians,whoresembleanarchists(andreactionaries)in theirinsistencethatgovernmentisthesourceofallourills.Sotheycallfor

theprivatizationofsocialprogramsandjustabouteverythingelse.Butlibertariansdifferfromfree-marketreactionariesintheiroppositiontostrongpoliceenforcementandtoU.S.militaryinterventionsabroad.

PUBLICOPINION:WHICHDIRECTION?

TheopinionsmostAmericanshaveaboutsocioeconomicissuesaredecidedly moreprogressivethanwhatisusuallyenunciatedbypoliticalleadersand right-wingmediapundits.SurveysshowsubstantialmajoritiesstronglyfavoringpublicfundingforSocialSecurity,nursinghomecare,andlower-priced prescriptiondrugs.Substantialmajoritiessupportunemploymentinsurance, disabilityassistance,jobretraining,childcare,pricesupportsforfamilyfarms, andfoodstampsfortheneedy,whileopposingtaxcutsfortheveryrich andprivatizationofsocialservices.Largemajoritieswantimprovementsin managedhealthcareandfavorauniversalhealthinsuranceprogramrunby thegovernmentandfundedbytaxpayers.Thepublicgenerallysupportsa stronger,notaweaker,socialsafetynet.Bynearlythreetoone,thepublic rejectscutbacksinMedicareandSocialSecurity.13

Largemajoritiesfeelthatthegapbetweenrichandpoorisgrowing,and thatgovernmenthasaresponsibilitytotrytodoawaywithpovertyandhunger,thatabortionshouldbeadecisionmadebyawomanandherdoctor,and thatracialminoritiesshouldbegivenfairtreatmentinemployment butnot specialpreferencesinhiringandpromotion.Aftermanyyearsofstrongsupportfororganizedlabor,Americansbecamemuchlesspositivetowardunions duringthegrimdaysofthe2009recession.14

Sixtypercentagreethatlargecorporationswieldtoomuchpower. Amajoritybelievesthatcorporateexecutivescareverylittleabouttheenvironment,aregiventofalsifyingcompanyaccounts,andareliningtheirown pockets.Largemajoritiessaythatcorporationshavetoomuchinfluenceover government.MostAmericansareconcernedabouttheenvironment.Amajorityalsofavorsthedeathpenaltyandbeing “tough” oncrime.Yet60percent agreethatthepresidenthasnorighttosuspendtheBillofRightsintime ofwarornationalemergency.Byafive-to-threemajority,Americanssupport theideaofapublichealthplantocompetewithprivateinsurance.Only 25percentofAmericanssaybanksarehonestandtrustworthy.15

Insum,onmanyimportantissues,amajorityseemstoholdpositionsat variancewiththosemaintainedbyideologicalconservativesandreactionaries andclosertotheonesenunciatedbyliberalsandprogressives.

Opinionpollsareonlypartofthepicture.Thereisthewholehistoryof democraticstrugglethatcontinuestothisdayandremainslargelyuntaught intheschoolsandunreportedinthemedia.Itisexpressedinmassdemonstrations,strikes,boycotts,andcivildisobedience targetingsuchthingsas poverty,unemployment,unsafenuclearreactors,nuclearmissilesites,and U.S.warsabroad.Therehavebeenmassmobilizationsinsupportoflegalized abortion,women’srights,gayandlesbianrights,andenvironmentalprotections.Therehavebeenorganizedhousingtakeoversforthehomeless,protests againstpolicebrutality,andnoncompliancewithdraftregistration.The

SelectiveServiceSystemadmittedthatovertheyearssome800,000young menhaverefusedtoregister(theactualnumberisprobablyhigher).16 Atthe sametime,majorstrikeshaveoccurredinawiderangeofindustries,showing thatlabormilitancyisnotathingofthepast.

ThisisnottodenythatthereremainmillionsofAmericans,including manyofrelativelymodestmeans,whosuccumbtothecultureoffearpropagatedbyright-wingreactionaries.Theyfearandresentgays,ethnicminorities, feminists,immigrants,intellectuals,liberals,peaceactivists,environmentalists, evolutionaryscientists,communists,socialists,laborunions,Muslims,and atheists.Theyswallowthereactionarylinethatgovernmentistheenemy (notthepowerfulinterestsitserves),andtheyarereadilywhippedintojingoisticfervorwhentheirleadersgotowaragainstvastlyweakernations.

Yetthissocietydoesnotproducelargenumbersofconservativeactivists. Therearenomassdemonstrationsdemandingtaxcutsfortherich,more environmentaldevastation,morewars,moretaxcutsfortherich,ormore corporateaccumulationofwealth.

Despitethemind-numbingdistractionsofamasscultureandthepropagandaandindoctrinationbyplutocraticinstitutions,Americansstillhave concernsaboutimportantissues.Politicalsocializationoftenproducescontradictoryandunexpectedspin-offs.Whenopinionmakersindoctrinateuswith thenotionthatweareafreeandprosperouspeople,we,infact,beginto demandtherighttobefreeandprosperous.Theoldtrickofusingdemocratic rhetorictocloakanundemocraticclassordercanbackfirewhenpeoplebegin totaketherhetoricseriouslyandtranslateitintodemocraticdemands.

Therearethosewholovejusticemorethantheylovemoney,thosewho donotlongformoreacquisitionsbutforabetterqualityoflifeforall.

DEMOCRACY:FORMANDCONTENT

Americansofallpoliticalpersuasionsprofessadedicationtodemocracy,but theytendtomeandifferentthingsbytheterm.Inthisbook, democracy refers toasystemofgovernancethatrepresentsinboth form and content theinterestsofthebroadpopulace.Decisionmakersaretogovernforthebenefit ofthemany,notfortheadvantagesoftheprivilegedfew.Thepeoplehold theirrepresentativesaccountablebysubjectingthemtoopencriticism,the periodiccheckofelections,and,ifnecessary,recallandremovalfromoffice. Democraticgovernmentislimitedgovernment,theantithesisofdespotic absolutism.

Butademocraticpeopleshouldbeabletoenjoyfreedomfromeconomic, aswellaspolitical,oppression.Inarealdemocracy,thematerialconditions ofpeople’slivesshouldbehumaneandnotinsufferable.Somewriterswould disagree,arguingthatdemocracyissimplyasystemofrulesforplayingthe politicalgame,withtheConstitutionandthelawsasakindofrulebook. Theysayweshouldnottrytoimposeparticulareconomicagendasonthis open-endedgame.Thisapproachcertainlydoesreducedemocracytoa game.Itevadesthewholequestionof cuibono?Whobenefitsfromthis game?

Thelawinitsmajesticequality,AnatoleFranceonceobserved,prohibits richandpooralikefromstealingbreadandbegginginthestreets.Andsothe lawbecomessomethingofafictionthatallowsustospeakof “therightsof all” divorcedfromtheclassconditionsthatoftenplacetherichabovethelaw andthepoorbelowit.Intheabsenceofdecentmaterialconditions,formal rightsareoflittlevaluetomillionswholackthemeanstomakearealityof theirrights.

Takethe “rightofeverycitizentobeheard.” Initsmajesticequality,the lawallowsbothrichandpoortoraisehightheirpoliticalvoices:botharefree tohirethebest-placedlobbyistsandWashingtonlawyerstopressurepublic officeholders.Botharefreetoshapepublicopinionbyowninganewspaper ortelevisionstation.Andbothrichandpoorhavetherighttoengagein multimillion-dollarelectioncampaignstowinofficeforthemselvesortheir politicalfavorites.Butagain,thisformalequalityissomethingofafiction. Whatgoodaretherulesforthosemillionsofpeoplewhoareexcludedfrom thegame?

Wearetaughtthatcapitalismanddemocracygotogether.Thefreemarketsupposedlycreatesapluralisticsocietyofmanifoldgroups,a “civicsociety” thatactsindependentlyofthestateandprovidesthebasisforpolitical freedomandprosperity.Infact,manycapitalistsocieties fromNazi Germanytotoday’sThirdWorlddictatorships haveprivate-enterprisesystemsbutnopoliticalfreedom,andplentyofmassdestitution.Andthemore opentofree-marketcapitalismtheybecome,thepoorertheyseemtoget.In suchsystems,economicfreedommeansthefreedomtoexploitthelaborof thepoorandgetendlesslyrich.Transnationalcorporatecapitalismisnoguaranteeofameaningfulpoliticaldemocracy,neitherinThirdWorldcountries norintheUnitedStatesitself.

Whenitworkswithanyefficacy,democracyisdedicatedtoprotectingthe well-beingofthemanyandrollingbacktheeconomicoppressionsandprivilegesthatservethefew.Democracyseekstoensurethateventhosewhoare notadvantagedbywealthorextraordinarytalentcanearnadecentlivelihood.Thecontradictorynatureof “capitalistdemocracy” isthatitprofesses egalitarianpoliticalprincipleswhilegeneratingenormousdisparitiesinmaterialwell-beingandactualpoliticalinfluence.

Somepeoplethinkthatifyouarefreetosaywhatyoulike,youareliving inademocracy.Butfreedomofspeechisnotthesumtotalofdemocracy,only oneofitsnecessaryconditions.Toooftenwearefreetosaywhatwewant, whilethoseofwealthandpowerarefreetodowhattheywanttousregardless ofwhatwesay.Democracyisnotaseminarbutasystemofpower,likeany otherformofgovernance.Freedomofspeech,likefreedomofassemblyand freedomofpoliticalorganization,ismeaningfulonlyifitisheardandifit keepsthoseinpowerresponsivetothoseoverwhompowerisexercised.

Norareelectionsasuretestofdemocracy.Someelectoralsystemsareso thoroughlycontrolledbywell-financedlike-mindedelitesorriggedbydishonestofficialsthattheydiscouragemeaningfuldialogueandbroadparticipation. Whetherapoliticalsystemisdemocraticornotdependsnotonlyonitsproceduresbutontheactualmaterialbenefitsandthesocialjusticeorinjusticeit

propagates.Agovernmentthatpursuespoliciesthatbydesignorneglectare sosteeplyinequitableastodamagethelifechancesoflargesectorsofthe populationisnotdemocraticnomatterhowmanyelectionsitholds. ItshouldberepeatedthatwhenwecriticizethelackofdemocraticsubstanceintheUnitedStates,wearenotattackingorbeingdisloyaltoour nationitself.Quitethecontrary.Ademocraticcitizenryshouldnotsuccumb tostateidolatrybutshouldremaincriticalofthepowersthatworkagainst thedemocraticinterestsofournationanditspeople.

Politics:WhoGetsWhat?

WiththeadventofWorldWarII,businessandgovernmentbecameevermore entwined.Occupyingtopgovernmentposts,businessleaderswereableto freezewagesandletprofitssoar.1 Immediatelyafterthewarthousandsof government-ownedfacilitiesweresoldoffas “warsurplus” forapittanceof theiractualvalue,representingamajortransferofpubliccapitaltoprivate business.TheU.S.militarybudgetwasreducedbutnevertoprewarlevels.If anything,withtheadventoftheColdWar,theUnitedStatesmaintaineda hugemilitarybudgetandapermanentwareconomythathelpedbolsterbusinessprofits inadditiontoothersubsidiesthatwerehandedouttocorporate America.

WELFAREFORTHERICH

Inthe1950s,theEisenhoweradministrationsoughttoundowhatconservativescalledthe “creepingsocialism” oftheNewDealbyhandingovertoprivatecorporationsmanybillionsofdollarsworthofoilreserves,publiclands andutilities,government-ownedfactories,andatomicinstallations,akindof “socialismfortherich.”

Thepracticeofusingthepublic’smoneyandresourcestobolsterprivate profitscontinuestothisday.Everyyearthefederalgovernmentdolesout hugesumsin corporatewelfare, intheformoftaxbreaks,pricesupports, loanguarantees,bailouts,paymentsinkind,subsidizedinsurancerates,marketingservices,exportsubsidies,irrigationandreclamationprograms,andresearchanddevelopmentgrants.In2006,directgovernmentpayoutstobig businesstotaled$92billion,roughlythreetimeswhatisspentyearlyonawelfareprogramsuchasfoodstamps.Thatsumdoesnotincludeotherformsof corporatefeedingatthepublictrough.2

Thegovernmentleasesorsells atamerefractionofmarketvalue billionsofdollarsworthofoil,coal,andmineralreserves.Itfailstocollect hundredsofmillionsofdollarsinroyalties,interest,andpenalties.3 Itpermits billionsofdollarsinpublicfundstoremainondepositinprivatebankswithoutcollectinginterest.Itlendsoutbillionstolargefirmsatbelow-marketinterestrates.Ittoleratesoverchargingandcostoverrunsbycompanieswith governmentcontracts.Anditsometimesevenreimbursesbigcorporate defensecontractorsfortheimmensecostsoftheirmergers.4

Thegovernmentgaveawaytheentirebroadcastingspectrumvalued at$37billion(in1989dollars) insteadofleasingorauctioningitoff.Every year,thefederalgovernmentlosestensofmillionsofdollarscharging “ranchers” below-costgrazingratesonover20millionacresofpubliclands. These “ranchers” includeanumberofbillionaires,bigoilcompanies,andinsuranceconglomerates.Overthepastfivedecades,atleast$100billionin publicsubsidieshavegonetothenuclearindustry.

TheU.S.ForestServicehasbuiltalmost400,000milesofaccessroads throughnationalforests moreroadmilesthanthefederalinterstatehighway system.Usedfortheoperationsofloggingandminingcompanies,these roadscontributetomassivemudslidesthatcontaminatewatersupplies,ruin spawningstreams,andkillpeople.In2003,theBushadministrationopened upanadditional200millionacresofpubliclandstooil,gas,andmineral companies.5

Agribusinessisoneofthefavoredrecipientsoffederallargesse,reaping $21billionin2006,withmorethantwo-thirdsofitgoingtothewealthiest agribusinessfirms,whilethebottom80percenttookhomelessthan$2,000 onaverage. 6 Britain’sQueenElizabethandothermembersoftheroyalfamily

haveagribusinessinvestmentsintheUnitedStatesthatreapupwardsof $2millionyearlyinsubsidies.Otherwealthyrecipientsoffarmsupportsinclude billionairesDavidRockefellerandTedTurner.7 In2002theBushadministrationpushedthroughagargantuanfarmbilldesignedtohandout$189billion insubsidiestoagribusinessthrough2012.Thesubsidieswereforaselectnumberofcrops:wheat,corn,cotton,rice,soybeans,dairy,peanuts,andsugar.

Thesubsidiesaretiedtoproduction.Themoreyougrow,themoreyouget.To raiseyields,farmerspouronpesticides,herbicides,andfertilizers,theystoprotatingcropstoresttheirfields,anddevoteeveryacretocornorwheat,creating vastmonocultures[that]requirestillmorechemicals….Thevastfieldsrequire costlyequipmentforplantingandharvesting….Biodiversityfalls.Ascostsrise, biggerfarmsbuyupsmallerfarms .Thecountrysidedepopulates.Townsvanish.Asproductionrises,pricesfall.Aspricesfall,thesubsidiesincrease,costing taxpayersmoreandmoremoney.8

Thefederalgovernmentsubsidizestherailroad,shipping,andairlineindustries,alongwiththeexportersofiron,steel,textiles,tobacco,andother products.Thegovernmentpaid$3.3billiontoexpandtheairlineindustry from1940to1944.9 Itdolesouthugeamountsingrantsandtax “incentives” tothebigcompaniestoencourageoilandgasdrilling,chargingthecompanies onlyapittanceforthelargeamountsofoilextractedfrompubliclands.

Countyandmunicipalgovernmentsalsofeedbigbusiness.Thelargestretailcorporationintheworld,Wal-Mart,hasreceivedatleast$1billionof publicmoneyfromlocalgovernments,includingfreeland,freewaterand sewerageservice,propertytaxbreaks,anddirectcashsubsidies.10

Wholenewtechnologiesaredevelopedatpublicexpense nuclearenergy, electronics,aeronautics,spacecommunications,mineralexploration,computer systems,theInternet,biomedicalgenetics onlytobehandedovertoindustry forprivategainwithoutthegovernmentcollectingadollar.Thus,AT&Tmanagedtohavetheentiresatellitecommunicationssystemputunderitscontrolin 1962afterU.S.taxpayersputuptheinitial$20billiontodevelopit.

Throughaseriesofdeceptiveaccountingloopholesandunlimiteddeductionsthatcompaniescanmakeforexecutivecompensation,thegovernmentin effectspends$20billionayearsubsidizingcorporateexecutivepay.In2007, theHouseofRepresentativestriedtoclosethisloophole “butthebillwas blockedintheSenateafteralobbyingcampaignbysomeoftherichestmenin America.”11

Costsaresocialized;profitsareprivatizedinanenormousupwardredistributionofincomefromthetaxpayingpopulacetothecorporaterich.Under corporate-statecapitalismordinarycitizenspaytwiceformostthings:first,as taxpayerswhoprovidethesubsidies,thenasconsumerswhobuythehighpricedcommoditiesandservices iftheycanaffordto.

FEDERALHANDOUTSTOCORPORATEAMERICA

Itisfrequentlyarguedthatbigcompaniesmustbegivenallthisassistancebecausetheyprovidethejobsweneed.Butthelargecorporationsarecapital intensive,notlaborintensive.Thenetnumberofnewjobstheycreateis

relativelyslightcomparedtothesizeoftheiroperations.MostAmericans workforrelativelysmallbusinesses,andmostnewjobsarecreatedbysmall businesses.Smallbusinesses,however,receiveonlycrumbsfromthefederal table.

Billionsoftaxpayers ’ dollarsgotobailoutgiantcompanieslike ChryslerandLockheed,whilesmallbusinessesarelefttosinkorswimon theirown.Whenoneofthenation ’ slargestbanks,ContinentalIllinois, wasonthebrinkoffailure,itreceived$7.5billioninfederalaid.Under thederegulatedthriftmarketadoptedin1982,savingsandloanassociations (S&Ls)couldtakeanyinvestmentrisktheywantedwithdepositors ’ money, oftenatgreatprofittothemselves,withtheunderstandingthatfailures andbaddebtswouldbepickedupbythegovernment.Inmanyinstances, thriftindustryheadsfunneleddepositsintofraudulentdealsordirectly intotheirownpersonalaccount.Whenhundredsofthriftsfailed,thegovernmentspentover$1trilliontocompensatedepositors,90percentof whomheldaccountsof$100,000ormore,inwhatamountedtothebiggest financialbailoutscandalinhistory uptothattime.U.S.taxpayersare havingtopay$32billionayearfortheS&Lbailoutforaperiodofthirty years. 12

Stateandlocalgovernmentsalsoletbigbusinessfeedatthepublictrough. ConsiderWal-Mart,thelargestcompanyintheworld,whichtakesinover $280billioninyearlyrevenues,ownedbytherichestfamilyintheworld,the Waltons.Between1980and2004,Wal-Martreceived$625millioninpayoutsfromotherwisecash-strappedstateandlocalgovernmentstoopenup storesintheirareas.ImpoverishedmunicipalitieshaveprovidedWal-Mart withbuildingsites,parkinglots,roads,sewagesystems,andotherfreeinfrastructureaid.Wal-Martalsoisindirectlysubsidizedbythefederalgovernment whenitspoorlypaidworkersfinditnecessarytoapplyforfoodstampsand otherpublicassistance,costingU.S.taxpayershundredsofmillionsofdollars everyyear. 13

Thestatescompetewitheachotherinhandingouthugesumstoattract newbusinessesandkeepingoldonesfromleaving.Incitiesacrossthecountry, taxpayershavepaidhundredsofmillionsofdollarsfornewsportsstadiums, whilethewealthyownersofprofessionalteamspocketedrecordprofits.State andlocalgovernmentsprovidebusinesswithlow-interestloans,taxbreaks, zoningprivileges,freeland,andwaiversonenvironmentalregulations.This costlyspecialtreatmentisjustifiedasnecessarytocreatenewjobs.Yetnew jobsrarelymaterializeinanyappreciablenumbers.Eugene,Oregon,provided $12millionforacorporationtocutdownanimpressivestandofhistoric gianttreesandbuildaparkinggarageandapartmentsthatcreatedonlya fewjobs.BatonRouge,Louisiana,gaveExxona$14milliontaxbreakinexchangeforanetgainofonejob(byExxon’sownestimate).Michigangavea company$81milliontobuildamillthatcreatedonlythirty-fourpermanent jobs whichcomesto$2.3millionperjob.14

Insum,free-marketadvocates,whopreachself-reliancetothegeneral public,arethefirsttoturntogovernmentsatalllevelsforhandoutsandother specialconsiderations.

THEBILLION-DOLLARBAILOUTS

Themotherlodeofallfederalbailoutscamewiththedisastrousrecessionof 2008–2009.Asthefree-marketsystemcontinuedtoproducemoreandmore commodities,itusedrelativelyfewerandfewerworkers.Thusitaccumulated massiveamountsofprofitforthefewwhileholdingdownwagesforthe many.Consumerbuyingpowerdiminished,consumerdebtballoonedand reacheditsouterlimits,consumerdemandeventuallydeclined,inventories piledup,workerswerelaidoff furtherdiminishingconsumerbuyingpower, inacyclethatledtoaseriousrecession.

Themountingaccumulationofsurpluscapitalcreatedaproblemforthe moneyedclass.Therewerenotenoughopportunitiestoinvest.Straddledwith moremoneythantheyknewwhattodowith,biginvestorspouredimmense sumsintononexistenthousingmarkets,predatorylendingforunsustainable mortgages,andotherdodgyventures,creatinglotsofcommercialpaperof norealvalue,tobesoldtothepublicandeachotherpackagedas “securities” butrepresentingnorealproductivevalue.

Manyoftheseunsecuredsecuritieswereboughtwithborrowedfunds (“leveraged” investments).Eventuallythisunregulatedfinancialsystem crashedinuponitselfastherealeconomygaveway.Salesdeclineddrastically. Jobscontinuedtodisappear.Largefinancialinstitutionsseemedlikelyto drownintheirown “toxicassets.” Amongthevictimsofthedebaclewere othercapitalists,smallinvestors,andthemanyworkingpeoplewholostbillionsofdollarsinsavings,pensions,andhomeequity.

Hundredsofbillionsofdollarsfromthefederaltreasuryandseveral trillions ofdollarsprintedbytheFederalReserve(theprivatebankinginstitutionthat controlsournation’smoneysupply15)werehandedovertothemajorfinancial institutionsofWallStreet,arguablythewealthiestgroupofplutocratsinthe world,inexchangeforvastamountsofvirtuallyworthlessmortgage-backed securitiesandotherpiecesofpaper; “cashfortrash,” somecriticscalledit.

The2008–2009 “rescueoperation” offeredcorporateAmericaanunparalleledopportunitytoplunderthepublictreasury.Ratherthanhelpborrowers payorrestructuretheirmortgages,thegovernmentusedtaxpayers’ moneyto coverthebanks’ lossesfromspeculativeinvestments.Suchbailoutswere neededtosavetheentirefinancialsystem,itwasclaimed.Allitsavedwasa handfulofbig-timemoneygrabbers.Thebailoutmoneywassupposedto trickledown.Itwouldunfreezethecreditmarket,butitdidnot.Creditors alreadyhadplentyofmoneytolend.Intherealeconomytherejustwerenot enough “qualifiedborrowers” (thosedeemedtobesuitablecreditrisks).

Mostofthebanks,includingJPMorganChaseandBankofNewYork Mellon,openlystatedthattheyhadnointentionoflettinganyoneknow wherethebailoutmoneywasgoing.Wedoknowthattheyusedsomeofit tobuyupsmallerbanksandpropupbanksoverseas.CEOsandothertop bankingexecutivesalsowerediscoveredspendingbailoutfundsonfabulous bonusesandlavishcorporatesparetreats,golftournaments,andexclusive receptions.16

BailoutbeneficiarieslikeCitigroup($45billion)laidoffthousandsofemployeeswhilehandingoutbonusesof$1millionormoretooversevenhundredmanagers.TheheadofCitigroup’senergytradingunitwasslatedtobe awardedasmuchas$100millionin2009.17 Thatsameyearanotherbailout winner,GoldmanSachs,posted$3.44billioninsecond-quarterprofitsand earmarked$11.4billionincompensationforitsemployees,payoutsthat werealmostentirelyagovernmentsubsidy.18 GoldmanSachsbeganonce moretospeculatewildlywithbailoutmoneyanddirt-cheapFederalReserve loans.

Itdoesn’tgetanybetterthanthatfortheplutocrats:acasinocapitalism encouragesincreasinglyriskierinvestmentsthatproducelucrativeshort-term payoffs;but,iftheygowrong,theyarepickedupbythegovernment.The winningsarepocketedbythecorporategamblersandthelossesarecovered bytheAmericantaxpayers.Andtotidethemover,thegamblersarehanded multimillion-dollarwelfarepaychecks.

BankofAmerica(BoA)received$45billioninbailoutfunds(plus$118 billioninassetguarantees),noneofwhichwenttothehomeownerswho hadbeenthrownoutonthestreetwhenhitwithforeclosures.InsteadBoA boughtMerrillLynchfor$50billionandin2009reportedsecond-quarter profitsof$2.4billionwhilehandingout$3.3billioninbonusestoitssenior managers.MerrillLynchitself,whilesupposedlyailingandabouttobe takenoverbyBoA,paidout$3.6billioninbonuses,moneythatcame fromtheU.S.government.19 AIG,agiantinsurancefirm,receivedaphenomenal$180billionbailoutatlastcount,andimmediatelyspentchunks ofitonbonusesandposhresortretreatsforitstopmanagement. 20

Bytheendof2009,over3.5millionhomeshadbeenforeclosedandthe ranksoftheunemployedhaddoubled.Thenation’sfundforunemployment benefitsdwindledtodangerouslylowlevels,leavinghundredsofthousandsof needypeoplewithoutchecksformonths,andmorethanamillionapplicants yettobeprocessedintothesystem.Sixteenstates,withexhaustedunemploymentfunds,werenowpayingbenefitswithborrowedcash,takingonadditionalbillionsofdollarsindebtandfacingincreasingpressuretoraisetaxes orcutaid.21 Aslocalrevenuesdeclined,stateandlocalgovernmentswereunabletomeettheirgeneralbudgetsandwerecompelledtolayoffemployees andcutprograms,oftenforthosemostinneed.

TheObamaadministrationfailedtocreateanactualbailoutforthereal economy,forthetroubledhouseholdsofworkingfamilies,moneythatcould havebeenusedtorewritemortgages,keeppeopleintheirhomes,givethem moneytospendonfoodandshelter,inall,spendingfromthebottomup togettheeconomybackinmotion,aswasdonetosomeextentduringthe NewDeal.

In2009theObamaadministrationdidannounceplanstocreateaConsumerFinancialProtectionAgencytoshieldthepublicfromdeceptiveand fraudulentpracticesbybanksandotherbusinessesthatofferedcreditathiddenpredatorrates.22 Thisproposalwasfuriouslyopposedbyabankingindustrythatwasunwillingtolivewithoutitstricksandtrumps.

TAXES:HELPINGTHERICHINTHEIRTIMEOFGREED

Thecapitaliststateusestaxation,aswellaspublicspending,toredistribute moneyinanupwarddirection.Thehigheryourincome,thegreaterareyour opportunitiestoenjoylightlytaxedortax-freeincome,includingtax-freestate andmunicipalbondsandtailor-madewrite-offs.Infiveyears(2001–2005)tax reductionsmostlytorichindividualsandcorporations,includingcutsoncapital gainsanddividends,havecosttheU.S.Treasuryabout$860billion.23 (Capital gains aretheprofitsmadefromthesaleofstocksthathaveincreasedinvalue. Dividends arethatportionofcompanyprofitsdistributedtostockholders.)

Inthelasttwodecades,incomefromcapitalownership(dividends,interest,rents)hasrisentwiceasfastasincomefromsalariesandwages.24 While therichgrowricher,theirtaxburdengrowslighter.TheInternalRevenueService(IRS)reportsthatthousandsofU.S.residentsintheveryhighestbracket paylessthan5percentoftheirincomeintaxes,eventhoughtheirportion oftotalU.S.incomehasdoubled.Generally,theverywealthyhavenothad suchalargeshareofthenationalincomesince1929,theyeartheGreat Depressionbegan.25

Federaltaxesoninvestmentincomearelessthanhalftherateoffederal taxesonwagesandsalaries.Peoplemaking$60,000payamuchlargerportionoftheirearningsinfederalincometaxandSocialSecuritytaxesthana familymaking$25million.ThemultibillionaireWarrenBuffettnotedthat thirteenworkersinhisofficepaidanaveragetaxrateofabout33percent, comparedwiththe17.7percentthathepaid. “Mycleaningladypaysahigher tax[rate]onherearningsthanIdoonmydividendsandinvestments .Ithas beenamarvelous,marveloustimetobesuperrich.”26

Sometwenty-fivehundredveryrichindividualspaynotaxesatall,and thenumberhasbeengrowing.Eachyearadozenorsobillionairesgiveup theirU.S.citizenshipandtakeupnominalresidenceintheBahamasorother offshoretaxhavens,therebysavingmillions.SuperrichAmericanshaveanestimated$500billion ifnotmore squirreledawayinoverseastaxshelters.27

PresidentBarackObamaannouncedhisintentiontocrackdownonoffshoretaxhavensandwealthycheats.In2009theIRStookactionsagainsttax evaders,includinganagreementunderwhichSwissbankinggiantUBSAG admittedtohelpingAmericanclientshidetheirincomesandagreedtopaya $780millionpenaltyandturnoverthousandsofnamesofAmericanswho werehidingbillionsofdollarsintaxableincome.28

Corporationstooaremakingmoremoneyandpayinglesstaxes.Theproportionoffederalrevenuescomingfromcorporatetaxeshasdroppedfrom 49percentinthe1950sto7.4percenttoday.NumerousAmericanfirms, includingshippingcompanies,havereincorporatedinBermudaandother countriesinordertoqualifyas “foreigncompanies” andenjoyvarioustax exemptionsintheUnitedStates.Thismoveusuallyentailsnothingmore thanopeningasmalloverseasofficetoacceptmail.Abusivetaxsheltersused bybigcompaniesdeprivetheU.S.Treasuryofmanybillionsofdollarsevery year,accordingtoareportbytheGovernmentAccountabilityOffice,the investigativearmofCongress.29

ChevroncorporationavoidedpayingbillionsinU.S.taxesforthirty yearsbyclaimingquestionableforeigntaxcredits. 30 Theroyaltiesthat ExxonandMobilgivetoSaudiArabiafortheoiltheyextractfromthat countryaretreatedasataxcredit,directlysubtractedfromwhatthecompanieshavetopaytotheU.S.government.MediatycoonRupertMurdoch avoidspayingtaxesonhisU.S.holdings,thoughtheyaccountforthegreater partofhisimmensefortune.Hesiphonsoffmanymillionsofdollarsin statesideprofitstohissubsidiaryintheNetherlandsAntilles,aplacethat hasvirtuallynoincometaxes.Inaddition,the$1.8billionhepaidtoacquire U.S.televisionstationsiswrittenoffagainstprofits,furtherreducinghistaxableincome.31 Ineffect,wetaxpayershelppayforMurdoch ’sgrowingFox mediaempire.

Corporationscandeductforjustaboutallbusinesscosts:supplies,salaries,wages,overheadcosts,marketingexpenses,advertising,businessconferences,legalcosts,andmovingcosts.Theycanwriteoffbusinessmeals,travel andentertainment,investmentincentives,operationallosses,interestpayments,anddepreciation.Theyshiftprofitstooverseasbranchesinlow-tax countriesandlossestotheiraccountsinhigh-taxcountries.Theyindulgein taxshelterssocomplexthatgovernmentauditorssometimescannotproperly tracethem.Theyincurmultibillion-dollarmergerandacquisitioncoststhat arethenwrittenoffasdeductions.AndtheydispatchlobbyiststoWashington topressureCongressforstillmoretaxbreaks.

Theresultisthat,evenastheybragtostockholdersofsoaringprofitsand aboomingeconomy,over60percentofU.S.corporationspaynoincome taxes.Inoneyear,GeneralMotors,foryearsthelargestcorporationinthe UnitedStates,whilereporting$4.61billioninprofits,paidtheIRSlessthan 1percentintaxes.32 Somecompaniesgeneratesomanyexcesstaxwrite-offs thattheyactuallyreceive “negativetax” rebatesfromtheU.S.Treasury. Thusduringarecentfour-yearperiodEnronpaidnothingintaxesbutgot $381millionintaxrebatesbyusingmorethan874offshoreaccounts. Thetotalforallsuchcorporaterebatesor “negativetaxes” in2004was $12.6billionpaidoutbytheU.S.government.33

Ithasbeenarguedthattaxingthewealthymoreheavilywouldmakeno appreciabledifferenceinfederalrevenuesincetheyarerelativelyfewinnumber.Infact,ifrichindividualsandcorporationspaidagraduatedprogressive tax,astheydidtwentyyearsago,withnoshelters,hundredsofbillionsofadditionaldollarswouldbecollectedyearlyandthenationaldebtcouldbe swiftlyandsubstantiallyreduced.Justthedeductionsthatcorporationsclaim fortheinterestontheirbusinessloanscoststhegovernmentnearly$100billionayearinlostrevenue.Corporatetaxevadersalsofailedtopaybillionsof dollarsinMedicareandSocialSecuritytaxes.34

GOPleadersmaintainthattaxcutstobigbusinessandwealthyinvestors arenecessarytoinduceaneconomicgrowththatinturnwillcreatemillionsof newjobsandbringariseingovernmentrevenues.Infact,thereislittleevidencetosupportthisscenario.TheAmericaneconomygrewfastestinthe 1950sand1960swhencorporateandindividualtaxratesweredramatically higherthantoday.Theenormoustaxbreaksfortherichhandedoutduring theGeorgeW.Bushadministrationresultedintheworstjobgrowthperformanceeverrecordedoverabusinesscycle.Thebenefitsoftaxcutsforthe superrichgomainlytothesuperrich.Suchcutsimposeagreatertaxburden ontheworkingpublic,which,inturn,meanslessbuyingpower,lessconsumerdemand,andslowerjobgrowth.35

TheUnitedStateshastwodifferentmethodsofcollectingtaxes.Inthe firstsystemworkingpeoplehavetheirtaxeswithheldfromtheirpaychecks andtheirwagesareindependentlyreportedtotheIRSbytheiremployers, allowingforverylittle,ifany,cheating.Intheothersystembusinessowners, corporations,landlords,trustfundholders,andinvestorsarefreetomonitor themselves,oftenresortingtoimaginativebookkeeping.Thecheatingoncapitalgainsaloneisestimatedat$29billionannually.36

Respondingtopressurefrom conservativelawmakersinCongress,the IRSincreaseditsoversightonpeopleofmodestincome,whilesubstantially reducingauditsofricherindividualsandgiantcompanies. 37 Overseveral yearsCongressgavetheIRSanextra$1billiontoaudittheworking poor.In2005,respondingtopublic criticism,theIRSbegantocrack downonimpropertaxshelters,collectingmorethan$3.2billionmainly fromwealthydelinquents.Still,from2001 to2006,theIRSfrozerefunds thatweredueto1.6millionlow-incometaxpayerswithincomesaveraging around$13,000,mostofwhomwereentitledtothemodestamountsor more. 38

UNKINDCUTS,UNFAIRRATES

Thereareseveralwayspeoplecanbetaxed.A progressive incometaximposes asubstantiallyhighertaxrateontherich,basedontheprinciplethattaxes shouldfallmostheavilyonthosewhohavethegreateststoreofsurplusincomeandthegreatestabilitytopay.Thus,in1980theveryrichestpaida 70percenttaxrateandthepoorestonly18percent.Thatrateisnotassevere asitsounds.Thetaxwasgraduatedsothattherichpaid70percentononlya smalluppermostportionoftheirincomeandlowerratesonlowerportions, thesameaseveryoneelse.Inaddition,theycontinuedtoenjoyvariousspecial deductions.Todaytheypayaratelessthanhalfthat.

A proportionate incometax,or “flattax,” imposesthesamerateoneveryone,regardlessofabilitytopay.Itsproponentsarguethataflattaxbrings simplicityandclaritytothetaxcode.Insteadoftherichpaying70percent andthepoorpaying15percent,whichissupposedlyalltoocomplicatedfor ustograsp,wewouldallpay,say,20percent;thiswayweordinaryfolks wouldbelessconfused.Thetruthis,aproportionatetaxlowersthetaxeson wealthierAmericansandraisetaxesonjustabouteveryoneelse.

Thosewhoadvocateaprogressivetaxconsidertheproportionatetaxto beunfair.Ifbothrichandpoorpay,say,20percentoftheirincome,thena personwhoearns$15,000pays$3,000intaxesandhasonly$12,000tolive on,whileonewhomakes$10millionpays$2millionandstillhas$8million (probablymore,becausethehigherthebracket,thegreatertheopportunities fortax-freeincome).Adollartakenfromsomeoneofmodestmeanscuts closertothebone,havingagreaterdeprivationimpactthanathousanddollarstakenfromthesuperrich.Furthermore,mostflat-taxproposalsapplyto wagesandpensionsbutnotdividends,interest,capitalgains,corporateearnings,andlargeinheritances,whicharetreatedstillmorelightly.

A regressive taxisevenmoreunfairthanaflattax,forinsteadofpaying thesamerate,richandpoorpaytheverysameamount.Bothanindebtedstudentandabillionaireexecutivepaythesametaxonagallonofgas,butthe studentissacrificingafargreaterportionofincomethantheexecutive. Sales taxes and excisetaxes arehighlyregressive,beitatthefederalorstateand locallevels.(Asalestaxisarateimposeduniformlyonageneralrangeof products.Anexcisetaxappliestoaspecificproduct,suchasagasolinetax orcigarettetax.)Inforty-fiveoffiftystates,thepoorest20percentofthe populationpayproportionatelyfarmoreinstateandlocaltaxesthantherichest1percent.InWashingtonState,forexample,thepoorpay17.4percentof theirincomeinstateandlocaltaxes,whiletherichpayonly3.4percent.Since theearly1990s,salesandexcisetaxeshaveincreased,whilestatesbegancutting stateincometaxes,makingtheiroveralltaxsystemsstillmoreregressive.39

Mostregressiveofallisthe nationalsalestax advocatedbysomeconservativestoreplacetheincometax.Toraiseasmuchasdoesthecurrentincometax, weallwouldhavetopayanestimated30percentsalestaxonmostproducts,a regressiveburdenthatwoulddrivemillionsmoreintopovertyandprobably wrecktheeconomy.Someright-winglawmakersadvocatea valueaddedtax, whichisjustamorecovertandcomplicatedversionofanationalsalestax.

Taxeswouldbeaddedontocommoditiesateverystageofproductionanddistribution,withtheconsumerpayingthefulltabattheendoftheline.

Thentherearethe estatetax and inheritancetax,bothofwhicharevery progressive.(An estatetax appliestothedecedent’sentireestatebeforedisbursal.An inheritancetax isleviedonindividualsreceivingfundsandproperty fromtheestate.)Asofmid-2006,thelawexemptedthefirst$2millionofan estateforanindividual,orthefirst$3millionformarriedcouples.Enemiesof theestatetax,suchasPresidentGeorgeW.Bush,havearguedthatfamilies havelosttheirfarmsbecauseofthis “deathtax.” Butwhenpressedonthe question,theWhiteHousewasneverbeenabletoproduceasinglefamily farmthatfellvictimtotheestatetax.40 Iftheestatetaxispermanentlyabolished,itwillmeanmanybillionsofsuperrichtaxdollarslostyearlythatwill havetobemadeupbyworkingtaxpayers.

In2004theRepublicanmajorityinCongresspassedlegislationgrantinga $136billion,ten-yearcorporatetaxcut.In2006,urgedonbytheWhite HouseandbymultibillionairefamiliessuchastheWaltons(ownersofWalMart),Congresspassedanadditional$69billionintaxcutsmostlyforthe nation’swealthiesttaxpayers.ThatsameyeartheBushJr.administration beganeliminatingthejobsof157IRSlawyerswhoauditedtaxreturnsof thesuperrich,especiallythoseinvolvedingiftandestatetaxes.Someofthese auditorschargedthatthelayoffswerejustthelatestmovestoshieldinfluential peoplewhowereunderstatingtheirassetsandwerebigcontributorstoBush’s presidentialcampaigns.Cheatingamongthesuperrichwasamajorandgrowingproblemamountingtomanybillionsofdollarsayear,accordingtoone congressionalreport.41

Mostofthe “taxreforms” producedbyCongressareparadedasrelieffor thebesiegedmiddleclasswhenactuallytheymostlybenefitthetopincome bracket.OfthemajortaxcutsputthroughbytheBushadministration,the cumulativereductionswerelikelytocostthetreasury$2.4trillionovereight years,withabout50percentgoingtotherichestfractionofthetop1percent.

DEFICITSPENDINGANDTHENATIONALDEBT

Whengovernmentexpendsmorethanitcollectsinrevenues,thisisknownas deficitspending.Tomeetitsyearlydeficits,thegovernmentborrowsfrom wealthyindividualsandfinancialinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesandabroad. Theaccumulationoftheseyearlydeficitsconstitutesthenationaldebt.

Conservativeleaderswhosinghymnsto “fiscalresponsibility” havebeen amongthewildestdeficitspenders.TheultraconservativeRonaldReaganadministrationineightyears(1981–1988)tripledthenationaldebtfrom$908 billionto$2.7trillion.Inthefollowingfouryears,theultraconservative GeorgeH.W.Bushadministrationbroughtthedebtupto$4.5trillion.

ThecentristDemocraticBillClintonadministration(1993–2000)slowed therateofdebtaccumulation,andevenproducedsurplusesinitslastthree budgets,includinga$236billionsurplusforfiscal2001.Atthatratethe debtwasexpectedtoberetiredwithinadecade.Butthenthereactionary GeorgeW.Bushadministration(2001–2008)reversedthattrendwithmassive

taxcutsandrecorddeficitspending,increasingthenationaldebttoover $10trillion,a50percentjumpintheeightyearsofBush’spresidency.42 Inheritingamassiverecessionandahugedeficit,theBarackObamaadministrationpouredhundredsofbillionsofdollarsintobailoutsandstimulus packages,creatinga$1.2trilliondeficitinitsfirstsixmonthsinoffice.43

In1993,thefederalgovernment’syearlypayoutonthenationaldebt cameto$210billion.By2006,ithadclimbedtoabout$430billion,asum thatispaidoutbyordinarytaxpayerstorichcreditors.Severalthingsexplain thenationaldebt:

• Thebillionsofdollarsintaxcutstowealthyindividualsandcorporations representlostrevenuethatismadeupincreasinglybyborrowing.The governmentborrowsfuriouslyfromthebigmoneyedinterestsitshould betaxing.Thedebtservestherichinvestorclasswell.

• Thereisthebudget-bustingimpactofpeacetimemilitaryspendingandthe addedoperationalcostsofwars.Thusby2009,thegovernmentwas spendingover$10billionamonthonwarsinIraqandAfghanistan inadditiontothestandardmilitarybudgetthathadclimbedtoover $534billionforfiscal2009.

• Thegrowingnationaldebtitselfcontributestodebtaccumulation.Asthe debtincreases,sodoestheinterestthatneedstobepaidout.Everyyear, ahigherportionofdebtpaymenthasbeenforinterestalone,withlessfor retirementoftheprincipal,thedebtitself.By1990,over80percentofall governmentborrowingwenttopayforinterestonmoneypreviouslyborrowed.Thus,thedebtbecomesaself-feedingforce.Theinterestpaidon thefederaldebteachyearisthesecond-largestiteminthediscretionary budget(aftermilitaryspending).

• Deficitspendingisalsoawayofprivatizingthefederalbudget:thelarger thedebtanddebtpayments,themorethatgoestorichprivatecreditors andthelessthatgoesforgovernmentservices.

• Thegreaterthedebt,themoreexcuseright-wingrulershavetodefund humanservices,environmentalprotections,andothersuchfrillstheyso dislike.

• Paymentsonthefederaldebtconstituteanupwardredistributionofincome.Toborrowmoney,thegovernmentsellsU.S.Treasurybonds.These bondsarepromissorynotesthatarerepaidafteraperiodofyears.Who getsthehundredsofbillionsofdollarsinyearlyinterestonthesebonds? Mostlytheindividuals,investmentfirms,banks,andforeigninvestors withmoneyenoughtobuythem.Whopaystheinterest(andtheprincipal)? MostlyordinaryU.S.taxpayers.AsKarlMarxwrotealmost150yearsago: “Theonlypartoftheso-callednationalwealththatactuallyentersinto collectivepossessionsofmodernpeoples istheirnationaldebt.”44

SOMEHIDDENDEFICITS

Thereareotherhiddendeficitsbesidesthosethatshowupinthefederalbudget.First,thereisthe “off-budget” deficit,anaccountinglegerdemainthatallowsthegovernmenttoborrowadditionalbillionsoutsidetheregularbudget.

Anominally “private” corporationissetupbythegovernmenttoborrow moneyinitsownname.Forinstance,moniestosubsidizeagriculturalloans areraisedbytheFarmCreditSystem,anetworkofoff-budgetbanks,instead ofbeingprovidedbytheAgricultureDepartment.CongresscreatedanoffbudgetagencyknownastheFinancingCorporationtoborrowthehundreds ofbillionsofdollarsneededfortheS&Lbailout,insteadofusingtheTreasury Department.Butthesesumsaretakenoutofthegeneralrevenue,compliments oftheU.S.taxpayer.

Anotherhiddendeficitisintrade.Asweconsumemorethanweproduce, andimportandborrowfromabroadmorethanweexport,theU.S.debtto foreigncreditorsincreases.Interestpaymentsonthesehundredsofbillions borrowedfromabroadhavetobemetbyU.S.taxpayers.Byearly2009, Chinaaloneheldmorethan$1trillionoftheU.S.debtandwasshowinga decliningappetiteforbuyingupmoreU.S.Treasurybonds.TheUnitedStates facedwhatsomecalla “debtexplosion” thatcouldleaveitscurrencyunderminedanditsbudgetsshattered.

SocialSecurityalsoisusedtodisguisetherealdeficit.TheSocialSecurity payrolldeduction aregressivetax soaredduringtheReaganyears,andtodayproducesayearlysurplusofsome$150billion.By1991,38percentof U.S.taxpayers,especiallyinthelowerbrackets,werepayingmoreinSocial Securitytaxthaninfederalincometax.ManyAmericanswillinglyaccept thesepayrolldeductionsbecausetheythinkthemoniesarebeingsavedfor theirretirement.Onpaper,theSocialSecuritysurplusfundwasalmost$2trillionin2009.Butallthosefundshavebeenusedtooffsetdeficitsintheregular budget,payingforWhiteHouselimousines,wars,FBIagents,corporatesubsidiesandbailouts,interestonthedebt,andotheritemsinthefederalbudget.

“There,thereitisagain‚ theinvisiblehandofthemarketplacegivingusthefinger.”

U.S.politicalleadershaveassiduouslyignoredthesurestremediesfor reducingtheastronomicalnationaldebt:(a)sharplyreduceindividualand corporatetaxcredits,deductions,andshelters,(b)cutbackonthehugesubsidiestobigbusinessandagribusinessthatdolittletocreatejobsandmuchto fattenthecoffersoftheveryrich,(c)reintroduceaprogressiveincometaxand estatetaxthatwouldbringinhundredsofbillionsmoreinrevenues, and(d)greatlyreducethebloatedmilitarybudgetandredirectspendingtowardmoreproductiveandsociallyusefulsectorsoftheeconomythatcreate morejobsthandoesmilitaryspending.

Tosummarize:Inalmosteveryenterprise,theplutocracyhasenjoyed opportunitiesforprivategainatpublicexpense.Governmentnurturesprivate capitalaccumulationthroughaprocessofsubsidies,supports,anddeficitspendingandanincreasinglyinequitabletaxsystem.Fromrancherstoresortowners, frombrokerstobankers,fromautomakerstomissilemakers,thereprevailsa welfarefortherichofsuchmagnitudeastomakeusmarvelatthecorporate leaders’ audacityinpreachingthevirtuesofself-reliancewheneverlesserforms ofpublicassistancethreatentoreachhandsotherthantheirown.

HealthandHumanServices: SacrificialLambs

Theplutocracyrulesbutnotalwaysinthewayitwouldlike.Thoseofwealth andpowermustmakeoccasionalconcessions,givingalittleinordertokeepa lot,takingcarethattheworstabusesofcapitalismdonotcausepeopleto agitateagainstthecapitalistsystemitself.Throughmuchofthetwentieth century,democraticforcespressedtheirfightagainsteconomicandsocial injustice.Inresponse,thefederalgovernmentinitiatedalimitedseriesof humanservices.Sincethe1980seventheseinadequatebutimportantgains havecomeunderattack.

THEPOORGETLESS(ANDLESS)

Federalprogramsfrequentlyfailtoreachthosemostinneed.TheSpecialSupplementalFoodProgramforWomen,Infants,andChildren(WIC)assistsonly abouthalfofthoseeligible.In1996,alawsupportedbyPresidentClinton phasedoutAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDCor “welfare”). Millionsofindigentfamiliesweredeniedfoodstampsandchildnutritionassistance.In2005,cutsinfoodstampsleftanestimatedfortythousandchildrenineligibleforfreeorreduced-priceschoollunches.Manyelderlypoor wereejectedfromprivatenursinghomesoncetheirfederalchecksstopped comingin.Manypeoplewithmentalorphysicalimpairmentswerecastonto thestreets,togohungry,searchingoutsoupkitchensandfoodbanksrunby churchesandothercharities.Inrecentyearsprivatecharityhasbeenunableto keepupwiththeincreasingnumbersofdestitutepeople.1

Overthelasttwenty-fiveyears,fundswereslashedfromschoolbreakfast programs,legalservicesforthepoor,remedialeducation,maternalandchild healthcare,andassistancetotheaged,blind,anddisabled,causingsevere hardshipformany.Programsemployinghundredsofthousandsofpeople mostlywomen tostaffdaycarecentersandofferservicestothedisabled andagedhavebeenabolished.

TheReaganadministration(1981–1988)cutSupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI),the “safetynet” forlow-incomedisabledpersons,includingchildren.By2000,atleastone-thirdofthoseneedingSSIwerenolongerbeing reached.DisabledrecipientsofSSIweredeniedtheirfederalandstatecostof livingincreasesfor2006byPresidentBush.

ThatsameyearBushproposeda$2.7trillionbudgetcontainingrecordallocationsforthemilitary,overseaswars,andcorporatesubsidies.Butfundsfor domesticprogramswerereduced,includingstudentgrants,drugtreatment,day care,airtrafficsafety,emergencyrescue,carefornationalparks,healthresearch,andMedicare.Bushattempted(unsuccessfully)toeliminatetheCommoditySupplementalFoodProgramthatprovidedfoodtotheelderlypoorand low-incomemotherswithyoungchildren,therebysaving$107million,an amountequivalenttowhatthePentagonspendsormisplacesinthreehours.2

Therecessionof2008–2009hasbroughtadditionalreductionsinhuman services,creatingmorehunger,isolation,andunattendedillnessforthosewith thefewesteconomicresourcesandtheleastpoliticalclout.3

Thepictureisnobrighteratthestateandlocallevels.Becauseofdrastic cutsinfederalgrants,manystateshadtoreducetheirhealthcare,housing, education,andfamilyassistanceprograms.Contrarytoprevailingmyths, mostrecipientsoffamilyassistanceareWhite(althoughAfricanAmericans andLatinosaredisproportionatelyrepresented);lessthan1percentareablebodiedmen;over95percentareU.S.citizens,notillegalaliens;andmoststay onwelfarefornotmorethantwoyears.Recipientsdonotliveinluxury. Theirallotmentsarefarbelowthepovertylevel.

IntheUnitedStates consumerdebt reachedarecordhighby2002and doubledinsizefrom2001to2008.Thestandardviewisthatpeoplego heavilyintodebtbecausetheyareaddictedtoshoppingandoverspending.In fact,anationwidesurveyfoundthatalargemajorityofpersonalbankruptcies arerelatedtoillnessandcostlymedicalexpenses.About75percentofthese hadprivatehealthinsurancethatprovidedinadequatecoverage.4 Othermajor causesofpersonaldebtincludelossofjob,small-businessfailure,andlossof thefamilybreadwinner.Facingfinancialemergencies,peoplewithpoorcredit standingoftenturntocorporatelenderswhochargepredatoryfeesandusuriousinterestrates,amountingto40percentandhigher.Debtitselfcreates moredebt.Assoonasamonthlypaymentismissed,penaltyfeesarepiled onandthedebtiscompounded.Newbankruptcylawsin2005madeitvirtuallyimpossiblefordebtorstowipetheslatecleanbydeclaringbankruptcy. Insteadtheyfacea “debtor’sprisonwithoutwalls,” withheavygarnishment onfutureearnings,consigningthemtodecadesoffinancialhardship.5

SOCIALINSECURITY:PRIVATIZINGEVERYTHING

Plutocratsdonotlightlytolerateanonprofitpublicsectorthatcreatesjobs, taxrevenues,andfulfillshumanwantswhileengenderingnoprofitsforcorporateAmerica.Sotheowningclasspushesfor privatization ofpublicservices andresources,bothwithintheUnitedStatesandthroughouttheworld.

SocialSecurityhaslongbeenunderintensefirefromtheprivateers.Alittleoverhalfthe$500billionorsothatannuallygoesintoSocialSecurity comesoutofemployees’ paychecks;therestmustcomefromemployers, whichisamajorreasonwhythelattersodisliketheprogram.Forthelast thirty-fiveyears,opponentsofSocialSecurityhavebeenpredictingthatthe retirementfundwillsoongobrokebecauseofthegrowingnumberofseniors. TheyurgethatemployeesbeallowedtoinvesttheirSocialSecuritypayments inthestockmarketwhereitsupposedlywillgrowatafasterrate,leaving everyonewithamplefortuneswhentheyretire.Nothingissaidaboutthe portionnowcontributedbytheemployer.

Butthestockmarketisnotapensionprogram;itisaformofgambling thatcouldproveriskytomanyunpracticedretirees(andeventoseasonedinvestors).Stockmarketscancrashwithoutquicklybouncingback.Afterthe crashoftheGreatDepression,stocksdidnotregaintheir1929highsuntil 1954.Ifretirementfundsweretransferredintomillionsofprivateaccounts onthestockmarket,WallStreetbrokeragefirmswouldmakebillionsofdollarsinfeeseveryyear,butSocialSecurityasapooledsystemofpayments,a collectiveinsurancefundandsafetynet,wouldcometoanend.

Whencalculatingthebountifulreturnsthatretireesallegedlywouldglean fromstockinvestments,privateersuserosyprojectionsaboutacontinually boomingmarket.ButwhenpredictingbankruptcyforSocialSecurity,they switchtopessimisticprojectionsofalow-growtheconomywithabnormally lowpaymentsintothefund.Infact,farfromgoingbroke,SocialSecurityproducesenormoussurpluses.From1983to2005,Americanspaid$1.8trillion more inSocialSecuritytaxesthanwerepaidoutinbenefits.Accordingtothe CongressionalBudgetOffice,theSocialSecurityTrustFundwillremainsolventuntilatleast2052.6

SocialSecurityistheonlyfederalprogramthatproducesabout$150 billionyearlysurplus,theonlyprogramthatshowseverysignofbeingselfsupportingandsolventforoverthirtyyearstocomeyetisrepeatedly describedbyitsenemiesasbeingindangerofinsolvency.7

Whateverthesizeofthetrustfund,SocialSecurity’syearlyintakeshould beabletomeetbenefitpaymentsindefinitely.Ifthereactuallyweretobea shortfallthirtyorfortyyearshence,itcouldeasilybemetbyextendingthe SocialSecuritytaxtoincomeearningsabove$90,000,whichwasthecapas ofearly2006,andeliminatingthe100percentexemptionon “unearnedincome” (dividends,interest,capitalgains,rents,andsoon).8

Wealreadyknowwhathappenswhengovernmentpensionfundsareprivatized.InChilewhenaright-winggovernmentprivatizedthecountry’sretirementplan,Chileanssoondiscoveredthatthesubstantialdeductionstaken fromtheirpaychecksleftthemwithonlyone-thirdthebenefitsthattheold

governmentplanhadprovided.Theprivatecompaniesthatmanagethepensionfundsgobbledupsome30percentofworkers’ contributionsinfeesand administrativecosts,rakinginhighprofitseveninyearswhenindividualaccountslostmoney.Manyworkersdroppedoutoftheprivateplanbecausethe deductionsweretoolarge,thereturnstoochancy,andtheretirementchecks toomeager.CountriesthatfollowedtheChileanmodelendedupwithequally dismalresults.9

SocialSecurityintheUnitedStatesisnotmerelyaretirementfund;itisa three-prongedinsuranceprogramthatspreadsriskandresourcesacrosssociety.Itconsistsof(a) retirementpensions forover30millionseniorsandtheir spouses;(b) survivorsinsurance forover3.5millionchildrenofdeceasedor disabledworkers,untiltheyreachtheageof18;(c) disabilityinsurance for 4millionpersonsofallageswhosufferseriousinjuriesandimpairments.The privatizerssaynothingaboutprovidingforsurvivoranddisabilityinsurance.

OpponentsofSocialSecurityclaimthatitallowstheelderlytoliveoffthe laboroftheyoung,becauseitistheyoungwhoarepayingintotheprogram andtheelderlywhoaretakingfromit.Infactretiredparentswhoreceive publicassistanceandMedicarearelesslikelytobecomeaburdentotheirchildren.WithoutSocialSecurity14millionmoreseniorsanddisabledwould sinkbelowthepovertylevel,manyintoabjectdestitution.

AlthoughfreemarketeersinsistthatSocialSecuritydoesn’twork,whatreallybothersthemisthatitdoes.Itisoneofthemostsuccessfulantipovertyand humanservicesprogramsinU.S.history.Inoversixdecades,ithasnevermissed apayment.Itsadministrativecostsareonlyabout1percentofannualpayouts. Bycomparison,administrativecostsforprivateinsuranceareabout13percent. SocialSecurityhelpsthemanyinsteadofthefew,redistributingbillionsof dollarsinamoreegalitariannot-for-profitfashion.Thisiswhytheprogram’s opponentspersistentlydemandthatitbe “reformed,” thatis,eliminated.

ASICKHEALTHSYSTEM

HealthcareintheUnitedStatesisinaveryunhealthycondition.Toooftenthe firstexaminationpatientsundergoisoftheirwallets.Publichospitalsareclosingdownforlackoffunds.Patientsareejectedinthemidstofanillnesswhen theyrunoutofmoney.Peoplewithprolongedillnessesarefrequentlybankruptedbymedicalbillsdespitesupposedly “comprehensive” privatecoverage. Thecarepeoplearereceivingisnotgettingbetter,onlymoreexpensive. Tomaximizeprofits,hospitalstaffsarecutandoverworked,sometimesto thepointofbeingunabletogivepropercare.Contrarytothemyththat “privateenterprisecandoitbetter,” deathratesandpatientexpensesarehigherat privatehospitalsthanatnonprofitones.

TheInstituteofMedicineestimatesthatuptoninety-eightthousand Americansdieannuallybecauseofpreventablemedicalerrors.Iatrogenicillness(sicknesscausedbythetreatmentitself)killsadditionaltensofthousands everyyear.ThefederalCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionestimates that2millionhospitalpatientscontractinfectionseveryyearandnearly 100,000dieasaresult.Inaddition,thereareanestimated300million

“

Weboththinkyouneedsurgery,butwehavetogetathirdopinionfromanaccountant.”

medicationerrorsyearly,alongwithfaultydiagnoses,equipmentfailures,surgeriesonthewronglimbororgan,wrongblood-typetransfusions,andmisplacedormisreadtests.AJusticeDepartmentinvestigationrevealedthatin oneyearthousandsofpatientsunderwentunnecessarysurgicalanddiagnostic proceduresforwhichdoctorsfiledmorethan$1billionininsuranceclaims.10 Toomanyhospitalsarecost-cuttingprofitmills,providingsubstandardcare forthehighestpossibleprices.

Evenwhenpatientsaregiventhecorrectdrugintherightdosage,highly deleteriousorevenlethal “sideeffects” canoccur.Justaboutalldrugshavea toxiccomponent.Manyofthemarenotadequatelytestedbeforedistribution. ExcessiverelianceonmedicaldrugskillsmoreAmericansthanallillegalnarcoticscombined.11 Evenvaccinationshavecomeunderseriouschallengefor beinginsufficientlytestedanddeliveringill-effectsuponthousandsofrecipients,especiallychildren.12

TheUnitedStateshastwofederalhealthprogramsthathaveservedthe publicwell: Medicaid,whichpaysformedicaltreatmentforthepoor,and Medicare,whichpaysmuchofthemedicalcostfortheagedanddisabled. SinceCongressandthestatesbegancuttingbackonwelfarein1996,about amillionlow-incomepeoplehavelostMedicaidcoverage.Thenin2005a Republican-ledCongresspassedabillrequiringmillionsoflow-incomepeople topayhigherco-paymentsandpremiumsunderMedicaid.Theresultwasthat manymoreindigentshadtoforgocare.Aboutone-thirdofthoseadversely affectedwerechildren.13

Bothprogramshaveoccasionallybeensubjectedtoabusewhensomedoctorsandhospitalsoverchargethegovernmentenormoussums,whilerenderinginferiorcare.Inoneinstancecertainswindlersformedscoresofphony

medicalcompaniesinordertobilkMedicaidandMedicareofhundredsof millionsofdollarsforservicesandequipmentthatwereneverprovided.14

Nursinghomescarefornearly2millionelderlyanddisabled,ringingup from$80billionto$90billioninbusinesseachyear,withmorethan75cents ofeverydollarpickedupbythetaxpayerthroughMedicaidandMedicare. Thelessthenursinghomespendsonpatientcare,themoreitkeepsforits managersandshareholders.Profit-drivennursinghomeshavebecomethe shameofthenation,withtheirinsufficientandpoorlytrainedstaffs,filthy conditions,andneglectandabuseofpatients.15

Topcorporateexecutivesandtheirfamiliesexperienceadifferentkindof healthsystemfromordinaryfolks.Theygenerallyareprovidedwithcomplete healthcoveragebytheircompanies.Theypaynodeductiblesandvirtuallyno premiumsformedicalvisitsandhospitalization,whileenjoyingstate-of-the-art treatmentattheverybestprivatehospitalsinluxurysuites.16

Themedicalindustryisthenation’slargestandmostprofitablebusiness, withanannualhealthbillof$1trillion,or14percentofthegrossdomestic product(GDP).Theindustry’sgreatestbeneficiariesarebiginsurancecompaniesandhealthmaintenanceorganizations(HMOs).Theseareprofit-driven privatecompaniesthatchargesteepmonthlypremiumswhileunderpaying theirstaffsandrequiringtheirdoctorstospendlesstimewitheachpatient, sometimeswithholdingcostly evenifnecessary treatment.17

MostHMOspaydoctorsonlyasmallfixedyearlyfeeperpatient,nomatterhowmanyvisitsortreatmentsareneeded.Doctors,whosereputationfor compassionandexcellenceattractalargeshareofthesickest(andcostliest) patients,arefeelingincreasinglydemoralizedbecausetheycannotmakealivingonfixedHMOfeeswhentryingtotreatthosewhoneedextensivecare.18

ManyHMOsclaimanonprofitstatus,ostensiblybecausetheyareengagedina “publicservicemission”—eventhoughtheyrunahighlyprofitable business.As “nonprofit” organizations,theyavoidpayingincometaxesand propertytaxes.

THEHEALTHINSURANCERACKET

Free-marketproponentsmaintainthatgovernmentshouldnotbeinthebusinessofhealthcareandthatprivateinsurancecompaniesofferusmorechoice, quickerandhigherqualityservice,allatareasonablecost.Realitypaintsa differentpicture.

Privateinsurerschargepremiumsthatareprohibitivelyhighformany Americans.About50millionAmericansarewithouthealthinsurance throughouttheentireyear.Another30millionhavecoveragethatissoscanty astoleavethemunderinsured.SixintenailingAmericansdelayedordeferred necessarymedicaltreatmentin2008–2009becauseofinabilitytopay.This includedmillionswhowereinsuredbutwhoseplansdidnotcoverneededservices.Abouttwentythousandoftheuntreateddieeachyearfromtreatable illnesses.19

Healthinsurancepremiumshavebeenrisingfivetimesfasterthanwages overthelasteightyears,devouringone-fourthormoreoftheaveragefamily’s

income.Since1980,spendingonhealthcareintheUnitedStateshasexpandedthreetimesfasterthantheoveralleconomy’sgrowth.Inmanycities oneortwohealthinsurersdominatethemarket.Theirmonopolisticgrip makesiteasierforthemtodictatelowproviderreimbursementswhilechargingeverhigherinsurancepremiums.20

Tominimizepayouts,insurancecompaniesscreenoutapplicantswhoare mostlikelytoneedcareandseektoinsurethoseleastlikelytogetsick.The insurersfrequentlyrefusetoreimburseforexpenses,arguingthattheinsured personhadapriorcondition(nomatterhowminoritwas)orwasnotoriginallyofperfecthealth.Inhisrevealingdocumentaryfilm Sicko,Michael Moorereportsthecaseofawomanwhowasdeniedcoverageforcancersurgerybyherinsurerbecausesomeyearsearliershehadhadapriorcondition ayeastinfection.

Healthinsurancepoliciesoftencontainunexpectedqualifiersanddisclaimersinsmallprint,includingnumerousdeductibles,add-ons,and “copayments” thatthepatientmustpay.Policyholdersmightdiscovertoolate thattheyowehugesumsbecausetheirinsurancecompaniespayonlyforroutinehospitalcareandnotforsurgeryorlabtests.21

Insurancecompaniesoftenrefusetopayforspecialproceduresthatare unusuallyexpensive.Theyhavebeenknowntocancelthepoliciesofthose whobecomeafflictedwithprotractedillnesses(“dumpthesick”).Aformer CignacorporateexecutiveadmittedtoaSenatecommitteethat “thenumber ofuninsuredpeoplehasincreasedasmorehavefallenvictimtodeceptivemarketingpracticesandboughtwhatessentiallyisfakeinsurance.”22

BeforeMedicarewasestablishedin1965underPresidentLyndonJohnson,morethan40percentofelderlyAmericanslackedanykindofhealthinsurance.TodayMedicarecoverseveryonesixty-fiveandover.Surveysshow thatMedicarerecipientsaremuchmoresatisfiedwiththeircoveragethan otherAmericansarewithfor-profitprivateinsurance.23

OftheAmericanswhodohavesomeformofprivateinsurance,themajoritygetitthroughtheiremployers whoareabletowriteoffthecostsas taxdeductions.Butinreturnthegovernmentrequiresthatemployersmustextendcoveragetoalltheiremployeesandnotcherry-pickinthemannerdone byinsurancecompaniesintheindividual-policymarket.Manyfirms,strapped forfunds,aredroppinginsurancecoveragefortheirworkers.

Healthcarereformisdifficultandhugelyexpensiveifleftinthehandsof thefreemarketeers.Manyofthegoalsareimpossibletoattainwithoutasinglepayersystem.Onlysingle-payerwouldenableustodrasticallyreduceadministrativecosts,relieveemployersoftheburdenofcarryinginsurance,andprovide aformofuniversalcoveragethatisaffordableandavailabletoall.

Thisnationhasfifteenhundreddifferenthealthinsuranceprograms. Theseprivatecompaniescosthundredsofbillionsofdollarsayear.Private companieslayouthugesumsformarketing,forscreeningoutundesirableapplicants,andforenormoussalariesandbonusestotheirtopdirectors.

AteamofHarvardMedicalSchoolresearchersestimatedthatasinglepayernationalhealthinsurancecouldsaveatleast$286billionannually,enoughtocoveralltheuninsured.Privatehealthinsurancecompaniesspend

13percentofpremiumsonadministrativeandoverheadcosts,comparedto3.2 percentspentforgovernment-managedMedicaidandMedicare,or0.9percent forCanada’ssingle-payersystem whichgotridofhealthinsurancecompanies almostthreedecadesago.LikewiseprivatedrugplanshavemuchhigheradministrativecoststhanwouldbeincurredifMedicareadministeredtheplan.24

THE “SOCIALIST” MEDICALMENACE?

Free-marketreactionariescirculateallsortsofhorrorstoriesaboutthehealth caresystemsinWesternsocialdemocraciesandCanada.Wehearthatthese government-runsystemsareinshambles,paralyzedbycoldandimpersonal bureaucraciesthatdenypatientstheopportunitytochoosetheirowndoctors, requirelongwaits,anddeliverexpensiveandinferiorcare.Thetruthissomethingelse.

• AscomparedtotheUnitedStates,peopleinBritain,Germany,Holland, Canada,andelsewherearemorelikelytohavearegulardoctorandthey canchoosefromarosterofphysicians.Theydohaveachoice.

• WaitingtimeisgenerallylessthanintheUnitedStates.NooneinCanada ortheEuropeansocialdemocraciesiskeptwaitingiftheyneedemergencycareorarefacingalife-threateningproblem.

• Nooneisdeniedmedicalcarebecauseofinabilitytopay.Noonehasto payanythingexceptoccasionallyforsmallfees.Everyonehasuniversal coverageforbothminorandmajorailments.

• Peopleinthesecountriesdonotlosetheirhealthcarewhentheylose theirjobs.

• NoDanes,Swedes,Germans,Britons,Finns,Norwegians,Belgians, French,orCanadiansareeverplungedintodebtorbankruptcybecause ofmedicalbills.

• Allthesenationalizedhealthcaresystemscostabouthalfwhatisspentin theUnitedStatesonhealthcare,yettheyofferexcellentcareandcover everyillness.

• Anyindividualinanyofthesecountriescanpayforprivateinsurance andprivatecareiftheysochoose.

ItisintheUnitedStates,notthesocialdemocracies,thatdelayedcare evenforemergencyneeds isacommonfactoflife(anddeath).Overfive hundredhospitalshaveviolatedafederallawthatrequiresthemtoprovide emergencycaretoanyone,regardlessofabilitytopay.Manypostponetreatmentuntiltheycandeterminehowthepatientwillpaythebill.Finesforsuch shabbypracticesareseldomimposed.NowondersurveysshowthatAmericansoverwhelminglysupportsubstantialchangesintheirhealthcaresystem, includingapublic-planchoice.25

AlthoughCanadaandtheotherindustrializeddemocraciesspendonly halfasmuchastheUnitedStatesonhealthcare,theyhavelowerinfantmortalityratesandhealthieraveragepopulationswithhigherlifeexpectancies. AccordingtoaWorldHealthOrganizationreport,U.S.healthcarecoststhe mostwhilebeingthirty-seventhinquality.26

TheU.S.governmentactuallyhasasocializedmedicinesystemthatworks quitewell.ItistheVeteransHealthAdministration(VHA),whosesuccess storyisoneofthebest-keptsecretsinAmericanpolitics.Onceplaguedbybureaucraticinefficiencyandmediocreservice,theVHAwasupgradedinthe 1990s.Todayitrepeatedlywinsalevelofclientsatisfactionsuperiortoany accordedprivatehealthcare.TheVHAoffersintegratedcoveragetoveterans oftheU.S.armedforces.Itdoesnotneedanenormousadministrativestafffor promotionalworkorelaboratebillingsandpaymentaccounts.TheVHAtook “theleadinelectronicrecord-keepingandotherinnovationsthatreducecosts, ensureeffectivetreatment,andhelppreventmedicalerrors,”27 againproof thatpublichealthserviceoutperformsprivate-profitservice.

AnotherfalsehoodaboutCanadianhealthcareisthatitsdrugsare “unreliable.” Infact,drugsupnortharenolesssafethanintheUnitedStates, justmuchlessexpensive.MostmedicinesintheUnitedStatesaredrastically overpriced.Pharmaceuticalcompaniesclaimtheyneedhighpricestosupport innovativeresearch,buttheyspendthreetimesmoreonsalespromotionsthan onresearch,whileenjoyingastronomicalprofitsof$300billionayear.28 The companiesplydoctorswithfreedrugsamples,freefood,freemedicalrefreshercoursesthatpromotethecompany’spharmaceuticals,andpayments forlecturesthatdothesame.29

Mostnewdrugsarejustminorvariantsofexistingones.Federalbudget analystsdiscoveredthattheactiveingredientsinmanydrugsoftencostonly pennies,whereashugepricetagsarepassedontoconsumers.ThusonehundredtabletsofProzac,awidelyusedantidepressant,costtheconsumerabout $247buttheactiveingredientscostonly11centsfortheentirebottle.30

Furthermore,pharmaceuticalresearchisheavilysubsidizedbythegovernmenttothetuneofover$15billionannually.Mostnewdrugsarepatented afterourtaxdollarspaidfortheirdevelopment.31 Thegovernmentalsofinancesthedevelopmentof orphandrugs,whichtreatrelatively “rare” diseases(afflictingunder200,000people).Pharmaceuticalcompaniesrefuseto developsuchdrugs;it’sjustnotprofitableenoughforthem.SotheOrphan DrugActof1983grantsaseven-yearmarketprotectionagainstanylosses plusgeneroustaxbreakstocompaniesthatdevelopedmedicationsforthese relativelyunusualdiseases.32 Onceagain,theprivatesectorservesapublic needonlywhengenerouslybribedbythepublicsector.

TheBushadministrationpushedthroughahighlycomplicatedcompulsorydrug “benefit” thatwillcostMedicareusers$1trillioninlessthanadecade,bringingvastprofitstothepharmaceuticalcompanies.Deductionsto insureformedicationsaretakenfromtheSocialSecuritychecksofseniors whethertheychoosetojoinornot.ThelawspecificallyprohibitsMedicare fromnegotiatinglowerdrugprices.33

BUYERSBEWARE,ANDWORKERSTOO

Moreandmorebiomedicalresearchisfundedbyprivatecompanies.Doctors atsomeofthenation’sleadingmedicalschoolshaveattachedtheirnamesand lenttheirreputationstoscientificpapersdraftedbyghostwritersemployedby thedrugcompanies.Such “research” isfarmorelikelytoproduceresultsfavorabletothecorporationthathelpedpayforit,oftenputtingtheconsumer atrisk.34

Consumerprotectionisgenerallyscanty.TheFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)testsonlyabout1percentofthedrugsandfoodsmarketed. Toothpaste,shampoo,cosmetics,andotheritemsareoftencontaminated withcarcinogenicby-products,yettheFDAhasdonelittleaboutit.Ofthe medicaldrugsitapproves,anestimatedhalfofthemcauseseriousadverse reactions.35

WhenMonsanto(ownedbyDuPont)introducedbovinegrowthhormone(BGH)toinducedairycowstoproduceabnormallyhighamountsof milk,theFDAapprovedthebiotech “wonderdrug ” eventhoughconsumer groupsquestioneditsunknowneffectsonchildrenandadults.Cowsinjected withBGHsufferfromillnessandmalnutrition,makingitnecessaryto augmenttheiralreadyhighintakeofantibiotics.Thefederalgovernment alreadybuyssurplusmilksupplies.Theincreasein(BGH)milkproduction willcoststaxpayersadditionalmillions,mostlybenefitingafewgiantdairy producers.36

“Factoryfarms” aroundthecountryconfinelivestockincagesfortheentiredurationoftheirlives,wheretheyarefedeverythingfromground-upanimalpartstosewagesludge.Antibioticsareregularlypumpedintothese creaturestokeepthemfromsickening,andtoincreasetheirweightthrough waterretention.Antibioticsalsocreatevirulentlyresistantstrainsofbacteria forwhichthereisnotreatment.Overninethousandhumandeathsoccur eachyearintheUnitedStatesduetofood-borneillnesses.Consumergroups

havebeenfightingtogettheFDAtobanirradiatedbeef,whichissoldat somefast-foodoutletsandsupermarkets,andhasmadeitswayintoschool lunchesforchildren.Irradiatedbeef,whichcosts13to20centsperpound morethanordinarybeef,hasbeenfoundtocontaintoxicchemicalslinkedto cancerandgeneticdamage.37

OnecannottalkaboutthehealthofAmericawithoutmentioning occupationalsafety.Everyyearover6,000workersarekilledonthejoband4.5millionareinjured.Another10,000dielateronfromjobinjuriesand50,000 fromoccupationaldiseasescausedbytoxicchemicals,asbestos,pesticides, andsolvents.Some50,000to60,000sustainpermanentdisability,andmillionsmoresufferfromwork-relatedillnesses.Industrialworkalwayscarries somerisk,butthecarnagetodayisduemostlytoinadequatesafetystandards andlaxgovernmentenforcementofcodes.Eveninthemostegregiouscases, employersrarelyfacecriminalprosecution.38

TheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)hasonly 2,043inspectorstoensuresafetyforover135millionworkersatabout7millionworkplaces.Employersfilereportsofinjuriesandfatalitiesonapurely voluntarybasis,makingexistingstatisticsunreliable.Whencitedforviolations,corporationssometimesfinditlessexpensivetopaytherelativelylight finesthantoimprovesafetyconditions.Thefreemarketisadangerousplace forworkingpeople.Ifacompanykillsanemployeethroughwillfulanddeliberateendangerment,itisonlyamisdemeanorunderfederallaw.39

Worker’scompensationlawsusuallyplacetheburdenofproofontheinjuredemployee,providenopenaltieswhenindustrywithholdsordestroysevidence,andimposeastatuteoflimitationthatmakesitdifficulttocollecton work-relateddiseasesthathavealonglatencyperiod.Onlyabout10percent ofthemillionsofworkersinjuredactuallywinanybenefits.Andthose whodothenforfeittheirrighttosueanegligentemployer.Thus,tosome extent,thegovernmentcompensationprogramactuallyshieldsindustryfrom liability.

AdecadeofeffortsinCongress(1997–2006)toincreasethe$5.15-an-hour minimumwagewerestymiedlargelybyRepublicanlawmakersandbusiness groupswhoarguedthatahigherminimumwagewoulddriveawayjobs.Opinionpollsshowedwidespreadsupportforanincreaseinthefederalminimum wage.WiththeadventofaDemocraticCongress,inJuly2009thefederal minimum-wagelawwasadvancedto$7.25anhour,withtime-and-a-halfpay foranyhoursoverfortyaweek.40

A2009studyofChicago,LosAngeles,andNewYorkfoundthatanywherefrom12percentto43percentoflow-wageworkers(varyingbyindustry)wereroutinelypaidlessthantheminimumwage,andmanyweredenied properovertimepay.AfricanAmericanwomenandimmigrantworkerswere themostvictimized.41

Inaddition, wagetheft hasreachedepidemicproportions.Employers commitwagetheftwhentheystealallorsomeportionofaworker’searnings byfailingtopaytime-and-a-halfovertimeoranyovertimeatall,forcing workerstoworkextrahours “offtheclock” fornopayunderthreatoflosing theirjobs,pocketingthemoneydeductedforSocialSecurity,andlayingoff

workerswithoutgivingthemthebackpayowedtothem.Corporationslike Wal-Mart,Allstate,andIBMhavebeenforcedtomakemultimillion-dollar settlementswithtensofthousandsofworkersafterbitterlegalbattles.Wage theftexceeds$19billionannuallyandaffectsabout2millionworkers,yetit goeslargelyunreportedinthenewsmedia.42

CREATINGCRISES:SCHOOLSANDHOUSING

Economicinequalityextendsintothefieldofeducation.Wealthydistrictsoftenareallocatedfarmoreperpupilthanlessaffluentdistricts.Poorerschools sufferfromovercrowdingandunderfunding.Variouslawmakersandcommentatorssay “wecan’tsolvethepublicschoolproblembyjustthrowing moneyatit.” Strangetohearthisfrompeoplewhonevertireofthrowing titanicsumsatthePentagoninordertoimprovethekillcapacityoftheU.S. military.ARandCorporationstudyshowsthatmorefundsforsmaller classes,preschoolenrollment,classroommaterials,andremedialservicesdo improvethemoraleandperformanceofchildrenfromlow-incomefamilies. Thoughnottheonlyconsideration,money orthelackofit is acoreproblem.43 Freemarketeersseektoprivatizepubliceducationbygivingparents moneyvouchersthattheycouldspendonanyschooloftheirchoice,including parochialones.Theschoolsandteacherswouldnotbecertifiedandthere wouldbenoperformancecontrol.Anybody,qualifiedornot,couldstarta schooltomakesomequickbucksfromvouchers.

OnehelpfulfederalprogramisHeadStart.Childrenreceivefood,medical care,andremedialeducation,andtheirparentslearnaboutnutritionand appropriatecommunityprograms.Onlythreeofeveryfiveeligiblechildren areenrolledinHeadStartbecausetheprogramcannotaffordtoaccept more.Despiteitssuccess,aRepublicanadministrationdecidedto “reform” HeadStartbycuttingfundsforchildcare,after-schoolandsummer-school programs,assistancetoabusedandneglectedchildren,andtreatmentforsubstanceabuse.44

PresidentBushinitiatedaprogramcalled “NoChildLeftBehind,” which forcesteacherstopreparestudentsforastandardizedfederaltest.Schoolsthat getenoughstudentstopassarerewardedwithmorefunds.Schoolsthatfail aregivenless.Teacherscomplainofhavingto “teachtothetest” ratherthan encourageinnovativeandexploratoryeducationaleffort.Independentreading andimaginativeprojectsarediscarded.Criticalthinkingisdiscouraged. Teachingtothetestinvolvesmemorizingpatanswers;thusinoneschool,studentslearnthatsomethingisapoem “becauseitrhymesandhasstanzas.” Physicaleducation,art,music,andevensciencearesetasideinsomeschools. Ahostofself-appointed “consultants” sellpackagedcurriculaandtestboosterstotheschoolsinwhathasbecomeabillion-dollarindustry.Principalsand superintendentsoftenobsessaboutmeetingtestlevelslesttheirschoolbudgets becut.45

In2003,nearly170,000highschoolgraduates,amongthetopintheir classes,hadtoforgocollegebecausetheycouldnotaffordit.Studentshave hadtorelyincreasinglyonloansfrombanksandotherprivatelendersthat

areunderwrittenbythefederalgovernmentatgreatprofittothebanks.Here ishowsocialismfortherichworks:

• Thetaxpayers(includingoneswhocannotaffordtosendtheirchildrento college)givethebanksandotherprivatecreditcompaniesbillionsofdollarswithwhichtomakeloanstostudents.

• Ifthestudentspaybacktheloanswithinterest,thebankspocketthese profitsandusetherepaidmoneyformoreloans.

• Theloansthatstudentsfailtopaybackareguaranteedbythetaxpayers. Thegovernmentbuysbackthesebaddebtsfromthebanksandloancompaniessothattheyneithersustainanylossesnorcarryanyrisks.

• Thebanksandloancompaniescollectondelinquentloans,usingcollectionagenciesthatputliensonthewagesandsalariesthatstudentsmight earnaftergraduation.

• Studentsoftenworkhardtopayoffthedebtstheyowesothatthetop executivesoftheseprivateloancompaniescancontinuetomake multimillion-dollarsalaries,useprivatejets,andfrequentthemostluxuriousgolfandsparesortsintheworld.

Ifthegovernmentitselfmadedirectloanstocollegestudents,itwould costonlyone-fifthasmuch butthatwouldmeannoprofitsforthebanks andprivateloancompanies. “TheWhiteHouseestimatesthatitcouldsave about$94billionover10yearsifitcutoutallthemiddlemen.Andithas thebasisofasysteminplace,sincetheDepartmentofEducationalready makesalotofdirectloanstostudents.”46

In2005and2006,theBushJr.administrationcuthundredsofmillionsof dollarsfromtheeducationbudget,includingfundsforvocationaltrainingand programsfordisadvantagedstudents.47 Meanwhilethegovernmentgivessignificantlymorefinancialaidtothewealthiestprivateuniversitiesthanto needycommunitycollegesandeveningschools.48 Muchfederalaidalsogoes tomedicalschoolsandgraduateandpostgraduatescienceprograms.

Sowithhousing.Thebulkoffederalhousingassistancegoesnottopoor householdsbuttoaffluentones.Middle-andupper-incomehomeownersreceivetaxdeductionsfortheinterestpaidontheirmortgages,andcapitalgains deferralsonhousingsales,costingthegovernmentover$100billioninrevenueseachyear.ThisisseveraltimesmorethanwhattheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD)isallocatedforlow-incomehousing.

Upper-incomepeoplewhoownbeachfronthomesreceivefederallysubsidizedinsurancethatleavesthegovernmentliableforbillionsofdollarsin claims.Onesuchbeneficiarywasmultimillionaireex-presidentBushSr.,who preachedfree-marketself-reliancewhilebenefitingfromfederalinsurancethat coveredmostofthe$300,000to$400,000worthofstormdamagetohisestateinMaine.49

Privatehousingdevelopmentsbuiltwithgovernmentassistanceareoften rentedtolow-incomepeopleforayearortwotoqualifyforfederalfunds, thensoldtootherprivateownerswho,notheldtotheoriginalcontract,evict thetenantsandturntheunitsintohigh-pricedrentalsorcondominiums. Everyyear,hundredsofthousandsoflow-costhousingunitsarelostto

demolition,gentrification,andsalestoprivateinvestors,asthecrisisofaffordablehousingspreadsacrosstheUnitedStates.50

Thegovernmenthastwoprogramsforlow-incometenants.Thefirstis publichousing,whichaccommodatesabout1.3millionfamilies,halfof whomcollectsomeformofpublicassistance.Public-housingprojectsplagued bydrugsandgangcrimehavereceivedalotofmediaattention.Butthemany public-housingprojects,includingonesfortheelderly,thatworkfairlywell receivelittlepressnotice.

TheothergovernmenthousingprogramconsistsofSection8vouchers, whichprovide1.5millionlow-incomefamilieswithrentsubsidies.Thefamily paysthelandlord30percentofitsincomeandthegovernmentpaysthelandlordtherest.Again,thepublicsectorsubsidizestheprivate-profitsector. Abouthalfofthemillionorsolow-incomehouseholdsthatreceiverentvouchersreturnthemunusedbecauseaffordableapartmentsareunavailable. Onlyone-quarterofpoorU.S.householdsgetanykindofhousingsubsidy thelowestlevelofanyindustrializednation.

Rentshavesoaredfaraboveincomesinmanypartsofthecountry,furthershrinkingthesupplyofaffordablehousing.MillionsofAmericansnot classifiedashomelessdoubleup,orpaymorethantheycancomfortablyaffordforcramped,substandardquarters.Tensofthousandsoflow-income Americanshavebeenexcludedfrompublichousingforminoroffensesthat mayhaveoccurredyearsago,orformerelybeingarrested,thoughnotconvictedofanything.51

Thereductioninpublic-housingfundsoverthelasttwenty-fiveyearsremainsthemajorcauseofhomelessness.Manycitiesarepassingordinances thatmakeitacrimetositorlieinapublicplacewithasleepingbagorshoppingcart.Homelesspeopleareharassed,roughedupandarrested,drivenfrom onetowntoanother,theirfewpossessionsconfiscatedanddestroyed,their makeshiftcampgroundsandothersleepingspacessealedoff.Thehomeless haveaninordinatelyhighrateofuntreatedphysicalandpsychologicalillnesses.

In2008–2009,duringthesubprime-mortgagescandal,millionsofworking familiesweredispossessedoftheirhomesbytheduplicitouspracticesofpredatorylendersandinvestors.Manyendedupdoublingupwithrelativesorliving inlow-renthovelsor “tentcities,” onlyaddingtothehousingcrisisinAmerica.Earlyinitsfirstyearinoffice,theObamaadministrationannouncedthe MakingHomeAffordable(MHA)Program,acomprehensiveplanintended toassistsome7to9millionhomeownersbyreducingmortgagepaymentsto affordablelevelsandpreventingavoidableforeclosures.Theprogramwasdesignedtorestorethehousingmarket,shoreupitsslumpingvaluesandprices, andeasetheimpactandfrequencyofforeclosures withouteliminatingforeclosuresorrestoringownershiptothemanywholosttheirhomes.52

“

MESSTRANSIT”

Thetransportationsystemprovidesanotherexampleofhowprivateprofit takesprecedenceoverpublicneed.Upuntilthe1920sthetransportingofpassengersandgoodswasdonemostlybyelectriccarandrailroad.Mass-transit

railsuseonlyafractionofthefuelconsumedbycarsandtrucks.Butthese veryefficienciesarewhatmadethemsoundesirabletotheoilandautomotive industries.

ConsiderthefateofLosAngeles.In1935thatcitywasservedbyoneof thefinestrailsystemsintheworld,coveringaseventy-five-mileradiuswith quiet,pollution-freeelectrictrainsthatcarried80millionpassengersayear. ButGeneralMotors(GM)andStandardOil,usingdummycorporationsas fronts,purchasedthesystem,andreplacedtheelectriccarswithGMbuses fueledbyStandardOil.By1955,thecorporationshadreplacedelectricstreetcarnetworkswithgas-guzzlinghigh-emissionbusesinoveronehundredcities acrossthenation.Thentheycutbackoncityandsuburbanbusservicesto encouragemassdependencyoncars.In1949,GeneralMotorswasfound guiltyofconspiracyintheseactivitiesandfinedthecrushingsumof$5,000.53

Motorvehiclesextractastaggeringsocialcost.IntheUnitedStatesabout 42,000peoplearekilledinmotorvehicleaccidentseveryyearandwellover 3millionareinjured,manyofthemseriouslyincapacitatedfortheremainder oftheirlives.Autoaccidentsaretheleadingcauseofdeathforpeoplebetween theagesoffifteenandthirty-four.Asof2009,upwardsof3.6millionAmericanshaveperishedontheroads,morethantwicethenumberkilledinallthe warsfoughtinthenation’shistory,about120aday.Thisfiguredoesnotusuallyincludedeathsthatoccurseveraldaysorweekslaterfrominjuriesoriginallysustainedintheautoaccident.Motorvehiclesalsokill1millionanimals eachday. Moredeerareslaughteredbycarsthanbyhunters.54

MorethanhalfthelandinU.S.citiesistakenupbythemovement,parking,andservicingofvehicles.Thesuburbansprawlmadepossiblebycars wipesoutthesurroundingfarmcommunities,andnecessitateshigherpercapitacostsforsewageandwatersystemconstructionand,inturn,stillgreater dependencyonautovehicles.Federal,state,andlocalgovernmentsspendover $300billionannuallyonroadconstructionandmaintenance,highwaypatrols,andambulanceandhospitalservicesrelatedtoautomotivemishaps.55

Theautomobileisoneofthegreatestcausesofairpollutioninurbanareas andofglobalwarmingthroughouttheworld.Anestimatedthirtythousand deathsyearlyarecausedbyautomotiveemissions.Rubbertireandoilslick runoffsandthetonsofsaltpouredonwinterroadscausetreesandvegetation towitherwhiledamagingbaysandrivers.Theaveragevehiclegeneratesseven hundredpoundsofairpollutionandfourtonsofcarbonjustinitsmanufacture.Autocompanieshavedonelittletodevelopzero-emissionvehicles,falsely claimingthereisinsufficientdemand.Ifanything,cardealersandthegeneral publichavelongbeenaskingforaffordablezero-emissionvehicles.56

Medicalcostsforautovictimsareenormous,asarethecostsofacourt systemthatlitigatessomanyvehicular-injurycases.Asmuchasone-fifthof theaveragehousehold’sincomeisexpendedoncarpayments,autoinsurance, gasoline,servicing,repairs,parking,andotherauto-relatedcosts.Thosewho areunabletodrive theelderly,thedisabled,andtheyoung arefrequently isolatedbyacar-dominatedtransportsystem.57

Onethingthatwouldhelpismoremasstransit.Railroads,subways,and metrolinesarevastlymoreefficientandlessdamagingtotheenvironment

thancarsandtrucks,buttheyreceiveproportionatelyfarlessinsubsidies. Amtrak,ourpublicrailsystem,providesmuchneededintercitypassengerserviceatrelativelyminimalcost.Yetin2009Amtrakreceivedallof$1.6billion inappropriationsfromCongress,aboutwhatthePentagonspendsinaday. TheObamastimulusbillof2009didprovide$8billionforAmtrakfor much-neededrepairsandupkeep.AndCongressstartedpreparingasix-year, multibillion-dollarplanthatwouldallocatemorefundsforpublictransitand lessfornewroadsandhighways.

Morefundsareneededalsotorepairourbridges,oneinfourofwhich arestructurallydeficientorfunctionallyobsolete.Weneedtospend$250billiontofixouragingwaterpipesandsewers,andadditionalbillionsofdollars forourtelecommunicationssystem,airports,tunnels,andnationalparks.58 Manyoftheenormousallocationsthatgoforbombsandbailoutscouldbe puttomoreusefulandneededpurpose.

TheLastEnvironment

Thoseofprivilegedandpowerfulmeansbelievetheyhavearighttouseas theywishwhatevernaturalresourcesstillremainontheplanet,whilepassing offtheirdiseconomiesontoothers.Theyseemunawarethattheplanet’svery survivalisatstake.

TOXIFYINGTHEEARTH

Likesin,environmentaldegradationisregularlydenouncedbutvigorously practiced.Everyyearindustrydumpsoverabillionpoundsoftoxins,including carbondioxide,sulfurdioxide,mercury,andhundredsofothernoxioussubstancesintoourenvironment.Corporationsdothisnotbecausetheywantto sickenpeopleanddestroytheplanetbutbecausetheywanttominimizecosts andmaximizeprofits.Industryintroducesaboutathousandnewchemicalsinto themarketplaceannually,oftenwithunreliableinformationabouttheireffects. Eachyearsometenthousandspillsfrompipelinesandtankersspreadmillions ofgallonsofoilintoourcoastalwaters,takingadreadfultollastheoilworks itswaythroughfish-spawningandanimal-breedingcycles.1

Rainforeststhroughouttheworld,withtheirpreciousstockoffloraand fauna,arebeingturnedintowastelands.Lessthan20percentoftheworld’s originalforestcoverremainstoday,mostlyinRussia,Canada,andpartsof SouthAmericaandAfrica,almostallofitthreatenedbyrapaciousclearcutters.2 IntheUnitedStates,morethan96percentoftheancientredwoodforestshavebeenwipedoutbyfast-bucktimbercompanies.Asthetreesdisappear sodothespawningstreamsanddistinctivemenagerieoflife.3 TheU.S.DepartmentofAgricultureestimatesthateveryyearupto400,000acresofwetlands intheUnitedStatesareobliteratedbycommercialfarminganddevelopers.

Theindustrialproductionofmeatfoulsvastareasoflandandwaterways withwasterunoffandpreemptsmillionsofacresforlivestockfeed.According toonereport,meatconsumptionisthemostenvironmentallyharmfulactivity consumerscanengagein,exceptforoperatingagas-drivencar.4

Fast-buckexploitationoftheplanet’sresourcesandpopulationexplosion havebroughtmoretoxiceffusion,ecologicaldisruption,andanextinction rateof17,500speciesofplantsandanimalseveryyear.Byoverfishing,large commercialfleetsarewipingouttheworld’smarinelifeanddrivingoutsmallscalefishermen.

Manywidelyusedchemicalsareendocrinedisruptersandhormonemimickers.Workingtheirwayintothefoodchain,theyundermineourhealth andgeneticviability.IntheUnitedStatestoxic-wastedumpsandincinerators aresituatedpredominantlyinornearlow-incomeAfricanAmerican,Latino, andNativeAmericancommunities,contributingtoinordinatelyhighcancer ratesamongthesepopulations.5 Highlevelsofleukemiaandbrainandtesticulartumorshavebeenfoundamongchildrenwholivenearutilitypower plantsandtoxicsites.Overthelastseveraldecades,therateofcanceramong Americanchildrenhasbeenrisingbydoubledigits.Anewbornchildfacesa

riskofaboutoneinsixhundredofcontractingcancerbyageten.6 Since1940 breastcancerratesamongwomenhavetripled.

Anestimated50,000to100,000deathseachyearintheUnitedStatesare causedbyairpollution.Thenumberofasthmasufferershasbeenincreasing atthealarmingrateof50percenteachdecadeasairqualitycontinuestodeteriorate.Asof2007,6.7millionchildrenand16.2millionadultssuffered fromasthmaintheUnitedStates.7

Morethan45millionAmericansaredrinkingandbathinginwaterthatis riddenwithparasitesandtoxicchemicals.Excessleadlevelshavebeenfound inthedrinkingwaterofoneofeveryfiveAmericans,contributingtohypertension,strokes,heartailments,andlearningdisabilities.Insomeneighborhoods, tapwaterwasfoundtocontainremnantsofrocketfuel.Twostudieswarn thatmothers’ breastmilk “cancontaintracesofchemicalflameretardant.”8

Onaverage,eachperson’sbodycarriesmeasurablelevelsoffiftytoeighty ormoretoxicchemicals.Thesecontaminantsareprobablytheleadingcause ofdeathintheUnitedStates.9

Sometimestoxinsarepourednotintotheenvironmentbutdirectlyinto ourbodies.Thussilicofluorides,atoxic-wasteproduct,isusedforfluoridation.MostoftheU.S.populationissubjectedto compulsoryfluoridation intheirdrinkingwaterbecauseitsupposedlyprotectschildrenfromtooth decay.ButSweden,Germany,Norway,Netherlands,Denmark,andFrance stoppedusingfluoridationovertwenty-fiveyearsago.Communitiesin Finland,EastGermany,Cuba,andCanadathatstoppedusingfluorideactuallyshoweda decrease intoothdecay.Fluoridationcausesfluorosis,which consistsofseveretoothenamelloss,pitting,anddiscoloration.Asitaccumulatesinthebody,fluoridebecomesincreasinglytoxic,havingbeenlinkedto thyroidandneurologicaldisorders,reproductiveafflictions,bonefractures, Alzheimer’s,andcancer.10

Sixmillionacresofirreplaceabletopsoilareerodedyearlybychemical farming.Theuseoftoxicherbicidesandpesticideshasdoubledoverthe lastfewdecades,withhighlevelsfoundinfoodsanddrinkingwater,risking birthdefects,liverandkidneydiseases,braindamage,andcancer,notto mentionthelossoffish,birds,andtrees.Homeownersdrenchtheiryards andlawnswithmanytimesmoreherbicidesandinsecticidesperacrethan evenfarmersuse,killingmanyusefulinsectsthataeratethesoilandpollinateplants.11 Themorechemicalsthatarepouredintotheenvironment, themorethatareneeded.Forexample,forestandlawnpesticideskillthe songbirdsthateatbugs,therebyremovin ganaturalpestcontrolandcausing greaterinfestation whichinturncreatesagreaterrelianceonpesticides. Pesticidesproducegenerationsofinsectsincreasinglyresistanttochemical controls whichnecessitatesmorepotentlytoxicchemicals.Theresultis thatoverathirty-five-yearperiod,pesticideusehasincreasedtenfold(along withprofitsfrompesticidesales)yetcroplossestoinsectsandotherpests havealmostdoubled.ChemicalcompanieslikeMonsantowouldwantitno otherway.Theirgoalisnottomakethingsallbetterandthengooutof business;itseemstheyprefertomarketaproductthatincreasesthevery conditionsforitsexpandeduse.12

Afteranine-yearstudy,theEPAconcludedthatthemostwidelyusedpesticide,atrazine,alongwithotherpesticidesmighthaveunacceptableimpacts ontheenvironmentandourhealth,causingabnormalitiesinthehumanendocrinesystem.13 Alongwithpesticidesarethechemicalfertilizersthatareused abundantlywithmuchdamagetothesoilandlittlebenefittocropyield.Since 1984,theproductionoftheworldgrainstaplesthatmostofhumanitysurvivesonhasbeenfallingbehindpopulationgrowth.14

ECO-APOCALYPSE

Theearthitselfisbeginningtoloseitsnaturalabilitytoremoveairpollutants. Thereexistsintheatmosphereahighlyreactiveoxygencompound,afreeradicalknownamongchemistsasa molecularscavenger.Thiskeymoleculecleanses theairbyattackingandtransformingmanyofthegasesitbouncesinto.Concentrationsofthisvitalscavengerhavedecreasedby10percentworldwideovera twenty-yearperiod.15

Thelifesupportsystemsoftheentireecosphere theplanet’sthinskinof air,water,andtopsoilanditsfinitesupplyofmaterialresources arethreatenedbyglobalwarming,endlesscapitalistindustrialexpansion,andmassive populationgrowth.16 Globalwarming (alsoreferredtoas climatechange)is causedbymotorvehicleexhaustandotherfossilfuelemissionsthatcreatea “greenhouseeffect,” trappingheatclosetotheearth’ssurface.

Thelastseveraldecadeshaveproducedthewarmestyearsonrecord.By 2004emissionsofgreenhousegasesreachedanall-timehigh,nearlydouble theaverageannualrate.Thesebuildupsarealteringtheclimaticpatternson whichwedependforourrainfall,resultinginrecordhurricanes,windstorms, droughts,andfloods.Innorthernclimesaswellaswarmerones,risingtemperatureshavediminishedsoilmoistureandrainfalls,disruptingtheforest’s abilitytorenewitself.Theconsequentincreaseindroughtandforestfires onlyaddstothewarming.

Atmosphericwarmingisleadingtothedisappearanceoffreshwater sourcesinmanypartsoftheworld,causinglife-threateningdisasterformillions.Droughtandoverusehaveledtoseriouswatershortagesinalmostevery areaoftheUnitedStates,notjusttheusuallyparchedSouthwest.Reservoirs havedroppedtorecordlows.Waterfallshavedisappeared.Riverbasinsand lakesareshrinking.Undergroundaquifers thesourceof60percentofU.S. freshwater arebeingdepleted.Industrialexpansionandthepopulation boomcreateanadditionaldrainonwatersupplies,whilecontributingdirectly togreatergreenhouseemissionsandmoreglobalwarming.17

Themeltdownofpermafrostinthenorthernclimesreleasesvastamountsof carbondioxideandmethanethatfurtheracceleratetheheatbuildup,creatinga cyclethatfeedsonitself.GlobalwarmingiscausingtheAntarcticandArcticice capsandGreenlandglacierstomelt.Arcticicecapsactasreflectorshields againstthesun’srays.Astheymeltaway,theearthabsorbsstillmoreofthe sun’sheatcausingstillmoremeltdown.Themeltingoftheicecapsbringsadramaticriseinsealevels.causingthemtoswallowupshorelinesandsmallislands, anddisruptnaturalecosystems,threateningtofloodlargesectorsoftheglobe.

Byexacerbatingfloodinganddrought,globalwarmingcausesmorethan 300,000deathsandabout$125billionineconomiclosseseachyear.Theincreaseddeathratesarefromillnessesincludingmalnutrition,diarrhealdisease, malaria,andvariousheat-relatedailments.18

ThevastamountoffreshwaterreleasedintotheoceansfromthismeltdownissmotheringtheAtlanticGulfStream.DeprivedofGulfStream warmth,muchofEuropeandNorthAmericacouldbetransformedintofrigid landmassesthatwouldbeabletofeedbutatinyfractionoftheirpresent populations.TheGulfStreamisalreadyshowingsignsofslowingdown,and Europeexperiencedoneofitscoldestwintersin2005–2006.ThesameslowdownofcurrentsisoccurringinthePacificOcean.19

Unlesswemoveswiftlyandmassivelyawayfromfossilfuelsanddevelop sufficientwind,solar,andtidalpower,thecompoundingfeedbackeffectsof globalwarmingarelikelytobringuttercatastrophetotheentireplanet. Someexpertsbelieveitisalreadytoolate.20

Unfortunately,duringhisoccupancyoftheWhiteHouse(2001–2008), GeorgeBushtooknoactionthatmightcutintotheprofitsoftheoilcompanies.InsteadtheWhiteHousemuzzledscientistsatNASAandattheNational OceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationwhowerepointingtoanimpending ecologicalcatastrophe.21

Besetbyaprofoundeconomiccrisisintothesecondyearofhisadministration,PresidentBarackObamawasunwillingorunabletopursueanykind ofecologicalmasterplanthatcouldbringadramaticreversal.TheAmerican CleanEnergyandSecurityActof2009aimsatreducinggreenhouseemissions 17percentby2020.Otherprovisionsincludenewrenewablerequirementsfor utilities,newenergyefficiencyincentivesforhomesandbuildings,andgrants forgreenjobs allstepsintherightdirectionbutrelativelysmallsteps.

Alsoofconcernistheshrinkageoftheozonelayerthatenvelopstheplanet. Ozone-depletingchemicals,chieflychlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),areemittedinto theearth’satmosphereeveryyear.Ozonedepletioncausesexcessiveultraviolet radiation,whichinturndisruptstheDNAofplantsandhumansanddepresses thehumanimmunesystem.Excessiveultravioletradiationdamagestrees,crops, coralreefs,andfish,andisdestroyingtheocean’sphytoplankton asourceof abouthalfthisplanet’soxygen. 22 Iftheoceansdie,sodowe.

ThetopfiveCFCpollutersintheUnitedStatesarecorporatemilitarycontractors.U.S.spaceshuttleshaveseriouslydamagingeffectsontheozone layer,yetthespaceprogramgoesonandon.In2003,scientistsannounced thattheozonedepletionratehadsloweddownsignificantlythankstotheinternationalbanonCFCs.However,becauseCFCshaveverylongatmospheric lifetimes,rangingfromfiftytooverahundredyears,andsomenationshave notbannedthem,fullrecoveryoftheozonelayerisexpectedtotakethebetter partofthiscentury,assumingwehavethatmuchtime.

POLLUTIONFORPROFITS

Profitsarehigherwhencorporationscanunloadtheirdiseconomiesontothe environment.Luxurycruiseshipsdumphundredsofthousandsofgallonsof

wastewateroneachtriptheymake.Cargoandcontainershipsillegallydump tonsofoilytoxicsludgeintotheoceanonaregularbasis,causingserious devastationofmarinelife.Aboutfortythousandacresofcoastalwetlands, providingspawningandfeedingareasformostcommercialfishing,aredisappearingeachyear.Tonsofnitrogenandphosphorusexcessrunningofffrom farms,cattlefeedlots,andcitysewers,andairbornenitratesfromautomobiles andpowerplants,causemassivealgaebloomsthatcreate “deadzones” of oxygen-lesswaterinourbays,estuaries,andoceanshorelines.

Thecostsofindustrialeffluents(whichcompose40to60percentofthe loadstreatedbymunicipalsewageplants)andthecostsofdevelopingnew watersources(whileindustryandagribusinessconsume80percentofthenation’sdailywatersupply)arepassedontothepublic;soarethecostsofcleaningupradioactivesites,andtendingtothesicknessanddiseasecausedby pollution.

Stripmininganddeforestationbycoalandtimbercompaniescontinueto bringruinationtowildlifeandwatersheds.U.S.miningcompaniesarenowresortingto mountaintopremoval, aradicalstrip-miningprocessthatblowsoff theentiretopofamountaintogetatthecoalinaquicker,moreprofitable way.Wholemountainrangesconsistingofsomefivehundredmountaintops rangingacrossWestVirginia,Virginia,andKentucky oncerichinfreshwater, wildlife,andtreecover aretransformedintobarrenmoonscapes.Abouttwelve hundredmountainstreamshavebeenburiedbeneathdumpedrockanddirt. Toxicrunoffleachesfromtheminesintothegroundwater,andsedimentsfrom denudedlandspourintowaterwaysandfisheries.Landslideswashawayhomes andentirehamlets.U.S.regulationsforbidthedumpingofindustrialwasteinto riversandstreams.ButundertheBushadministration,theminingcompanies’ massivemountaintopdebriswasreclassifiedas “fillmaterial” thatcouldbefreely dumped,withmuchdestructiontostreamsandcountryside.23

An1872mininglawisstillthelawoftheland.Itallowsminingcompaniestodigoutgoldandcopperonpubliclandswithoutpayinganyroyalties andobservingonlyminimalenvironmentalprotection.Whatthelawhasleft initswakeisabatteredlandscapeofabandonedminesandpoisonedstreams. Anewbillthatwouldrequireminingcompaniestopayroyaltiesandobserve environmentalsafeguardswaspendinginCongressin2009.24

Industrialtoxins includinglead,arsenic,cadmium,anddioxin along withradioactivewastesareincreasinglybeingrecycledasfertilizertobespread overfarmfieldsandgrazinglandsnationwide.Insomestates,agribusiness companieshavesucceededinpassing “fooddisparagementlaws” thatallow themtosueanyonewhoquestionsthesafetyoftheirproducts.Whetherthey winornot,suchlitigiousthreatshaveachillingeffectoncritics.25

CompanieslikeMonsantohavealongrecordofreleasingtoxicwastes intounsuspectingcommunities,thencoveringuptheiractionsfordecades. Monsanto’sSaugetplantwastheworld’sleadingproducerofpolychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs),asubstancelinkedtocancer,mentaldisability,birthdefects, andimmunedisorders.ForyearsMonsantoconcealedstudiesthatfound PCBsunsafe.Thevilesubstancewasfinallybannedin1970.AtleastfortyfourMonsantopropertiesqualifyasSuperfundtoxicsites.26

Pesticidecompaniesandtheircompliantbureaucratsinthefederaland variousstateagriculturaldepartmentswillsuddenlydesignateharmlessinsects likethegypsymothandthelightbrownapplemoth creaturesthathavebeen aroundfordecades asalethalmenacetocropsandfoliage.Theythenpromoteaerialsprayingofwholecommunities,puttingwholepopulationsatrisk, especiallychildrenandtheelderly.27

GOVERNMENTFORTHEDESPOILERS

Withthefateoftheplanetatstake,theU.S.government’sresponsehasbeen lessthaninspiring.TheSafeDrinkingWaterActremainshaphazardlyenforced.TheCleanAirActbecameabonanzaforcoalproducers,whowere givenbillionsofdollarsostensiblytocleanuptheiract.AndtheEndangered SpeciesAct,oneoftheworld’stoughestwildlifepreservationlaws,hasproven largelyineffectual,withfailuresmountingfasterthansuccesses.

Peopleexposedtoatmosphericnucleartestsandthecontaminatingclouds ventedfromcontinuedundergroundtestshavesufferedavarietyofseriousillnesses.Nuclearmishapshaveoccurredatreactorsinadozenstates.Inthe areaaroundThreeMileIsland,Pennsylvania,livestockabortedanddied prematurely,andhouseholdsexperiencedwhatamountstoanepidemicof cancer,birthdefects,andprematuredeaths.28

Nuclearpowerplantsaresohazardousthatinsurancecompaniesrefuse tocoverthem.Andtheyaretooexpensivetoattractcorporateinvestors.The averagetwo-reactornuclearpowerplantisestimatedtocostupwardsof$18 billiontobuild,andthatisbeforecostoverruns.Thecarbonimprintcreated

bythemanufacturingofthenuclearplantsthemselves,theproductionofenergyrods,thecoolingtowers,andtheneedforvastamountsofcoolingwater demonstratethatnuclearenergyisnoanswertoglobalwarming.Still,nuclear powerplantscontinuetobebuilt,withCongressshellingoutbillionsofdollarsintaxcredits,federalloanguarantees,insurance,anddirectsubsidies.29

Fordecadesthegovernmentknowinglyleturaniumandotherlethalsubstancesleakintothegroundwateranddrinkingwells.Ithasallowedprivate industryandthemilitarytodepositradioactivenuclearwastesintoocean dumpsandprimefishingbedsalongtheoceancoastsoftheUnitedStates. TheDepartmentofEnergyhasnoknownsafemethodofdisposingofradioactivewaste.

Weweretoldthatnuclearpowerwouldbecleanandinexpensive.Infact, theconstructionofnuclearplantsinvolvedcostoverrunsof400to1,000percent,oftenbringinghigherratherthanlowerelectricrates.Thenuclearindustryhasnolong-termtechnologyfortheentombmentordecontaminationof oldplantsites.Thousandsoftonsof “slightly” radioactivemetalfromreactorsandlaboratoriesarebeingconsideredforrecycling,tobeusedinsuch commonitemsaszippers,foodcans,andsilverware.Nuclearindustryrepresentativesassureusthattheeffectofsuchradioactivecommoditiesonhuman healthwouldbe “negligible.”30

Thefederalgovernment’sEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)has conductedalmostnobasicresearchonthelong-termhealtheffectsofpollution.EPAmonitorsonlyabout1percentoftheseventythousanddifferent syntheticchemicalsandmetalsincommercialuse.Stateandfederalofficials takeactioninlessthan2percentofthethousandsofannualenvironmental complaints,andusuallyonlyafterprolongedpublicagitationforcesthemto dowhattheyarebeingpaidtodo.Variousstategovernmentshaveadopted legislationthatallowscorporatepolluterstomonitorthemselves,withouthavingtotellauthoritiesorthepublictheresults.

Thegovernmentsometimescollaborateswiththepolluters.TheBush administrationslashedthebudgetsoftheEPAandtheU.S.ForestService andremovedwildernessprotections.31 Politicallyappointedagencyheadssuppressedscientificinformationaboutthedamagedonetoecologyandwildlife.32 TheinspectorgeneraloftheEPAreportedthattheagencyfailedto fullyassessthehealthimpactsofmercurypollutionbecauseBushappointees intervenedandcompromisedthestudy.NewrulesinstitutedbyBushJr. allowedcoal-firedplantstoexpandwithoutinstallingmodernairpollution controlequipmenttoreducemercuryandotheremissions.33

Overthelastdecade,theWhiteHouseslashedfundingforenvironmental scienceandstackedscientificcommitteeswithmembersdedicatedtothegovernment’spro-industry,anti-environmentagenda.Governmentdepartments acceptedindustry-sponsoredreportsthatdeniedanyenvironmentalcrisis, whilerejectingmoreworrisomeindependentstudiesfromuniversitiesand otherresearchinstitutions. 34

TheDepartmentoftheInterioropenedmillionsofacresofnationalparks andforeststostripmining.TheArmyCorpsofEngineersopened60million acresofwetlandstoprivatedevelopers.TheCorpshasspentmorethan

$25billioninthiscenturybuildingdamsandleveesthathaveleftableak legacyofecologicallyravagedrivers,siltedlakesthickwithdeadfish,anddestructionofwildlifeandplanthabitats.TheCorps’ effortsatcontainingrivers innarrowlycorsetedwaterwayshasonlyintensifiedthevelocityandfrequencyoffloods.35

Corporatepollutersaremoreoftenrewardedthanpunished.TheDefense Departmenthaspaidprivatedefensecontractorsupwardsof$1billionto cleanuppollutionfromtheirownoperations.(Again,thepublicsectormust generouslybribetheprivate-profitsectortogetittoshowsomesocial responsibility.)WhentheEnergyDepartmentdoesimposecashpenaltieson contractorswhoviolateitssafetyrules,thecompaniesarethenallowedto billthegovernmentforthefines!

ANALTERNATIVEAPPROACH

Inthefaceofanimpendingecologicalcatastropheofglobalmagnitude,growingnumbersofpeoplehavebeendevelopingorganicagricultureandenvironmentallysustainableenergysources.Throughouttheworld,beitecological logginginGuatemalanrainforestsorhigh-nutritionchemical-free “cleanrice” inVietnam,thereisagrowingconsciousnessabouttheadvantagesoforganic production.Cubahasprovidedthemostdramaticexampleofanentirenation turningtoorganicfarming byforceofcircumstance.Nolongerabletocount onSovietaidinthe1990s,andunabletoimportchemicalsormodernfarming machines,theCubansreturnedtooxenforplowing,whilediscardingchemical pesticidesandherbicides.Theyalsodevelopedintegrativenaturalpestmanagementandnetworksofurbanfoodgardens,allwithmuchsuccess.36

OnestudyfoundthatchickenfarmersinDenmarkdidjustaswellorbetteraftereliminatingtheuseofantibioticsinfeed.Likewise,tomatofarmers inFloridaearnedmuchmoreperacreafterswitchingfrommethylbromide (asoilfumigatorandpesticidebannedbyCongress)tobahiagrasspasture. ThousandsoffarmersintheUnitedStateshaveabandonedchemicalfarming andhaveturnedtoorganicmethods,soonachievinglargeryieldsatlesscost byusingcroprotation,naturalpestcontrol,andnonchemicalfertilizers,methodsthatrevitalizethesoil.TheygetlittleifanyassistancefromtheDepartmentofAgriculture,whichistoobusyservingagribusinessandchemical farming.OrganicfarmingmeansnoprofitsforMonsantoandotherchemical companies.37

Todaygrowingnumbersofpeopleinthiscountryandaroundtheworld relyonsolardevices.WindandsolarpowerplantsinCaliforniaprovide powerforaboutamillionpeople.Theycanbebuiltfasterandcheaperthan nuclearorfossilfuelplantsandhavenotoxicemissions.Renewablenonpollutingenergyprovidesabout7.5percentofthiscountry’senergyproduction. TwelvestatesintheGreatPlainshaveawindenergypotentialgreaterthanthe electricuseofourentirenation.38 However,recentadministrationshavedone littletodevelopthesealternativesources.Despiteitssmallereconomy,Japan spendsalmosteighttimesmoreonsolarenergyresearchanddevelopment thantheUnitedStates.

Solar,wind,andtidalenergysourceswouldbereadilyaccessibleif governmentandcorporationsdevotedmoreresourcestotheirdevelopment. Anewgenerationofhigh-efficiencywindmillturbinesarebecomingthe fastest-growingenergysourceinpartsofEurope,LatinAmerica,andIndia.

Thehydrogenfuelcell aswithnuclearenergy ismisleadinglyhailedas anonpollutingalternativesource.Itcomesfromanoilderivativeandemits carbondioxide,agreenhousegas.Sotoowithethanol,acorn-basedfueldescribedbytheCouncilofEconomicAdvisorsandFederalTradeCommission as “costlytobothconsumersandthegovernmentandwillprovidelittleenvironmentalbenefit.” Itwillcostevenmorethanregulargasoline.39

Insum,thingsworkbestforbigbusinesswhencostsaresocializedand profitsareprivatized.Governmentisaninsufficientbulwarkagainstthebanefuleffectsofgiantcorporatecapitalismandoftenawillinghandmaiden.Why thatissowillbeexaminedinlaterchapters.Ofutmostimportancearethe seriouscontradictionsthatexistbetweenourwell-beingandtheprofit-driven corporatesystem.Bigbusiness’smodusoperandiistoproduceandsellatan everexpandingrate,treatingtheworld’sresourcesaslimitlesslyexpendable. Buttheearthisfinite,asisitswatersupply,oxygen,topsoil,andabilityto absorbtoxinsandheatfromenergyconsumption.Aninfinitelyexpanding capitalismandafragile,finiteecologyareonacalamitouscollisioncourse. Ourverysurvivalhangsinthebalance.

UnequalbeforetheLaw

Althoughwehavebeentaughttothinkofthelawasaneutralinstrument servingtheentirecommunity,infactitisoftenwrittenandenforcedtofavor theveryrichovertherestofus.

CRIMEINTHESUITES

Peoplefearstreetcrimemorethanthewhite-collarvarietybecauseofitspotentialviolenceandvividportrayalinmoviesandtelevisionshows.Butcorporatecrimecoststhenationmuchmoreinlivesandmoneythandoesstreet crime.Burglaryandrobberycostthepublicunder$4billionayear,while thewrongdoingsofahandfulofmajorcorporationscosthundredsofbillions ayear.TheFBIestimatesthatsixteenthousandpeopleintheUnitedStatesare murderedeveryyear.Meanwhiletherearethetensofthousandswhoannuallyfallvictimtocarcinogenicpollutants,unsafefoodandwater,hazardous consumerproducts,andprofit-drivenmedicalmalpractice.1

TheFBIandtheJusticeDepartmentissueannualcrimereportsthatnever mentioncorporatelawbreaking.Forthefeds,crimeusuallymeanscrimeinthe streetsnotcrimeinthesuites.Foreverycorporationconvictedofswindlinginvestors,consumers,andworkers,therearehundredsmorethatgounpunished. Foreverycompanyconvictedofpollutingthenation’swaterwaysorsellingillegalpesticides,therearehundredsmorethatgounchallenged.Publicprosecutors whofightcorporatecrimearegreatlyunderfundedandunderstaffed.2

Oneofthemoreegregiousinstancesofcorporatemalfeasanceinvolved DuPont,Ford,GM,ITT,Boeing,andothercompanieswhosefactoriesin Germanyproducedtanks,planes,andsyntheticfuelsusedbytheNazimilitarytokillAmericantroopsduringWorldWarII.Afterthewar,ratherthan beingprosecutedforaidingtheenemy,ITTcollected$27million,andGeneral 100

Motorsover$33million,fromtheU.S.governmentfordamagesinflictedon theirGermanplantsbyAlliedbombings.AtleastfiftyU.S.corporationsoperatedinGermanyin1941–1945,whiletheNaziswereatwarwiththeUnited States.Facedwithclassactionlawsuitsin1999–2000,growingnumbersof corporationsadmittedhavinggreatlyprofitedfromunpaidslavelaborsuppliedfromNaziconcentrationcamps.3 NoU.S.corporateheadwaseverprosecutedforcomplicityinthesewarcrimes.

Corporatecrimeisnotararitybutaregularity.TheJusticeDepartment foundthatmostgiantcompanieshavecommittedfelonies.Manyarerepeat offenders.Overtheyears,GeneralElectricwasconvictedof282countsof contractfraudandfined$20million.Chargedwith216violationsinvolving toxicsubstances,WorldComwasfined$625,000.Overasixteen-yearperiod, majoroilfirmscheatedthegovernmentofnearly$856millioninroyaltiesby understatingthevalueoftheoiltheypumpedfrompubliclands.4 Innoneof theseinstancesofgrandlarcenydidanyonegotojail.

Honeywellignoreddefectsingasheaters,resultingintwenty-twodeaths andseventy-sevencripplinginjuries,forwhichitwasfined$800,000.JohnsManvilleCorporationsuppressedinformationabouttheasbestospoisoningof itsworkers;whenorderedtopaydamagesincivilcourt,itdeclaredbankruptcytoavoidpayment.Fordumpingtoxicchemicalsintowellwaterthat wassubsequentlylinkedtoeightleukemiadeaths,W.R.Gracewasfined $10,000.Chargedwithunlawfullyburningtoxicwastesintotheatmosphere fortwentyyears,PotomacElectricPowerCo.ofWashington,D.C.,wasfined thecrushingsumof$500.5 Innoneofthesecasesdidanyonegotoprison.

Manycorporatecrimesarenotevenprosecuted.AUnionCarbideplant spewedlethalpesticidesoverBhopal,India,inwhatwashistory’sworstindustrialaccident,killingover22,000people(atlastcount)andseriouslyafflicting morethan100,000.Despitechargesofgrossnegligenceandculpablehomicide,executivesfromUnionCarbide(nowmergedwithDowChemical)were neverputontrial.

Claimingitdidnothaveenoughlawyersandinvestigators,theU.S.governmentfailedtopursuemorethanonethousandfraudandembezzlement casesinvolvingsavingsandloans(S&L)associationsandbanks,amounting tohundredsofbillionsofdollarsinlossestoU.S.taxpayers.6

In2005theBankofNewYorkagreedtopay$38millioninpenaltiesand victimcompensationarisingfromacaseofmoneylaunderingandfraud,but noonewenttojail.ThatsameyearHalliburtonfailedtomakepayments topensionparticipantsaslegallyrequired,insteadusingsomeofthefunds forexecutivepensionsandbonuses.Halliburtonwasrequiredtopayalmost $9millionandanundisclosedtaxpenalty,butnoonewenttoprisonfor thatgrandlarceny.7

Asof2006therewasanestimated$450billionshortfallinretirementand disabilityfunds,asnumerouscompaniesdefaultedontheirpensionpayments. Federallawrequirescompaniestohonortheirobligationstothesefunds,but thereisnorealenforcementmechanism.

WhenFirestonepledguiltytofilingfalsetaxreturnsconcealing$12.6millioninincome,itwasfined$10,000,andnoonewenttojail.Oversevenhundredpeopleayearareimprisonedfortaxevasion,almostallofthemforsums smallerthantheamountFirestoneconcealed.OverseveralyearsFoodLion cheateditsemployeesofatleast$200millionbyforcingthemtowork “off theclock,” butinacourtsettlementthecompanypaidbackonly$13million.8 Whosayscrimedoesnotpay?

In2004Halliburtonpaida$7.5millionfineforfalseearningsreports. Halliburtonalsowasaccusedofgrosslyoverchargingthegovernmentfor gasolineintendedforU.S.armedforces.Forworkdoneonanuclearplant, Bechtelgrosslyoverchargedthegovernment.NobodyatHalliburtonor Bechtelwenttojail,andbothcompaniescontinuedtobeawardedfatgovernmentcontracts.9

Someonewhorobsaliquorstoreismorelikelytogotoprisonthanpeoplewhostealmillionsofdollarsfromshareholders,employees,consumers, andtaxpayers.JamesWatt,InteriorSecretaryundertheReaganadministration,helpedrichclientsillegallypocketmillionsofdollarsinlow-income housingfunds.Wattwasabletosidestepeighteenfelonychargesofperjury andpleadguiltytoamisdemeanor,forwhichhegotfiveyears’ probation anda$5,000fine.10

InrecentyearsprominentfirmssuchasEnron,Adelphia,R.J.Reynolds, AOLTimeWarner,ArthurAndersen,Refco,BristolMeyers,ImClone,Global Crossing,andHealthSouthhavebeeninvestigatedforaccountingandtaxfraud, manipulatingstockvalues,insidertrading,andobstructingjustice,allofwhich lefttensofthousandsofshareholdersandemployeeswithhugelosses.Onlya handfulofexecutivesfromthesecompanieshaveseentheinsideofaprison.11

In2008,venturecapitalistCraigBerkman,formerheadoftheOregon RepublicanParty,wasfoundguiltyinacivilcaseofdefraudinginvestors andwasorderedtopaythematotalof$28million.Berkmanclaimedhe hadnomoneyandwasdeeplyindebt.Soonafter,however,hecontributed $50,000totheRepublicanpresidentialcampaign.Somejurorsinthecase wonderedwhy criminal chargeswerenotbroughtagainstBerkmanforswindlingmillionsofdollars.12

Columbia/HCA,afor-profithospitalchain,pleadedguiltyin2009 tograndfelonychargesofoverbillingstateandfederalhealthplans,and paid$1.7billioninfines.Butnoonesawtheinsideofaprison.13

In2009,fourteenWallStreettradingfirmspaidmorethan$69million inforfeitedprofitsandpenalties.Afewmonthslater,GeneralElectricpaid $50millionforhavingmanipulateditsbookstoinflateitsstockvalues.At thatsametime,aformerchiefofAmericanInternationalGroup(AIG),the giantinsurancefirm,agreedtopayjust$15millioninpenaltiesforoverseeing fraudulenttransactionsthatamountedtoatleast$2billion.14 Nobodywent tojailfortheseimmenseswindles.

Alsoin2009,thepharmaceuticalgiantPfizeragreedtopay$2.3billionto settlecivilandcriminalchargesthatithadillegallymarketedapainkiller.Illegalmarketingisalltoocommoninthedrugindustry,accordingtoconsumer advocates.ItwasPfizer’sfourthsettlementinvolvingcriminalactivitiesin sevenyears.Yetnoonewenttoprison.15

BIGCRIME,SMALLPUNISHMENT(USUALLY)

Penaltiesoftenareuncollectedorsuspended.TheJusticeDepartmentfailedto collectsome$7billioninfinesandrestitutionfromthirty-seventhousand corporationsandindividualsconvictedoffelonies.OveronehundredS&L plea-bargainers,whoescapedlongprisontermsbypromisingtomakepenalty repaymentsof$133.8million,repaidlessthan1percentofthatamount.16

TheBushJr.administrationdecreasedmajorfinesforminingsafetyviolations, theninnearlyhalfthecasesdidnotcollectthefines.Ontherelatively rareoccasionsthatcorporatecriminalsaregivenprisonterms,thesentenceis usuallylight averagingaboutelevenmonths andsometimesisnoteven served.17

WallStreetinvestorMichaelMilkenpleadedguiltytosecuritiesviolations andwassentencedtotenyears reducedtotwenty-twomonths,mostof whichwasspentdoingcommunityservice.Corporatecriminalssentencedto communityserviceseldomdobutasmallportionofit,ifany.Milkenhadto payback$1.1billionbutretainedavastfortuneof$1.2billionfromhisdealings.Likewise,IvanBoeskywalkedoffwith$25millionafterpayinghisfine forinsidertradinganddoingabriefspellbehindbars. “Everymajorparticipantinthese[WallStreetinvestment]crimesemergedfromtheexperienceasa wealthyman.”18 Again,whosayscrimedoesnotpay?

Onlyrarelyarethievingcorporateofficershitwithheavyprisonterms. OnehighlypublicizedcaseinvolvedthenotoriousswindlerBernardMadoff, whotookinsome$65 billion fromaffluentinvestors,foundations,charities,

andbanks,pocketingthemoneyinsteadofinvestingit.In2009,the 71-year-oldMadoffwassentencedto150yearsinprison.19

AnothergrandswindlerwasMarcDreier,aprominentlawyer(graduateof YaleUniversityandHarvardLawSchool)whosoldmorethan$700million worthoffakepromissorynotestoinvestorsandstolemorethan$46million fromclients.HewassentencedtotwentyyearsinprisonnotlongafterMadoff. Hundredsofemployeeslosttheirjobswhenhislawfirmcollapsed.20

Themanyexamplesgivenabovehardlyrepresentacompletelistingofcorporatemalfeasance.Itseemsthatalmosteveryweeksomefinancierischarged withfraudandtheft andthisdoesnotcountthemanywhodonotgetcaught. BesidesindividualbrigandsandPonzischemers,therearethewidespreadplots involvingmortgagefraudandconsumerfraud.TheTreasuryDepartmentestimatesthatmortgagefrauds withmorethanfivethousandcasesreported eachmonthin2009 coststhepublicanywherefrom$15billionto$25billion ayear. 21

ADemocratic-controlledCongresspassedandPresidentBarackObama signedtheFraudEnforcementandRecoveryActof2009,whichgivesthefederalgovernmentmoreauthoritytoprosecutemortgagefraudatvirtuallyevery stepofthemortgagingprocess,frompredatorylendingonMainStreettosecuritiesmanipulationonWallStreet.Italsocreatesabipartisancommission topolicethefinancialflimflamthathelpedtosparkamajoreconomic recession.

Withgoodreasondoopinionsurveysfindamajorityofthepublicbelievingthatwrongdoingisrampantinthebusinessworldand “executivesare bentondestroyingtheenvironment,cookingthebooksandliningtheirown pockets.” Some90percentthinkthatbigcorporationshavetoomuchinfluenceovergovernment,whereasonly2percentconsidercompanybosses “very trustworthy.”22

EveryyearintheUnitedStates “criminalsamasshundredsofbillionsof dollarsfrom … mortgagefraud,extortion,embezzlement,illegalgambling, bankfraud,publiccorruption,humantrafficking,identitytheft,securitiesviolation,insurancefraud,intellectualpropertypiracy,andbankruptcyfraud.”23 Evenwhentheperpetratorsendupbehindbars,theirlootoftengoesundiscovered,includingrealestate,yachts,aircraft,offshoreaccounts,andotherassetsamountingtotensofbillionsofdollarsthatcouldbeusedtocompensate victims.24

CorporationshavebeenusingSLAPPsuits(StrategicLawsuitAgainstPublic Participation)asawayofsilencingpubliccriticismaboutcorporateproductsor practices.ThemeatindustrysuedOprahWinfreyfor “productdisparagement,” aftershecommentedonhertelevisionshowthathamburgerswerenotsafeto eat.Winfreywonthecase,butshenolongerdaredtocriticizethemeatindustry. InWestVirginia,anenvironmentalactivistwassued$200,000foraccusinga coalcompanyofpoisoningalocalriver.Winorlose,suchlawsuitshaveachillingeffectoncriticsofcorporatewrongdoingwholackthefinancialresourcesto sustainyearsoflitigation.AsoneNewYorkSupremeCourtjudgeremarked aboutSLAPPsuits: “Shortofaguntothehead,agreaterthreattoFirstAmendmentexpressioncanscarcelybeimagined.”25

TherelativelysmallnumberoffederalactionsagainstcorporateAmerica hardlysupportstheimageofbusinessasthevictimofamercilessfederalgovernmentrunamok.Moreoftenthannot,governmentlawyersareoutspent andoutdone.26 In2005,supposedlytoeliminate “frivolouslawsuits,” a Republican-controlledCongresspasseda “tortreform” thatmadeitmoredifficultforpeopletolaunchclassactionsagainstbigcorporations.Frivolous lawsuitsactuallyarenotagreatproblem.Generallytheyarequicklydismissed byjudgesbeforeevergoingtotrial.Thesuitsthatreallyantagonizecorporate Americaareanythingbutfrivolous.Thinkoftheclassactioncasesagainsttobaccocompanies,utilities,automanufacturers,chemicalplants,andtheasbestosindustryonbehalfofworkersandconsumerswhohavesufferedgreat injury.

Furthermore,U.S.businessesthemselvesfilefourtimesasmanylawsuits asdoindividuals,andtheyarepenalizedmuchmoreoftenthananyoneelse forpursuingfrivolouslitigation.Corporationsthinkthecountryistoolitigiousonlywhentheythemselvesaresued.Butmostlitigationagainstbusiness comesfromotherbusinesses.27

CLASSLAW:TOUGHONTHEWEAK

SupremeCourtJusticeHugoBlacknotedin Griffinv.Illinois (1956)that there “canbenoequaljusticewherethekindoftrialamangetsdepends ontheamountofmoneyhehas.” Whetherthelegalsystemtreatsaperson

asprinceorpariahrestslargelyonone’sfinancialresources.Thecorporate executivewithateamofhigh-poweredattorneyshasadifferentlegalexperiencethanthepoorpersonwithanunderpaidcourt-appointedlawyerwho seesthedefendantforthefirsttimeonthedayofthetrial.Some80percent ofaccusedpersonsnationwiderelyonpublicdefenders.28

Astherecessiondeepens,the criminalizationofpoverty intensifies.The numberofordinancesagainstthehomelessorthoseresidinginrundown neighborhoodshasbeenrisinginrecentyears.Loiteringalongastreet,littering,failingtoproduceanIDifstoppedbypolice,gettingsnaredinarandom policesweep,carryinganopenbottleofliquor suchthingscanleadto arrest,andarrestcansendyoudeeperintothepovertypitbecauseitcanbe difficulttogetajobwithapolicerecord.29

Poor,uneducatedpersonsandracialminoritiesaremorelikelytobe arrested,deniedbail,inducedtopleadguilty,anddowithoutadequatelegal representation.Publicdefenderservicesareamongthefirsttobecutwhen budgetsaretight.Aslumpingeconomybringshighercrimeratesandmore unemployeddefendantswhocannotaffordalawyer.Everywrongfullyconvicteddefendantleavesarealcriminalonthestreet.Thepoorarelesslikely tohaveajurytrialiftried,morelikelytobeconvictedandreceiveaharsh sentence,lessabletolaunchextendedappeals,andlesslikelytoreceiveprobationorasuspendedsentencethanarebusinessexecutives,mobsters,celebrities,andwealthypeopleingeneral.30

Workersengagedinlaborstrugglesseldomfindthelawontheirside.In recentyears,policeinvariouslocalesacrossthenationhaveattackedstriking farmlaborers,truckers,miners,meatpackers,janitors,andfactoryandconstructionworkers,arrestingandinjuringhundreds.Privatesecurityforces beatupstrikingworkersandbreakpicketlineswithactsofviolencethat havegoneunchallengedbypoliceandprosecutors.Workershavebeenimprisonedforresistingcourtinjunctionsagainststrikesandpickets,andevenfor shoutingatscabworkersortalkingbacktopolicewhileonpicketlines.Inthe 1990ssevenstrikerswereshotbycompanygoonsinIndiana,andastriking coalminerinKentuckywasshotdeadbyagunthug,aswasanotherminerin WestVirginiaandafarmworkerinTexas.Innoneofthesecasesdidpolice apprehendanyone despiteeyewitnesseswhocouldidentifythekillers.31

Relativelypettyoffendersaresometimesaccordeddraconiantreatment. Someexamplesfromoverthelastthreedecades:AVirginiamangottenyears forstealing87cents.AyouthinLouisianareceivedfiftyyearsforsellingafew ouncesofmarijuana.AHoustonyouthwassentencedtofiftyyearsforrobbingtwopeopleof$1.Afive-timepettyoffenderinDallaswassentencedto onethousandyearsinprisonforstealing$73.InSouthDakotaaseven-time nonviolentcriminalwhowrotea$100checkthatbouncedwasgivenalife sentence.ACaliforniamangottwenty-six-yearstolifefortryingtotakethe writtenportionofadriver’slicensetestforhiscousinwhospokelittleEnglish, normallyamisdemeanorpunishablebyuptooneyearinprison.Amigrant workerinNorthCarolinaspentthirty-fiveyearsinprisonforstealingatelevisionset;hewasreleasedin2005.In2002,amaninCaliforniawhostole ninevideosworth$153wassentencedtolifewithnopossibilityofparole

forfiftyyears.ThatsameyearactressWinonaRyderstole$5,500ofmerchandisefromaswankydepartmentstoreinCalifornia,andtheprosecutordidnot askforjailtime,saying: “WesimplywantMs.Rydertotakeresponsibilityfor herconduct.”32

Somepeoplemaintainthatthetoughlock-’em-uppolicyexplainsthedrop incrimeratesinrecentyears.Butstatesandmunicipalitieswith low incarcerationratessometimesshowagreater decrease incrimethanlocaleswithhigh incarcerationrates.Andstatesthathaveimposedadraconian “threestrikes” law(amandatorylifesentenceforathirdfelonyconviction)shownogreater declineinviolentcrimethanstateswithoutit.Thedeclineincrimeseemsto havebeencausedbythelowerbirthrateandsubsequentdropinthepopulationofmalesbetweeneighteenandthirty.33

The “warondrugs” ismostresponsiblefortheprisonpopulationexplosion.Playinguponpublicfearsaboutnarcotics,lawmakersthroughoutthe countryoutdothemselvesinpassingharshmandatorydrugsentences.Theresultisthatthree-fourthsofourfederalandstateinmatepopulationconsists mostlyofyoungpettydrugoffenderswhoareaveragingmorejailtimethan mobsters,murderers,childmolesters,andrapists.34 Toillustrate:In2004,a federaljudgesentencedamantotwenty-twoyearsforbeatinganelderly womantodeath.Afewhourslater,thesamejudgesentencedatwentyfive-year-oldfirst-timedrugoffender,fatheroftwoyoungchildren,tofiftyfiveyears.Thejudgehadnochoice.Federalmandatorydruglawsdemanded thesentence.35

Theenormouscostofwarehousinggreatnumbersofnonviolentpettyoffendershascausedsomestategovernmentstoabolishmandatorysentences anddivertdrugusersintotreatmentprograms,therebysubstantiallyreducing theexplodingprisonpopulationandsavinghundredsofmillionsoftax dollars.36

Well-connectednarcoticsviolatorsareoftentreatedmorelenientlythan poorerones.Forexample,thesonofU.S.RepresentativeDanBurton(R-IN) wasarrestedfortransportingnearlyeightpoundsofmarijuanainLouisiana, thenarrestedagainforpossessionofthirtymarijuanaplantsinIndiana.He wassentencedtodocommunityservice.FloridagovernorJebBusheagerly filledhisstate’sprisonswithdrugoffenders,butwhenhisowndaughterwas arrestedonprescriptionfraud,heimmediatelypleadedforthepublictoshow compassion.Sheneverwenttojail.Nordidright-wingtalk-radiobullyRush Limbaugh,whohadrepeatedlycalledforlockingawaydrugabuserswhilehe himselfwasillegallyprocuringcontrolledsubstancesfromvariousdoctorsto feedhisaddiction.Insteadofjail,hewasallowedtocheckhimselfintoapricey privaterehabilitationcenter.37

Bignarcoticscartelsrarelyfeeltheheat.Legislationtostopthelaundering ofdrugmoneythroughlegitimatefinancialinstitutionsremainsvirtuallyunenforced.Meanwhile,the “warondrugs” providesprofitableemploymentfor hundredsofthousandsofprisonguards,police,andlawenforcementbureaucratsandofficials.

TheFBIcooksitscrimestatisticsbyclassifyingdrugtrafficking,burglary, andprostitutionasviolentcrimes.Allthisfeedspublicfearsandlendssupport

forstilllargerlawenforcementbudgetsandmoredraconianmeasures.38 To besure,violentcrimeisaseriousproblem,butamoreaccuratedescription ofitsscopemighthelpcalmfearsandencourageamorejustandeffective enforcement.

THECRIMEOFPRISONS

Asof2009theUnitedStateshadthelargestprisonpopulationintheworld, largerthanChinaorIndia,nationswithfarmorepeople.Withlessthan5percentoftheworld’spopulation,theUnitedStateshadalmost25percentof theworld’sprisonpopulation,about2,311,000inmatesinfederalandstate prisonsandlocaljails.Ifwecountnotonlyinmatesbutalsothoseonparole orprobation,thecorrectionalpopulationtotals7.3millionor1inevery 31adults,morethanfourtimesthenumberin1980.Inthelastthreedecades, prisonsentenceshavedoubledinlength.Over140,600inmatesareservinga lifesentence,athirdofthemforcrimesotherthanmurder,includingburglary anddrugoffenses.Manystatesarenowspendingmoreonprisonsthanon education.39

Ofthosesentencedtostateprisons,mostaredrugoffenderswithnohistoryofviolenceorofanysignificantsellingactivity.Fouroutoffivedrugarrestsareforpossessionofillegalsubstances,mostcommonlyformarijuana offenses.Thesemassarrestsofpettyoffendershasdonenothingtobreakup thepoweroftheillegalmultibillion-dollardrugtraffickers.40

Ofthepeopleinprison,over90percentaremen,mostlylow-income andunderemployed.About47percentareWhite,46percentareAfrican American,and7percentareclassifiedasLatinoorothergroups.Two-thirds oftheinmatesservinglifesentencesareAfricanAmericanorLatino,often incarceratedundertoughmandatoryminimum-sentencinglaws.Oneinten AfricanAmericanmeninthecountry,agestwenty-fivetotwenty-nine,were imprisonedin2008,manybecauseofpossessionofcrackcocaine.Prisons areanythingbut “correctionalinstitutions.” Mostofthemremainbreeding groundsfordiseaseandviolence.Inmatesareamongthephysicallysickest peopleinthenation.41

Anestimated60,500maleinmatesinstateandfederalprisonswereraped inoneyear,alongwiththousandsmoreinlocaljails withmanymoreprobablyleftuncounted.Victimsseldomreporttheabusebecauseofunresponsive authoritiesorfearofreprisal.Giventhesesexualassaults,HIVratesareeight totentimeshigherinprisonthanoutside.Rapevictimsoftensufferserious emotionaldamage,andaresometimesdriventosuicide.Onetragicillustration:InTexassixteen-year-oldRodneyHulin,incarceratedforstartingafire inadumpster,wasrepeatedlybeatenandgang-raped.Hispleasforprotection andthosemadebyhismotherwereignoredbyprisonauthorities.Heended histormentbyhanginghimself.42

Thirty-sixstatesandthefederalcorrectionalsystemhavesupermaximum-securityfacilitiesthatarelittlebetterthanhigh-techdungeons. Prisonersinthesesolitaryunitsaresubjectedtoseveresensorydeprivation, isolatedinbareconcretecellssealedoffbysolidsteeldoorscuttingoffsound

andvisualcontactwithothers,anisolationthatamountstotorture.They neverseedaylightandliveunderconstantelectronicmonitoring.Theyare deniedreadingmaterial,television,radio,counseling,andreligiousservices, andmosttellingofall,ordinaryhumancontact.Theymusteatintheircells, andarerepeatedlyharassed,taunted,andseverelybeatenbyguardsfortrivial infractionsofinconsistentrules.Someareputonpowerfulbody-racking, mind-alteringdrugs,andretreatintomadness.43 Someprisoners,including minors,aremadetowearstunbelts.Activatedbyremotecontrol,thebeltsdelivera50,000-voltelectricshockthatlastseightseconds,causingseverepain andinstantincapacitation.ThehorrificconditionsinsomeU.S.jailsinclude overflowingtoiletsandcellsinfestedwithverminandlackingventilation.

Aroundthecountry,inmateshavediedundersuspiciouscircumstances, oftenmurderedbyotherprisonersorsuccumbingtothetortureandbeatings administeredbyguards.Disabledinmates,unabletocareforthemselvesoften sufferterribleneglectandaremostatrisk.Tomakemattersworse,Congress passed,andPresidentClintonsigned,thePrisonLitigationReformActand otherbillsthatreducedtheinmates’ alreadylimitedlegalprotectionsagainst custodialbrutality.44

Thereisendemicpilferinginprisons,mostofitperpetratedbythecustodialpersonnel.Guardsstealfood,officesupplies,sportinggear,andwhatever elsetosupplementtheirusuallygenerouspayandbenefits.Astheyspend more,theygetmore.Toquoteoneguard: “Ifthere’sanymoneyintheprison’soperatingbudgetattheendoftheyear,theadministrationordersit spent.They’reafraidthepoliticianswon’tincreasenextyear’sbudgetif moneyisleftover.”45

Newfive-hundred-bedprisonscontinuetobeopened,andmorebodies arebeingcorralledtofillthem,usuallydrugoffendersfromthemorevulnerablelower-incomecommunities.Somestateandfederalprisonsarerunby privatefirms.Theprivatecompanyoftenextractsfreeacreage,plustaxabatements,andthengetsthestateorfederalgovernmenttopaythemaintenance costsandprovidetheequipment.Tobeprofitable,privateprisonsskimpon foodandmedicalcareforprisonersandensurethattheprisonsarekeptfilled. A90to95percentcapacityisneeded “toguaranteetheheftyratesofreturn neededtolureinvestors.”46

Privatelyrunprisonssufferfarmoreinefficiencyandabuseandmorelawsuitsthanevenstateprisons.Whentheprisonsproveinsufficientlyprofitable, companiesleasethembacktothegovernmentforaprofit thesamegovernmentthatsubsidizedtheoriginalconstruction therebyobligingthetaxpayer topaytwiceover.47

Afterservingtheirtime,ex-convictsfacedauntinghurdlestryingtoput theirlivesbacktogether.Insomestatesbothpublicandprivateemployers denyjobstoconvictedfelons.Ex-convictscanberefusedfoodstamps,family assistance,andpublichousing,andforalengthoftimeadriver’slicense. Uponrelease,theyarefacedwithseriousdebts,includingcourtcosts,copaymentsforpublicdefenders,monthlyfeestoprivateprobationcompanies,and feesforrehabilitationclassesanddrugtests.Whenpaymentscannotbemet, theunpaidinterestcompoundsandthedebtcandoubleandtripleinsize.48

Facingrecordbudgetdeficits,severalstateshavebeguntoeaseuponthe lock-’em-upcraze.Theyaresendingnonviolentdrugoffendersintorehabilitationratherthanprison,shorteningprobation,andreducingthenumberof peoplelockedupforminortechnicalviolations.49

AMOSTFALLIBLESYSTEM

Thecriminaljusticesystemishighlyfallible.Inhundredsofinstances,the wrongpersonisapprehendedandconvicted.Someexamples:PeterLimone waswronglyimprisonedforthirty-threeyears,includingfourondeathrow. HewasreleasedwhenitwasdiscoveredthatFBIagentshidevidencethat wouldhaveprovenhiminnocent.NicholasYarrisspenttwenty-oneyearsunderthethreatofexecutionforrapeandmurderuntilDNAtestingprovedthat hewasthewrongman.InvestigationsoftheLosAngelesPoliceDepartment aloneresultedinoveronehundredconvictionsbeingoverturnedbasedon plantedevidenceandfalsifiedpolicereports.Inaddition,therearehundreds ofmistaken-identitycasesaroundthenationinvolvingpeoplewithsimilar namesorappearances. 50

OverthepastcenturyhundredsofinnocentpersonsintheUnitedStates havebeenexecutedforcrimestheydidnotcommit.51 RubenCantuwasexecutedforkillingonemanandwoundinganother.Twelveyearslatertheman whohadbeenwoundedandaco-defendantbothdeclaredthatCantuhadnot beenpresentatthecrimeandthattheyhadfingeredhimbecauseofpressure andthreatsfromtheauthorities.52

Evendemonstrableinnocencemaynotbeenoughtosavethewrongly convicted:LeonelTorresHerrerawasexecuted onatechnicality in1992 inTexas.Therewasclearevidenceofhisinnocence,thecourtacknowledged; butitrefusedtostayhisexecutionbecausetheevidencewassubmittedtoo lateforanappeal.53

InIllinoisin2000,GovernorGeorgeRyan,aRepublicanandadvocate ofthedeathpenalty,feltcompelledtocallamoratoriumonexecutions afterthirteenofthetwenty-seveninmatesondeathrowinhisstatewere releasedbecausenewevidence(oftenDNAtests)provedtheminnocent. TheNebraskalegislaturepassedasimilarmoratorium.Between1973and September2009,over135peopleintwenty-fivestateswerereleasedfrom deathrowbecauseofevidenceoftheirinnocence,roughlyoneexoneration foreverysevenexecutions.Iftheyhadbeenrushedtothedeathchamber, therewouldhavebeennoopportunitytoreopentheircases.54 Ofthepeople ondeathrow,thegreatmajorityarelow-income;somearementallyill orretarded;10percentarewithoutcounselandvirtuallyalltheresthad court-appointedlawyers.

Awrongfulconvictioncreatestheadditionalinjusticeofallowingthereal culpritstogofree,oftentocommitadditionalcrimes.Foreighteenyearsthree AfricanAmericanperpetratorsgotawaywithagangrapeanddoublemurder inChicagoforwhichfourotherAfricanAmericanmaleswerewronglyconvicted:twooftheinnocentmengotlifesentencesandtwoweresenttodeath row.TheireventualreleasecamewhenDNAtestsshowedthatnoneofthe fourcouldhavecommittedtherape.Thisprovedtosomeobserversthat “thesystemworks.” Infact,itwasthesystemthatimprisonedthewrong men.TheywerefreedthankstotheenergeticeffortsofaNorthwesternUniversityjournalismprofessorandhisstudentinvestigators.55

Somearguethatthedeathpenaltyactsasadeterrenttocapitalcrimes. Theevidencedoesnotsupportthisview.Stateswithoutthedeathpenaltydo nothavehighercrimerates.Statesthatadoptthedeathpenaltydonotexperienceadiscernibledropincapitalcrimeratesovertheyears.Homiciderates haverisenandfallenalongroughlysymmetricalpathsinstateswithandwithoutthedeathpenalty,suggestingthatitisrarelyadeterrence.56

Acompellingargumentagainstcapitalpunishmentisthatitassumesthe infallibilityofaveryfallibleenforcementprocess,taintedbycoercedconfessions,mistakenidentity,perjuredtestimony,evidencesuppressedbyoverzealouspoliceandprosecutors,questionableforensicpractices,incompetentor overworkeddefenseattorneys,grosserrors,andtheprejudicesofjudgesand jurors.Revelationsaboutthepitfallsofthecriminaljusticesystemhavecaused publicsupportforthedeathpenaltytofallby20percentinrecentyears.

Until2005theUnitedStateswastheonlycountrythatstillallowedexecutionofminors(seventeenoryounger).Thenin Roperv.Simmons (2005), theSupremeCourtruled5to4thatitwasunconstitutionaltosentenceanyonetodeathforacrimeheorshecommittedwhileundereighteenyearsof age.TheCourtarguedthatthefailingsandjudgmentsofaminorcouldnot beequatedwiththoseofanadult,andthattherewasmorepossibilityofreformfortheyoung.

SEXISTJUSTICE

Effectivelawenforcementisneededtoprotectthepublicfromcorporate felons,swindlers,organizedmobsters,murderers,rapists,muggers,childabusers,spousebatterers,hate-crimeperpetrators,andothers.Butthelawfrequentlyfailsthosemostinneedofitsprotection.Everyyearanestimated 2millionto4millionwomenareassaultedbytheirmalepartnersinthe UnitedStates,makingdomesticviolencethesinglelargestcauseofinjuryto women.Mostfemalemurdervictimsdieatthehandsofcurrentorformer husbandsorboyfriends.57

Rapeisacrimethatpolicehavelearnedtotakemoreseriously butapparentlynotseriouslyenough.Rapekitsthatgatherallpossibleevidenceof therapist’sDNAareregularlyleftuntestedforayearormore;manyofthe kitsaresimplydiscardedwithoutatest.WhenNewYorkCitymadeaconcertedeffortoverthelastdecadetotesteverykitthatcamein,theresultwas increaseddetectionsandanarrestratethatrosefrom40to70percent.58

Restrainingorders tokeepbatterersawayfromtheirvictims oftenare notissuedbycourtseventhoughlegallyrequired,orareignoredbyprosecutors.Abusersfrequentlyfailtoattendcounselingandtreatmentprograms whoseeffectivenessinanycaseremainsuncertain.59 Onlyasmallpercentage ofmalebatterersareeverprosecutedandincarcerated.Batteredwomenfrequentlyaredeniedlegalandmedicalassistancefromagencies,andtheassaults theyendureareoftentrivializedbyunsympatheticpoliceandjudges.But womenwhokilltheirabusersalmostalwaysreceiveseveresentencesevenif therepeatedbatteringhadbecomelifethreatening.Rapevictims,too,areoftentreatedasiftheybroughtitonthemselves.Insomelawschools,rapeis stillconsideredfromtheviewpointoftheaccusedratherthanthevictim.Feministorganizationshavehadonlylimitedsuccessingettinglawofficialstotake moreactivemeasuresagainstrapistsandbatterers.60

Formanypoorwomen,welfareandfamilyassistancewastheirprimary meansofescape,providingsupportforthemandtheirchildren,andenabling themtoleavetheirbatterers.Cutbacksinwelfarehavecausedadramatic dropinthenumberwhoattempttoescapeabusiverelationships.61 Indesperateattemptsatfindingmeansofsupportandescape,somebatteredlowincomewomenturntodrugdealing which,inturn,helpsexplainthesharp increaseinthefemaleprisonpopulation.

Womenhavemadeimportantgains,movingintoprofessionsandoccupationspreviouslyofflimitstothem.Theyarenowenteringlawschoolin greaternumbersthanmen,yetfemalelawyersstillearnlessthantheirsimilarlyqualifiedmalecounterparts,andcomposeonlyatinyportionoflaw firmpartners,lawschooldeans,andjudges.Womenonaveragestillearn lessfordoingthesameworkasmenandaremorelikelytoberelegatedto lower-paying,dead-endjobs.62

SincetheadventofTitleIX afederallaw(1972)thatprohibitsdiscriminationonthebasisofsexinregardto “anyeducationprogramoractivity receivingfederalfinancialassistance”—womennowmakeupthemajority ofundergraduatesinU.S.collegesanduniversities.Women’steamsports

accountformorethanone-thirdofallhighschoolandcollegevarsityathletics.Girlsdoequallyaswellasboysinelementarymathematics,sciences,and technologyclasses,andwomenaremakingcareerinroadsinmedicine,science,business,andengineering.

Abouthalfthefemaleswhogetpregnantdonotwanttobepregnant.Yet some85percentofthenation’scountieslackaccesstosafeabortionproviders.Dominatedby advocatesofcompulsorypregnancy (whocallthemselves “pro-life”),manylocalgovernmentshavebeenimposingnuisancelawson abortionclinics,demandingchangesindoorwidths,ceilingheights,sizeof counselingrooms,anddozensofothertrivialbutcostly “repairs” thatmake ittooexpensivefortheclinictoremainopen.Still1.5millionwomenmanage toprocuresafeandlegalabortionseveryyear,manyofthemvoicingtheir profoundthanksfortheservice.

Asof2009,advocatesofcompulsorypregnancy whobelievethatafertilizedovumisahumanbeingwithrightsthattakeprecedenceoveritshuman carrier havecommitted8murdersofdoctorsandabortionworkers,2kidnappings,17attemptedmurders,41bombings,and175arsonsagainstabortionclinicsandfamily-planningcenters;alongwithinnumerableactsof vandalism,assaults,intimidation,burglaries,andblockingclinicentrances. Abortionandbirthcontrolcentershavesustainedmillionsofdollarsindamages.Theycontinuetospendlargesumsonbulletproofglass,armedguards, securitycameras,andmetaldetectors.Theviolenceperpetratedbytheadvocatesofcompulsorypregnancylargelyexplainswhysomanycountiesin Americadonothaveasingleabortionprovider.63

Manyoftheseterroristactsshowalargedegreeoforganizedandcoordinatedeffortamonganti-abortiongroups.YettheFBIstilldoesnotclassify anti-abortionviolenceasdomesticterrorism.ItishardtoimaginesuchalackadaisicalFBIresponseifidentifiableradicalgroupshadsubjectedhundredsof banks toarsonattacks,bombings,andkillings.

Asof2008,thenumberofwomeninprisonhadclimbedtoover207,700, justunder10percentofthetotalU.S.prisonandjailpopulation.African Americanwomenhavebeenthehardesthitbythelock-’em-upcraze.Incarceratedwomenendurepoormedicalcare,sexualharassment,forcedstrip searches,andrapebymaleguards.Athree-yearstudyofU.S.prisonsdocumentedmorethanonethousandcasesofsexualabuse,withhundredsmore goingunreportedoutoffearofretaliation.Infederalwomen’sprisons70percentofthecorrectionalofficersaremen.Malecorrectionalofficialswatch womenundressingintheshowerorthetoilet.Theyretaliate,oftenbrutally, againstfemaleinmateswhocomplainaboutsexualassaultandharassment. TheUnitedStatesisoneofthefewcountriesthatallowunaccompaniedmale stafftosupervisefemaleprisoners.64

Whatkindofwomenendupinprison?Mostlyyoungsinglemotherswith fewjobskills,manyhavinglefthomeearlybecauseofsexualorphysical abuse,manywithadrugoralcoholaddictiontoeasethepainoftheirlives. Almostallhavebeenlivinginornearpoverty.Mostofthemareconvictedof prostitution,shoplifting,pettydrugdealing,orpassingbadcheckstofeed themselvesandtheirchildren.Noneofthemarebig-timenarcoticstraffickers,

gangsters,orembezzlers.Fewhavecommittedanactofviolence,though manyhavebeenvictimsofviolenceintheirlives.Manyarechargedasaccessoriestocrimescommittedbyboyfriendsorex-boyfriendswhoimplicatethem inordertogetlightersentences.Somewomenhavebeengivenlifeinprison withoutparoleforconspiracytodistributedrugs,eventhoughtheyplayed onlytangentialrolestothemeninvolved.65

Anothergroupthathaslongbeenthetargetoflegalandsocialoppression intheUnitedStatesandelsewherearehomosexuals.Violenceagainstgaysand lesbiansrangesfromphysicalharassmenttomurder.Tensofthousandsof homosexualshavebeenhoundedoutofjobsandoutofthearmedforces. Lesbiansandgayshavebeendeniedcustodyoftheirchildrenonthegrounds thattheirsexualproclivitiesmadethemunfitparents.Inonecase,aFlorida judgetransferredcustodyofagirlfromherdevotedlesbianmothertoher fatherwhohadservedeightyearsinprisonformurderinghisfirstwife.66

Theorganizedstruggleslaunchedbyhomosexualsagainsthatecrimesand discriminatoryhousingandemploymentpracticeshavemetwithsomesuccess. In2003theSupremeCourtruledthatstatelawsbanningsexualpracticesbetweenconsentingadultsofthesamesexviolatedanindividual’srighttoprivacy anddueprocess.67 Buthomophobicattitudesandactionsremainawidespread problemaswitnessedbythebacklashagainstgaymarriagethroughmuchof thenation.Marriageiscurrentlydefinedasexclusivelybetweenamananda womaninatleastforty-twostates.Somethirtystateshaveaddeddefense of(heterosexual)marriageamendmentstotheirconstitutions.Fivestates (Massachusetts,Connecticut,Iowa,Vermont,NewHampshire)plustheDistrict ofColumbiarecognizesame-sexunions,asdoentirenationssuchasCanada, Norway,Belgium,Spain,Sweden,andSouthAfrica.68

THEVICTIMIZATIONOFCHILDREN

Childrenareanothergroupwhohavereceivedinsufficientprotectionfrom federalandstateauthorities.InanyyearintheUnitedStates,thereareabout 900,000confirmedcasesofchildrenbeingbattered,burned,starved,tortured, seriouslyneglected,andinotherwaysabused,withsome2,000childrenperishingeachyear.Theactualnumberisprobablyhigherbecausenonaccidental injuriesanddeathsofchildrenaresometimesmistakenlydismissedbyauthoritiesas “accidents.” Everyyearabout150,000childrenarereportedmissing, ofwhomsome50,000areneverfound.69

Studiesfindthataboutoneinfourwomenandalmostoneinsixmenreporthavingbeensexuallyabusedaschildren,mostfrequentlybyaclosefamilymember afather,stepfather,andthelike orlessoftenbyaclergyman, teacher,orday-careattendant.Wellintotheiradulthood,sex-abusevictims sufferfromdepression,sexualdysfunction,eatingdisorder,alcoholism,and otherafflictions.Anestimated39millionsurvivorsofchildhoodsexualabuse existinAmericatoday.Onlyaminutepercentageofchildrapistsareeverconvicted.Andconvictionusuallybringsarelativelylightsentence.Inmanystates therapististreatedleniently,usuallywithprobationorsomecounseling sessionsthathavelittletherapeuticeffect. “Forthegoodofthefamily” the

incestuousrapistsarefrequentlyallowedtoreturnhomeandresumetheir victimization withavengeance.Sometimes,judgesevengrantcustodyorunsupervisedvisitationrightstothesexuallyabusiveparent.70

Anestimated45,000to50,000womenandchildrenarebroughtintothe UnitedStateseveryyearunderfalsepretensesandforcedtoworkasprostitutes, laborersorservants.In2000,Congressapprovedalawdesignedtofortifymeasuresagainstdomesticviolenceandagainstthetraffickingofwomenandchildren.TheGovernmentAccountabilityOfficefoundthatabout3.7million minorsworkedeithertoomanyhoursoratprohibitedjobs,andmorethan 200,000childrenareinjuredonthejobeachyear.71

Sensationalizedmediaaccountsofhighschoolshoot-upsand “youth crimewaves” causesomepeopletoforgetthatyoungstersaremoreoftenvictimsthanperpetratorsofviolence.Statistically,theyaresaferinschoolthanin theirownhomes.

Morethanamillionchildrenarekeptinorphanages,reformatories,and adultprisons.Mostwerearrestedforpettytransgressionsorwerejustinthe wrongcompanywhenacrimewascommitted.Minorsincarceratedinjuvenile correctionalfacilitiesareroutinelysubjectedtosexualassault,severebeatings, prolongedsolitaryconfinement,neurologicallydamagingpsychoactivemedications,and,insomecases,psychosurgery.72

Behavioralmedicationsareincreasinglybeingministeredtochildren,includingpreschoolersunderfiveyearsold.Drugscanbeprescribedfortotally nonmedicalreasons,aswhenachildisbeingfidgetyorinattentive,orotherwiseincursthedisfavorofinstitutionalcustodians.In2009,theFoodand DrugAdministrationapprovedtheuseofantipsychoticdrugsforchildrento treatmanicandbipolarandotherpsychoticstatessuchasschizophrenia.The drugs,administeredwithnolong-termadequatetest,havenumerousdamagingsideeffects,evenleadingtosuicideandsuddendeathfromstrokeor cardiopulmonaryfailure.73

Parentswhodisliketheirchildren’slifestyle,dissentingpoliticalviews,or “badattitude” sometimescanhavethemconfinedindefinitelyinpsychiatric institutions.MillionsofU.S.residentshavespenttimeinpsychiatricwardsat onetimeoranother.Itiseasiertogetcommittedthanonemightthink,and hardertogetout.Somepeoplelanguishtherefordecadesunderterribleconditionswithnolegalrecourse.Theworstoftheseinstitutionshavesuspiciouslyhighdeathtolls.Mentalpatientswhohavenostatefundingorwhose insurancerunsoutarefrequentlyreleasedoutonthestreetseveniftheyarein realneedofcustodialcare.Inmanyinstances,countyjailsendupholding mentallyillpersons,usuallyforminordisturbances.74

RACISTLAWENFORCEMENT

Whateverthegainsmadebypeopleofcolor,includingascendancytothepresidency,AfricanAmericansandotherethnicminoritiesstillconfrontserious discriminationinvariouswalksoflifeandatthehandsofthelaw.Affirmative actionfor Whites haslongbeentherule.Since1790,immigrationlawshave favoredWhiteEuropeanimmigrantsoverpeopleofcolor.Slaveryand

segregationallowedWhitestosuperexploitBlacklaborforcenturies.ForgenerationsWhitesgotthebetterschoolsandbetterfunding.Fromthe1930sto the1960ssome15millionWhitefamiliesprocuredhomeswithfederallysubsidizedloans,whereaspeopleofcolorweremostlyexcludedfromtheprogram.Whitescurrentlyareinheritingpropertyandotherassetsfromtheir parentsandgrandparents,accumulatedatatimewhenpeopleofcolorwere allowedalmostnoaccesstosuchassets.

OnestudyfoundthatWhitemenwithprisonrecordswereofferedjobs justasoften,ifnotmoreso,thanBlackmenwhohadneverbeenarrested. Blackex-convictsareonlyone-thirdaslikelyasWhiteex-convictstogeta joboffer whichmeansahigherrecidivismrateforBlacksbecauseexconvictswithjobsaremuchlesslikelytocommitfurthercrimes.75

Thenation’sprisonpopulationisdisproportionatelyAfricanAmerican, Latino,low-income,andunderemployed.Itisusuallyassumedthatthisreflects thehighercrimerateandsocialpathologyamongsuchgroups.Infact,various studiesshowthatdruguse,alcoholism,violence,weaponspossession,and drunkendrivingactuallyhavebeenhigheramongWhiteyouthsthanamong Blackyouthsoverthelastdecade butmuchlesspublicized.76 Theclassand racialbiasesofthelawenforcementsystemaremajorfactorsindetermining whogoestoprison.Anattorneywhospecializesinjuvenilecasesnotesthat youngstersfromwell-to-do(mostlyWhite)families,whogetintominorscrapes withthelaw,areturnedovertotheirparentswithawarningtostayoutof trouble.Butinlessaffluentneighborhoods,childrenarearrested,charged,and broughttocourt.AfricanAmericanyouthsaremorelikelythanWhiteoffendersofthesameagetobeapprehended,tried,andconvicted,andmorelikely togetlongerprisontermsthanWhitesconvictedofthesamecrimes.77

AlmostsixtimesasmanyWhitesusenarcoticsasAfricanAmericans,yet 62percentofdrugoffenderssenttostateprisonsnationwideareAfrican American;insomestatesitisashighas90percent.About82percentoffederalcrackdefendantsareBlack,eventhoughafederalhealthsurveyfound thatmostcrackusersareWhite.AfricanAmericans,whocommitonlyabout 26percentofviolentcrimesinagivenyear,compose46percentoftheU.S. prisonpopulation.78

Prosecutorsarefarmorelikelytoseekthedeathpenaltyifthe victim is White.Almostallinmatesondeathrow(whetherBlackorWhite)arethere formurderingaWhiteperson.AfricanAmericansarealmostfourtimesmore likelytoreceivethedeathpenaltyandsignificantlylesslikelytohaveitcommutedthanWhiteswhoperpetratesimilarcrimes.79 InTexasin2005,four WhitemenbeatanAfricanAmericanmanunconsciousandlefthimfordead; threeofthemreceivedthirty-daysentencesandonegotsixtydays.Alsoin Texas,ayoungWhitemalechainedahomelessBlackmantoatreeandburned himtodeathwithgasoline.Heservedonlyayearinjuveniledetention.80

Police whoaremostlyWhite,well-paid,andresidentsofmiddle-class Whitesuburbs oftenstopdriversbasedontheirskincolorratherthanon thewaytheyaredriving,inwhathasbeencalled racialprofiling.OnInterstate95betweenBaltimoreandDelaware,onestudyfoundthatAfrican Americansdroveonly14percentofthecarsbutaccountedfor73percentof

thestops.Investigationsofpolicedepartmentsinnumerouslocalesrevealthat incidentsofracistbrutalityarewidespreadandoftentoleratedbydepartment commanders.81

AnotherstudyfoundthatBlackwomenwereninetimesmorelikelythan Whitewomentobestoppedandsearchedfordrugscomingthroughairport security eventhoughWhitewomenweretwiceaslikelytobecarrying drugs.82

UnarmedAfricanAmericanandLatinopersonshavebeenshotorbeaten todeathbypoliceofficersincircumstancesimpossibletojustify.FourNew YorkCitypoliceofficersinplainclothesfiredforty-onetimesatAmadou Diallo,anunarmedmanwhowasstandinginthehallwayofhishouse,hitting himnineteentimesincludingseveralbulletsintheback;theywerefoundnot guiltyofanycrime.

LosAngelespoliceshotMichaelWilliamArnold106times,claiminghe hadbrandishedaweapon anairgunthatmiraculouslywasstillinhisright handwhenhisbodywasexamined,eventhoughhehadbeenshotseveral timesintheheadandthreetimesinhisrighthand,oddlywithnodamageto thegun.InNewYork,policedraggedLebertFolkesfromhissister’scar parkedinfrontofhishouseandshothimintheface.Thenextdaytheyapologized;hiscarhadbeenmistakenlyidentifiedasstolen.83

Therearefarmoreexamplesthanspacewillallow.Withfewexceptions thepolicegetawaywithit.Prosecutorsareextremelyhesitanttobringcharges againstcops,andWhitemiddle-classjuries,fedasteadydietofcrimeshows andcrimenews,arereluctanttoconvict.TheFBIandJusticeDepartmentdo notevenkeepnationalstatisticsonassaultsandkillingsperpetratedbypolice officers.

Tobesure,thepolicethemselvesdonotgounscathed.Everyyearacross thecountrysome16,500lawenforcementofficersareinjuredonthejob,and about150arekilled.Thepolicesometimesapprehendrecklessdriversand dangerouscriminals.Theyassistintimesofcommunityemergencyandperformothercommendableservices.Butpolicealsoserveaclass-controlfunction,protectingthehavesfromthehave-nots.Theydealwiththeill-fedand ill-housed,theexploitedandabused,inacontainmentcampaignthatrulers andmanycommunitymembersinsistupon.

DecadesagoaformerBostonPoliceCommissioner,RobertDiGrazia, notedtheclassinjusticesinthe “waragainstcrime” :

Thosewhocommitthecrimewhichworriescitizensmost violentstreet crime are,forthemostpart,theproductsofpoverty,unemployment,broken homes,rotteneducation,drugaddictionandalcoholism,andothersocialand economicillsaboutwhichthepolicecandolittle,ifanything….Politiciansget awaywithlaw-and-orderrhetoricthatreinforcesthemistakennotionthat police inevergreaternumbersandwithmoregadgetry canalonecontrol crime.Thepoliticians,ofcourse,endupperpetuatingasystembywhichtherich getricher,thepoorgetpoorer,andcrimecontinues.84

Afinalwordaboutcorporatecrimeandstreetcrime.Weshould beawareofhowtheyareinterrelated.Thepoorgetpoorerastherichget richer.Thewhite-collarcorporateplundererstakeaterribletollonsociety,

especiallyuponthosewhoareleastabletodefendthemselves.Theyhelp createtheverywant,injustice,andmaldistributionthatcontributesomuch tostreetcrime.Ifitistruethatweneedmorelawandorder,morerespect forotherpeople ’srights,thenweshouldstartatthetop,vigorouslyapplyingthelawtothosewhoplunderwithoutregardfortheruinouseffects onothers.

PoliticalRepressionand NationalInsecurity

Thecorporate-dominatedstateismoresincerelydedicatedtofightingorganized dissentthanfightingorganizedcrime.Thelawoftenappearsineffectivewhen attemptingtoimplementsocialreformsthatbenefitthemany,butwhenmobilizedagainstpoliticalheterodoxy,lawenforcementispursuedwithaboundless punitivevigorthatitselfbecomeslawless.

THEREPRESSIONOFDISSENT

OneagencyusedbytheauthoritiesforpoliticalharassmentistheInternal RevenueService(IRS),whichhasgoneaftercivilrightsleadersandanticapitalistradicals.TheCommunistPartyhaditsassetsseizedandwasillegallydeniedtaxexemptionforyears whilethetwoprocapitalistmajorpolitical partiesenjoyeduninterruptedexemption.1 TheStateDepartmentandU.S. ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement(ICE)excludeanyonefromabroad whomightbeaffiliatedwithcommunist,anarchist,orallegedly “terrorist” groups,orwhoengageinactivities “prejudicialtothepublicinterest.” Every yearunderthesesweepingprovisos,scoresofinternationallyprominentwriters,artists,musicians,scientists,andlaborleadersfromothercountrieshave beenrefusedtherighttovisitandaddressaudiencesintheUnitedStates.2 So thegovernmentprotectsusfromdangerousthoughtsbydecidingwhomand whatwecanorcannothearfromabroad.

Undera1990law,supposedlynoonecanberefusedavisabecauseofideology,yettheStateDepartmentandICEcontinuetomaintaina “lookoutlist” ofhundredsofthousandsofpersons,manyofthemconnectedtopeaceand socialjusticeorganizations.CanadiancommunistswhowanttovisittheUnited

StatesmustfiletheirfingerprintswiththeFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI) andtheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,make “pro-American” vows,and provideproofthattheyarenowactivelyengagedinopposingcommunism. Meanwhileright-wingersandreactionariesfromothercountriesgenerallyenjoy unchallengedentry.

TheU.S.governmentsignedtheHelsinkiaccords,anagreementamong nationsnottoimposetravelrestrictionsupontheirowncitizens.YetthousandsofU.S.citizenshavebeendeniedU.S.passportsandputon “NoFly WatchLists” becausetheStateDepartmentdecidedthattheiractivitieswere “contrarytotheinterestsoftheUnitedStates.” In2004,regulationswereissuedbarringAmericanpublishersfromprintingbooksbyauthorsfrom nationsthatareunderU.S.sanction.ThepublishersmustfirstgetU.S.governmentapproval,whichisnoteasytodo.3 Tofurtherinoculateusfrom unsafethoughts,Congresspassedatotalitarian-typelawin2003creatingan advisoryboardthatcancensoranycoursecurriculumatpubliclyfunded institutionsthatcontains “anti-American” criticismsofU.S.foreignpolicy.4 Corporationshavefiredemployeesforhavingthewrongpoliticalopinions.Thecourtshavesupportedtheirrighttodoso,rulingin LloydCorporationv.Tanner(1972)thattheFirstAmendmentoftheConstitutionprohibits onlygovernment notprivate-sectoremployers fromsuppressingspeech. Peoplewithaffiliationstoanticapitalistgroupshavebeenhoundedoutof jobsinlaborunions,teaching,entertainment,andvariousotherfieldsbyfederalandstateinvestigators.5

TheFBIhasmillionsoffilesonorganizationsandindividualsoftencontaininguncorroboratedrumorsfromanonymoussourcesconcerningpersonallivesandpoliticalleanings.AsecretcourtcreatedbytheForeign IntelligenceSurveillanceAct(FISA)of1978reachescourtdecisionsincompletesecrecy,withnopublishedrecord.Targetedindividualsandorganizationscannotseetranscriptsorcontestthesurveillanceinanymanneroreven beinformedthattheyareundersurveillance.Thetargetneednotbeunder suspicionofcommittingacrimebutmightsimplybedeemeda “threatto U.S.nationalsecurity. ”6

Duringthepopularstrugglesagainstwarandracialsegregationinthelate 1960s,someactivistssufferedphysicalassaultandevendeathatthehandsof WhitevigilanteswhilepoliceandFBIinformantseitherlookedtheotherway oractuallyassisted.7 Onepoliceofficialdeclaredthatthereweremorelawofficersthroughoutthecountry “onpoliticalintelligenceassignmentsthanare engagedinfightingorganizedcrime.”8 Invariouscities,secretpoliceunits havespiedonandharassedhundredsofthousandsoflawfulindividualsand organizations.9 Perhapsonereasonauthoritiescannotwinthe “waroncrime” andthe “warondrugs” isthattheyhavebeentoobusyfightingthewaron politicalnonconformity.

ThisseemstrueoftheFBI.In1971,filesstolenfromanFBIstoragefacilityinMedia,Pennsylvania,andsubsequentlypublishedinnationalmagazines revealedthatthelargestportionofFBIworkinthemid-Atlanticregionwas directedatpoliticalactivistsanddraftresisters(47percent),whereasonly 1percentwasdedicatedtoorganizedcrime.10

Fordecades,theFBIconductedacounterintelligenceprogram, Cointelpro,designedtosubvertprogressivegroups.Workingcloselywithright-wing organizations,theFBIusedforgeddocuments,illegalbreak-ins,telephone taps,andundercoverprovocateurs.Thebureauinfiltratedlaborunionsinattemptstobrandthem “communistcontrolled,” anditworkedwithmanagementinthesurveillanceofstrikers.Asthe NewYorkTimes belatedly acknowledged, “RadicalgroupsintheUnitedStateshavecomplainedfor yearsthattheywerebeingharassedbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation anditnowturnsoutthattheywereright.”11

TheFBIcontinuedtokeepa “securityindex” ofmanythousandsofnames, mostlyfromgroupsopposedtocapitalism,whowereslatedforarrestand detentionincaseofa “nationalemergency”—eventhoughthelawauthorizing thispracticewasdeclaredunconstitutional.AsoneFBIagentstated, “The [Cointelpro]programisstillinoperation,butunderadifferentcodename.”12

AsdirectoroftheFBIforalmostahalfcentury,J.EdgarHooverkept elaboratedossiersonnotables includingpresidents,cabinetmembers, SupremeCourtjustices,andmembersofCongress oftenthreateningexposureoftheseamiersideoftheirpersonallivesinordertowinadvantage overthem.Hooverplanteddefamatorystoriesinthepress,collaboratedwith segregationists,andharassedcivilrightsleaderslikeMartinLutherKingJr. HeusedFBIfundsforhisprivateprofitandacceptedlavishgiftsfromwealthy friendswhomhethenprotectedfromcriminalinvestigation.Hooveralsocultivatedrelationswithorganized-crimefigures,makingnoseriouseffortto moveagainstthemobformorethanthirtyyears.13

OvertheyearstheFBIandpolicecontinuedtheirsurveillanceanddisruptiveinfiltrationofanticapitalistparties,peaceorganizations,environmental groups,civillibertiesorganizationsliketheNationalLawyersGuild,andadvocacygroupsforpoliticalprisoners.14 Authoritieshavemade “preemptiveraids” ondemonstrators.Theyhavebeaten,pepper-sprayed,andarrestedlawfulprotestorswithoutjustifiablecause,subjectingthemtoharshjailconditions.15

OnedissenternotedthattheWashington,D.C.,policeforce “can’tseem togetitsacttogethertofightcrime” yetitcanturnoutinmassivenumbersto squelchpeacefuldemonstrations. “Whereareallthosecopstherestofthe yearwhenweneedthem?”16 Sowiththepoliceinothercities:theyseemso muchmorecapableanddeterminedwhenattackingunionorganizers,civil rightsprotestors,andpeacedemonstratorsthanwhenconfrontingmobsters orcorporatefelons.17 ASenateJudicialCommitteehearingin2006revealed thattheFBIhadimproperlyconductedsecretsurveillanceofantiwargroups, includingQuakersandaCatholicpeaceorganization.Asonesenatorcomplained, “WhatbusinessdoestheFBIhavespyingonlaw-abidingcitizens simplybecausetheyopposethewarinIraq?”18

InthemonthsleadinguptotheRepublicanNationalConventionin Minneapolis,anFBI-led “TerroristTaskForce” infiltratedprotestorganizationsandconductedpreemptiveseizuresandarrests,enteringhomes,seizing computersandpoliticalliterature,andhandcuffingandarrestingpeacefulprotestors,journalists,andlawyersrepresentingdetainees.Bythefourthdayof theconvention,overeighthundredarrestshadbeenmade,almostallpeaceful

demonstrators,withfelonychargeslodgedagainstsometwohundred.This increasinglyhasbeentherepressiveresponseofFBIandpoliceagainstdemonstratorsexercisingtheirFirstAmendmentrighttoassembleandprotest.19 In thelastdecadeorso,invariouscitiespolicehaverepeatedlyviolatedourconstitutionalrighttoassembleandprotest.

POLITICALPRISONERS,USA

Despiteclaimstothecontrary,theU.S.governmenthasahistoryofpolitically motivatedincarcerations.In1915,radicallaborleaderJoeHillwasexecuted inUtahforacrimehedidnotcommit,mostinvestigatorsbelieve.TheprominentlaborleaderEugeneDebsandsomesixthousandothersocialists,pacifists,andlabororganizerswereimprisonedordeportedduringtheFirstWorld Warorimmediatelyafter.TheanarchistsSaccoandVanzettiwerearrested andeventuallyexecutedinMassachusettsforacrimevirtuallyallinvestigators saytheydidnotcommit.20

HundredsofwarresisterswereimprisonedduringWorldWarIIand theKoreanWar.Over120,000law-abidingJapaneseAmericanshadtheir homes,farms,andbusinessesconfiscatedandweresenttointernment campsas “securityrisks” forthedurationofWorldWarII.Hundredsof ItalianandGermanaliens,includingelderlygrandparents,wereforciblyinterned.TheSmithActof1940prohibitedtheadvocacyofrevolutionary ideasandwasusedtojailscoresofAmericancommunistsandotheranticapitalistsforthebetterpartoftenyearsormore.Othersspenttimebehind barsforrefusingtocooperatewithcongressionalwitchhuntsduringthe McCarthyera. 21

DuringtheVietnamWar,severalthousandyouthswerejailedforrefusing toserveinthearmedforces;thousandsmorechoseexile.Almosteveryantiwaractivistwhooccupiedapositionofnationalorevenlocalleadershipwas arrestedatonetimeoranotherorleftthecountryorwentunderground.22

AfricanAmericanleadersinvolvedinprogressivecommunitycausesand strugglesagainstdrugpushershavebeenrailroadedintoprisonontrumped-up charges includingMartinSostre,FrankShuford,theleadersofBlackMen AgainstCrack oftentobesubjectedtobeatingsandsolitaryconfinementand madetoserveastronomicalsentences.23

InTchula,Mississippi,EddieCarthanwaselectedthefirstAfrican AmericanmayorsinceReconstruction,andthefirsttoopposethelocalplutocracy.Carthaninitiatedprogramsfornutrition,healthcare,daycare,and housingrehabilitation,andrefusedtoappointcroniesofthebigplanters. TheBoardofAldermen,dominatedbyplanterinterests,cuthissalarytovirtuallynothingandbarredhimfromhiscityhalloffice.Thegovernorhadall federalfundstoTchulacutoff,endingmostofthemayor ’ sprograms.When Carthanretookhisofficewithfiveauxiliarypolice,hewaschargedwithassaultandsentencedtothreeyears,convictedonthetestimonyofawitness wholaterrecanted.Aftercombingthroughthemayor ’ spapers,theFBIdiscoveredthatCarthanhadauthorizedanassistanttosignhisnametoadeliveryreceiptforday-careequipment;forthis “fraud” hewasgivenan

additionalfour-yearsentence.Then,afteraBlackalderman(alliedwiththe localWhiteelitesandimplicatedindrugdealing)wasrobbedandkilledand themurderersconvicted,Carthanwaschargedwithhavingplottedthemurderandimprisoned.Hewasreleasedonlyafterprotestcampaignswere launchedaroundthecountry. 24 Thelow-incomeBlackvotersofTchulagot alessoninwhathappenstodemocraticleaderswhointrudeuponanentrenchedandwealthypower.

Prisonerswhoopenlyprofessradicalviewsorwhoprotestagainstprison conditionshavebeenrepeatedlydeniedparole,andsubjectedtomind-altering drugs,beatings,prolongedshackling,isolation,andothermistreatment.From 1968to1971,overthreehundredmembersoftheBlackPantherParty(arevolutionaryMarxistorganization)werearrested,manyheldwithoutbailor trialforalongduration.AtleasttenformerPanthers,convictedonfabricated evidenceandcoercedtestimonythatwassubsequentlyrecanted,servedthirty yearseachinprison.PantherAlbertWashingtondiedinprisonafterserving overtwenty-eightyears,duringwhichhewasrepeatedlymistreatedforhispoliticalideas.PantherHermanBellhasbeenunjustlylockedupsince1975, afteratrialthatincludedperjuredtestimony,torture,andevidencesuppressed

bytheprosecution.AnotherBlackPanther,AnthonyBottom(akaJalilAbdul Muntaqim),hasbeenincarceratedsince1971.BlackPanthersMarshall “Eddie” Conway,AlbertWoodfox,andHermanWallaceservedalmostforty yearseachinprison(mostlyinsolitary)forcrimesthatwereneverproven againstthem.AnotherBlackrevolutionary,RobertHillaryKing,wasreleased aftertwenty-nineyearsinsolitaryconfinement;hisconvictionwasoverturned andhepleadedguiltytoalesserchargeofconspiracytocommitmurder.25

Pantherleader,GeronimoPratt,waschargedwithmurderwhenhewasa UCLAstudent.TheFBIconvenientlylostitssurveillancerecordsshowingthat PrattwasfourhundredmilesawayattendingaPanthermeetinginOaklandat thetimeofthemurder.Afterservingtwentyyearsinprison,Pratthadhisconvictionoverturnedandwaspaidasettlementof$4.5million.26

CommunityactivistFredHamptonJr.(sonofBlackPantherleaderFred Hampton,whowasmurderedinbedbylawofficersraidinghishome)was triedonaboguschargeofarsoninChicago.Duringthetrialnoevidence wasproduceddemonstratingthatafirehadactuallytakenplaceorthat Hamptonwasconnectedtotheallegedincident.Yetin1993hewasgiven eighteenyears,subjectedtoharshmistreatmentfororganizingaroundinmates rights.Hemanagedtogetparoledin2001.27

ThereisthedeathrowcaseofMumiaAbu-Jamal,ex-Panther,radiojournalist,andarticulatecriticofsocialinjusticeandpolicebrutality.ApoliceofficerinPhiladelphiawasshotbyoneArnoldBeverly,whoseconfessiontothe shootingwascorroboratedbyaliedetectortest.Mumiaarrivedonthescene asBeverlyfledandwashimselfshotbyanarrivingcop.Inadeeplyflawedtrial, involvinganincompetentdefense,policeperjury,andintimidatedwitnesses, Mumiawasconvictedandsentencedtodeath,eventhoughnoballisticevidence linkedhimtotheshooting.Severaleyewitnesseshaveunequivocallyindicated thathewasnotthegunman.Hehasbeenondeathrowsince1982.28

ImprisonedforlongtermsweremembersoftheAmericanIndianMovement,includingLeonardPeltier,accusedofshootingtwoFBIagentsandconvictedonaffidavitsthatthegovernmentnowconcedeswerefabricated.Peltier hasbeenincarceratedsince1976.29 PuertoRicannationalistsreceivedanaverageofsixty-sevenyearsforseditiousconspiracy,specifically,belongingtoa groupthatintendedtooverthrowU.S.ruleinPuertoRico.(Seditionisdefined as “theincitementofresistancetolawfulauthority.”)Otherswhohaveserved orarestillservinglongsentencesaremembersoftheBlackLiberationArmy, theRepublicofNewAfrika(aBlackseparatistmovement),theAfricanPeoplesSocialistParty,ChicanoandNorthAmericananticapitalistrevolutionaries,andradicalcommunityorganizers.30 In2001,fiveCubans whowere monitoringextremistCubanAmericangroupsinFloridathatwereplotting terroristattacksagainstCuba werefalselychargedwithespionageagainst U.S.militarybasesandgivendraconiansentences.31

ThemembersofPlowshares,apeacegroup,jackhammeredtheconcrete aroundamissilesiloin1984.Forthisprotestaction,elevenofthemwere eachsentencedtoeighteenyearsinprison.AWhitewoman,LindaEvans, organizedsoeffectivelyagainstracismthattheLouisianaKuKluxKlanput herontheirdeathlist.Toprotectherself,shepurchasedgunsusingafalse

identification.Forthisandforharboringafugitive,Evanswassentencedto forty-fiveyears.SusanRosenbergandTimBlunk,anticapitalistactivists, wereeachgivenfifty-eightyearsforweaponspossessionandfalseidentification.MarilynBuck,aWhitepersonwhoalignedherselfwiththeBlack liberationmovement,wasconvictedofconspiracytouseviolenceagainst governmentproperty,andsentencedtoanincredibleeightyyears.Shehas beeninprisonsince1983.32

Convictedofattemptedrobbery(thatnevertookplace)andaidinga BlackPanthertoescapeprison,SilviaBaraldini,acampusradicalandantiwar activist,wassentencedtoforty-threeyears.Sheandotherpoliticalprisoners wereheldinahigh-securityunitatLexington,Kentucky,enduringwindowlesscells,totalisolation,andconstantsurveillancebyhostilemaleguards.In time,theireyesightandhealthseriouslydeteriorated.Transferredtohernative Italyin1999toservetheremainderofhersentence,Baraldiniwasreleasedin 2006underapardonlawapprovedbytheItalianParliament.33

Supportershavepointedoutthatnoneoftheseaccusedindividualswere everconvictedofharminganyone.Theyweregivendraconiansentencesin prisonnotforwhattheyhaddonebutfortheirpoliticalactivitiesandideologies.Inthisrespecttheyfitthedefinitionofpoliticalprisoners.

EnvironmentalactivistslikeJeffLuersalsohaveencounteredharshtreatment.Hewassentencedtotwenty-twoyearsandeightmonthsinprisonfor burningthreesportutilityvehiclesatadealershipinOregonasaprotestactionagainsttheecologicaldamagewroughtbysuchgasguzzlers.Thiswasa heaviersentencethangiventoserialrapists,childmolesters,andarsonists.(In Oregonarsonistsusuallygetlessthanfiveyears.)Aftermuchagitation,the sentencewasreducedtotenyears,giventhatitwasacrimeinwhichnoone wasinjured.34

Sometimesjustutteringthewrongwordscanbeenough.In2005afederalcourtconvictedMuslimspiritualleaderDr.AliAlTamimiforsupposedly remarkingtohisfollowersatameetingthattheyshouldgoabroadandtrain forajihadinAfghanistan.Forthis “terroristic” advocacyhewassentencedto lifeinprison.35

POLITICALMURDER,USA

DuringtheantiwardemonstrationsoftheVietnamera,lawenforcersusedlethalforceagainstunarmedprotestorsonseveraloccasion.InOrangeburg, SouthCarolina,policefiredintoapeacefulcampusgathering,killingthree AfricanAmericanstudentsandwoundingtwenty-sevenothers.OhioNational GuardsmenkilledfourWhitestudentsandmaimedtwootherswhowereparticipatinginanantiwarprotestatKentStateUniversity.Tendayslater,atthe all-BlackJacksonStateCollegeinMississippi,policebeganshootingintoa women’sdormitorywhereprotestingstudentshadpeaceablycongregated,killingtwoandwoundingadozenothers.36 “Impartial” investigationsbythevery authoritiesresponsibleforthekillingsexoneratedtheuniformedmurderers.

PoliceattackedtheBlackPantherPartyinmorethantencities,wrecking offices,stealingthousandsofdollarsinfunds,andarresting,beating,and

shootingoccupantsinplannedoperationscoordinatedwiththeFBI.Atleast thirty-fourPanthersweremurderedbypolicebytheearly1970s.37

AfamouslydedicatedunionleaderoftheUnitedAutoWorkers(UAW), WalterReuther,whowasplayingakeyroleinactivatingthelabormovement againsttheVietnamWar,waskilledwhenhissmallplanecrashedin1970. Evidenceindicatedthattheplane’saltimeterhadbeensabotaged.Ayearanda halfearlierReutherandhisbrotherVictor,anotherUAWlaboractivist,had barelyescapeddeathinaremarkablysimilarincident amalfunctioningaltimeter(inadifferentaircraft).Weeksbeforethefatalcrash,PresidentNixonand otherRepublicanleadershadlabeledReuthera “dangerousmenace.” AssassinationattemptsagainstbothWalterandVictorhadoccurredyearsearlierwhen bothwereshotbysniperswhileintheirrespectivehomes,causingpermanent injurytoboth.ForyearsReutherhadbeenconstantlytrackedbytheFBI.38

Between1991and1993threeHaitiantalk-showhostsinMiami,who airedcriticalcommentariesaboutCIA-supportedmilitaryrepressioninHaiti, wereshotdead.39 IndividualsintheCubanAmericancommunitywhoadvocatedaconciliatorypolicytowardtheCubancommunistgovernmentwere subjectedtothreatsandattacks.Aright-wingCubanexileterroristgroup openlyclaimedcreditforsometwenty-onebombingsbetween1975and 1980andforthemurderofaCubandiplomatinNewYork,yetthegroup escapedarrestinallbuttwoinstances.40

IntheUnitedStates,between1981and1987,therewereelevenkillingsof Vietnamesepublishers,journalists,andactivistswhohadadvocatedrelations withthecommunistgovernmentofVietnam.Ineachinstance,aU.S.-based right-wingVietnameseorganization,VOECRN,claimedresponsibility.One ofVOECRN’svictims,apublisherofaVietnamese-languageweekly,survived hisshootingandidentifiedthegunman.Theassailantwasconvictedbutthe convictionwasreversedattheprosecutor’srequestbecause “hehadnoprior criminalrecordinthiscountry.” ThepoliceandFBIclaimedthatsuchattacks wereunrelatedanddevoidofapoliticalmotive despiteVOECRN’spoliticallyinspiredcommuniquésclaimingresponsibility.41

ThereisthestrangecaseofProfessorEdwardCoopermanwhowasshot inhisofficeatCaliforniaStateUniversity,Fullerton.AsfounderofanorganizationadvocatingscientificcooperationwithVietnam,Coopermanhadreceiveddeaththreats.LamVanMinh,aVietnameseémigréandCooperman’s formerstudent,admittedwitnessingtheprofessor’sdeathandwasarrested. Ashetellsit,Coopermanproducedagunthataccidentallydischargedand killedhim.Minhleft,takingthegunwithhimforsomereason.Hethen tookafemalefriendtoamovie,afterwhichhereturnedtotheofficeand placedtheguninCooperman’shand.Theofficehadtheappearanceofa struggle.TheprosecutionintroducedlittletochallengeMinh’simprobable story.Hewasconvictedofinvoluntarymanslaughter,sentencedtothree years,andservedonlyone.Minhhadbeenpreviouslyarrestedforpossession ofstolenproperty.Hislawyerwasprocuredbyaright-wingVietnamese organization.42

InChicago,afterrepeateddeaththreats,RudyLozano,aChicanounion organizerandcommunist,whoworkedeffectivelytouniteLatinos,African

Americans,andWhitesaroundworking-classcauses,wasshotdeadinhis homebysomeonewhocametohisdooronthepretenseofaskingfora drinkofwaterandwhostolenothing.Accordingtofamilymembers,paramedicswhoarrivedatthescenethoughttheycouldsaveLozano’slife,but policeblockedthemfromgettingnearhim,because “evidencemightbe destroyed. ”43

OtherpoliticalmurdersorsuspiciousdeathsintheUnitedStatesinclude:

• AlanBerg,apopularDenvertalk-showhostwhoengagedinimpassioned argumentswithanti-Semiticandracistcallersandwhowaskilledby membersofaWhitesupremacistgroup.

• DonBolles,who,atthetimeofhismurder,wasinvestigatingafarreachingfinancialscandalthatimplicatedsomeofArizona’smostpowerfulpoliticalandbusinessleaders.

• KarenSilkwood,whowasinvestigatingradiationsafetynegligenceat Kerr-McGeecorporation.

• DannyCasolaro,whoseuncoveringofgovernmentandbusinesscorruptionmighthaveimplicatedhigh-rankingU.S.officials.

• DavidNadel,aBerkeley,California,politicalactivistandorganizer, whoseidentifiedmurdererislivingataknownlocationinMexico.

• MarineColonelJamesSabowatMarineCorpsAirService,ElToro(declareda “suicide ” eventhoughthebackofhisheadwasbashed),who threatenedtoblowthewhistleoncorruptcovertoperatorswithlinks todrugtrafficking.Fourotherspecialistsandcontractorsconnected withtheElTorrooperationwereallfounddeadundersuspicious circumstances.44

In2005someonehundredheavilyarmedFBIagentssurroundedthe homeofOjedaRíos,theseventy-two-year-oldleaderofaPuertoRicanindependencemovementwhohadevadedarrestaftertheheistofaWellsFargo truckin1990.Theagentsapproachedwithgunsblazing.TheautopsyperformedonRíos’sbodyrevealedthathecouldhavesurvivedhadhereceived propermedicalattention.Instead,theFBIallowednooneintothehousefor eighteenhourswhileRíosslowlybledtodeath.AmnestyInternationalconcludedthatthekillinghadtheblueprintofan “extrajudicialexecution.”45 Federalagentshavelentsupporttoviolentrightistgroups.Inthe1970sa paramilitary “peacekeeping” forceunderFBIdirectioncarriedoutaterrorist campaignonthePineRidgeIndianReservationthatwasdirectlyresponsible forhundredsofassaultsandforthedeathsofmorethansixtysupportersof theAmericanIndianMovement.InSanDiego,theFBIfinancedacryptofascistoutfitcalledtheSecretArmyOrganization,whoseoperationsranged fromburglaryandarsontokidnappingandattemptedmurder.TheSenate IntelligenceCommitteerevealedthattheFBIorganizedforty-oneKuKlux KlanchaptersinNorthCarolinaalone.FBIinformantsintheKlandidnothingtostopKKKmembersfromcommittingmurderandotheractsofviolence. Insomeinstances,asinthe1979Greensboro,NorthCarolina,massacreof fourmembersoftheCommunistWorkersParty,FBIinformantsprocured weaponsforthemurderersanddirectedthemtotherightlocation.The

Greensboropolicealsoknewoftheimpendingattackbuttooknoaction.The gunmenwerefilmedonvideotapebyjournalistswhowerecoveringtherally buttheperpetratorswereacquitted.46

From1969to1972,U.S.MilitaryIntelligenceandtheChicagopolice jointlyoperatedanorganizationcalledtheLegionofJustice.Itsmembers clubbedandmacedprotestorsandantiwardemonstrators,brokeintotheir headquarters,stolefiles,vandalizedaprogressivebookstore,andcommitted othersuchcriminalacts.47

Violentright-wingersusuallygounscathedbytheauthorities.TheLouisianadistrictcourtthatgaveLindaEvansforty-fiveyearsalsosentencedDon Black,aKKKmemberwhotransportedillegalweaponsandattemptedtoset upadrugcartel,tothreeyears.Hewasoutintwo.Whenaskedwhatthey intendedtodoaboutthefifteenorsoright-wingparamilitaryterroristcamps withintheUnitedStates,aJusticeDepartmentofficialsaidthecampsdidnot appeartobeinviolationofanyfederalstatute.48

AnAmerican,MichaelTownley,linkedwiththeCIA,admittedin2005to havingperpetratedanumberofassassinationsfortheChileandictatorshipin the1970s.HewasgivenonlytenyearsforthemurderofChileandiplomat OrlandoLetelierandAmericanactivistRonnieMoffitinWashington,D.C. Buthewassoonfreedunderthewitnessprotectionplan.LuisPosadaCarilles waslinkedtoTownley,theCIA,andvariousterroristactsincludingkilling seventy-threepeopleinthebombingofaCubanairline.TheBushadministration,whichprofessedadedicationtofightingterrorism,refusedtohand PosadaovertoVenezuelaorCubawhereheisfacingmurdercharges. Posada’scloseaccompliceinthebombingoftheCubanairline,Orlando Bosch,waspardonedofallhismisdeedsbytheelderPresidentBushin1990 andlivesasafreemaninFlorida.AllchargesagainstPosadahimselfwere dismissedbyaBush-appointedfederaljudgeonatechnicalityhavingtodo withfaultytranslationathisnaturalizationinterview.Twoyearslaterin 2009Posadawasindictedforlyingabouthisinvolvementinaseriesof1997 bombingsthattargetedtouristspotsinCuba.49

WhentwoChicanosocialistswerekilledbybombsplantedintheircars, theFBImadenoarrests.WhenapowerfulbombwreckedtheofficesofseveralprogressiveandcivillibertiesgroupsinNewYork,injuringthreepeople, thepolicemadeonlyaperfunctoryinvestigation.Afteraseriesofthreats,an antinuclearorganizerwasshotdeadinHoustonandanassistantwas seriouslywounded;policecameupwithnotaclue.50

TheFBIwasquicktomakearrestswhenleftistenvironmentalistsJudi BariandDarrylCherneywereinjuredbyacarbombin1990.Theyarrested thevictims,BariandCherney,callingthem “radicalactivists” andcharging thatthebombmusthavebelongedtothem.Bari,anoutspokenadvocateof nonviolence,wasseriouslyinjuredintheblast.Neverfullyrecoveringher health,shediedofcancerin1997.Thechargeswereeventuallydropped forlackofevidence.Bari’ sorganizationlaunchedacivilrightslawsuit chargingthattheFBIitselfwasinvolvedinthebombing.In2004theJustice DepartmentagreedtopayCherneyandtheBariestatea$2million settlement.51

Rightistterroristsaretreatedlightlybylawenforcers,leftistgroupsare treatedseverely.Thereisnothinginconsistentaboutthisposition.Left groups nomatterhownonviolentandlawful challengethecorporatecapitalistsystemorsomeaspectofitsprivilegesandabuses,whereasrightist groups nomatterhowviolentandunlawful dothedirtyworkforthatsystem.Thusthereisacommunityofinterestbetweentherightistsandthelaw agenciesandsometimesanunspokencollaboration.

However,whenright-wingextremistsengageincounterfeitingandbank robberies,andplanattacksagainst federal targetsinsteadofleftisttargets,as withtheOklahomaCitybombingofafederalbuildingthatclaimed168lives, including19children,in1995,thenlawenforcersmoveagainstthem,albeit sometimesbelatedly.

THENATIONALSECURITYAUTOCRACY

Withinthegovernmentthereexistsaloosegroupingofauthoritiesthatsome havecalledthe nationalsecuritystate,consistingofthepresident,thesecretariesofStateandDefense,theNationalSecurityCouncil,theJointChiefsof Staff,andnumerousintelligenceagenciesliketheFBIandCIA.Thenational securitystate’sprimaryfunctionistodefeatmovementsathomeandabroad thatseekalternativestofree-marketglobalization.

Congresshasnoexactideahowmuchitallocatesforintelligenceoperationsbecausespecificfundsarehiddeninotherbudgetitems inviolationof ArticleI,Section9oftheConstitution,whichdeclaresthatnofundsshallbe drawnfromthetreasuryexceptbylawfulandpubliclyaccountedappropriation.AdeputydirectoroftheCIAstatedthattheoverall “intelligencebudget” was$44billionin2005.52

ThereisthePentagon’sDefenseIntelligenceAgency,whichdealswithmilitaryespionageandcounterintelligence.EveryechelonwithinthePentagon army,navy,andairforce andeveryregionalcommandaroundtheworld hasitsownintelligenceservice.53 TheNationalReconnaissanceOffice(NRO) usessatellitesinorbittoeavesdropontelephoneconversationsanddiplomatic communications,andphotographpotentialtargetsformilitaryaction.Inthe early1990s,theNROcouldnotaccountfor$4billioninsecretfunds.Itstop twoNROmanagerswereousted,butnoonewenttojail.54

TheNationalSecurityAgency(NSA)breakscodesandmonitorsnearlyall telephonecallsandtelegramsbetweentheUnitedStatesandothercountries. Usingthe “waronterror” asanexcuse,theBushadministrationbroughtthe NSAbackintothebusinessofdomesticsurveillance,spyingonAmericans whoseviewsdifferedfromthoseoftheWhiteHouse.55

Presidingovertheentire “intelligencecommunity” istheNationalIntelligenceCouncil,establishedin2005toprovidethepresidentandseniorpolicymakerswithanalysesofforeignpolicyissuesthathavebeenreviewedand coordinatedamongthevariousintelligenceagencies.56

Atonetimeoranother,variousintelligenceagencieshaveadmittedto maintainingsurveillanceonmillionsofprivatecitizensandevenmembers ofCongress.Theyplanttheiroperativesinotherunitsofgovernment.They plantstoriesintheU.S.media,secretlyenlistingthecooperationofmedia bosses,journalists,andeditors.TheCIAalonehassubsidizedthepublicationofhundredsofbooksandhasownedoutrightmorethantwohundred wireservices,newspapers,magazines,andbook-publishingcomplexes.The agencyhasrecruitedthousandsofacademicsacrossthecountryasspies andresearchers,secretlyfinancingandcensoringtheirwork.CIAagents haveinfiltratedstudent,labor,andscientificgroups.Theagencyconducts itsownresident-scholarprogramsandoffersinternshipstoundergraduate andgraduatestudents. 57

TheCIAhasinfiltratedanddisrupteddissentingorganizationsinthis countryandabroad.TheNationalConferenceforNewPolitics(NCNP),a progressivecoalition,neverrecoveredfromtheCIA ’ sdivisiveanddisruptive “OperationChaos ” attacksfromwithin. 58 TheCIAadmittedtocarryingout mind-controlprojectsatovereightyinstitutions,sometimesonunsuspecting persons,andwasresponsibleforthedeathofatleastonegovernment employee. 59

InviolationoftheNationalSecurityActof1947,whichstatesthatthe CIA “shallhavenopolice,subpoena,lawenforcementorinternalsecurity functions, ” theagencyhasequippedandtrainedlocalpoliceforcesinthe UnitedStates,andconductscovertoperationsagainstU.S.citizenswithin thiscountryandabroad. 60

CIA:CAPITALISM’SINTERNATIONALARMYOR COCAINEIMPORTAGENCY?

U.S.intelligenceagenciesdomorethanjustgatherintelligence.Onecould fillvolumesdelineatingtheircrimesagainsthumanity.Incountrieslike Guatemala,Greece,Brazil,Chile,Indonesia,Argentina,Zaire,Guyana,Haiti, Panama,Mozambique,Angola,Jamaica,Kosovo,andthePhilippines,U.S. nationalsecurityforcesandU.S.-supportedmercenaryarmieshaveusedevery meanstodestroypopularrevolutionarymovementsandgovernmentsoreven justreformistones,andinstallrepressiveregimesthatweretotallyaccommodatingtoU.S.corporateinterests.WhataStateDepartmentmemorandum hadtosayaboutGuatemalacouldapplytoanynumberofplaces,namely thatthegovernmenthasusedindiscriminate “counter-terror” tocombatinsurgency. “Peoplearekilledordisappearonthebasisofsimpleaccusations…. Interrogationsarebrutal,tortureisusedandbodiesaremutilated.We[the U.S.government]havecondonedcounter-terror….Weencouragedthe GuatemalanArmytodothesethings.”61

TheCIAhasstolenelectionsandwageddisinformationcampaigns abroad.Ithasbribedofficials,incitedethnicenmities,andfundedandtrained secretarmies,paramilitaryforces,saboteurs,tortureteams,anddeathsquads. Ithaspursueddestabilizationandassassinationcampaignsagainstgovernmentleaders,laborunions,andpeasant,religious,andstudentorganizations innumerousnations.62

CIAtrainingmanualsunearthedbyaFreedomofInformationlawsuitrevealedthattheagencytaughtmethodsoftorturetoThirdWorldmilitaries, suchaselectricshock,watertorture,sleep,food,andsensorydeprivation,and psychologicaltorturesuchasforcingvictimstowitnessthetortureofloved ones,includingone’schildrenorparents.OtherCIAmanualstaughtmethods ofassassination.63 TorturehasbecomeanAmericanexport.Accordingto AmnestyInternational,theU.S.CommerceDepartmenthasissuedhundredsof exportlicensesworthmorethan$27millionforthumbscrews,legirons, shackles,stunguns,andelectro-shockinstruments, “specificallydesignedimplementsoftorture,” muchofittocountrieswithdismalhumanrightsrecords.64

AfterWorldWarII,U.S.intelligenceagenciesputthousandsofNaziwar criminalsandtheircollaboratorsontheU.S.payroll,utilizingtheminrepressiveoperationsagainsttheleftinLatinAmericaandelsewhere.65 TheU.S. governmentalsousedscientistsofthenotoriousbiologicalwarfareUnit731, partoftheJapanesemilitaryduringWorldWarII.Unit731conductedfrightfulexperimentsinChinaandelsewhere,includinghumanvivisection,with andwithoutanesthesia.EvidencestronglysuggeststhattheU.S.military usedUnit731scientistsduringtheKoreanWar(1950–1953)tocreate epidemicsofhemorrhagicfever,adiseasepreviouslyunknowninKorea.66

ReleasedCIAdocumentsdisclosedthattheCIAmaintainedaclandestine biologicalwarfareprogramtargetingthepopulationsandcropsofanumber ofcountries,includingNorthKorea,Vietnam,Laos,Panama,andCuba. TheCIAdeployedweathermodificationtechnology,andsprayedinsectinfestationstodestroycropsinCuba,alongwithavirusthatcausedswinefever,

thefirstsuchinfectionintheAmericas,forcingtheslaughterofpigsinCuba topreventawidespreadepidemicamonghumans.Theagencyisalsocharged withcausinganepidemicofdenguehemorrhagicfever,transmittedbymosquitoes,afflictingsome300,000people,killing57Cubanadultsand101children,thefirstmajorepidemicofdengueintheWesternHemisphere.In1997, CubapresentedareporttotheUnitedNationschargingWashingtonwith “biologicalaggression.”67

Throughoutthe1970sand1980s,invariousWesternEuropeancountries,theCIAhelpedmaintainsecretparamilitaryunitstocarryoutactsof terrorismagainstanticapitalistorganizations.TheHouseIntelligenceCommitteereportedthat “severalhundredtimesaday” CIAoperatives “engagein highlyillegalactivities” overseasthatendangerthefreedomandlivesofforeignnationals.68

TheCIAhasrecruitedhitmenfor “internationalmurdermissions,” supplyingarmsandmoneytoItalianandCorsicanmafiastomurdermembersof communist-leddockworkers’ unionsinItalyandFrancein1947and1950. Aftertheseunionswerebroken,themobstersweregivenafreerhandtransportingheroinfromAsiatoWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica.Assistedby theCIAitself,anticommunistdruglordsinSoutheastAsiaandAfghanistan increasedtheiropiumproductionanddistributiontenfold.69

CIAinvolvementinCentralAmericacontributedtotheU.S.cocaineepidemicofthe1980s.CIAplanestransportedgunsandsuppliesdowntorightwingmercenarytroopsinNicaragua,the “contras,” andprocapitalistpolitical andmilitaryleadersinotherLatincountries;theplanesthenwerereloaded withcocaineforthereturntriptotheUnitedStates.TheCIAitselfadmits havingknownanddonenothingaboutnarcoticsshipmentstoinner-citypopulationsinthiscountry.ItwasreportedthataCIA “anti-drugunit” was involvedincocainetrafficking. 70 Druginfestationcanserveasauseful social-controlmechanism,keepinglow-incomeAfricanAmericanandLatino youthsshootingthemselvesupwithneedlesandeachotherwithgunsrather thanorganizingmilitantrevolutionarygroupsasinthe1960s.

Aformerofficialobserved: “Inmy30-yearhistoryintheDrugEnforcementAdministration[DEA]andrelatedagencies,themajortargetsofmy investigationsalmostinvariablyturnedouttobeworkingfortheCIA.”71 In November1993,aformerDEAdirectorandaDEAagentbothappearedon CBS’s 60Minutes anddetailedtheCIA’smassivetheftofcocainefromDEA warehouses.ThecocainewaslatersoldonthestreetsintheUnitedStates. LikewiseDEAeffortsatthwartingthedrugoutflowfromBurmahavebeen stymiedbytheCIAandStateDepartmentonbehalfofBurma’scorporationloving,drug-runningdictatorship.72

CIAoperativesparticipatedinthemultibillion-dollarsavingsandloan swindles.Moniesgainedfromsuchdeals,alongwithdrugmoneylaundered throughvariousbanksandotherfinancialinstitutions,wereillegallyusedto financeCIAcovertactivities.73

Amountainofevidencesuggeststhatelementsofthe “intelligencecommunity,” assistedbycertainmobsters,wereinvolvedintheassassinationof PresidentJohnKennedyin1963andinthesubsequentmassivecover-up.

Kennedywasconsideredadangerousliabilitybecauseofwhatwereperceived ashis “liberal” foreignanddomesticpolicies,includinghisunwillingness topursueanall-outgroundwarinIndochina,andhisdeterminationtobring intelligenceagenciesunderfirmerexecutivecontrol.74

In1982,attheurgingoftheReaganadministration,Congresspasseda lawprohibitingpublicationofanyinformationthatmighthelpidentifypresentorformerintelligenceagents,eveniftheinformationcamefromalready publishedsources.Underthatlaw,somejournalisticexposésofillegalcovert activitiesthemselvesbecameillegal.

Ithasbeenarguedthatastrongintelligencesystemisneededtogather theinformationneededbypolicymakers.ButtheCIAandotheragencies havebeenunlawfullyinvolvedincovertactionsthatgobeyondintelligence gathering,includingdrugtrafficking,mercenarywars,torture,sabotage, assassinations,anddisinformationcampaignsagainsttheU.S.publicitself.

WiththeoverthrowoftheSovietUnionandothercommunistcountries, thespiesandmilitaristsofthenationalsecuritystatefacedashortageof enemies.Howwouldtheyjustifytheirbloatedbudgetsiftherewerenoadversariesmenacingus?Newoneshadtobeconjured: “roguenations,”“internationalterrorists,”“Islamicextremists, ” andthelike.Suchalarmiststories didlittletoprotectournationalsecuritybutmuchtoprotectthebudgetsof thenationalsecurityestablishment,andmuchtokeeptherepressiveglobal apparatusintact.

WATERGATEANDIRAN-CONTRA

InJune1972,agroupofex-CIAagentswerecaughtbreakingintotheDemocraticPartyheadquartersintheWatergatebuildinginWashington,D.C.The burglarywaspartofanextensivecampaigninvolvingelectoralsabotage,wiretapping,theftofprivaterecords,andillegaluseofcampaignfunds.Itwas subsequentlyrevealedthatPresidentRichardNixonhimselfwasinvolvedin theskulduggeryandrelatedcover-upactivities.Facingimpeachment,heresignedfromoffice.Hissuccessor,GeraldFord,promptlypardonedNixon forallcrimesrelatingtoWatergate.Nixonneverservedadayinjailandretiredonhispresidentialpension.Personsfoundguiltyintheaffairweregiven lightsentences.75

In1986,anotherscandal,knownas “Iran-contra,” rockedtheWhite House.ItwasdiscoveredthattheReaganadministrationhadbeensellingmillionsofdollarsworthofarmstoIran,acountryitrepeatedlyaccusedofsupportingterrorism.AspartofacovertoperationtobypassCongressandthe Constitution,Reaganofficialsfunneledthefundsfromthesesecretsalestothe Nicaraguanmercenariesknownasthe “contras,” whowerewagingaterrorist warofattritionagainstademocraticsocialistNicaraguangovernment.Funds alsomayhavebeendivertedtopayforthecampaignsofRepublicancandidates. PresidentReaganadmittedfullknowledgeofthearmssales,butclaimedthathe hadplayednoroleinitsoperationandhadnoideawhathappenedtothe money.InsubsequentcourttestimonieshissubordinatessaidthatReaganhad beenactivelyinvolvedintheentireaffair.Butheneverservedadayinjail.76

DespiteabundantevidenceofinvolvementbytheWhiteHouseandthe NationalSecurityCouncilinIran-contra,noreformstoreininsecretoperationswereimplemented.Aspecialprosecutordidmanagetoconvicteleven individualsofdestroyinggovernmentdocuments,obstructingjustice,perjury, illegallydivertingfunds,andothercrimes,nineofwhomreceivedprobation andlightfines,andonlyonewenttojailforashortspell.Someofthepeople involved,suchasformerCIAdirectorandthenVicePresidentGeorgeBush Sr.,wereneverindicteddespitetestimonydirectlyimplicatingthem.Once BushSr.becamepresidentin1989,hepardonedahalfdozencriminals,includingDefenseSecretaryCasparWeinberger,andStateDepartmentofficial ElliotAbrams,wholaterbecameBushJr.’sdeputynationalsecurityadvisor.77

Muchismadeofhowpresidentsstandbysubordinateswhoareaccused ofwrongdoing,supposedlyoutof “loyalty” tothem.Infacttheyusuallyare boundbysomethingstrongerthanloyalty,namelyself-interest.Anunderling abruptlycutloosemightturnintoadamagingsourceofdisclosure.During theWatergateaffair,theoneaidePresidentNixontriedtothrowtothe wolves,JohnDean,endedupsingingtheentireconspiracylibrettoto Congressandtheworld.Generally,itisbestforapresidentwhoisimplicated inanillegalaffairtodoeverythingpossibletofirmuptheskittishlineof lieutenantswhostandbetweenhimandlawfulretribution.

HOMELANDINSECURITY

The11September2001attackonthePentagonandtheWorldTradeCenter inNewYork,resultinginalmostthreethousanddeaths,providedanatmosphereofnationalalarmthatmadeitrelativelyeasyfortheBushadministrationtoembarkonoverseasinvasions,whileincreasingsurveillanceand suppressionathome.

Intheweeksbefore9/11,theWhiteHousehadbeenrepeatedlywarned byU.S.militaryintelligence,theFBI,andtheCIAofplansfordomesticterroristattacksusingexplosivesandairlinehijacking,tobeconductedbyMuslimextremistnetworks.Warningsalsocamefromotherexpertsincludingthe administration’sowncounterterroristadvisor,RichardClarke.VariousforeigncountriessentwarningsthatamajorattackonU.S.soilwasimminent. AttorneyGeneralJohnAshcroftquitflyingoncommercialairlinesaftera “threatassessment,” andseveraltopPentagonofficialscanceledflights thedaybeforetheattacks.ButPresidentBushandhisassociateschosetodo nothingabouttheimpendingthreat.InsteadBushhimselfwentononeofthe longestpresidentialvacationsinWhiteHousehistory.78

Aftertheattackshadoccurred,andusingthemasajustification,Bushincreasedmilitaryspending,initiatedwarsagainstIraqandAfghanistan,and rammedtheso-calledUSAPatriotActthroughCongresswithoutanopportunityforpublicdebate.UnderthePatriotAct:

• Thegovernmentcanmonitorpeople’sInternethabits,thecontentsof theircomputerdocuments,e-mails,telephonecalls,andthebooksthey borrowedfromthelibrary.

• Withoutacourtorderandwithouthavingtoshowprobablecausethat criminalactivitywasbrewing,federalagentscouldnowgointohomes tocopyorseizepeople’sbusinessandpersonalrecordswhileoccupants wereaway.

• Personssuchaslibrarians,doctors,bankofficials,businessemployers, andneighborswereobligedtoturnoverotherpeople’spersonaldatato thegovernment,andwereprohibitedunderthreatoffederalprosecution fromtellinganyone.

• ForthefirsttimeinourhistoryU.S.citizenscouldbeheldindefinitely withoutawarrant,withoutchargesorhearingsorhabeascorpus,orbenefitoflegalrepresentation,andwithoutbeingabletocontacttheirfamilies,allinviolationoftheFifth,Sixth,andFourteenthAmendmentsof theConstitution.79

• Giventheoverlybroaddefinitionof “terrorism” providedintheact,the governmentcoulddesignate inviolationoftheFirstAmendment any protestgroupasaterroristorganizationandanycivildisobedienceas “domesticterrorism.”

HardlytwoyearsafterthePatriotActwaspassed,overonehundredU.S. cities,counties,andtownshadpassedresolutionscallingforitsrepeal.Butin 2003,theRepublican-controlledCongresspassedadditionallawstoexpand theactbyremovingjudicialoversightandtransferringstillmorepowerto lawenforcementauthorities.80

Duringthatsameperiod,anAmnestyInternationalreportrevealedthat U.S.federalagentswereconductingwhattheycalled “extraordinaryrendition,” whichconsistedofabductingindividualsinvariouspartsoftheworld, includingtheUnitedStates,andwithoutanysemblanceofdueprocessand oftenwithoutanyreliableevidence,sendingthemofftobeinterrogatedand torturedbyregimesabroadforextendedperiodsoftime.OtherreportsindicatedthatdetaineesheldbyU.S.authoritiesinGuantanamo,Iraq,andelsewhere.Nochargeswerebroughtagainstgovernmentpersonnelregardingthe abuseanddeathofdetainees.81

AreportbytheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross,gatheredin2007 butnotpublisheduntil2009,revealedthatprisonersdetainedonsuspicionof beingterroristswereregularlytorturedbytheCIA.Thoughkeptinisolationat differentlocations,theprisonersdescribedremarkablysimilartorments:waterboarding,forcedtostandshackledfordaysinoneposition,slammedrepeatedly intowalls,deprivedofsleepandsolidfood,forcedtoremainnakedformonths atastretchofteninfrigidcells.Allwerekeptincontinuoussolitaryconfinement fortheirCIAdetention,rangingfromsixteenmonthstomorethanfouryears.82

TheWhiteHouseinsistedthatspyingonU.S.citizenswithoutawarrant andincarceratingpeoplewithoutbenefitofahearingortrialwasnecessary foroursecurity.JusticeDepartmentlawyersprovidedmemorandumsstating thatthegovernmentcouldignoreinternationallawthatprohibitstortureand callsfordueprocess.83

Asfarasourrealsecurityneedsareconcerned,nexttonothinghas beendonetoimplementnecessarymeasureswithintheUnitedStates.Airport

securityremainssomethingofaninconvenientjoke.OnetestsurveyconductedbytheTransportationSecurityAdministrationitself “foundthatfake guns,bombs,andotherweaponsgotpastsecurityscreenersalmostone-fourth ofthetime.”84 Asof2006ourentireagriculturalsystemremainedopento biologicalattack,accordingtoaformerSecretaryofAgricultureintheBush administration.Nuclearpowerplantsandchemicalplants,manylocatedclose tolargeurbanpopulations,remainedvulnerabletoattack.Railyardswith tankercarsfullofdeadlychemicalgaseswerestoredbehindunlockedandunguardedgates.MillionsofshippingcontainersmovedthroughU.S.ports unchecked;high-techdetectiondeviceswerestillnotinplace,andonly6percentofcontainerswerephysicallyinspected.85

DuringhisfirstyearintheWhiteHouse,PresidentObamabannedtorture andsomeotherbrutalinterrogationmethods.Buthecontinuedthepracticeof preventivedetention,incarceratingindividualsindefinitelyforyearswithout chargesandwithoutaffordingthemanopportunitytodemonstratetheirinnocence.HisJusticeDepartmentruledthatmilitaryandintelligenceagencies wouldneedtheapprovalofU.S.AttorneyGeneralEricHoldertowithhold classifiedevidenceincourt.HolderalsoinitiatedaninvestigationofCIA abuseofprisoners.86

Insum,undertheguiseof “fightingcommunism,”“fightingterrorism, ” “protectingU.S.interests,” or “defendingdemocracy,” thepurveyorsofstate powerhavecommittedhorrendouscrimesagainstthepeopleofthisandother countries.Theancientquestionofpoliticalphilosophy, quiscustodietipsos custodes? (whoguardstheguardians?),isstillwithus.

TheU.S.Global MilitaryEmpire

TheUnitedStatesissaidtobeademocracy,butitisalsotheworld’sonly superpower,withaglobalmilitaryempireofamagnitudeneverbeforeseen inhistory.Whatpurposedoesthisempireserve?

AGLOBALKILLCAPACITY

TheU.S.militaryhasanuclearoverkillcapacityofmorethaneightthousand long-rangemissilesandtwenty-twothousandtacticalones,alongwithground andairforcesreadytostrikeanywhereandafleetlargerintotaltonnageand firepowerthanalltheothernaviesoftheworldcombined.Withonly5percent oftheearth’spopulation,theUnitedStatesdevotesmoretomilitaryexpendituresthanalltheotherindustrializednationsputtogether.Overthelasthalf century,U.S.leadersdeployedthousandsofnuclearweaponsandhundredsof thousandsofmilitarypersonneltoover350majorbasesandhundredsof minorinstallationsspanningtheglobe.Thismassivedeploymentsupposedly wasneededtocontainaSovietUnionbentonworlddomination although evidenceindicatesthattheSovietswereneverthethreattheyweremadeout tobebyourColdWarpolicymakers.1

DespitetheoverthrowoftheUSSRandotherEasternEuropeancommunistnationsin1990 –1992,U.S.militaryallocationscontinuedat budget-bustingstratosphericlevels,andU.S.overseasmilitarystrength remaineddeployedinmuchthesamepatternasbefore,withitsColdWar arsenaloflong-rangenuclearmissilesaimedmostlyattheformerSoviet Union,anenemythatnolongerexists.InrecentyearsthelistofsitestargetedbyU.S.nuclearweaponsactuallygrewby20percent,includingnew

targetsinRussia,Belarus,Ukraine,Kazakstan,China,Iran,Iraq,andNorth Korea. 2

Thedirectyearlymilitaryappropriationsrosetoabout$534billionby 2010,reallycloserto$850billionifwecounttheindirectcostsofwarand empire,suchasveteransbenefitsandmedicalcosts,annualdebtpayments duetomilitaryspending(over$100billion),covertmilitaryandintelligence operations,the70percentoffederalresearchanddevelopmentfundsthat goestothemilitary, “supplementaryappropriations” forspecificwarsasin IraqandAfghanistan(about$130billionin2010),anddefenseexpenses pickedupbynonmilitaryagenciesincluding “defenserelatedactivities” of theGeneralServicesAdministration,alongwiththeEnergyDepartment’s nuclearweaponsprograms,whichconsumesmorethanhalfofthatdepartment’sbudget.3

TheU.S.governmentalsorunsaForeignMilitaryFinancingProgram, whichgivesbillionsofdollarsayeartoothercountriestopurchaseweaponry fromU.S.firms.TheU.S.taxpayersfullysubsidizethesesaleswhiletheprofits gotothecorporatearmsdealers.4

Thefederalbudgetiscomposedof discretionaryspending (themonies thattheCongressallocateseachyear)and mandatoryspending (themonies thatmustbeallottedincompliancewithalreadyexistingauthorizations, suchaspaymentsonthenationaldebtorSocialSecurity).Inthediscretionarybudget,moremoneyisspentonthemilitarythanonalldomesticprogramscombined.

TheBushadministrationmadeanacceleratedefforttodeveloptheStrategicDefenseInitiative,or “StarWars.” Firstproposedinthemid-1980s, “StarWars” isanouter-spacemissileprogramthatsupposedlywouldinterceptanddestroyallincomingwarheadslaunchedbyothernations.Overthe yearsthePentagonhasspentmorethan$120billionunsuccessfullytryingto createthis “spaceshield,” andwantsanother$62billionfortheyears2010to 2014.Ifthe “StarWars” projecteverdoesprovesuccessful,itwillmakethe nucleararsenalsofothernationsobsoleteanddeprivethemofanydeterrence againstU.S.nuclearmissiles.Thisinturnwillencouragethemtospendmore toupdatetheirownlong-rangeattacksystems.5 Also “StarWars” isinviolationoftheOuterSpaceTreaty,signedbyninety-onenationsincludingthe UnitedStates,whichbansweaponsofmassdestructioninspace.

AchiefoftheU.S.SpaceCommandenthused: “We’regoingtofightfrom spaceandwe’regoingtofightintospace.Wewillengageterrestrialtargets someday ships,airplanes,landtargets fromspace.”6 Theprofessedgoalof theU.S.SpaceCommandistodominate “thespacedimensionofmilitary operationstoprotectU.S.interestsand investments.”7 Themilitaryalready canbeampowerfulelectromagneticorpulsedradio-frequencyradiationtransmissionsbacktoearth(ProjectHAARP),seriouslyimpairingthementalcapacityofwholepopulations,causing “severephysiologicaldisruptionorperceptual disorientation” foranextendedperiod,accordingtotheairforce.8

PENTAGONPROFITS,WASTE,ANDTHEFT

ThearmsprocurementprogramrunbytheDepartmentofDefense(DOD)is rifewithfraudandprofiteering.TheDOD’sownauditorsadmitthemilitary cannotaccountforone-fourthofwhatitspends,over$100billionayear. Suchsumsdonotjustevaporate;theyfindtheirwayintosomebody’spockets. AsecretaryofdefenseduringtheBushadministration,DonaldRumsfeld, admittedthat “accordingtosomeestimateswecannottrack$2.3trillionin transactions.” WhenBushcalled “formorethan$48billioninnewdefense spending,” thiscausedRetiredViceAdmiralJackShanahantoremark, “Howdoweknowweneed$48billionsincewedon’tknowwhatwe’re spendingandwhatwe’rebuying.”9

IfthePentagon’s “misplaced” fundswerereturnedtostateandlocalgovernmentsonaproratabasis,theyallwouldbeabletopayofftheirdebts, vastlyimprovetheireducationalandhealthservices,andstillhavefundsleft overforotherthings.There’smoretothisstory:

• ThePentagonwasstoring$41billioninexcesssuppliesgatheringdustor rustingaway.

• TheU.S.Armyallocated$1.5billiontodevelopaheavy-lifthelicopter, eventhoughitalreadyhadheavy-lifthelicoptersandtheNavywasbuildinganalmostidenticalone.

• CongressvotedforC-130cargoplanestheAirForcedidnotwantbecause theyweresodysfunctional,andextraB-2bombersthatthePentagonnever requested.

• Congressadded$6.2billiontoasupplementalspendingbillfor,among otherthings,aC-17aircraftthatdefensesecretaryRobertGatesrecommendedterminating.

• TheAirForcestartedtodevelopanF/A-22fighterplanein1986thatcost $29billionandwasstillnotcombatreadytwentyyearslaterin2005.

• ThePentagonisspendingbillionstobuild187F-22fighterplanesthat seemintendedforwarwithamajorpower.Afterafuriousbattlein Congress,fundingforanaddition7F-22swascut,savingthecountry $1.75billion.ButtheAirForcehasplansforyetanothersuperfighter plane,theF-35.

• ThePentagonapprovedaplantospend$16billiontoleaseonehundred jetlinerrefuelingtankersfromBoeing,whichcostmorethanbuyingthe planes.ThetankershadbeenbuiltbyBoeinginpartwithPentagon funds.10

TheGovernmentAccountabilityOffice(GAO),watchdogagencyfor Congress,reportedthatthePentagonhadnosurewayofknowinghow $200billionwasspentwagingwarinIraqandAfghanistan.TheGAO identifiedinstancesinwhichcostswereoffby30percentormore. Multibillion-dollarPentagoncontractswereplaguedby “inadequateplanningandinadequateoversight, ” accordingtotheGAOcontroller-general. AthirdormoreofgovernmentpropertythatHalliburtonanditssubsidiaries werepaidtomanageinIraqcouldnotbelocatedbyauditors.Halliburton andothercontractorswererepeatedlypaidforworkneverperformed.They grosslyoverchargedthePentagonforfuelsupplies,construction,andmeals fortroops,whiledeliveri ngsubstandardequipmentandcontaminatedwater toU.S.basesinIraq. 11

TwomembersofCongressconcludedthatHalliburtonwassystematically overchargingonhundredsofrequisitionseveryday,withanenormouscumulativecosttothetaxpayerofbillionsofdollars. “Thegeneralfeeling,” concludedoneArmycontractingofficer, “isthatthecontractor[Halliburton]is outofcontrol.”12

Militarycontractorsgenerallyenjoywhatarecalled costplus contracts. Theygetpaidwhateveritcoststodothejobplusaguaranteedprofit.There arenopenaltiesforfailure.Hencethemorewastefultheperformance,the costlieristhejobandthebiggertheprofit.Thereisadisincentivetogetthe jobdoneefficientlyandeconomicallywhenwasteisbuiltintothesystem.13

Defensecontractorshavebeenknowntomakeoutduplicatebillstodifferentmilitaryagencies,gettingpaidtwiceforthesameservice.Testshave beenriggedanddatafalsifiedtomakeweaponsappearmoreeffectivethan theyactuallyare.Manytopdefensecontractorshavebeenundercriminalinvestigation,butmostfraudgoesunpunished.Thepublicpurseispilferedon smallitemstoo.Themilitarypaid$511forlightbulbsthatcost90centsand $640fortoiletseatsthatcost$12.AndafterpayingtheBoeingCompany $5,096fortwopliers,thetoughPentagonprocurersrenegotiatedtheprice downto$1,496 arealbargain.14

Billionsarespentonmilitarypensionsthatgomostlytoupper-income seniorofficers.Vastsumshavebeenexpendedatmilitarybasesforgolf courses,polofields,restaurants,andofficers’ clubs,repletewithgold-plated chandeliers,oakpaneling,andmarblefixtures.ThereisaPentagon-leased luxuryhoteloutsideDisneyWorldinFloridathatrequiresanannualfederal subsidyof$27million.TwogolfcoursesatAndrewsAirForceBasein Marylandwerenotenough;soathirdonecosting$5millionwasbuilt.And inthemidstofintensebudgetcuttingofhumanservices,Congressallocated $1billionforsevenluxuryaircrafttoservicethePentagon’stopcommanders. Meanwhile,ofthefifteenthousanddisabledtroopsreturnedfromIraqby 2004,manywentformonthswithoutreceivingpayandmedicalbenefitsto whichtheywereentitled. 15

Corporatecontractorsenjoythesespecialfeaturesofmilitaryspending:

• Therearenoriskstospeakof.Unlikeautomobilemanufacturerswho mustworryaboutsellingthecarstheyproduce,theweaponsdealerhas aguaranteedcontractedmarket.

• Almostallcontractsareawardedatwhateverpriceacorporationsets withoutcompetitivebidding.Thatmeansthedefensefirmcannameits ownpriceandthePentagonpaysup.

• Manylargemilitarycontractshave costoverruns of100to700percent.To citeanotoriousexample,theC-5Atransportplanehada$4billioncost overrun(anditswingskeptfallingoff).Inrecentyearsthepricetagon theninety-fivebiggestweaponsprogramshavegrownnearly$300billion beyondtheiroriginalcostestimates.16

• ThePentagondirectlysubsidizescorporatedefensecontractorswithfree researchanddevelopment,publiclands,buildings,renovations,and yearlycashsubsidiestotalinginthebillions.17

• Defensespendingdoesnotcompetewiththeconsumermarketandisvirtuallylimitless.Therearealwaysmoreadvancedweaponsofdestruction todevelopandobsoleteweaponrytoreplace.

Variousservicesthatusedtobeperformedbymilitarypersonnel kitchen duty,laundry,militaryprisonconstruction,heavy-equipmentmaintenance,and certainsecurityassignments arenowcontractedouttoprivatecompaniesthat performthesetasksoftenwithlittleoversightandforheavilypaddedprices.18

Militaryspendingismuchpreferredbythebusinesscommunitytoother formsofgovernmentexpenditure.Publicmoniesinvestedinoccupational safety,environmentalprotection,drugrehabilitation,orpublicschoolsprovideforhumanneedsandcreatejobsandbuyingpower.Butsuchprograms expandthe nonprofitpublicsector, bringingnodirectreturnstobusiness if anything,shiftingdemandawayfromtheprivatemarket.Incontrast,aweaponscontractinjectshugeamountsofpublicfundsdirectlyintothe private corporatesector atarateofprofitthatisgenerallytwoorthreetimeshigher thanwhatotherinvestmentsyield.

U.S.leaderssaythatmilitaryspendingcreatesjobs.Sodopornography andprostitution,buttheremightbemoreworthwhilewaysofboosting

employment.Inanycase,civilianspendinggeneratesmorejobsthanmilitary spending:

Jobscreatedbyspending$1billiononthemilitary:8,555.

Jobscreatedbyspending$1billiononhealthcare:10,779.

Jobscreatedbyspending$1billiononeducation:17,687.

Jobscreatedbyspending$1billiononmasstransit:19,795.19

Toputmilitaryspendinginperspective,considerthefollowing:the$800 millionCongresssavedin1997bycuttingSupplementarySecurityIncomefor 150,000disabledchildrenamountstolessthanone-thirdthecostofbuilding andmaintainingoneB-2bomber.20 The$5.5trillionspentjustfornuclear weaponsoverthelasthalfcenturyexceededthecombinedfederalspending oneducation,socialservices,jobprograms,theenvironment,generalsciences, energyproduction,lawenforcement,andcommunityandregionaldevelopmentduringthatsameperiod.21

TokeepAmericaonitsarms-spendingbinge,corporatelobbyistsandthe DepartmentofDefenseitselfspendmillionsofdollarsonpublicitytoboost variousweaponssystems.TheDODfinancesmilitary-relatedresearchprojects atmajoruniversities,andpropagatesthemilitaryviewpointathundredsof conferencesandexhibitions,andinmanythousandsofbrochures,press releases,articles,andbookswrittenby “independentscholars” inthepayof thePentagon.

HARMINGOUROWN

TheU.S.militaryinflictsnumeroushiddencostsupontheeconomy,theenvironment,andhumanlife.Thearmedservicesusemillionsofacresoflandat homeandabroadinbombingrunsandmaneuvers,causinglong-lastingdamagetovegetation,wildlife,andpublichealth.Militarytargetrangesonthe PuertoRicanislandofVieques,inSouthKorea,andevenwithintheUnited Statesareheavilycontaminatedwithpetroleumproducts,uranium,andother carcinogenicheavymetals,causingcancerratesamongnearbyinhabitants severalhundredtimeshigherthaninanynormalpopulation.22

TheU.S.militaryisamajorpolluter,usingvastamountsofozonedepletingmaterials,andgenerating500,000tonsoftoxinsyearly.The PentagonadmittedtoCongressthatsome17,500militarysitesviolatefederalenvironmentallaws. 23 Themilitarycontaminatestheair,soil,and groundwaterwithdepleteduranium,plutonium,tritium,andothertoxic wastes,whileamassingvaststockpilesoflethalchemicalandbiological agents.Therearesome20,000radioactiveandtoxicchemicalsitesonmilitarybasesandnuclearweaponsplantsandlaboratoriesacrosstheUnited States.Manyofthesehaverepeatedlyreleasedradioactiveandotherharmful wastesintotheairandwaterways,includingmillionsofgallonsdumped illegallyintomakeshiftevaporationpitsandseepagebasins.

Populationsathomeandabroadhavebeensickenedbynuclearbomb tests.Afterdecadesofdenial,thegovernmentisconcedingthatAmerican

workerswhohelpedmakenuclearweaponswereexposedtoradiationand chemicalsthatproducedcancerandearlydeath.TheDepartmentofEnergy admitsthatitwouldcostastronomicalsumsandtakedecadestocleanup thecontaminationgeneratedbynucleararmsproductionandtesting,and thatmostofthesesitesactuallywillneverbecleanedupbutwillneed “permanentstewardship” forgenerationstocome.24

Duringthe1950stheU.S.Armyconductedgermwarfareexperimentsin Americancities,causingnumerouscivilianillnessesanddeaths,arareepidemic ofinfections.TheU.S.CoastGuard,responsibleforpolicingourwaterways, hasdumpedmorethan100,000usedbatteriescontaininglead,mercury,and otherchemicalsintoourriversandbays.

Themilitaryisalsoadangertoitsownranks.Everyyearhundredsof enlistedpersonnelarekilledinvehicularaccidents,firingexercises,practice flights,maneuvers,andotherreadinesspreparations.DuringWorldWarII theNavytestedtheeffectsofpoisongasusingsailorsasguineapigs.As manyas60,000tookpartintheexperiments,manysufferinglong-termdisabilities.Tensofthousandsofveteranshavebeensickenedorhavediedfrom exposuretoatomictestingduringthe1950sorfromtoxicherbicidesusedin theVietnamWar.Andmorethan200,000GulfWarveteransmayhavebeen exposedtodepleteduraniumorotherhighlyhazardousmaterials,including anthraxinoculationsthataresuspectedofcausingseriousillness.In1994 SenatorJohnRockefeller(D-W.Va.)issuedareportrevealingthatforatleast fiftyyearstheDepartmentofDefenseusedhundredsofthousandsofmilitary personnelinhumanexperimentsinvolvingintentionalexposuretotoxicchemicalagentsthatcausedseriousailments.25

TheDepartmentofDefenseisoneofthebiggestandcruelestusersof animalexperimentation.Animals “areburned,shot,bled,irradiated,dosed withbiological,nuclear,andchemicalweaponsassaultedwithcannonadesof noise,exposedtodeadlyviruses,” andthenstudiedastheysufferlingering deaths.26

ECONOMICIMPERIALISM

Inrecentdecades,U.S.industriesandbankshaveinvestedheavilyinthe Third World (thepoorerregionsofAsia,Africa,andLatinAmerica),attractedby therichnaturalresourcesandthehighreturnthatcomeswithunderpaid laborandtheabsenceoftaxes,environmentalregulations,andoccupational safetycosts.TheU.S.governmentgrantssubsidiesandtaxconcessionsto corporationsfortheiroverseasinvestments,alongwithcompensationsfor lossesduetowarorconfiscationbyaforeigngovernment.Washington refusesaidtoanycountrythatnationalizes,withoutfullcompensation,assets ownedbyU.S.firms.

U.S.corporateinvestmentsdolittletoimproveandmuchtodiminishthe lotofThirdWorldpeoples.Thetransnationalspushoutlocalbusinessesand preempttheirmarkets.Americanagribusinesscartels,heavilysubsidizedby theU.S.government,dumpsurplusproductsinothercountriesatbelowcost andunderselllocalfarmers.Theyexpropriatethebestlandinthesecountries

forcash-cropexports,usuallymonoculturecropsrequiringlargeamountsof pesticides,leavinglessacreageforthehundredsofvarietiesoforganically grownfoodsthatfeedthelocalpopulations.27

Bydisplacinglocalpopulationsfromtheirlandsandrobbingthemof theirself-sufficiency,corporationscreateovercrowdedlabormarketsofdesperatepeoplewhoareforcedtotoilforpovertywages,ofteninviolationof thecountries’ minimum-wagelaws.InHaiti,forinstance,workersarepaid 11centsanhourbycorporategiantssuchasDisneyandWal-Mart.The UnitedStatesisoneofthefewcountriesthathasrefusedtosignaninternationalconventionfortheabolitionofchildlaborandforcedlabor.ThispositionstemsfromthechildlaborpracticesofU.S.corporationsthroughoutthe ThirdWorld,wherechildrenasyoungastwelvesufferhighratesofinjuries andfatalities.28

Thesavingsthatbigbusinessreapsfromcheaplaborabroadarenot passedoninlowerpricestotheircustomers.Corporationsdonotoutsource tofar-offregionsinordertosavemoneyforU.S.consumersbuttoincrease theirmarginofprofit.ThusshoesmadebyIndonesianchildrenworking twelve-hourdaysfor13centsanhourcostacompanyonly$2.60tobe madebutstillaresoldfor$90ormoreintheUnitedStates.29

SinceWorldWarII,hundredsofbillionsofdollarsinU.S.militaryaid havebeengiventosomeeighty-fivenations.TheU.S.hastrainedand equippedsome2.3millionforeigntroopsandpolice,thepurposebeingnot todefendthesecountriesfromoutsideinvasionbuttoprotectcapitalinvestmentsandtherulingoligarchsfromtheirownrestivepopulations.30

U.S.aidmoneyalsosubsidizestheinfrastructureneededbycorporateinvestorsintheThirdWorld:ports,highways,andrefineries.U.S.nonmilitary aidtoforeignnationscomeswithstringsattached.ThefoodthattheUnited StatesoffersasaidmustbeproducedonU.S.soilratherthaninthecountries thataresupposedtobehelped.OtheraidmoniesoftenmustbespentonU.S. products,andtherecipientnationisrequiredtogiveinvestmentpreferencesto U.S.companies,shiftingconsumptionawayfromhome-producedfoodsand

commoditiesinfavorofimportedones,creatingmoredependency,hunger, anddebt.31

TheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID)usedto boastonitsWebsitethat “theprincipalbeneficiaryofAmerica’sforeignassistanceprogramshasalwaysbeentheUnitedStates.Closeto80percentof [USAID]contractsandgrantsgodirectlytoAmericanfirms.”32

Muchaidmoneyneverseesthelightofday,goingdirectlyintothepersonalcoffersofsticky-fingeredofficialsintherecipientcountries.

USAIDopenlyproclaimsthatoneoftheprimegoalsofU.S.foreignassistanceistofurther “America’sforeignpolicyinterestsinexpandingdemocracy andfreemarkets,” thatis,makingtheworldsafeforU.S.capitalism.Some criticssaythattheU.S.governmentusesaidasapoliticalweapontocoerce governmentstodowhatWashingtonwantsandtorewardpoliticalandmilitarypartnersratherthantoadvancegenuinesocialorhumanitariancauses abroad.ThusinJune2009PresidentObamaterminated$64millioninaid toNicaragua’sleftistSandinistagovernment,justasPresidentReaganhad donein1981.ObamaclaimedthattheSandinistasmighthavemanipulated municipalelectionsin2008 ofwhichthereseemedtobelittleevidence.33

Aidalsocomesfromothersources.In1944,theUnitedNationscreated theWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF).Votingpowerin bothorganizationsisdeterminedbyacountry’sfinancialcontribution.As thelargest “donor,” theUnitedStateshasadominantvoice,followedby Germany,Japan,France,andGreatBritain.TheIMFoperatesinsecrecy withaselectgroupofbankersandfinanceministrystaffsdrawnmostlyfrom therichnations.

TheWorldBankandIMFaresupposedtoassistnationsintheirdevelopment.Whatactuallyhappensisanotherstory.Apoorcountryborrowsfrom theWorldBanktobuildupsomeaspectofitseconomy.Shoulditbeunable topaybacktheheavyinterestbecauseofdecliningexportsalesorsomeother reason,itmustborrowagain.ButtheIMFimposesa “structuraladjustment program” (SAP),requiringdebtorcountriestogranttaxbreakstothetransnationalcorporations,reducewages,andmakenoattempttoprotectlocal enterprisesfromforeignimportsandforeigntakeovers.Thedebtornations arepressuredtoprivatizetheireconomies,sellingatscandalouslylowprices theirstate-ownedmines,railroads,andutilitiestoprivatecorporations.They areforcedtoopentheirforeststoclear-cuttingandtheirlandstostripmining, withoutregardtotheecologicaldamagedone.Thedebtornationsalsomust cutbackonsubsidiesforhealth,education,transportation,andfood,spendinglessinordertohavemoremoneytomeetdebtpayments.Requiredto growcashcropsforexportearnings,theybecomeevenlessabletofeedtheir ownpopulations.

Herethenwehaveexplaineda “mystery”:thenumberofpeoplelivingin povertyisgrowingatafasterratethantheworld’spopulation.Why,asaid andloansandcapitalinvestmentshaveincreasedabroadoverthelasthalf century,sohaspoverty?Answer:Suchprogramswereneverdesignedtofight povertybutareintendedtoaugmentthewealthoftransnationalinvestorsat theexpenseoflocalpopulations.

ThroughouttheThirdWorld,realwageshavedeclined,andnational debtshavesoaredtothepointwheredebtpaymentsabsorbalmostallofthe poorercountries’ exportearnings.34 SomecriticsconcludethatIMFand WorldBankstructuraladjustmentsdonotwork,becausetheendresultis less self-sufficiencyandmorepovertyfortherecipientnations.Whythendothe richmemberstatescontinuetofundtheIMFandWorldBank?Itisbecause foreignloanprograms do work,dependingonwhobenefits.Theirintentis nottoupliftthemassesinothercountriesbuttoservetheinterestsofglobal finance,totakeoverthelandsandlocaleconomiesofThirdWorldpeoples, indenturetheirlaborwithenormousdebts,privatizepublicservices,andeliminatethetradecompetitionthesecountriesmighthaveposedhadtheyever reallybeenallowedtodevelop.Intheserespects,foreignloansandstructural adjustments,aidandinvestments,allworkverywellindeed notforthe recipientnationsbutforthepredatorylenders.

INTERVENTIONEVERYWHERE

TheU.S.governmentintervenesincountriesaroundtheworld,supposedlyto fightterrorism,stopdrugtrafficking,protectournationalsecurity,anddefend freedomanddemocracy.CloserexaminationshowsthatU.S.rulersmainly havebeendefendingthecapitalistworldfromsocialchange evenwhenthe changehasbeenpeacefulanddemocratic.SotheyoverthrewreformistgovernmentsinIran,Guatemala,theCongo,theDominicanRepublic,Brazil,Chile, andUruguay.Similarly,inGreece,thePhilippines,Indonesia,andatleastten LatinAmericannations,militaryoligarchs largelytrainedandfinancedby thePentagonandtheCIA overthrewpopulargovernmentsthatpursuedegalitarianpoliciesforthebenefitofthedestituteclasses.Andineachinstance,the UnitedStateswasinstrumentalininstitutingright-wingregimesthatwereunresponsivetopopularneedsandwhollyaccommodatingtoU.S.investors.35

InNicaragua,aU.S.-backedmercenaryforcekilledover30,000people, orphanedmorethan9,000children,anddestroyedcrops,homes,schools, healthclinics,andotherfacilities foranestimateddamageofover$3billion. InAngolaandMozambique,warswagedbyCIA-backedforcesleftseveral milliondeadandmillionsmorehomelessanddestitute.InEastTimor,the U.S.-fundedIndonesianmilitaryslaughteredsome200,000people,morethan one-thirdofthepopulation.36

TheUnitedStatesinvadedGrenadain1983andPanamain1989tooverthrowreformistgovernments,replacingbothwithfree-marketregimes proppedupbyU.S.force,bringingU.S.-financedelections,alongwithhigher unemployment,lowerwages,cutbacksineducationandhumanservices, andadramaticincreaseinprivatization,crime,drugs,andpoverty.37 What Nicaragua,Angola,Mozambique,EastTimor,Grenada,andPanamahadin commonweregovernmentsthatwereredirectingsomeportionoftheircountries’ laborandresourcestowardtheneedsofthepeople,puttingthemvery muchoutofstepwiththerigorsoffree-marketglobalprofiteers.

In1990–1991,Iraqaskedforalargershareoftheoilmarkettotheannoyanceofthegiantpetroleumcompanies.Inretaliationfortheslantdrilling

ofitsoilfieldsbythefeudalrulersofKuwait,IraqidictatorSaddamHussein (aformerCIAclient)invadedKuwait.Inresponse,theelderPresidentBush launchedmassivebombingsthatcontaminatedIraq’sfertileagriculturallands withdepleteduraniumandkilled,byPentagonestimates,200,000people. Intheyearsthatfollowed,Iraq,whichoncehadthehigheststandardofliving intheMiddleEast,wasreducedtodestitution,keptdownbyU.S.-led sanctions andwithitsownoilkeptofftheinternationalmarket,unableto infringeuponoilcartelprofits.38

AlsotargetedwasYugoslavia,afairlylargeandprosperouscountrythat hadretainedmanysocialistfeatures;some80percentofitseconomywasin thepublicsector.YugoslaviashowednointerestinjoiningNATOorthe EuropeanUnion,anditspeople,especiallyintheSerbianRepublic,resisted thepushtocompleteprivatization(despitehavingopenedthemselvestoIMF loans).AseriesofWestern-financedsecessionistwarshelpedbreakYugoslavia intoaclusterofprivatized,right-wing,free-marketrepublicswithhighunemploymentandlowwages.Yugoslavialeaderswerechargedwith “genocide” and “ethniccleansing” byPresidentClintonandhisassociates,andsubjected in1999toseventy-eightdaysofbombingbyU.S.-ledNATOforcesthatkilled orwoundedthousandsanddevastatedtheindustry,infrastructure,andecologyofthatonceprosperousnation.

Subsequentreportsrevealedthattherehadbeennosystematicmass-rape andmass-atrocitypolicybytheSerbsaschargedbyWashingtonandthe Westernmedia,thoughatrocitieshadbeencommittedbyallsidesinthe Yugoslavwars.Likewise,thereportedmassgravesinKosovosupposedlycontainingthousandsofAlbanianskilledbySerbsfailedtomaterializeonce NATOforcesoccupiedthatprovince.Themainvictimsofethniccleansing seemedtobetheSerbsthemselves,aslargenumbersofthemweredriven fromtheirancestralhomesinCroatia,Bosnia,andKosovo,alongwithmany thousandsofRoma,Gorani,andJews.Yugoslaviawasdestroyedbecauseit refusedtomakethetransitionfromsocialismtofree-marketcapitalism.39

GLOBALBLOODLETTING

AtonetimeoranotherU.S.leaders,bothDemocraticandRepublican,have supportedbrutalwarsofattritionagainstpopularinsurgenciesinGuatemala, ElSalvador,Haiti,Thailand,Vietnam,Cambodia,andLaos.Inalltheseinstances,tortureanddeathsquadkillingswerecommonmethodsofcounterinsurgency. 40 In1999,PresidentClintonapologizedforpastU.S.supportof murderousright-winggovernmentsinGuatemalathatkilledover200,000 people.Suchinvolvement “inviolenceandwidespreadrepressionwas wrong”;itwasa “mistake,” andmustneverhappenagain,saidthepresident, evenashecontinuedtosupportviolentinterventionsagainstIraq,Yugoslavia, Haiti,Somalia,andothercountries.41

From1955to1975,U.S.forcesdroppedalmost8.4milliontonsof bombsandnapalm,and18milliongallonsofchemicaldefoliants,destroying over40percentofVietnam’splantationsandorchardsandover40percentof itsforestlandsandmuchofitsaquaticresources.SeveralmillionVietnamese,

Laotians,andCambodianswerekilled;millionsmoreweremaimedorcontaminatedbytoxicchemicals;almost10millionwerelefthomeless.Some 58,000Americanslosttheirlivesandhundredsofthousandsmorewere woundedorpermanentlydisabled.Butthewardidbenefitthetoptenmilitary contractors(includingDuPont,ITT,andDowChemical)whogrossed$11.6 billion(in1973dollars).From1979intothe1990s,U.S.leadersaidedthe maniacalKhmerRougeinCambodiainordertodebilitatethesocialistleaninggovernmentofthatcountry,prolongingacivilwarthattooktensof thousandsoflives.42

U.S.rulersbecamemorefriendlytowardcountrieslikeChina,Russia, Vietnam,Libya,andMozambiquewhentheydepartedfromtheircollectivist programsandthrewtheireconomiesopentoprivateinvestment.Mozambique, forinstance,privatizednearlyfifteenhundredstate-runfirms,andremovedgovernmentprotectionsfrommanyothers,causingwidespreadunemploymentand deepimpoverishment.IntheformercommunistcountriesofEasternEurope andtheSovietUnion,capitalistprivatizationbroughttheshutdownofmuch industry,adrasticreductionofhumanservices,andskyrocketingunemployment,poverty,crime,homelessness,prostitution,andothersuchblessingsofthe free-marketparadise.43

ColombiaisanothercountrythathasahistoryofU.S.-financedrepression,includingthesystematicmurderbyarmy,police,andparamilitarydeath squadsoftensofthousandsofworkers,students,farmers,andclergywhotry toorganizeagainsttheiroverlords.From1986totodayupwardsoftwothousandlaborunionistsinColombiahavebeenassassinatedbyCIA-supported deathsquads.Alongwithweaponryandhelicopters,theU.S.militaryalso providesdefoliationchemicalsthatwreakedhavoconColombia’senvironmentandpeople.44 IncountrieslikeIndonesia,Nigeria,India,Burma,and Colombia,U.S.transnationalcorporationshavepaidpoliceandmilitaryto beat,arrest,andinsomecaseskilllaborunionistsorresidentswhoprotested againsttheecologicaldamageandcommunitydisplacementcausedbycorporateenterprise.45

Foralltheirtalkabouthumanrights,U.S.governmentleadershaveused forceandviolencetopropup “pro-West” regimesthroughouttheworld. Strikeshavebeenoutlawed,unionsdestroyed,wagescut,anddissidentsmurdered.46 Inthelate1980s,theU.S.nationalsecuritystatehelpedMexicocarry outacampaignofexterminationagainstprogressivereformistelements. Mexicanauthoritiesadmittedthatatleast275politicaldissidentsweretorturedandassassinated.Onesurvivordescribedhowshewasraped,tortured, andthenforcedtowatchthetortureofherhusbandandone-year-old daughter.47

Attimes,electionsaremanipulatedbyU.S.interventionistswiththeuseof enormoussums,dishonestcounts,andwell-directedterror,ashappenedin Jamaica,Chile,ElSalvador,Panama,Yugoslavia,andelsewhere.48 ButifelectionoutcomesarenotsatisfactorytoU.S.leaders,theyaredeclared “rigged” and “fraudulent” (regardlessofwhatinternationalsupervisorsmightsay),as happenedinrevolutionaryNicaraguainthe1980s,inYugoslaviainthe1990s and2000,andinHaitiin2000.Suchgovernmentsarethentargetedfor

destabilizationbyU.S.rulers.AfterreformistpresidentHugoChavezwas electedinVenezuelaandproceededtouseoilrevenuesforsocialprograms forthepoor,theWhiteHousepredictablydenouncedhimasadictator,afirebrand,andanaggrandizingenemyoftheUnitedStates,rejectinghisovertures forfriendlyrelationsasdeceptiveploys.

Inthewakeofthe11September2001attacksontheWorldTradeCenter andthePentagon(aboutwhichthereremainmanyunansweredquestions49), PresidentBushinvadedAfghanistan,vowingtocaptureOsamabinLaden,the reputedterroristperpetrator.Nineyearslater,theanti-U.S.resistanceloomed strongerthaneverinAfghanistanastheUnitedStatesbecameimmersedmore deeplyinacostlyconflictwithlocalextremeIslamicmilitantscalledtheTaliban. Anumberofinformedobservers includingU.S.CommanderGeneralDavid Petraeus wereoftheopinionthatalQaedaterroristshadlongvacated Afghanistan.

In2002theInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC)wasratifiedbyabout onehundrednationstoprosecuteleadersofsignatorystateswhowereresponsibleforwarcrimesandhumanrightsabuses.BecausetheUnitedStates wasnotgrantedablanketexemptionfromprosecution,Bushwithdrewfrom thetreatythatsetuptheICC.Inaddition,hisadministrationannouncedit wouldnolongerbeboundbythestricturesofinternationallawandprevioustreaties.50 By2005theUnitedStatesfurtherunderminedtheICCby pressuringmemberstatestograntU.S.personnelimmunityfromprosecution.InMay2005,Angolabecamethehundredthstatetosignsuchan agreement.Haditnotdoneso,itwouldhavelostallU.S.aid.AsapermanentmemberoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,theUnitedStatesalso couldvetoanycasebeingreferredtotheICCbytheUN.

InMarch2003,inthefaceofmassiveantiwarprotestsaroundtheworld andathome,BushlaunchedaninvasionofIraq,claimingthatIraqileader SaddamHusseinpossessedweaponsofmassdestruction,achargethatproved tobewithoutsubstance.Thewarwasexpectedtobeaquickandprofitable venturethatwouldgiveU.S.petroleuminterestsdirectaccesstoIraq’svastoil reserves,andgetridoftheindependent-mindedleadershipinthatcountry. However,almostfouryearslater,theIraqconflictshowednopromiseoflettingup,withU.S.casualtiesatupwardsofforty-fivehundreddead,overthirty thousandwounded,andtensofthousandsofIraqiskilledandmanymore seriouslyinjured,whilemuchofIraqwasinruins.

ExtremesectarianviolenceescalatedinIraq,asShiiteandSunniMuslims attackedU.S.forcesandeachother.WholeareaswerecontaminatedbydepleteduraniumfromU.S.shells.OrdinaryIraqistookanadditionalblow whenU.S.authoritiesprivatizedmostofthestate-ownedeconomy:pricesskyrocketed,foodandhousingsubsidieswereabolished,andrationsforthevery poorwerecut.51

Asof2010,PresidentObamamademovestoreducethenumberofU.S. troopsinIraqwhileescalatingtheconflictinAfghanistanunderthequestionablenotionthattheterroristorganizationalQaedawasbasedinthatcountry. ObamaalsoincreasedtheU.S.militarypresenceinColombiaandsupported thefurtherexpansionofNATOwithitsthreateningencirclementofRussia.

Atthesametime,hecontinuedtothreatenIran,andintensifiedthesanctions andtradeembargoesagainstNorthKorea.Inshort,Obamawasshowingno newmodusoperandiorbrightnewgoalsintherealmofforeignaffairs.

Ifwedefine “imperialism” asthatrelationshipinwhichtherulinginterestsofonecountrydominate,throughuseofeconomicandmilitarypower, theland,labor,naturalresources,finances,andpoliticsofanothercountry, thentheUnitedStatesisthegreatestimperialistpowerinhistory.

U.S.expansionismadvancestheopportunitiesforcorporateglobalinvestment,andpreventstheemergenceofsocialordersthatarerevolutionaryorreformistorevenconservativenationalist(asinIraq)iftheyutilizetheirresources andlaborinindependent,buttherearewaysthatdiminishtheprofitabilityand domainoftheglobalempire.Theprofitsofthisempireflowintothehandsof afewhundredcorporateandfinancialconglomerates,whereastheimmense costsarebornebythecommonpeopleathomeandthroughouttheworld.

WhoGoverns?Elites, Labor,andGlobalization

Thosewhocontrolthewealthofsociety,thecorporateplutocracy,exercise trusteeshipovereducationalinstitutions, foundations,thinktanks,publications,andmassmedia,therebygreatlyinfluencingsociety’sideologicaloutputandinformationflow.Theyalsowieldapoweroverpoliticallifefarin excessoftheirnumber.Theyshapeeconomicpolicythroughthecontrolof jobsandinvestments.Theydirectlyinfluencetheelectoralprocesswiththeir lavishcampaigncontributionsandlobbying,andmakeittheirbusiness tooccupythemoreimportantpublicofficesorseethatpersonsloyalto themdo.

THERULINGCLASS

WhatwehaveintheUnitedStatesisa plutocracy (rulebyandforthe wealthy).Notallwealthypersonsareengagedinruling.Mostprefertoconcentrateonotherpursuits.Therulingclassconsistslargelyofpoliticallyactive membersofthewealthycorporateclass.Mosttoppolicymakersaredrawn frombigcorporations,prominentlawfirms,and,lessfrequently,fromthe militaryandscientificestablishments.Manyarelinkedbysocialtiesandcommonfinancialinvestments.Manyattendthesameeliteschoolsandhave workedinthesamecorporations.1

LegendhasitthatmanyU.S.presidentsrosefromhumbleorigins.Infact, sincethebeginningoftheRepublic,thetopleadershippositions including thepresidency,thecabinet,andtheSupremeCourt havegonepredominantlytoWhitemalesfromaffluentfamilies,withmostoftheremaindercomingfromthetop5or10percentofthepopulation.2

Thecrucialfactor,however,isnottheclassoriginofleadersbuttheclass interesttheyserve.Arichpersonwhomanifestsmarkedlyprogressiveleanings isnotlikelytobeinvitedintoapositionofpower.Conversely,personsfrom relativelymodesteconomicbackgroundsuchasPresidentsLyndonJohnson, RonaldReagan,RichardNixon,andBillClintonrisetothetopbyshowing themselvestobefaithfulguardiansoftheuppercircles.Thequestionthenis notonlywhogoverns,butwhoseinterestsandwhoseagendaareservedby whogoverns,whobenefitsandwhodoesnot,questionsthatarethecentral focusofthisbook.

Thetoppolitico-economicelitesfrequentlygathertodecidewhatcandidatestosupportandwhatpoliciestopursueathomeandabroad,sotobetter securetheircommonclassinterests.TheymeetattheKnickerbockerClubin NewYorkandvariousotherwell-servedsites.Foralmostacentury,manyof themhavegatheredeverysummeratBohemianGrove,avastluxuriousmaleonlyretreatinaCaliforniaredwoodforestownedbytheBohemianClubof SanFrancisco.TheguestlisthasincludedeveryRepublicanU.S.presidentand someDemocraticones,manytopWhiteHouseofficials,anddirectorsoflarge corporateandfinancialinstitutions. “Thecollectivecorporatestockownershipby[BohemianGrove]membersandguestsconservativelyexceeds $100billion.”3

Alsoplayinganunofficialbutinfluentialroleinpolicyformationarethe policyadvisorygroups withtheirnetworksofcorporateandpoliticalnotables.OneofthemoreprominentistheCouncilonForeignRelations(CFR), startedin1918,nowwithalmostforty-twohundredmembers including representativesfromtheRockefeller,Morgan,andDuPontgroups.TheCFR isfundedbythenation’stopfinancialinstitutions,medianetworks,and

corporations.CFRmembershaveincludedU.S.presidents,cabinetofficers, membersoftheJointChiefsofStaff,CIAdirectors,FederalReserveofficers, keymembersofCongress,anoccasionalcollegeoruniversitypresident,and majormediamoguls.Almostone-thirdofCFRmembersarefromthecorporate businesssectorandbigbanks,includingdirectorsfromCitigroup,AIG,Disney/ ABC,ExxonMobil,DowJones,GoldmanSachs,ChevronTexaco,and Halliburton.4

Ofthevariouspolicygroups,theCouncilonForeignRelationsisprobablythemostinfluential.Itissimultaneouslyathinktankthatexercisesinfluenceoverforeignandeconomicpolicyandamembershipgroupthatgathers togethermanyoftheleadingplayersinpolitico-economiclife.TheCFR helpedcreatetheMarshallPlan,theInternationalMonetaryFund,andthe WorldBank.ItadvocatedastrategicnucleararsenalandU.S.militaryinterventioninnumerouscountriesincludingthemassiveescalationinVietnam.In 1980,theCFRstronglyrecommendedasharpriseinarmsspendinganda harderlinetowardtheSoviets.Allthesepositionsbecameofficialpolicy;so toothe “waronterrorism,” aventurevigorouslypropagatedin2002by CFRscholarsandspokespersonswhoproducedmanypublicationsandmade hundredsoftalk-showappearancestopromotetheinvasionandoccupation ofIraq.5

SomeCFRmembersalsobelongtotheTrilateralCommission,anassemblageofpoliticalandbusinessleadersfromthemajorindustrialcountries,dedicatedtoadvancingglobalfree-marketcapitalism.Otherpolicygroupssuchas theCommitteeforEconomicDevelopment,theBusinessCouncil,theBusiness Roundtable,andtheU.S.ChamberofCommerce,allcomposedlargelyofdirectorsfromgiantcompanies,exerciseconsiderableinfluenceoverpoliciesthat impactonbusinessinterests andonthelivesofmillionsofus.6

Theinfluenceoftheseorganizationsinheresintheenormouseconomic powertheywield,andintheircapacity uniqueamongsocialgroupsinthis country tofilltopgovernmentpostswithpersonsdirectlyfromtheirranks orothersrecruitedtoservecorporateinterestsduringbothDemocraticand Republicanadministrations.NumeroustopmembersoftheFord,Carter, Reagan,BushSr.,Clinton,BushJr.,andObamaadministrationshavebeen CFRmembers,Trilateralists,orchiefexecutivesofWallStreetinvestment housesandbanks,orjustmultimillionairesfromcorporateAmerica.Some alsohavebeenmembersoftheBilderbergConference,anorganizationthat regularlybringstogetherpoliticalleaders,financiers,andothernotablesfrom aroundtheworld.

TheClinton,BushJr.,andObamaadministrationsofferedmoregender andracialvarietythanusuallyfoundbutnotmuchclassdiversity.

WhilestillgovernorofArkansas,BillClintonhimselfwasamemberofthe CouncilonForeignRelations,theTrilateralCommission,andtheBilderberg Conference,havingattendedthelatterin1991withfinancierDavid Rockefeller.HowClintonemergedasapresidentialcandidateisitselfa story.AtaprivatemeetinginNewYork,inJune1991,topWallStreet executives,mostlylinkedtotheDemocraticParty,heldaseriesofmeetings withpresidentialaspirantsinwhatoneorganizercalled “anelegantcattle

show. ” TheyquestionedArkansasgove rnorBillClinton,whoimpressedthe executives “withhiswillingnesstoembracefreetradeandfreemarkets. ”7 Clintonbecametheircandidate,andinshortorderwasdesignatedandtreatedbythecorporate-ownedmediaasthe “frontrunner ” fortheDemocratic presidentialnomination andwastreatedassuch.

Afterrunningonaplatformpromisingsweepingchanges,PresidentObama wentontoappointanumberofestablishmentpolicyelites,includingSecretary oftheTreasuryTimothyGeithner,erstwhileRepublican,aformerdirectorofthe IMFandoncepresidentoftheNewYorkFederalReserve,amemberoftheCFR, andamemberoftheGroupofThirty(ahighlyselectivepolicyconsultativegroup inWashington,D.C.).AnotherObamaappointmentwasLawrenceSummers asdirectoroftheWhiteHouseNationalEconomicCouncil.Summersformally waschiefeconomistattheWorldBankandpresidentofHarvardUniversity.

Plutocraticinterestsareservedalsobywell-financedconservativethink tankssuchastheHeritageFoundationandProjectforaNewAmerican Century.TheyproducestudiesshowingthatAmerica’smainailmentisgovernmentregulations,andthecureislaissez-faireeconomics,globalization, abolitionofhumanservices,andnotaxesonbusinessandwealthyinvestors. Richlyfundedright-wingersrecruitandtraincadresofideologicallycommittedwritersandpublicistswhoinfiltrategovernmentagencies,congressional andlobbyingstaffs,andnewsagencies,issuingasteadystreamofmaterials toadvancethecorporatefree-trade,free-marketagenda.

LABORBESIEGED

ThroughmostofU.S.history,thefederalgovernmenthasbeenfriendlyto businessandhostiletolabor.NationalsecurityagenciessuchastheFBIhave longspiedonunions,usuallyincooperationwithmanagement.8 Fewifany laborleadersoccupytopdecision-makingpostsingovernment.Fewifanyhold commandpositionsinuniversitiesandfoundations.NoneownTVorradio networksormajornewssyndicates.

In1935workingpeoplewonamajorvictorywhenalawwaspassedsettinguptheNationalLaborRelationsBoard(NLRB)asanindependentfederal agencytoprotectlabor’srighttocollectivebargaining.Intheyearsthatfollowed,unionmembershipincreaseddramaticallyandworkersacrossthe countrywonwagegainsamountingtobillionsofdollars.Then,in1947,a Republican-controlledCongresspassedtheTaft-HartleyAct,whichimposed restrictionsonstrikes,boycotts,andlabororganizing.Unionmembership hassteadilyshrunkfrom35percentoftheworkforcetoabout12percent.If wedon’tcountpublicemployeesandconsideronlytheprivatesector,union membershipdeclinedto7.9percent,lowerthanduringthe1930s.9

Asof2010,twenty-twostatesenforce right-to-worklaws thatallowantiunionworkersinafirmtoenjoythesamewagesandbenefitsthattheunion negotiatesonbehalfofitsdues-payingmembers.Theunionisalsorequiredto defendthenonunionworkersingrievanceswithmanagement.Thisfreeloadingconstitutesadrainonunionresources.

Morethanathousandconsultingfirmsinstructemployersonhowtopreventworkersfromorganizingandhowtogetridofexistingunions.The bossescanraiseallsortsofquestionstodelaytheelectionformonths.They caninundateworkerswithanti-unionpropaganda,forcethemtoattendantiunionmeetingsincludingone-on-onesessionswiththeirsupervisors,andply themwithgiftsandpromises.Incontrast,unionorganizersaredeniedaccess totheworksite.

Companybosseshaveusedarmedthugstobreakunionorganizingefforts bycreatingaclimateofviolenceandint imidation.Duringunionelection drives,managementcanthreatentoclosetheplantormoveitelsewhereifa unionisvotedin.WhenemployeesatoneWal-Martstoreunionized, Wal-Martclosedthestoredown,suddenlyclaimingitwasunprofitable.After elevenWal-MartmeatcuttersinTexasvotedforaunion,thecompanyeliminatedmeatcuttinginallitsstoresandturnedtoprepackagedmeat.10

Everyyearthousandsofworkersareunlawfullyfiredforattemptingto organize,althoughmanagementalwaysgivesotherreasonssuchas “poor performance.” Ifworkersareimmigrants,theyruntheriskofdeportation shouldtheytrytoformaunion.11

EmployerscanuseNLRBprocedurestodelayelectionsformonths,even years,prolongingeveryhearing,appealingeveryunfavorabledecisioninthe courts.Whenunionsdowinrecognition,managementmaythenrefuseto negotiateanacceptablecontractandwillchallengetheelectionresultsbefore theNLRBandthenintothecourts.TheNLRBwillsometimesspendyears investigatingminororfrivolousmanagementcharges.Bythetimethecompanyisorderedtobargainacontract,manyunionsupportersmayhavequit orbeenfired;othersmayhavelosthopeorbeenintimidatedintosilence,and newemployeeshavebeenscreenedforunionsympathy.12

In2005aRepublican-controlledNLRBruledthatanemployercanprohibitworkersfromfraternizingonoroffduty,whichmakesitnighonimpossibleforworkerstogatherandtalkaboutformingaunion,forfearofbeing fired.SucharulingviolatestheveryintentoftheNationalLaborRelations Act:theworker’srighttocollectiveaction,nottomentiontheconstitutional righttolawfullyassociatewithwhomeveronepleases.TheNLRBalsodecidedthattemporaryworkerscouldnotbargainalongsidepermanentworkers withouttheemployer’sconsent(notlikelytobegranted).Inadditionitruled thatownersdidnotneedtoproviderecordstoverifytheirclaimsofnotbeing financiallyabletomeetcontractconditions.13

Oftenmanagementwillrefusetorenewanexistingcontractwhenitexpires.Thecompanymaydeliberatelydenyemployeesaccesstotheworksite, whatisknownasa lockout.Thenithirespermanentreplacements(“scabs”) tobreaktheunion.Thethreatofscabreplacementhasdiscouragedstrike activityandfurtherhamperstherighttounionize.

Bysubstantialmajoritiesofalmosttwotoone,publicsupportoflabor unionscontinuestobestrong.14 Unionmembershiphasdeclinednotbecause unionsaresounpopularbutbecauseoftherepressive,one-sidedconditions underwhichorganizedlaborhasbeenforcedtooperate.

UNIONSANDTHEGOODFIGHT

Organizedlaborusuallycannotmatchbusinessinspendingpowerandpoliticalmuscle.Inrecentelections,bigbusinessoutspentlaborbytwenty-fourto one. 15 Ifweaddthehugesumsexpendedbyindividualfatcatsandwealthy candidates,theratioisevenmorelopsided.Farfromhavingtoomuchpower, unionshavebeenfightingfortheirlivesagainst off-shoring (exportingjobsto lower-wagemarketsabroad),strikebreakers,andhostilerulingsfromcourts andtheNLRB.

Inthe1940sand1950sgovernmentwitch-huntingpurgedthelabor movementofcommunists.TheRedswereamongthemosteffectiveanddedicatedorganizers.MauriceZeitlinfoundthatcommunist-ledunionsweremore democraticthananticommunistones.Theyconsistentlysecuredbettercontractsforworkersandgavestrongersupporttominorityrepresentation.16

Wesometimeshearthatlaborunionsarecorruptandundemocratic.Indeed,someunionleadersvotethemselvessumptuoussalariesandcollude withmanagementandganglandthugstointimidatetheworkforce.Butsuch corruptiontendstobeconcentratedinarelativelysmallnumberoflocals. Andmanagementreadilytoleratescorruptunionleadersandmobsterswho stealfromtheuniontreasury,intimidateworkers,sign “sweetheartcontracts” favorabletomanagement,anddonothingtohelptherankandfileandeverythingtohelpthemselves.Ownerscanlivewiththesekindsofplundereddysfunctionalunions.Theymostdislikeunionsrunbyhonestanddedicated leaderswhofighthardtoprotecttheinterestsoftheirrankandfile.Theownersthemselvesarenostrangerstocrimeandcorruptionintheformofbribes, kickbacks,taxevasion,toxicdumping,insidertrading,stockswindles,and thepilferingofworkers’ pensionfunds.DepartmentofLaborstatisticson “laborracketeering” revealthatmostofthefinesareimposednotonlabor leadersbutonbusinessesthatdefraudunions.Moreoftenthannot,theunionsarethevictimsnotthecriminals.17

Unionshavebeencriticizedforcausingrecessions.Bydrivinguplabor costs,theyforcecompaniestomechanize,cutbackonjobs,andrelocateto cheaperlabormarkets,itissaid.Butunionstrengthcorrelateswithprosperity ratherthanwithpovertyandrecession.Instateswhereunionshavebeentraditionallyweak(forexample,Alabama,SouthCarolina,andMississippi),the standardoflivinghasbeenlowerthaninstateswherelaborhasastronger organizedpresence.18 WagesintheUnitedStatescomparefavorablytowages inThirdWorldcountriesthathaveveryweakornonexistentunions.ButU.S. wagescompare unfavorablytobetter-unionizednationssuchasCanadaand WesternEurope.Unionizedworkersaverage26percenthigherwagesthan non-unionworkersinthiscountry,andaremorelikelytohavebetterbenefits andsaferworkconditions.19

Astronglabormovementcorrelatesnotonlywithprosperitybutwithdemocracy.Countriesinwhichlaboriswell-organizedenjoymorehumanrights thancountrieswhereunionsarenonexistent.Unions.Theyareoneofthefew institutionsinwhichordinaryworkingpeoplecangiveanorganizedresponse

totheissuesaffectingtheirlives.Therankandfileparticipateinunionelectionsathigherratesthaninnationalelections.Inmostunionstheentiremembershipgetstovoteonacontractthattheunionleadersnegotiatewith management.

Organizedlaborhasbeenattheforefrontofthefightagainstchildlabor andfortheeight-hourdayandsaferworkconditions.Unionshaveplayedan importantroleinthepassageofmajorcivilrightslegislationandhavesupportedsingle-payerhealthinsurance,affordablehousing,masstransportation, consumerprotections,publiceducation,andprogressivetaxrates.Theyhave opposedthemany “freetrade” agreements(discussedbelow)thatcircumvent democraticsovereignty.Unionshavebackedenvironmentalcontrolsand peacemovementsincoalitionswithotherorganizations.Someofthemore progressiveunionsbrokewiththemilitaristicColdWarmentalityofthe AFL-CIOleadershipandopposedU.S.interventionagainstreformistand revolutionarymovementsinCentralAmericaandelsewhere.

Forlaborunionstoreversetheirlongdecline,theyneedrepealofthelaws thathamstringtheirabilitytoorganizeandwindecentcontracts.TheNLRB mustonceagainbecomeanagencythatdefends ratherthanundermines therighttocollectivebargaining.Unionleadersneedtoinvestthevastsums intheirpensionfundsinsocialprogramsbeneficialtotheirrankandfile.And AFL-CIOleadersmuststoppromotingaU.S.foreignpolicythatsupportsoppressiveregimesandpreservescheaplabormarketsintheThirdWorld to whichU.S.jobsarethenexported.20

Humanlaboristhebasisofourwell-being.Itdeservesfarbettertreatmentthanitisgetting.

HOWGLOBALIZATIONUNDERMINESDEMOCRACY

Thegoalofthetransnationalcorporationistobecometrulytransnational, poisedabovethesovereignpowerofanyparticularnationwhilebeingservicedbyallnations.CyrilSiewert,aColgatePalmoliveexecutive,couldhave beenspeakingforalltransnationalswhenheremarked, “TheUnitedStates doesn’thaveanautomaticcallonour[corporation’s]resources.Thereisno mindsetthatputsthiscountryfirst.”21 Whatcomesfirstisthecompany’s profitsandinvestmentopportunities.

Onewaytoelevatethegianttransnationalsabovethesovereignpowerof democraticconstituenciesisthrough “freetrade” agreementssuchasthe NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA)andtheGeneralAgreement onTariffsandTrade(GATT),andsimilaragreements.Aspresentedtothe public,freetradedoesawaywithirksomeregulatorylaws,integratesnational economiesintoaglobaltradesystem,andtherebycreatesmoretrade,more jobsandprosperity,aprocesscalled “globalization” thatistreatedasanaturaldevelopmentbeneficialtoall.

TheGATTagreementscreatedtheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),an internationalassociationofover120signatorynations.TheWTOhasthe authoritytooverruleordiluteanylawsofanynationdeemedtoburdenthe

investmentandmarketprerogativesoftransnationalcorporations.Itsetsup three-memberpanelscomposedof “tradespecialists” whoexercisea decision-makingpowersuperiortothatofanynation,therebyensuringthe supremacyofinternationalfinancecapital.Thesepanelistsaredrawnmostly fromthecorporateworld;theymeetinsecret,areelectedbynoone,and operatewithnoconflict-of-intereststrictures.Theirfunctionistoallowthe transnationalcompaniestodoastheywishinpursuitofprofit.

Nofree-traderestrictionsaredirectedagainstprivatebusiness;almostall areagainstgovernments.Signatorygovernmentsmusttreatforeigncompanies thesameasdomesticones,andhonorallcorporatepatentclaimsmadeonthe world’snaturalresources.Shouldacountryrefusetochangeitslawswhena “freetrade” panelsodictates,itcanbefinedordeprivedofneededmarkets andmaterials.22

Free-tradeedictsforcedJapantoacceptgreaterpesticideresiduesin importedfood,preventedGuatemalafromoutlawingdeceptiveadvertising onbabyfood,andsuppressedaGuatemalan lawthatencouragedmothers tobreast-feedtheirchildren(thelawinterferedwithbaby-foodproduct opportunities).Free-traderulingseliminatedthebanonasbestosandon endangered-speciesproducts,andruledagainstmarine-lifeprotectionsin variouscountries.TheEuropeanUnion’ sprohibitionontheimportationof hormone-riddenU.S.beefhadoverwhelmingpopularsupportthroughout Europe,butathree-memberWTOpaneldecidedthebanwasaviolationof freetrade.LikewisewiththeEuropeanbanonimportsofgeneticallymodifiedcropsfromtheUnitedStates,andotherfoodimportregulationsbased onhealthconcerns.TheWTOoverturnedaportionoftheU.S.CleanAir Actbanningcertainadditivesingasolinebecausethebanrestrictedimports fromforeignrefineries.AnditoverturnedthatportionoftheU.S.EndangeredSpeciesActforbiddingtheimportofshrimpcaughtwithnetsthat failedtoprotectseaturtles. 23

Free-tradeagreementsallowmultinationalsto imposemonopolypropertyrightsonindigenousandcommunala griculture.Inthiswaycorporate agribusinesscanbetterpenetratelocal food-producingcommunitiesand monopolizetheirresources.Thereis theexampleoftheneemtree,whose extractscontainnaturallypesticidalandmedicinalproperties.Cultivated forcenturiesinIndia,thetreehasattractedtheattentionofvariousWesternpharmaceuticalcompanies .Thepharmaceuticalsfiledpatentsthatgave themexclusivecontroloverthemarketingofneemtreeproducts,aruling thatisbeingreluctantlyenforcedinIndia,causingmassprotestsbyfarmers.TensofthousandsoferstwhileindependentIndianfarmersmustnow work,ifatall,forthepowerfulph armaceuticalsontermssetbythe companies.

Inasimilarvein,theWTOruledthattheU.S.corporationRiceTechas thepatentrightstoallthemanyvarietiesofbasmatirice,grownforcenturies byIndia’sfarmers.ItalsoruledthataJapanesecorporationhadexclusive rightsthroughouttheworldtomarketcurrypowder.Intheseinstances,

“freetrade” meansmonopolycorporatecontrol.Suchdevelopmentscaused MalaysianprimeministerMahathirMohamadtoobserve:

TheftofgeneticresourcesbywesternbiotechTNCs[transnationalcorporations] enablesthemtomakehugeprofitsbyproducingpatentedgeneticmutationsof thesesamematerials.Whatdepthshavewesunktointheglobalmarketplace whennature’sgiftstothepoormaynotbeprotectedbuttheirmodificationsby therichbecomeexclusiveproperty?

Ifthecurrentbehavioroftherichcountriesisanythingtogoby,globalizationsimplymeansthebreakingdownofthebordersofcountriessothatthose withthecapitalandthegoodswillbefreetodominatethemarkets.24

Globalizationhasevengivenus “watermarkets.” Universallyrecognized asapublicresourceandahumanright,watersourcesarenowbeingprivatized,soldtocorporationswhothenmaintainexclusiverightstosellthewater asaprofitablecommodity,insomecasesevenprohibitinglocalresidentsfrom usingbarrelstocollecttheirownrainwater.25

Underthefree-tradeagreements,publicservicescanbeeliminatedbecause theycause “lostmarketopportunities” forbusiness,orcreateanunfairsubsidy. Toofferoneinstance:thelessexpensive,single-payerautomobileinsuranceprogramproposedbytheprovinceofOntario,Canada,wasdeclared “unfair competition.” OntariocouldhaveitspublicautoinsuranceonlyifitpaidU.S. insurancecompanieswhattheyestimatedwouldbetheirpresentand future losses inOntarioautoinsurancesales,aprohibitivecostfortheprovince.Thusthe

citizensofOntariowerenotallowedtoexercisetheirdemocraticsovereignpower toinstituteanalternativenot-for-profit,single-payerautoinsurancesystem.

UnderNAFTA,theU.S.-basedEthylCorporationsuedtheCanadiangovernmentfor$250millionin “lostbusinessopportunities” and “interference withtrade” becauseCanadabannedMMT,anEthyl-producedgasoline additiveconsideredcarcinogenicbyCanadianofficials.Fearingtheywould losethecase,CanadianofficialsagreedtoliftthebanonMMT,payEthyl $10millionincompensation,andissuea(misleading)publicstatementcalling MMT “safe.” Californiaalsobannedtheunhealthyadditive;thistimea Canadian-basedEthylcompanysuedCaliforniaunderNAFTAforplacing anunfairburdenonfreetrade.26

Internationalfree-tradeagreementslikeGATT,NAFTA,andtheCentral AmericanFreeTradeAgreement(CAFTA)havehastenedthecorporateacquisitionoflocalmarkets,squeezingoutsmallerbusinessesandworkercollectives.Atthesametimethousandsofsmallcompaniesandfarmsinother countrieshavebeenforcedoutofbusiness.Mexico,forinstance,wasflooded withcheap,high-tech,mass-producedcornanddairyproductsfromgiantU.S. agribusinessfirms.ThesefirmsaresoheavilysubsidizedbytheU.S.governmentthattheyeasilyundersoldMexicanfarmers,driving1.5millionofthem offthelandandsendingtheirlocaldistributorsintobankruptcy.Before NAFTA,Mexicowasself-sufficientinfood;nowithastoimportfood.27

Free-tradeglobalizationhaserodedfarmincomesanddestroyedrural livelihoods,doublingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpovertyinMexico.The numberofmalnourishedpeopleacrosstheentireThirdWorldgrewbyanaverageof4.5millionayear.Andover1millionjobswerelostintheUnited States,includingmanyinfamilyfarming.28

“Free” tradeisnotfairtrade;itbenefitstherichinterestsinallnationsat theexpenseoftherestofus,circumventingwhatlittledemocraticsovereignty wehavebeenabletoachieve. “Globalization” meansturningtheclockback onmanytwentieth-centuryreformsthatinfringeupontheprerogativesofinvestmentcapital.Underthefree-tradeaccords,thereisnofreedomtoboycott products,noprohibitionsagainstchildlabor,noguaranteedlivingwage,and nohealthandsafetyprotections notwhensuchthingsarejudgedasinterferingwithmarketopportunities.

WeAmericansaretoldthattoremaincompetitiveinaglobaleconomy, wemustincreaseouroutputwhilereducingourlaborandproductioncosts; inotherwords,workharderforless.Wemustintroducemorewageconcessionsandcutsinhumanservices,morederegulationandprivatization.Only thenmightwecopewiththeimpersonalforcesofglobalizationthatare sweepingusalong.

Infact,thereisnothingimpersonalabouttheseforces. “Freetrade” agreementsareconsciouslyplannedbybigbusinessanditsgovernmentminionsin pursuitofaderegulatedworldeconomythatunderminesalldemocraticchecks uponbusinesspractices,andleavesalltheworld’spopulationinthemerciless embraceoftransnationalfree-marketcapitalism.Sothepeopleoftheworld arefindingitincreasinglydifficulttogettheirgovernmentstoimposeprotective

regulationsordevelopnewformsofpublic-sectorproductionoutoffearof beingoverruledbysomeself-selectedinternationaltradepanel.29

“Freetrade” treatiesareinviolationoftheU.S.Constitution,assuggested bythefollowing:

• TheConstitution’spreamblemakesclearthatsovereignpowerrestswith thepeople: “WethePeopleoftheUnitedStates doordainandestablishthisConstitutionfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica.”

• ArticleI,Section1oftheConstitutionreads, “AlllegislativePowers hereingrantedshallbevestedinaCongressoftheUnitedStates.”

• ArticleI,Section7givesthepresident(notsometradecouncil)thepower tovetoalaw,subjecttobeingoverriddenbyatwo-thirdsvotein Congress.

• ArticleIIIgivesadjudicationandreviewpowerstoaSupremeCourtand otherfederalcourtsasordainedbyCongress.

• TheTenthAmendmenttotheConstitutionstates: “ThepowersnotdelegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution,norprohibitedbyittothe States,arereservedtotheStatesrespectively,ortothepeople.”

• ThereisnothingintheentireConstitutionthatallows andmuchthat disallows aninternationaltradepaneltoexercisesupremereview powersoverridingtheconstitutionallymandateddecisionsofthelegislative,executive,andjudicialbranches.

True,ArticleVIIsaysthattheConstitution,federallaws,andtreaties “shallbethesupremeLawoftheland,” butcertainlythiswasnotintended toincludetreatiesthatoverrodethesovereigndemocraticpowerofthepeople andtheirrepresentatives.

Inanycase,thetradeagreementsdonothavethestatusoftreaties.To excludetheSenatefromdeliberations,theywerecalled “ agreements” not treaties,asemanticploythatenabledPresidentClintontobypassthetwothirdstreatyratificationvoteintheSenateandavoidanytreatyamendment process.TheWorldTradeOrganizationwasapprovedbyalame-ducksessionofCongressheldafterthe1994elections.NoonerunninginthatelectionutteredawordtovotersaboutputtingtheU.S.governmentundera perpetualobligationtoensurethatnationallawsdonotconflictwithWTO rulings.

Whatisbeingunderminedisnotonlyalotofgoodlawsdealingwithenvironment,publicservices,laborstandards,andconsumerprotection,butthe veryrighttolegislatesuchlaws.Our democraticsovereignty isbeingsurrenderedtosecretiveplutocratictradepanelsthatpresumetoexerciseapower greaterthanthatofthepeopleandtheircourtsandlegislatures.Whatwe haveisacoupd’étatbyinternationalfinancecapital.Corporateproperty andinvestmentrights includingthe “intangiblepropertyofexpectedprofits”—areelevatedtoasupremepositionoveralldemocraticrightsandhuman needs.Thenewfree-tradeglobalismmakesnoprovisionforpopularrepresentation,nopublicforumfordebateanddecision,noelections,noinstitutionalizeddemocraticcheckstoholddecisionmakersaccountable.

Designedtoleavetheworld ’seconomicdestinytothetendermercyof bankersandmultinationalcorporations,globalizationisalogicalextension ofimperialism,avictoryofempireoverrepublic,corporatecapitaloverdemocracy.Inrecenttimeshowever,givenpopularprotests,severalmultilateraltradeagreementshavebeenstalledorvoteddown.Overtheyears, militantprotestsagainstfreetradehavetakenplaceinscoresofnations. Moreandmore,peoplethroughouttheworldareresistingthelossofdemocraticaccountabilitythatmasqueradesunderthebannerof “globalization” and “freetrade. ” Andnationalleadersarethinkingtwicebeforesigningon tonewtradeagreements.Meanwhile,existingfree-tradeagreementsdonot needtobe “revised” butrepealed,andinsteadof “freetrade ” weneedfair trade,thatis,tradethatservestheinterestsofthemanyratherthanthecupidityofthefew.

MassMedia:Forthe

Many,bytheFew

Themainstreammediaclaimtobefreeandindependent,objectiveandneutral, the “watchdogsofdemocracy.” Acloserlooksuggeststhattheybehavemore likethelapdogsofplutocracy.

HEWHOPAYSTHEPIPER

Themajor newsmedia or press (thetermsareusedinterchangeablyhere)arean inherentcomponentofcorporateAmerica.Onlysixgiantconglomerates Time Warner,GeneralElectric,Viacom,Bertelsmann,WaltDisney,andNewsCorporation(downfromtwenty-threein1989) ownmostoftheprintpublications, moviestudios,recordlabels,andradioandtelevisionprogrammingintheUnited States,withadditionalholdingsabroad.About85percentofthedailynewspaper circulationinthiscountrybelongstoafewgiantchains,andthetrendinowner concentrationcontinuesunabated.Allbutahandfulofthe150moviesdistributedtomassmarketseachyeararefromsixmajorstudios.Bigbanksand corporationsareamongthetopstockholdersofmainstreammedia.Theirrepresentativessitontheboardsofallmajorprintandbroadcastmedia.1

Afterheavylobbyingandcampaigndonations,thebroadcastindustry securedpassageofthe1996TelecommunicationsAct.UnderthislawcompaniesthatpreviouslywererestrictedtoowningonlyoneradioandoneTVoutlet inalocalmarketnowcouldownuptosixradioandtwotelevisionstationsin thatonearea.Mostofthenation’sthousandsofradiostationswerebought upbylargeconglomerates,thebiggestbeingtheright-wingClearChannel chainwithninehundredstations.Withfewerindependentstationscameless public-interestprogrammingandmoresyndicatedright-wing “hateradio”

hostswhorailagainstliberals,environmentalists,peacedemonstrators,socialists,andgays.

Mediabossesdonothesitatetokillstoriestheydislikeandinotherways injecttheirownpreferencesintothenews.Asonegroupofinvestigatorsconcludedyearsago: “Theownersandmanagersofthepressdeterminewhich person,whichfacts,whichversionofthefacts,andwhichideasshallreach thepublic.”2 Inrecenttimes,mediabosseshaverefusedtorunstoriesorcommentariesthatreflectedfavorablyonsingle-payerhealthinsurance,orunfavorablyon “freetrade” globalizationandU.S.militaryinterventionin othercountries.In2004,throughitsmanyradiostations,ClearChannel sponsoredjingoistic “RallyforAmerica” eventsaroundthecountryinsupportoftheU.S.invasionofIraq.ThatsameyearWaltDisneyCo.blocked itsMiramaxdivisionfromdistributingadocumentarybyAcademyAward winnerMichaelMoorebecauseitofferedanunflatteringpictureofPresident Bush.SinclairGroup,thelargestowneroflocalTVstationsinthecountry, censoreditsABCaffiliatesforreadingthenamesofU.S.soldierskilledin Iraq(becauseitmightdampensupportforthewar).Sinclairsendsrecorded right-wingeditorialcommentarytoitsaffiliatestobebroadcastaslocal news,andregularlymakeslargecontributionstoRepublicancandidates.3

FoxNews,partofthevastmediaempireownedbyright-wingbillionaire RupertMurdoch,refusedtoairanadvertisementcriticalofSamuelAlito whenhewasbeingconsideredfortheSupremeCourt.Theadcitedexamples of’ theideologicallydrivenconservativeopinionsAlitopromulgatedwhile servingasanappealscourtjudge.TheFoxstationinNewYorkalsorefused tobroadcastaDemocraticcandidate’sadbecauseitpokedfunatPresident Bushandthereforewasdeemed “disrespectful.” FoxNewsreportedlyquizzes journalisticapplicantstobesuretheyareregisteredRepublicans.Daily memoscomedownfromthecorporateofficeatFoxtellingreportersandcommentatorswhatthestoryofthedayshouldbeandwhatpointofviewwas expectedwhenreportingit.4

Corporateadvertisersareanotherpowerfulgroupwholeavetheirpolitical imprintonthemedia.AserstwhilepresidentofCBSFrankStantonremarked, “Sinceweareadvertiser-supportedwemusttakeintoaccountthegeneralobjectiveanddesiresofadvertisersasawhole.”5 Togiveoneexampleamongmany: AconsumerreporterwasfiredbyKCBS-TVinLosAngelesafterautomotive advertisersrepeatedlycomplainedtohisbossesabouthiscriticalreportson carsafety.

Corporatesponsorsmightcanceladvertisingaccountsnotonlywhenthey feelthatthereportingreflectspoorlyontheirproduct,butwhentheyperceive a “liberal” driftinnewsandcommentary.Togiveoneexample,theprizewinning KwitneyReport, aPBSnewsshowthatrevealedU.S.backingof deathsquadsanddictatorsinCentralAmericaandotherhotissues,wentoff theairbecauseitcouldnotprocurecorporatefunding.6

Themediabossescontrolthejournalists,nottheotherwayaround.Journalistscansometimesslipcriticalinformationintostories,butiftheypersist, theirreportsarespiked,theyarereassigned,andsoontheircareersareatrisk. ForreportingontheabusesofcorporateAmerica,FrancesCerraincurredthe

ireofher NewYorkTimes editorsandwastransferredtoaLongIslandbeat. ThereshewrotearticlesontheShorehamnuclearpowerplantthatran countertothe Times’ pronuclearstance.Herfinalstorywassuppressedas “biased”;itreportedthattheplantwasinseriousfinancialtrouble which provedtrue.Cerrawasnevergivenanotherassignment.7

Themanagingeditorofthe SantaFeNewMexican, DavidMitchell,was sackedforrunningaseriesonthedangersoftheLosAlamoNationalLaboratory.Unfortunatelyforhim,thepaper’sownerwasheavilyinvolvedinpromotingnucleartechnology.TomGutting,cityeditorofthe TexasCitySun, wasfiredforcriticizingtheWhiteHouse’sperformanceinthehoursafterthe 9/11attack.SowascolumnistDanGuthrieofthe DailyCourier inOregon. Inafront-pageeditorialGuthrie’sbossesannouncedthatcriticismofthe presidentandhisassociates “needstoberesponsibleandappropriate.”8

Sometimesajournalistcanbepenalizedforoff-dutyactivitiesorcomments.The SanFranciscoChronicle firedacolumnistforparticipatingina massdemonstrationagainsttheU.S.invasionofIraq eventhoughCalifornialawexplicitlystatesthatemployerscannotforbidorpreventemployees fromparticipatinginpoliticalactivities.AftercorrespondentAshleighBanfieldsuggestedatacampustalkthatnewscoverageoftheIraqwarwassanitizedandAmericanswerenotgettingthewholestory,herNBCcontractwas notrenewed.9 Meanwhilemedia owners attendpoliticalfundraisersandstate dinners,contributetoelectioncampaigns,andsocializewithhigh-ranking officeholders,butthisisnotseenasviolatingjournalisticstandardsof neutralityandobjectivity.

Newspeoplewhoconsistentlysupporttheworldviewofglobalcapitalism andthenationalsecuritystatearetheonesmorelikelytoberewardedwith choiceassignments,bonuses,andpromotions.Additionalblandishments, suchaslucrativespeaker’sfeesfrommoneyedinterests,oftenblunttherecipient’scriticaledge.OnemightrecallhowtheShahofIran,abrutaldictator detestedbymostofhispeople,receivedaglowingpressintheUnitedStates. Fortwenty-fiveyears,overfivehundrednewspeoplereceivedtheShah’sgifts andwereinvitedtohislavishparties.Thefewwhowrotecriticallyofhim wereleftoffhisgiftlist.

WhenABCcorrespondentJohnStosselemergedasalaissez-faireideologue,announcingthat “itismyjobtoexplainthebeautiesofthefreemarket, ” hiscareertookoff.Anardentsupporterofchemicalizedagribusiness, Stosselclaimedthatorganicfood “couldkillyou ” andcatastrophicglobal warmingisa “myth. ” HecalledfortheprivatizationofSocialSecurity,the curbingofenvironmentaleducation,andthecelebrationofgreedasagood thingfortheeconomy.Insteadofbeingchallengedforhisone-sidedviews, Stosselwasgivenaseven-figurecontractandastarringroleinnumerous ABC-TVspecials. 10

Themajornetworksclaimtheirnewsshowsare “fair” and “balanced.” Butonestudyfoundthatconservativeguestsonnetworkopinionshowsoutnumberedliberalonesbythreetoone.(Leftist radicals weretooscarceasnetworkguestseventobecounted.)11 In2006,asupposedlyliberalnetwork, CNN,hiredright-wingopinionmakerandgamblingaddictWilliamBennett asapoliticalcommentator.Morerecently,FoxhiredGlennBeck,arightwingradiohost.BeckoncecalledtheindigentvictimsofHurricaneKatrina “scumbags,” andtalkedofkillingdissidentshedisliked.Hesaidhe “understood” amasskillerinAlabamawhomustbelikemillionsofAmericansfrustratedforbeingshutdownbytheliberalelites.BeckalsocalledPresident Obama “aracist” whohad “adeep-seatedhatredforWhitepeople.”12

AnotherFoxcommentator,BillO’Reilly,denouncedcriticsoftheU.S.invasionandoccupationofIraqas “traitors” whoalongwith “allthoseclowns attheliberalradionetwork” shouldbearrestedbytheFBIandput “inchains.”13 OnFoxNewstheconservative-liberalimbalancewasthemostpronouncedof anynetwork.ThemorepeoplewatchedFoxNews,themoremisinformed theywere.Foxviewers(anastounding80percent)werethemostlikelytobelieveoneormoreofthefollowing:(a)IraqwaslinkedtothealQaedaterroristnetwork,(b)Iraqhadweaponsofmassdestruction,and(c)worldopinion favoredtheU.S.invasionofIraq alldemonstrablyfalsestatements.14

Onrareoccasions,thenewsmediawillgoagainstastrongcorporateinterest,aswiththeexposésonhowthetobaccoindustryconspiredtohook peopleonsmokingbyinsertingextranicotineincigarettes,andhowsmoking causedcancer.Weknewaboutthelinkbetweensmokingandcancerforover halfacentury.Butthepressandpolicymakersgavetheissuetheirattention onlyafteragrowingpublicoutcryandnumerousclassactionsuitsagainst BigTobacco andafterthetobaccocompanieswerebannedfromadvertising inthemajormedia.Ahostofotherconsumerissuessuchascarcinogensin cosmetics,radioactivematerialsinproducts,theuseofindustrialsludgeas

fertilizers,andtheunsafequalityofmanymedications,alongwithmanifold issuesrelatingtotheenvironment,stilldonotgetmuchexposure.

THEIDEOLOGICALMONOPOLY

Conservativecommentatorsrepeatedlyaccusethemediaof “liberal” bias.In factmostdailynewspapersofferaneditorialperspectiverangingfromblandly centristtoultraconservative.OverthelastseventyyearstheRepublicanpresidentialcandidatereceivedmorenewspaperendorsementsthantheDemocrat insixteenoutofeighteenelections.SurveysshowthatWashingtonjournalists, thoughmoreliberalon “culturalissues” suchasabortionandgayrights,are morethantwiceaslikelyasthegeneralpublictosupportcorporatefreetrade andfarmoreinfavoroftrimmingMedicareandSocialSecurity.15

Sonervousarejournalistsaboutbeingcalled “liberal” thattheytake painstocriticizeorignoreprogressiveleaderswhileshininguptorightists. ConsiderhowtheliberalmediacollaboratedinthecampaignwagedtoimpeachPresidentClintonforlyingaboutasexualtrysthehadwithanintern, anactthatitselfwasnotunlawful.Thencomparethattohownomajormedia calledforPresidentBush’simpeachmentforthemomentousliesherepeatedlyutteredinordertojustifyhisaggressionagainstIraq claimingthat IraqwaslinkedtoalQaedaandthatSaddamHusseinhadweaponsof massdestruction liesofimmensepoliticaldimension.

The “expert” guestsappearingonnewscastsarepredominantlygovernmentofficials(orformerofficials),corporateheads,andmembersofconservativethinktanks.LikewiseTVpundits,radiotalk-showhosts,andsyndicated columnistsarepredominantlyandoftenvehementlyconservative.Bothradio andtelevisionareawashwiththelikesofRushLimbaughandMichaelSavage whoaggressivelypoundhomeamessageofreactionandhostilitytowardanythingresemblingliberalreform.

Ofthe “liberal” commentatorswhoarehailedasrepresentingthe “Left,” manyarelittlemorethan “pro-capitalist,middle-of-the-roadtepidcentrist” as former NewYorkTimes syndicated “liberal” columnistAnthonyLewiscandidlydescribedhimself.Thesetepidsoulsarenowhereasfarleftastheconservativesarefarright.Thewholeleftportionofthepoliticalspectrumis mostlyshutoutofthemainstreammedia.

Still,criticalinformationdoesmakeitswayintothemedia tothegreat annoyanceofconservatives.Muchofitiscitedinvariouschaptersofthis bookWhatoftenismissingisanycohesiveanalysisofthesignificanceof thatinformation.Andinmanyinstanceseventhemostbasicinformationis lackingifitreflectsunfavorablyonthosewithsignificanteconomicpower. Considerthemedia’spresentationofthesetopics: Ideology. Foratleastthelastthirtyyearstheultraconservativeshaveenjoyedanearmonopolyinthepropagationofpoliticalideology,constantly poundinghomethismessage:don’tlooktogovernmenttosolveourproblems; government is theproblem;thefreemarketwouldsolveourillswereitnotfor bureaucraticmeddlingfromWashington;theenvironmentisdoingfine;ifthe treehuggershadtheirwayallourcorporationswouldbeclosedandwewould

beoutofjobs;wehavethebesthealthcaresystemintheworld thebestof everythingforthatmatter;AmericawasfoundedasaChristiannationandwe shouldkeepitthatway;Americafacesaworldfilledwithenemieswhoareonly waitingtopounceuponus;thelatte-sippingliberaleliteslookscornfullyupon ourAmericanwayoflife;theyseektodivestusofourfamilyvalueswhileimposingtheirsecularamoralityuponus;liberalsprefertoseehard-working Americansexploitedbywelfarechiselersratherthanteachingpeopletobe self-reliant;liberalsbringusdivorce,greedylaborunions,collectivism,aweak military,socialism,guncontrol,andpoliciesof “taxspend,taxspend.”

Throughaprocessofrelentlessandrepetitivemessaging,thereactionaries poundedhometheabovethemes.Withenormoussumsofmoneymadeavailabletothembyrichcorporateright-wingers,theyformedwholenewnetworkslikeFoxandtheChristianBroadcastingNetwork.Theystarted numerousnewmagazinesandotherpublications.Theyboughtuphundreds ofradiostationsandsponsoredmean-spiritedreactionarycommentators whowerenothingbutwell-paidpropagandists.16

AllthistimetheDemocratsandliberalshavedonelittlebywayofdeveloping a “mediamessagemachine” thatcouldcountertheright-wingpropagandajuggernaut.Theyaddressthemselvestothisorthatissue,assuchissuesarise,buttheydo littleaboutofferinggeneralprinciplesandsalientinformationtothepublic.

Economy. Newsreportsonbusinessrelyalmostentirelyonbusiness sources.Theoverallcorporateeconomyismorecelebratedintheabstract thancriticallyexaminedinitsspecifics.Thedumpingofcorporatediseconomies ontothepublic,theoutsourcingofcapitalandjobstolow-wagecountries,the increasingaccumulationandconcentrationofwealthforthesuperrich,thetendencytowardchronicrecession,inflation,andunderemployment,andothersuch developmentsaretreatedsuperficially,ifatall.Povertyremainsanunexplained phenomenoninourcapitalistparadise.

Whetherportrayingthepoorasunworthyidlersorinnocentunfortunates, thepressseldomgivescriticalattentiontothemarketforcesthatcreateand victimizelow-incomepeople.Thepresshasfailedtoexplaintherealimpactof thenationaldebtandhowitgeneratesanupwardredistributionofincomeand underminespublic-sectorspending.Almostnothingissaidinthemainstream mediaabouthowcorporateAmericaregularlyputsprofitsbeforepeople,or how “freetrade” globalismisreallymonopolycorporateglobalism.

Mostmediacommentatorswereunwillingtoseechronicoverproduction anddepressedwagesashavinganythingtodowiththesevereeconomiccrisis of2008–2009,preferringtoblametherecessiononthemalfeasanceofindividualspeculatorsratherthanonthesystemicdysfunctionofanunregulated untrammeledcapitalism.

Elections. Mediacoverageofelectoralcampaignsfocusesmostlyonthe contestperse:whowillrun,whowillwin,andwhatcampaignploysareplayingwellwiththepublic.Relativelylittleattentionisgiventopolicycontent. Newscommentatorsactmoreliketheatercritics,reviewingthecandidate’sperformanceandstyle.Onestudyfoundthatmorethantwo-thirdsofcampaign coveragecentersoninsiderstrategyandpoliticalmaneuveringratherthansubstantiveissues.17 Progressivecandidatesfindthemselvesdependentfor

exposureonmassmediathatareownedbythesameconservativeintereststhey arecriticizing.Hopingtoeducatethepublicontheissues,theydiscoverthatthe mediaallowlittleornoopportunityforthemtomaketheirpositionunderstandabletolargerpublicsthatmightbewillingtolisten.Thesheerpaucityof informationcanmakemeaningfulcampaigndialoguenearlyimpossible.

Themajormediaignoredorsummarilydismissedthemanyquestions aboutwidespreadfraudinthe2000and2004presidentialelections,swiftly declaringaRepublicanwinnerdespiteflagrantirregularitiesinbothcontests (seethenextchapter).18 Themedia’ssystemicideologicalrolehasbeentopreservethelegitimacyofanationalelectionthatsomecriticshaveshowntobe demonstrablystolen.

Crime. Thepresshashelpedcreate the “lock-’em-up” crimecraze throughoutAmerica.Becauseoftheincreasingcoveragethatboththenews andentertainmentmediagavetocrime,thenumberofrespondentswho rankedcrimeastheprimeproblemjumpedsixfold evenasthenationwide homiciderateactuallydroppedby20percent.19 Corporate crimehoweveris anotherstory,largelyanunderreportedone.ThemediawilldenounceparticularlygreedyandcorruptCEOs theoneswhogetcaught whileleaving untouchedthefree-marketcorporatesystemthatproducesthem.

AffirmativeAction.Insteadoftreatingaffirmativeactionasanattemptto redresslong-standinginjustices,themediahasfrequentlyoverlookedthepersistenceofracismandsexisminmanywalksoflife,leavingpeoplewiththe impressionthatAfricanAmericansandwomenareenjoyingspecialprivileges attheexpenseofWhitemales.20

Labor.Mostnewspapershavelargestaffsforbusinessnewsbutnotasinglelaborreporter.Reportersseldomenlistlabor’sviewsonnationalquestions whereascorporateleadersareinterviewedregularly.Ordinaryworkersare virtuallynevertreatedasknowledgeablesourcesaboutworkissues.There arenodailyorperiodicreportsaboutthenumberofworkerskilledorinjured onthejob.Unionsareusuallynoticedonlywhentheygoonstrike,butthe issuesbehindthestrike,suchasoccupationalsafetyorlossofbenefits,are rarelyacknowledged.Themisleadingimpressionisthatlaborsimplywants toomuch.Unionsmake “demands” whilemanagementmakes “offers.”

PoliticalProtestsandGlobalization. CitizenswhoexercisetheirdemocraticrightsundertheFirstAmendmentbylaunchingprotestsagainstofficial policyoftenaregivenshortshrift.Thehundredsofthousandswhohavedemonstratedaroundtheworldagainst “freetrade” treatieshavebeencharacterizedasviolence-pronezealotsand “flat-earthers. ” Themajormediatreat globalizationasabenignandnaturalprocess,ratherthanatransnational corporatestrategytorollbackpublicregulationsanddemocraticprotections incountriesaroundtheworld.WithgoodreasondidDavidRockefeller,duringaspeechatthe1991BilderbergConference,declare: “Wearegratefulto the WashingtonPost, the NewYorkTimes,TimeMagazine andothergreat publicationswhosedirectorshaveattendedourmeetingsandrespectedtheir promisesofdiscretionforalmostfortyyears.Itwouldhavebeenimpossible forustodevelopourplanfortheworldifwehadbeensubjectedtothelights ofpublicityduringthoseyears.”21

GlobalEmpireandWar. ReportsaboutU.S.involvementinforeignaffairs usuallyrelyheavilyongovernmentreleases. ThemediasupportU.S.militaryinterventionsintoothercountries,acceptingwithlittlecriticalexaminationofficialassumptionsthatWashington’swarpolicyismotivatedbyconcernsfordemocracy, nationalsecurity,andpeace.Somepundits,like NewYorkTimes columnist ThomasFriedman,arepassionatepromotersofglobalcorporatismandU.S.militaryattacksonsmaller,weakernations.Friedmancalledfor “bombingIraq,over andoverandoveragain.” Oneofhisfavoritesloganswas “Givewarachance,” whichheusedinsupportofU.S.aggressionsagainstYugoslavia,Afghanistan,and Iraq.22 Over1millionIraqideathsresultedfromtheU.S.invasionandoccupation whilebillionsofU.S.dollarshavebeenunaccountablylostinIraq.Butthemedia havegivenrelativelylittleattentiontothisimmenselossoflifeandtreasure.23

CommentatorsstresstheimportanceofmaintainingU.S.militarymight and “credibility” (thatis,thewillingnesstouseforceandviolence).Littleif anypositiveexposureisgiventoanti-imperialiststrugglesortodomestic criticsofU.S.overseasinterventions.Thecorporatemedia,alongwithNPR andPBS,portrayedtheVietnamWar,theU.S.invasionsofGrenadaandPanama,thedestructionofYugoslavia,andthedecade-longbombingattacksand subsequentinvasionofIraqprettymuchastheWhiteHouseandthePentagon wanted,withlittleattentiongiventotheunderlyingimperialinterestsandthe devastationwreakedbyU.S.forces.24

HumanrightsviolationsincommunistNorthKoreaandChinaarerepeatedly alludedto,whereasU.S.-supportedterrorisminscoresofcountries,utilizingdeath squads,massacres,andmassdetentions,receivesscantnotice,ifany.Thepress downplayedorignoredoutrighttheslaughterofsome500,000Indonesiansbythe U.S.-supportedmilitaristsofthatcountry,andtheexterminationcampaignwaged bythosesamemilitaristsinEastTimor.Themediamadelittlementionofthe massiverepressionofdissidentpopulationsinUruguay,Guatemala,Turkey, ElSalvador,Argentina,Haiti,Honduras,Nigeria,Palestine,Zaire,thePhilippines, andotherU.S.-supportedfree-marketregimes.Whilesupportiveofright-wingprocapitalistregimes,themediaarestrenuouslynegativetowardleftistmovements andgovernmentssuchasCastro’sCubaandChavez’sVenezuela.25 Themedia havehadlittletosayaboutU.S.-supportedcounterrevolutionarymercenaryforces inAngola,Mozambique,Nicaragua,andelsewherewhoseblood-drenched campaignstookhundredsofthousandsoflives.26

Meanwhile,thespaceprogramisreportedthewayNASAwants,with scarcelyawordgiventothosewhocriticizeitscostsandtheseriousdamage itdoestotheearth’sprotectiveozonelayer.

SERVINGOFFICIALDOM

Gettingtooclosetothetruthcanproveharmful.Inaseriesofdeeplyresearchedarticlesinthe SanJoseMercuryNews, reporterGaryWebbexposed theCIA’sinvolvementinthedrugtrafficbetweenthecontras(U.S.-supported mercenarytroopsinCentralAmerica)andinner-citydealersintheUnited States.Webbwasswiftlysubjectedtoabarrageofcounterattacksfromthe WashingtonPost,NewYorkTimes,LosAngelesTimes, themajorTV

MassMedia:FortheMany,bytheFew 171

networks,andotherkeepersofpermissibleopinion.Theyaccusedhimofsayingthingshehadnotsaid,whileignoringthemoredamningandwellsubstantiatedheartofhisfindings.Eventually,Webb’seditorcavedintothe pressure,makingapublicself-criticismforhavingpublishedtheseries.Webb leftthe MercuryNews, hiscareerinshambles.Asubsequentreportbythe CIAitselflargelyconfirmedhischarges.27

In1998CNNproducersAprilOliverandJackSmithranastoryaccusing theU.S.militaryofusingsarin,ahighlylethalnervegas,inanoperationin Laosin1970thatkilledaboutonehundredpeopleincludingtwoAmerican defectors.AnimmediatestormofabusedescendeduponOliverandSmith fromthePentagon.CNNhastilyissuedafawningretractionandfiredthe twoproducers.OliverandSmithputtogetherareportshowingthattheir storywasbasedentirelyontestimonybyU.S.militarypersonnel,including participantsintheoperationwhostoodbytheirstories.28 Theirreportreceivedalmostnoattentioninthemedia.

Scoresofsupposedly “independentandobjective” journalistsmoveback andforthintheircareersbetweenmediaandgovernment,inwhathasbeen calledthe “revolvingdoor.” DavidGergenservedintheNixon,Ford,Reagan, andClintonadministrations,andinbetweenwasaneditorat U.S.Newsand WorldReport andaPBScommentator.PatBuchananwasastaffwriterfor PresidentNixon,acolumnistandTVopinion-showhostforCNN,astaff writerforPresidentReagan,thenaCNNhostagain.29

MorethanfourhundredU.S.journalists,includingnationallysyndicated columnists,editors,andmajorpublishers,havecarriedoutcovert “Actually,Lou,Ithinkitwasmorethanjustmybeingintherightplaceattherighttime. Ithinkitwasmybeingtherightrace,therightreligion,therightsex,therightsocioeconomicgroup,havingtherightaccent,therightclothes,goingtotherightschools …”

assignmentsfortheCentralIntelligenceAgencyoverthelastfourdecades, gatheringintelligenceabroadorpublishingthekindofstoriesthatcreatea domesticclimateofopinionsupportiveofU.S.interventionism.Included amongthemweresuchprominentpressmogulsasWilliamPaley,erstwhile headofCBS;HenryLuce,lateownerofTimeInc.;andArthurHaysSulzberger,latepublisherofthe NewYorkTimes .TheCIAhasownedmorethan 240mediaoperationsaroundtheworld,includingnewspapers,magazines, publishinghouses,radioandtelevisionstations,andwireservices.Many ThirdWorldcountriesgetmorenewsfromtheCIAandotherWestern sourcesthanfromThirdWorldnewsorganizations.Storiesexposingthemajormedia’ scomplicitywiththeCIAthemselveshavebeensuppressedbythe majormedia. 30

IfCubanorChineseorVenezuelanjournalistswereshowntoworkfor theirrespectivecountries’ intelligenceagencies,andiftheywerefoundtobe intermittentlyoccupyingofficialpositionswithintheirgovernments,including secretoperations,itwouldbetakenasasuresignthatthesenationslackedan independentpress.

Thoseinvestigativejournalistswhopersistinunearthingtroublingtruths oftenrunintodifficulty.TheJusticeDepartmentwonaSupremeCourtdecisionallowingthegovernmenttoissuesubpoenasrequiringnewspeopletodisclosetheirsourcestogrand-juryinvestigators,ineffectforcingthepresstobe aninvestigativearmoftheveryofficialdomoverwhomitissupposedtoact asawatchdog.Onestudyfoundthatmorethanthirty-fivehundredsubpoenaswereservedonmembersofthenewsmediainoneyearalone.31 Dozensof reportershavebeenjailedorthreatenedwithprisontermsfortryingtoprotect theirsourcesbyrefusingtohandovermaterialsandtapes.Suchgovernment coercioncreatesachillingeffect,encouragingthepresstoavoidtroublefrom officialdombycensoringitself.

Governmentofficialsgivechoiceleadstosympatheticjournalistsand withholdinformationfromtroublesomeones.Theymeetregularlywithmediabossestodiscussspecificstories.EverydaytheWhiteHouse,thePentagon,andotheragenciesreleasethousandsofself-designedreportstothe media,manyofwhicharethenuncriticallytransmittedtothepublicas newsfromindependentsources.TheBushJr.administrationsecretlyconfectedfavorablenewsreportsaboutitselfbyhiringactorstoposeasjournalists,producingphony “videonewsreleases ” thatweredistributedand broadcastedas “news” byhundredsoflocalTVstations.TheWhiteHouse alsopaidseveralrealjournaliststensofthousandsofdollars ingovernment funds toproducenewsandopinionpiecesthatpromotedtheadministration’spolicies.

AccordingtotheGovernmentAccountabilityOffice,suchactsviolated thelawagainstspreading “covertpropaganda” withintheUnitedStatesat publicexpense.ButtheRepublican-controlledCongresstooknoaction againstthepresident.TheBushpeoplealsohiredsomeone(anerstwhilemale prostitutewhohadpaidnumerousvisitstotheWhiteHouse)toposeasa journalistunderafictitiousname,sothathecouldaskrehearsedquestions ofthepresidentorhispresssecretaryatnewsconferences.32

POLITICALENTERTAINMENT

Theentertainmentmedia(moviesandtelevisionshows)undergoarigorous politicalcensorship.Eventhe NewYorkTimes admitsthatnetwork “productionandstandards” (censorship)departmentshavereducedtheirpolicingof sexualandotherculturaltaboos,but “networkcensorscontinuetobevigilant whenitcomestooverseeingthe political contentoftelevisionfilms.”33 Televisionshowsandfilmsthattreatanti-imperialistandanticorporatethemeshave troublegettingsponsorsandfunding.Evenifproduced,theyarelikelytoget verylimiteddistribution.Suchwasthefateofmovieslike SaltoftheEarth, Burn,WinterSoldier,Salvador,Reds,1900,Matwan, and Romero. 34

Whatisconsideredapoliticalornonpoliticalfilmisitselfapoliticaljudgment.Almostallmainstreamentertainmentispoliticalinonewayoranother. Evenmoviesandtelevisionshowsthatdonotpromoteaspecificallypolitical storylinemaypropagateimagesandthemesthatsupportmilitarism,imperialism,racism,sexism,authoritarianism,andotherundemocraticvalues.Inthe entertainmentworld,adversitiesarecausedbyill-willedindividualsand cabals,neverbytheinjusticesofthesocioeconomicsystem.Problemsare solvedbyindividualderring-doratherthanbyorganizedcollectiveeffort.

Inwarmovieslike BlackHawkDown,Stripes, and HeartbreakRidge, theU.S.militaryisalmostalwaysportrayedsympathetically,lockedinbattle againstsomeperniciousfoe,neverservingasaninstrumentofU.S.empire building.ThePentagonhasmaintainedacozyrelationshipwiththeentertainmentindustryforyears,providingarmoredequipment,matériel,baseaccess, andeventroopsforbattlescenes.Inexchange,themilitarybrassimposes scriptchangesthatportraythemilitaryinacompletelyfavorablelightand aidintherecruitmentandretentionofpersonnel.35

Inthemedia’sentertainmentworld,nefariousviolenceismetwithrighteousviolence,althoughitisoftendifficulttodistinguishthetwo.Bythe timehefinisheselementaryschool,atypicalAmericanmalechildwillhave seeneightthousandTVmurders,andmanythousandsmoreassaultsand otheractsofviolence.Studiesindicatethatpeoplewhowatchalotofcrime showshaveahigherfearofcrimeandurbanminorities,andaremorewilling toembraceauthoritariansolutions.36

Womenarestillmarketedassexualobjectsinadsandstorylines,butin recentyearstheysometimesarealsodepictedasintelligentandcapablepersons,occupyingpositionsofauthorityandresponsibility.Thesameholdsfor AfricanAmericans,althoughtheystillappearfarlessoftenthanWhitesin leadingroles.Latinosarethemostunderrepresentedgroupinprime-timetelevision,closelyfollowedbyAsianAmericans,whileNativeAmericansare virtuallyinvisible,exceptforthehackneyed “cowboyandIndian” flicks.

YearsagoAfricanAmericanspredictablyplayedservantsandstreetcriminals.Nowtheyplaypoliceandstreetcriminals,stillusuallyinminorroles. TheBlackpolicecaptainscoldingtheherocopandtheBlackjudge(frequently female)admonishingcourtroomlawyershavebecomenewAfricanAmerican stockcharacters.AfricanAmericansaboundinprime-timesitcoms,butthe moreseriousstrugglesfacedbytheAfricanAmericancommunityinalmost

everyareaoflifeandworkarerarelyaffordedrealisticportrayal.African Americanactorsstillexperienceashortageofraciallynonspecificrolesdealing withreal-lifeproblemsthatcanaffectanyoneregardlessofethnicity.

Therehavebeensomenotableexceptionstothedismalfareservedupto massaudiences.Movieslike ACivilAction and ErinBrokovitch castarevealinglightonthevenalityofcorporatepolluters. IronJawedAngels gaveafine portrayalofthewomen’ssuffragistmovement. NorthCountry depictedthe strugglebyfemaleminersagainstworkplacesexistharassment.Both Syriana and GoodNightandGoodLuck pursuedtopicsthatwerecriticalofthe powersthatbe.However,mostfilmsandtelevisionshowsproducedinthe business-ownedentertainmentworldgivescarceattention,ifany,toimportant andpotentiallyfascinatingsocial,cultural,political,andhistoricalthemes.37

InrecentyearsthePublicBroadcastingSystem(PBS)hasbecomemore sensitivetorace,gender,andgayissuesbutstillvirtuallyignoresworkingclassconcerns,outoffearofalienatingcorporateunderwriters.Whenlabor unionshavefundeddocumentariesanddramashavingaworking-classperspective,publictelevisionbossesusuallyhaverefusedtorunthem,claiming thatlabor(withitsmillionsofworkers)representsa “specialinterest.”38

ROOMFORALTERNATIVES?

Insum,thenewsisaproductnotonlyofdeliberatemanipulationbutofthe ideologicalandeconomicpowerstructureunderwhichjournalistsoperateand intowhichtheyaresocialized.Ifweconsidercensorshiptobeadangertoour freedom,thenweshouldunderstandthatthemediaarealreadycensoredby thosewhoownoradvertiseinthemandbytheentirecorporate-dominated politicalculturethatsetslimitsonwhatispermissibleopinion.

Sometimes,however,themediacannoteasilysuppressanddistortrealities abouttheworldbecauserealityitselfisradical.TheThirdWorldreallyis poorandexploited;theU.S.governmentreallydoessidewiththericholigarchsandsuppressesleftistreformmovementsathomeandabroad;thegap betweenwealthandpovertyreallyisgrowingevergreaterinmostofthe world;therereallyiscrimeandcorruptioninhighplaces;theenvironment reallyisfacingcatastrophicdangerscausedmostlybymassivefossilfuelconsumption;corporationsdowieldenormouspoweranddodownsizetheir workforcewhilereapingrecordprofits.Tomaintainsomeconnectiontothe world,thepressmustoccasionallyreportglimmersoftheserealities.Whenit does,therightistscomplainfuriouslyabouta “liberalbias.”

Furthermore,thepressisnotentirelyimmunetomoredemocraticand popularpressure.Despitethemedia’smisrepresentationandneglect,ifa well-organizedandpersistentpublicopinionbuildsaroundanissue,itoccasionallycanbreakthroughthemediasoundbarrier.

Isthereanyalternativetothemajormedia?ThePublicBroadcastingAct of1967didlaunchthePublicBroadcastingSystemasanalternativetocommercialtelevision.Insteadofbeingindependentlyfinancedbyasalestaxon televisionsetsorsomesuchmethod,PBSwasmadedependentonannualappropriationsfromCongressandwasrunbyaboardappointedbythepresident.PBSandNationalPublicRadio(NPR)arenowrequiredtomatch

federalfundswithmoneyfromlistenercontributionsandcorporatesponsors. BothNPRandPBSoffercommentatorswhoarejustaboutaspoliticallysafe asanyfoundonthecommercialnetworks.

Ofthemanyhigh-qualitydocumentariesmadebyindependentproducers dealingwithimportantpoliticalcontroversies,fewareaccordedmainstream exposure.Thus FacesofWar, revealingtheU.S.-supportedcounterinsurgency destructionvisiteduponthepeopleofElSalvador,wasdeniedbroadcast rightsintwenty-twomajortelevisionmarkets.Theaward-winning Building Bombs andtheexposéontheIran-contraaffair, Coverup, weredeniedaccess toPBSandallcommercialchannels. DeadlyDeception, adocumentarycriticalofGeneralElectricandtheenvironmentaldevastationwreakedbythe nuclearweaponsindustry,wontheAcademyAward,yet,withafewlocal exceptions,wasshutoutofcommercialandpublictelevision.Sotoowasthe AcademyAward–winningdocumentary PanamaDeception, whichoffereda criticalexposéoftheU.S.invasionofPanama.Apowerfulandmovingexposé oftheprofit-drivenAmericanhealthcaresystemisMichaelMoore’s Sicko, whichplayedinafewmovietheatersbutnevermadeittoanynetwork.

Manyareasofthecountryareawashintalkshowsandnewscommentarythatareoutspokenlyultrarightist,pro-corporate,militaristic,anti-union, andantifeminist.Wealthyconservativeshavepouredmillionsofdollarsinto buildingthereligiousright’snumerousradioandtelevisionoutlets,including theChristianBroadcastingNetwork,whichhasasmanyaffiliatesasABC. Thereisasignificantreligiousleftinthiscountry,dedicatedtopeaceandsocialjusticeissues,butitgetsnobigfinancialbackingormajormediaoutlets, andthereforeisseldomheardbymassaudiences.

Deniedaccesstomainstreammedia,thepoliticallefthasattemptedtoget itsmessageacrossthroughcommunity-andlistener-sponsoredradiostations andsmallpublicationsthatsufferchronicfinancialdifficultiesandsometimes undergoharassmentfromauthoritiesandinfiltrators.Skyrocketingpostal rateseffectarealhardshipondissidentpublications.Atthesametime,the governmentcontinuestosubsidizebillionsofpiecesofjunkmailsentoutby businessandadvertisingfirms.

Forawhileunlicensed “microradio” or “pirate” radiostationsbeganburgeoningacrossthecountry.Thesepiratestationstransmitinalimitedone-to five-mileradius,toosmalltointerferewithlargersignals.Therealnuisance theyposeistheirheterodoxviews.Microstationsinanumberoflocaleshave beenforciblyshutdownbytheFCCandlocalpolice,whobreakintotheirpremisesandhaulofftheirbroadcastequipment.Therearealsolegallow-powerstations(LPFM)thatarerequiredtohavealicenseorwaiverfromtheFCCunder penaltyoflaw.AstationseekingaLPFMlicensehastobeinareaswherethereis spaceonthedial,whichrulesoutmosturbanareas.OverhalftheLPFMlicenses grantedbytheFCChavegonetoright-wingchurchgroups.39

TheairwavesarethepropertyofthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesand shouldbeopentodivergentviews.Herearesomemodestproposalsfora moredemocraticmedia:

• Theantitrustlawthatlimitsthenumberofmediaoutletsanyonecorporationcanownshouldberevived.

• Theamountofairtimegiventoadvertisingshouldagainbelimited.

• Thenetworksoughttopayforuseofthepublicairways,andthese feesshouldgotofinancingnoncommercialpublicbroadcasting.Public televisionandradioshouldbefundedbyapublictaxsystemratherthan byrichcorporate “underwriters.”

• Allbroadcaststationsshouldberequiredtoallocatetimeforfreeand opendebatesamongadiversearrayofpoliticalproponentsincluding themostprogressiveandrevolutionary.

Thereoncedidexista “FairnessDoctrine,” alawrequiringthattime begiventoanopposingviewpointafterastationbroadcastedaneditorial opinion.Buttherewasnorequirementastothediversityoftheopposing viewpoints,sousuallytherangewasbetweentwoonlyslightlydifferent stances.TheFCCruledthatbroadcasttimeshouldnotbemadeavailableto “communistsorthecommunistviewpoint” butonlyto “personsotherthan communists.”40 Eventhispaleandslantedlawwastoomuchforthereactionaries.PresidentReaganvetoedtheFairnessDoctrinein1987whenCongress attemptedtorenewit.

Ultimatelytheonlyprotectionagainstcorporate-dominatedmonopoly mediaisownershipbythepeoplethemselves,withprovisionsfortheinclusion ofabroadspectrumofconflictingviews.Thisisnotaschimericalorradical asitsounds.Intheearly1920s,beforeitwasswallowedupbycommercial interests,radioconsistedprimarilyofhundredsofnot-for-profitstationsrun mostlybycolleges,laborunions,andcommunitygroups.41 Todaymore community-supportedradiostationsandpublicaccesscable-TVstationsare needed.Themicroradiostationshouldbeencouraged,foritisamongthe mostdemocraticofmedia,requiringalmostnocapitalwhilebeingrelatively moreaccessibletothecommunityinwhichitoperates.

TheInternetalsooffersprogressivewebsitesthatprovideinformationand opinionrarelyaccommodatedbymainstreammedia.ByitsnaturetheInternet providesforindividualtransmissionandcommentarybyjustaboutanyone whohasacomputerandanopinion,bringingussomeofthebestandworst, butalsoprovidingnewopportunitiesfornetworkingandorganizing,andfor gatheringinformation.SomegianttelephoneandcablecompaniesbeganpressuringCongresstolimitthenumberofInternetservers,inanefforttoestablishhigh-feemonopolycontrol.Theirgoalhasbeentocreatetheelectronic equivalentofanexpensive “fastlane,” whilerelegatingallnonpayingusers toslower,morelimited,andlessreliableaccess.42

Thosewhoownthenewspapersandnetworkswillnotrelinquishtheir holdoverthecommunicationuniverse.Ordinarycitizenswillnothaveaccess untiltheycangaincontrolovertheresourcesthatcouldgivethemaccess,an achievementthatwouldtakeadifferentkindofeconomicsystemthanthecorporate “freemarket” wehave.Inthemeantime,Americansshouldhaveno illusionsaboutthe “freeandindependentpress” theyaresaidtoenjoy.

Voters,Parties,and StolenElections

TheU.S.politicalsystemissaidtobedemocratic,forwegettoelectourleaders infreeandopenelections.Yet,asademocraticinstitution,theelectoralprocess isinneedofseriousupgrading.

DEMOCRATSANDREPUBLICANS:ANYDIFFERENCES?

Forgenerations,professionalpartypoliticiansranthe partymachine incity neighborhoodsandtowns,dolingoutlittlefavorstolittlepeopleandbigfavorstorealtyspeculators,businesscontractors,andpartyleadersthemselves. Thepoliticalbosseswereoccupiedmostlywithwinningelectionsratherthan withquestionsofsocialjustice.Old-fashionedpoliticalmachinescanstillbe foundinsomecities,butovertheyearspartyorganizationshavedeclinedfor anumberofreasons:

First,campaignfinancelawsnowallocatefederalelectionfundsdirectly tocandidatesratherthantoparties,therebyweakeningtheinfluenceofthe partyorganization.

Second,nowthatmanystateshaveadoptedthedirectprimary,candidates arelesslikelytoseekoutthepartyorganizationforaplaceontheticket,and morelikelytoindependentlypursuethenominationbyenteringtheprimary.

Third,becausetelevisedpoliticaladscanreacheveryoneintheirliving room,thepartyprecinctcaptainislessneededtocanvasstheneighborhood andpublicizethecandidate.Today’scandidateneedsmoneyedbackersorpersonalwealthtopayforcostlymediacampaigns,completewithpollstersand publicrelationsexperts,whohelpselectissuesandshapeelectoralstrategy. Candidatesexpendhugesumssellingtheirimageincatchysoundbites,

marketingthemselvesastheywouldasoapproducttoapublicconditionedto suchappeals.Assomeoneoncesaid: “Youcan’tfoolallthepeopleallofthe time,butifyoufoolthemonceit’sgoodforfouryears.”

Voterssometimeswillsupportonecandidateonlyoutoffearthatthe othercandidatewillmakethingsevenworse.This lesser-of-two-evils appeal isacommoninducementtovoterparticipation.Somevotersfeelthatthey arenotreallyofferedachoicebutareforcedintoone,votingnotsomuch for as against someone.Whenpresentedwithissue-linkedchoices,however, votersinthemainareabletomakecriticaldistinctionsanddorespondaccordingtotheirpocketbookinterestsandotherspecificpreferences.1

ItisnotquiteaccuratetocharacterizetheRepublicansandDemocratsas TweedledeeandTweedledum.Theyarenotexactlyalikeanddotakesignificantlydifferentpositionsattimes.Butonsomefundamentalissues,thesimilaritiesbetweenthemloomsolargeasfrequentlytoobscurethedifferences.Both theDemocraticPartyandtheGOP(“GrandOldParty,” anicknameforthe RepublicanParty)arecommittedtothepreservationoftheprivatecorporate economy;theuseofsubsidies,taxallowances,andglobal “freetrade” agreements tobolsterbusinessprofits;hugemilitarybudgets;acostlyandwastefulmanned spaceprogram;andtheuseofforceandviolencetodefendthetransnational corporateempire.Thetwopartieshavebeencharacterizedas “nonideological.” Inasensetheyare,insofarastheirprofoundideologicalcommitmenttothe corporatesystemathomeandabroadisseldommadeanexplicitissue.

Inthelastseveraldecades,however,therehasbeenasharpeningofideologicaldifferencesbetweenthetwoparties.TheRepublicanPartyhasbeenthe moreideologicallyconsistentparty,tirelesslylaunchingattacksoneveryincidentalissuetodemonizetheirliberalopponents,whilepreachingthevirtues offamilyvalues,freeenterprise,freemarket,andsuperpatriotism.Judging fromtheperformanceofthelastseveralGOPadministrations,theRepublican leadershipisdedicatedtoeliminatingtaxesforcorporationsandtheveryrich, outlawingabortionandgaymarriage,undoingenvironmentalprotections, eliminatinggovernment-runhumanservices(includingSocialSecurity),and abolishingallgovernmentregulationsofcorporateactivities.

TheRepublicanshavevotedforincreasedmilitaryspendingandtroopallotments;forarmedinterventionsinothercountries;forenormoussubsidiesforagribusiness,bigoil,andthepharmaceuticalindustry;againstraisingtheminimum wage;againstassistancetohomeownersincrisisandjobsprogramsduring recentrecessions;againstapublicoptionforhealthcareandhavingthegovernmentnegotiateforlowerMedicaredrugprices;andagainstsupportfor renewableenergyorothermeaningfulmeasuresdealingwithglobalwarming.

TheDemocrats,oratleastthemoreprogressiveones,favorconsumer rights,universalhealthinsurance,humanservices,laborrights,environmental protections,safeandlegalabortions,progressivetaxes,cutsinmilitaryspending,andgenderandethnicequality.

GenerallyRepublicansgetmostoftheirvotesfromconservatives,White males,ruralandsuburbandwellers,fundamentalistChristiansandotherregularchurchgoers,managerialprofessionals,theupwardlymobile,peoplewho earnover$100,000,andthosewithsomecollegeeducation.

Democratsgenerallydobestamongliberals,women,citydwellers,wage workers,AfricanAmericans,Jews,peoplewhoearnunder$20,000,andthose whoareamongtheleastandthemosteducated,thatis,withouthighschool diplomasorwithadvanceddegrees.

TheRepublicanPartyleadership,ascenteredintheRepublicanNational Committee,isadisciplinedoutfit,runfromthetopdown,withatightgripon stateandcountycommittees.Itlaunchessystematiccampaignstoachieveaconservativeideologicaldominance,targetingbothissuesandindividuals,strivingfor permanentcontrolofstateandnationallegislaturesthroughredistrictingand heavycampaignspending,whilestackingthecourtswithright-wingideologues.

UnliketheGOP,theDemocraticPartylacksacentralizedcommandand ideologicalattackmode.Itseemstohavenooverallagendaforlockingdown controloftheelectoralprocessandtheinstitutionsofgovernment.Itisaloose coalitionofgroups,withstateandlocalcommitteesthatoftengotheirown way,supplementedbyindependentorganizationsthatpursueoneoranother issue.TheDemocratsseemincapableofmatchingtheGOP’suncompromising andrelentlessattackmode.Indeed,inrecenttimestheDemocratshavebeen ledbyapresident,BarackObama,whospendsmuchtimereachingoutfora bipartisanconsensusthatdoesnotexist.

Therealsoaredifferenceswithineachpartybetweenvotersandpartyactivists.DelegatestoarecentRepublicannationalconventionweremoreconservativeonissuesthanamajorityofregisteredRepublicanvoters.Oneinfive delegatesputtheirnetworthat$1millionormore.MostwereWhitemiddleagedmalesopposedtocampaignfinancereform,affirmativeaction,gayrights, progressiveincometax,single-payerhealthcare,strongerenvironmentalprotections,andlegalabortion.Theysupportedafederallawtoimposeprayerinthe schoolsbutnotfederalfundsforschoolrepairprograms.Thechancesoffinding aGOPdelegatewithafamilyincomeunder$25,000wasfiftytoone.Atthe Democraticnationalconventiontheoddsweresomewhatlower:fourteento one,butstillhardlyrepresentativeofthewiderpublic.

THETWO-PARTYMONOPOLY

Anationwidepollreportedthat53percentofrespondentsfeltweshouldhavea thirdmajorpoliticalparty.2 Butallfiftystateshavelaws writtenandenforced byDemocraticandRepublicanofficials settingsomedauntingrequirements forthird-partyballotaccess.Insomestates,independentorthird-partycandidatesmustcollectlargenumbersofsignaturesandpayburdensomefilingfees. Sometimesthetimetocollectsignaturesislimitedtooneweek,virtuallyan impossibletask.3

TheSupremeCourtupheldaWashingtonStatelawthatrequiresminorpartycandidatestowinatleast1percentofthetotalprimaryelectionvotein ordertoruninthegeneralelection,ineffectdeprivingmostminorcandidates ofballotaccess.4 BillshavebeensubmittedinCongress,sofarwithoutsuccess,thatwouldinstituteamorepermissiveanduniformballotaccesslaw throughoutthefiftystates.Overtheyears,someoftheunfairrestrictions againstthirdpartieshavebeenstruckdownincourtbattles.

Ithasbeenarguedthatrestrictiveballotrequirementsareneededtoscreen outfrivolouscandidates.Butwhodecideswhois “frivolous”?Andwhatisso harmfulaboutsuchcandidatesthattheelectoratemustbeprotectedfromthem byall-knowingRepublicanandDemocraticpartyofficials?Infactthefew statesthatallowrelativelyeasieraccesstotheballot suchasIowa,Tennessee, Vermont,andNewHampshire,whererelativelyfewsignaturesareneededand enoughtimeisallowedtocollectthem havesufferednoinvasionoffrivolous orkookycandidates.

TheFederalElectionCampaignActgivesmillionsofdollarsinpublic fundstothetwomajorpartiestofinancetheirnationalconventions,primaries,andpresidentialcampaigns.Butpublicmoneygoestothird-partycandidatesonly after anelectionandonlyiftheyglean5percentofthevote, somethingnearlyimpossibletoachievewithoutfunds.Insum,theycannot getthemoneyunlesstheyget5percentofthevote;buttheyarenotlikelyto get5percentwithoutthesubstantialamountsofmoneyneededtobuysufficientnationalexposure.

Whilereceivingnothingfromthefederalgovernment,minorpartiesmust observeallfederalrecord-keepingrequirements.TheFederalElectionCommission,designatedbylawtohavethreeRepublicanandthreeDemocraticcommissioners,spendsmostofitstimecheckingtheaccountsofsmallerpartiesand filingsuitsagainstthemandagainstindependentcandidates.Hencetwoprivate politicalpartiesareendowedwithlawenforcementpowerstoregulatetheactivitiesofallotherpartiesinwaysthatpreservetheirtwo-partymonopoly.

MAKINGEVERYVOTECOUNT

Thesystemofrepresentationitselfdiscriminatesagainstthirdparties.The winner-take-all,single-member-districtplurality systemusedintheUnitedStates artificiallymagnifiesthestrengthofmajorparties.Apartythatpollsaplurality (thelargestnumberofvoteseveniflessthanamajority)wins100percentrepresentationwiththeelectionofadistrict’ssinglecandidate,whereastheother parties,regardlessoftheirvote,receivezerorepresentation.Becausethereare fewdistrictsinwhichminorpartieshaveaplurality,theyinvariablyhavea higherpercentageofwastedorunrepresentedvotes,andwinalowerproportion ofseats,ifany.

Evenvotersofthetwomajorpartiesareshortchanged.InvariouscountiesofNorthernCalifornia,GOPvoterscompose20to35percentoftheturnoutbutreceivezerorepresentationbecausetheyareunabletoelectamember oftheirparty.InpartsofKansas,Nebraska,andOklahoma,Democratic voterscast30to40percentofthevotes,butreceivezerorepresentationbecauseallthecongressionalseatsarewonbyRepublicans.Acrossthecountry, thoselivinginsafeRepublicanorsafeDemocraticdistrictsandwhosupport theweakerpartyhavelittlereasontovote.Ofcoursethesameholdsforthose whosupportminorparties.5

Inmostcongressionaldistrictsonepartydominatesovertheother.The two-partysystemislargelyapatchworkofone-partydominions magnified bythewinner-take-allsystem.Aboutoneofeverytenrepresentativesiselected toCongresswithnooppositionatallineithertheprimaryorthegeneralelection.Over90percentofcongressionalincumbentswhoseekreelectionare successfulinthatendeavor.Deathandvoluntaryretirementseemtobethe moreimportantfactorsbehindmembershipturnover.

Incontrasttothewinner-take-allsystemis proportionalrepresentation (PR),whichprovidesapartywithlegislativeseatsroughlyinaccordancewith thepercentageofvotesitwins.Letussaytensingle-memberdistrictswerejoined intoonemultiseatdistrict.Everypartyprovidesarankedlistoftencandidates. Votersvoteforthepartyoftheirchoice,andeachpartyisawardedtheirproportionalnumberofseats.Apartythatgetsaround50percentofthevotewouldget onlyfiveseats(forthetopfivecandidatesonitslist);onethatreceived30percent wouldgetthreeseats,whileonethatreceived20percentwouldgettwoseats. Justabouteveryvotewouldberepresented.6

Somepoliticalscientistsandpunditsarguethatproportionalrepresentationisanodd,overlycomplicatedsystemthatencouragestheproliferation ofsplinterpartiesandleadstolegislativestalemateandinstability.Theylaud thetwo-partysystembecauseitsupposedlyallowsforcohesionandstable majorities.ActuallythereisnothingoddorquirkyaboutPR;itisthemost popularvotingsystemintheworld.SomeformofPRisusedinvirtuallyevery countryinEurope,fromAustriaandBelgiumtoSwedenandSwitzerland. Winner-take-allisfoundinonlyahandfulofcountries.7 In1993NewZealand adoptedproportionalrepresentationinanationalreferendumbyanoverwhelmingvote.PRusuallyproducesstablecoalitiongovernmentsthatareconsistentlymorerepresentativeandresponsivethanwinner-take-allsystems.

PRvotingisnotcomplicated.Citizenssimplycastvotesforthepartiesthat morecloselyreflecttheirinterests.NorisPRcompletelyalientotheUnited States.Somelocalgovernmentsandschooldistrictshaveemployeditforyears. PRgivesethnicminoritiesanddiversepoliticalgroupsabetterchanceofwinningsomerepresentation.In1945,inthelastPRracefortheNewYorkCity Council,Democratswonfifteenseats,Republicansthree,LiberalsandCommuniststwoeach,andtheAmericanLaborpartyone;publicinterestincitycouncil electionswashigh.PRwasabolishedinNewYorknotbecauseitdidn’twork butbecauseitworkedtoowell,givingrepresentationtoavarietyofleftistdissentingviews.Afterwinner-take-allwasreinstalledinNewYork,theDemocrats wonthirty-fourcouncilseats,theRepublicansone,andsmallerpartieswere completelyfrozenout.8

Torepeat:Winner-take-allelectionsartificiallymagnifytherepresentation ofthestrongerpartiesandtheweaknessofthelesserones.Weddedtotheunfairadvantagesofthecurrentsystem,DemocratsandRepublicansinCongress passedalawin1967 requiring allstatestosetupsingle-member,winnertake-alldistrictsforCongress.Thissystemdeprivesminoritypartiesnotonly ofrepresentationbuteventuallyofvoterstoo,becausenotmanycitizenswish to “waste” theirballotsonaminorpartythatseemsincapableofachievinga legislativepresence.Sothirdpartiesarelockedinaviciouscycle:Theycannot winbecausetheylacksupport,andtheyhavetroublegainingsupportbecause theyaresmallandcannotwin.

Sometimesitdoesnotseemworththeefforttovoteforoneofthetwomajorpartiesindistrictswheretheothersopredominatesandwillbewinningthe solerepresentation.IfwehadPR,however,everyvotewouldbegivensome representation,andpeoplewouldbemorelikelytovote.Thispartlyexplains whyvoterturnoutrangesfrom36to42percentforcongressionalelections, whereasincountriesthathavePR,turnoutsrangefrom70to90percent.9 Withproportionalrepresentation,thereisabroaderchoiceofparties,ahigher rateofparticipation,andamoreequitablerepresentationthaninourwinnertake-all,single-member-district,two-partysystem.

RIGGINGTHEGAME

Theelectoralsystemisriggedinotherways.Acommondeviceis redistricting, changingtheboundariesofasingle-memberdistrictostensiblytocomplywith populationshiftsbutreallytoeffectapreferredpoliticaloutcome.Oftenthe intentistodilutetheelectoralstrengthofneworpotentiallydissidentconstituencies,includingethnicminorities.Thus,theNewYorkCityCouncilsplit fiftythousandworking-classBlackvotersinQueensintothreepredominantly Whitedistricts,makingthemanumericalminorityinallthree.Likewisein LosAngelesCountyandnineTexascounties,heavyconcentrationsofLatinos weredividedintoseparatedistrictstodilutetheirvotingimpact.

Anextremeformofpoliticallymotivatedredistrictingisthe gerrymander. Districtlinesaredrawninelaboratelycontortedwayssoastomaximize thestrengthofthepartythatdoesthedrawing.10 Sometimes,asjustdescribed. gerrymanderingisusedtodenyminorityrepresentationbysplittinga

concentratedethnicareaintodifferentdistricts.Othertimesitisusedto assure minorityrepresentationbycreatingadistrictthatmanagestoconcentrateenoughAfricanAmericanvoterssoastoallowtheelectionofanAfricanAmerican. Conservativeopponentscondemnsuchpracticesas “racialgerrymandering” and “reversediscrimination.” ButdefendantsarguethatsuchdistrictsmaylookbizarreonamapbutaretheonlywaytoabridgeaWhitemonopolyandensure someBlackrepresentationinstateswhereWhitesremaindisproportionately overrepresentedevenafterasupposedlyequitableredistricting.

Thecourtshaveignoredthegerrymanderingthatshapessomanydistricts aroundthecountry.Afterthe1990census,theRepublicanadministrationof BushSr.directedcertainstatestomaximizethenumberofdistrictspacked withAfricanAmericanandLatinovoters.Bushhadanulteriormotive.By corrallingminorities(whovotedheavilyDemocratic)intoelectoralghettos, theGOPwouldhaveabetterchanceofcarryingthemorenumeroussurroundingWhitedistricts.11

Redistrictingoccurseverytenyears,asafunctionof reapportionment. TheConstitutionmandatesthateverydecadeanationalcensusshallbetaken andHouseofRepresentativeseatsshallbereapportioned,accordingtothe shiftsinpopulationbetweenthevariousstates.Whenstatesloseorgainseats inthereapportionment,theymustthenredistrictafterthecensus,ataskperformedbythevariousstatelegislatures,subjecttovetobythegovernors.Ifa stateneithergainsnorlosesseatsafteraparticularcensus,therestillmaybe populationshiftswithinitthatwarranttheredrawingofdistrictlines.

In2001,afterthe2000census,congressionaldistrictlineswereredrawn inColoradoandTexasinawaythatfederalcourtsdecidedwasfair,asdid theTexasGOPgovernorandGOPattorneygeneral.Butjusttwoyearslater, afterRepublicanswoncompletecontrolofstatelegislaturesinbothstates, theytooktheunprecedentedstepofredrawingdistrictlinesalreadyratified bythecourts,anddoingitinaseverelypartisanway,especiallyinTexas wherethecongressionaldelegationwentfromseventeentofifteeninfavorof Democratstotwenty-onetoeleveninfavorofRepublicans,ashiftunparalleledintheannalsofgerrymandering.In2006theSupremeCourtupheldthe newlyimposedredistricting,settingasidethepracticedescribedintheConstitutionofredrawingdistrictsonceeverytenyearsafterthenationalcensus, andopeningthedoorforapartisanredistrictingscrambleanytimeastate legislaturemightchangehands.12 Onlyaboutadozenstateshaveconstitutionalprohibitionsagainstmultipleredistrictingwithinthesamedecade.

Evenifdistrictsareredrawnbyaneutralcomputermethod,underthe winner-take-allsystemlargenumbersofvotersarestillwithoutrepresentation.Proportionalrepresentationprovidesthemoreequitablesystem.Thus Democratslivingina65percentRepublicandistrictintheDallassuburbs areeffectivelygerrymanderedoutofanopportunitytoelectapersonwhorepresentstheirinterests.ButwithPR,thefiveRepublicanDallassuburbandistrictswouldbemadeintoonecompositedistrictwithfiverepresentatives,and Democraticvoterswouldbeabletoelectoneortwoofthefive,therebyattainingrepresentationroughlyproportionaltotheirnumbersinsteadofbeing entirelyshutout.

Thedecennialnationalcensusitselfintroducesdistortionsbecauseitoften undercountslow-incomevoters,missingmorerentersthanhomeownersand manypoorresidentsinovercrowdedneighborhoodsandremoteruralareas, whotendtobelessforthcomingwithcensustakers.Undercountingmeans underrepresentationinCongressandthestatelegislatures,andlessfederal aid.AccordingtotheCensusBureau,onenationalcensusmissedanestimated 8.4millionpeopleanddouble-countedorimproperlytallied4.4million,includingmanyaffluentWhiteswhohadmorethanoneresidence.13

If,despiteriggedrules,radicalpartiesgaingrassrootsstrengthandeven winelections,theyarelikelytobecometheobjectofofficialviolence.Thecase oftheU.S.SocialistPartyisinstructive.By1918,theSocialistPartyheldtwelve hundredofficesin340citiesincludingseventy-ninemayors,thirty-twolegislators,andamemberofCongress.Thenextyear,afterhavingincreasedtheirvote dramatically,theSocialistssufferedthecombinedattacksofstate,local,and federalauthorities.Theirheadquartersinnumerouscitiesweresacked,their fundsconfiscated,theirleadersjailedontrumped-upcharges,theirimmigrant memberssummarilydeported,theirnewspapersdeniedmailingprivileges, andtheirelectedcandidatesdeniedtheirseatsinvariousstatelegislaturesand Congress.Withinafewyearsthepartywasfinishedasaviablepoliticalforce.

Whileconfiningthemselvestolegalandpeacefulformsofpoliticalcompetition,theSocialistsdiscoveredthattheiropponentswereburdenedbynosimilar compunctions.Theguidingprincipleofrulingeliteswasandstillis:when changethreatenstorule,thentherulesarechanged.

MONEY,ANECESSARYCONDITION

Ahugehandicapfacedbythird-partycandidates andprogressivecandidates withinthemajorparties isthelackoffundsneededtowinoffice.Moneyis thelifebloodofpresent-dayelectoralcampaigns.AraceforaseatintheHouse ofRepresentativescancostseveralmilliondollars.Senatorialandgubernatorial contestssometimesaremanytimesmorethanthat.Inthe2008presidentialand congressionalcampaigns,spendingbyalladvocacygroupsandcandidatesand partycommitteestotaled$5.3billion,arecordamountthatdidnotincludethe manymillionsspentonhundredsofstateandlocalcontests.14

Sometimesmillionsareexpendednottowinofficebutmerelytoprocurea partynominationinaprimarycontestagainstothermembersofthesameparty. Andbeforetheactualprimarythereiswhatsomecallthe moneyprimary.The candidatewhoamassesanenormouswarchestorwhohasanimmensepersonal fortunetherebydiscourageswould-bechallengers.Heorsheistreatedseriously asacandidateandislikelytobedesignatedthe “frontrunner” bythemedia.

Duringthe2000Republicanpresidentialprimaries,BushJr.,sonofaformer president, “won” themoneyprimarybyraising$50millionfourmonthsbefore thefirstprimaryinNewHampshire.Thatsumcamefromjustasmallnumberof superrichdonors.15 SeveralotherGOPprimaryopponentsdroppedoutafterthey discoveredthatmostofthefatcatshadalreadycommittedtheircheckbooksto Bush.BythetimeBushwonhisparty’snominationinJuly2000,hehadalready spentover$97million andthecampaignagainsthisDemocraticopponenthad

yettobegin.16 Thus,wellbeforetheactualelection,ahandfulofrichcontributors winnowthefield,predeterminingwhowillrunintheprimarieswithwhatlevelof strengthandplausibility.Onlytheveryrichgetto “vote” inthemoneyprimary. ThatmaybealittlelesstruewiththeadventoftheInternet.Nowadays fundraisersforless-establishedcandidatesareabletoaccesslargernumbersof potentialsupporterswithoutincurringbigcosts.Stillthereremainstheneedto convincepotentialdonors,evensmallones,thatthecandidateisa “serious one,” somethingnoteasytodoifthemediahavedesignatedthecandidateas aminorfixturenottobetakenseriouslyasthenomineetobe.

Everyfouryearsbothmajorpartiesreceivemillionsofdollarsinfederal funds allocatedtothembyaCongressdominatedbythesesametwoparties tofinancetheirnationalpresidentialnominatingconventions.TheDemocratic andGOPconventionsalsoreceivesubstantialsumsfromtheirhostcities,and largecashgiftsfromcorporations,includingbuffetlunches,hospitalityrooms, andpostsessioncelebrationsfortheconventiondelegates.17 Bigcorporations bankrollthetelevisedpresidentialdebates,whichusuallyarelimitedtothe twomajor-partycandidates.

Asmandatedbylaw,asofJanuary2009anindividualcancontributetothe campaignsofasmanycandidatesasheorshewants,butnotmorethan$2,400 inaprimaryand$2,400intheelectionforatotalof$4,800percandidate.That sameindividualcanalsogive$30,400tothenationalpartycommittee,$10,000 tostateandlocalpartycommittees,andvariousothercontributions.Insum,one personcancontribute$45,600toallcandidatesand$69,900toallpartyand politicalactioncommitteeswithinabiennialperiod.18 Inaddition,therearethe fatspeakingfees,travelaccommodations,andotherfreeservicesthatcompanies arehappytoprovidetoneedyorgreedylegislators.

Thereisalso softmoney,whichconsistsoffundsthatcanbeusedonlyfor “issueadvertising” andforsingingthecandidate’spraises aslongasthead doesnoturgeustovotefororagainstanyone.Difficulttodistinguishfrom campaignads,soft-moneyadsprovidedanenormousloopholeforcampaign expenditures,totalinghundredsofmillionsofdollarstothemajorparties.The McCain-FeingoldActof2002bannedthesolicitationandspendingofsoft moneybynationalpartiesandfederalcandidates.Thoughdesignedtoplug loopholesinspending,thenewlawspawnedloopholesofitsown.Independentcommitteescouldstillraisemoneyapartfromanypartyorcandidate. Andindividualcontributionscouldbepassedalongtofuturenomineesin “bundled” amountsthatexceededthe$5,000-per-candidatelimit.

Innationalelections,businessgenerallyoutspendslaborbymorethanseven toone.Whenitcomestosoftmoneyandstateinitiativesandballotpropositions, theratioofbusinessoverlaborspendingismoreliketwenty-onetoone,with mostofthatmoneyfindingitswayintothecoffersofthemoreconservativecandidatesofthetwoparties.19 Tohedgetheirbets,corporationsandotherbigdonorssometimescontributetobothparties,thoughusuallysubstantiallymoreto theRepublicans.20 Contributionsoftenaredoledouteventolawmakerswho rununopposed,toensureinfluenceoverthepreordainedvictor.

Acandidateneedsfundsforpublicrelationsconsultants,pollsters,campaign travel;campaignworkers,offices,telephones,computers,faxes,mailings;and,

mostofall,mediaadvertisements.Yetsomesaythatmoneyisnotamajorinfluencebecausebetter-financedcandidatessometimeslose,asdemonstratedbybillionaireSteveForbes,whospent$30millionofhispersonalfortunein2000and stillfailedtogaintheGOPpresidentialnomination.Electoralvictory,theargumentgoes,ismorelikelytobedeterminedbyotherfactorssuchaspartylabel, ideology,issues,andincumbency.Thelargestsumsgotoentrenchedincumbents whoareexpectedtowin,somoneydoesnotbringvictory,itfollowsvictory.

Inresponse,wemightnotethatcandidateswhoarethebiggerspendersmay notalwayswinbuttheyusuallydo,ashasbeenthecaseoverthelastfifteenyears inmorethan80percentofHouseandSenateraces.Evenin “openraces,” withno incumbentrunning,better-fundedcandidateswon75percentofthetime.Inthe 2008congressionalelection,Democraticcandidatesreceivednoticeablymorein directcontributionsthanRepublicans,andwoncontrolofboththeHouseand Senate.21 Thisdoesnotestablishasimpleone-to-onecausalrelationshipbetween moneyandvictory.Butgiventhecentralrolemoneyplaysinlaunchingacampaignandpromotingacandidate,howcanwesayitisofnocrucialimportance?

Moneyinfluencesnotonlywhowins,butwhoruns,andwhoistaken seriouslywhenrunning.Candidatessometimesarebackedbypartyleaders explicitlybecausetheyhavepersonalwealthandcanuseittowageaneffectivecampaign.ItistruethatSteveForbesfailedtogaintheGOPnomination. Buteventhoughhewasoflacklusterpersonalityandhadafuzzyprogram,his moneyenabledhimtowinprimariesintwostatesandbetreatedasaserious contenderthroughoutthecampaign.

Candidateswhowinwhilespendinglessthantheiropponentsstillusually havetospendquitealot.Whilenotasurefireguarantorofvictory,alarge warchest evenifnotthelargest isusuallya necessarycondition.Money maynotguaranteevictory,butthelackofitusuallyguaranteesdefeat.Withoutlargesums,thereisrarelymuchofacampaign,aspoorlyfunded “minor” candidateshaverepeatedlydiscovered.

Theinfluenceofmoneyisalsoevidentinthemanystateballotinitiativesfrom FloridatoCaliforniarelatingtoarangeofvitalissues.Inmanyinstances,there initiallyisstrongvotersupportforthepublic-interestposition.Thenbigbusiness launchesaheavilyfinancedblitzofslicktelevisionads,outspendingitsopponents byasmuchasfiftytooneinsomecases,andopinionturnsinbusiness’sfavor.22

Thereseemstobeagrowingawarenessoftheundueandundemocraticinfluenceofmoney.InGeorgia,civilrightsleaderslaunchedacourtchallengemandatingthecreationofpubliclyfinancedstateelectionsbecausewinnerswereenjoying morethana300percentspendingadvantageoverlosers.InMaine,votersapprovedalawin1996thatallowscandidatestooptforfullpublicfinancing oftheircampaigns.Afewyearslaterasimilarlawwasapprovedbyvotersin MassachusettsandinVermont.In2002,amajorityofthelegislatureinMaine wonracesonpublicmoney,lawmakerswhotherebywerenotindebtedtomoneyedinterests.InArizona,JanetNapolitanobecamethefirstgovernorofanystate tobeelectedwithpublicfinancing.Heropponentopposedpublicfundingand raisedalmost$2millioninprivatedonations.Publicfundingofelectionsis resistedbythosewhocanreadilyoutspendtheiropponents,butitwinsbipartisan supportamongvotersacrossthenation.23

THESTRUGGLETOVOTE

TheUnitedStatesranksamongthelowestintheworldinvoterturnout. NearlyathirdofadultAmericansarenotevenregisteredtovote.Somepeople failtocastaballotbecausetheycarelittleaboutpublicaffairs.Butothers, includingsomewhodovote,feeldeeplycynicalandangryaboutpolitics. Theyaredisenchantedbythehypocrisyandpretense,theconstantdroneof campaignads,andthevastsumsspent.Manyhavetroublebelievingthatvotingmakesadifference.InaNewYorkTimes/CBSpoll,79percentofrespondentsagreedthatgovernmentis “prettymuchrunbyafewbiginterests lookingoutforthemselves.”24

Ithasbeenarguedthatsincenonvoterstendtobeamongthemoreapatheticandlessinformed,theyarelikelytobeswayedbyprejudiceanddemagogy.Henceitisjustaswelltheydonotexercisetheirfranchise.25 Behind thisreasoninglurksthedubiouspresumptionthatbetter-educated,upperincomepeoplewhovotearemorerationalandlesscompelledbyself-interest

andethno-classprejudices,animpressionthatitselfisoneofthosecomforting prejudicesupper-andmiddle-classpeoplehaveofthemselves.

Somewritersarguethatmanypeopledon’tbothertovotebecausethey arefairlycontentwiththings.Certainlysomeindividualsareblithelyindifferenttopoliticalissues evenissuesthatmayaffecttheirlivesinimportant ways.Butgenerallyspeaking,voterapathyisoftenapsychologicaldefense againstfeelingsofpowerlessnessanddisillusionment.Whatisseenasapathy mayreallybeantipathy.

Somepoliticalanalystsarguethatlowvoterparticipationisofnogreatimportbecausethepreferencesofnonvotersaremuchthesameasthepreferences ofvoters.Ifthestay-at-homesweretovote,itsupposedlywouldnotchangethe outcomeofmostelections.Infact,upper-incomepersonsvoteatalmosttwice therateasthoseoflower-income,andforconservativecandidatesatalmost threetimestherate.Hence,it would makeadifferenceiflow-incomecitizens votedingreaternumbers,andonthoseoccasionswhentheydo,it does.

Theargumentissometimesmadethatdeprivedgroups,suchasethnic minorities,whofeelthwartedbypoliticsshouldacceptthefactthattheyare numericallyweakandunabletocommandwidesupportfortheirdemands.In asystemthatrespondstothedemocraticpowerofmajoritynumbers,aminoritypoorcannothopetohaveitsway.

Whatiscuriousaboutthisargumentisthatitisneverappliedtomore selectminorityinterests forinstance,oilmen.Nowoilmenarefarlessnumerousthanthepoor,yetthedeficiencyoftheirnumbers,orofthenumbersof othertinyminoritieslikebankers,industrialists,andbillionaireinvestors,does notresultinanylackofgovernmentresponsivenesstotheirwants.

Furthermore,manypeoplefailtovotebecausetheyfacevariouskindsofofficialdiscouragementandintimidation.Twocenturiesofstrugglehavebroughtreal gainsinextendingthefranchise.IntheearlydaysoftheRepublic,propertyless Whitemales,indenturedservants,women,Blacks(includingfreedslaves),and NativeAmericans(“Indians”)hadnoaccesstotheballot.Inthewakeof working-classturbulenceduringthe1820sand1830s,formalpropertyqualificationswereabolishedforWhitemales.Andafteracenturyofagitation,women finallywontherighttovotewiththeadoptionoftheNineteenthAmendmentin 1920.In1961,theTwenty-thirdAmendmentgaveDistrictofColumbiaresidents representationinpresidentialelections,buttheyarestilldeniedfullvotingrepresentationinCongress.In1971,partlyinresponsetotheyouthantiwarrebellions ofthelate1960s,theTwenty-sixthAmendmentwasquicklyadopted,lowering theminimumvotingagefromtwenty-onetoeighteen.

TheFifteenthAmendment,ratifiedin1870,writteninthebloodofcivil war,prohibitedvoterdiscriminationbecauseofrace.Butittookanothercenturyofstruggletomakethisrightsomethingmorethanaformalityinmany regions.In1944,theSupremeCourtruledthatWhites-onlypartyprimaries wereunconstitutional.26 Decadesofagitationandpoliticalpressure,augmentedbythegrowingvotingpowerofAfricanAmericanswhohadmigrated toNortherncities,ledtoanumberofcivilrightsactsandseveralcrucialSupremeCourtdecisions.Takentogethertheseactionsgavethefederalgovernmentandcourtspowertoactagainstsegregationiststateofficialsandagainst

discriminatorystaterestrictions suchaslong-termresidencyrequirements andpolltaxes.27 TheresultwasthatincertainpartsoftheSouth,African Americansbeganvotinginvisiblenumbersforthefirsttimesince Reconstruction.

Duringthe1980s,PresidentReaganthreatenedtocutofffederalaidtostate andlocalagenciesthatassistedinvoterregistrationdrives.Votingrightsactivistswhotriedtoregisterpeopleinfamily-assistanceofficeswerearrested. Question:WhywouldanAmericanpresidentcutofffederalaidandarrestpeoplewhowerehelpingotherAmericanstoregistertovote?Answer:Theother Americanswereseenasvotingthewrongway.ReaganwasaRepublicanand thepeopleinfamily-assistanceofficeswerelargelylow-incomeDemocrats.

In1986,theReaganWhiteHousesentFBIagentsstreamingintoSoutherncountiestointerrogateovertwothousandAfricanAmericansabout voter fraud.Whilefindingnoevidenceoffraud,theFBIdidcausesomevotersto thinktwiceaboutgoingtothepolls.Themotivebehindthiskindofintimidationisaspoliticalasitisracial.IfAfricanAmericansvotedoverwhelmingly forRepublicancandidatesratherthanforDemocrats,thenRepublicanadministratorswouldnotlikelybehoundingthem.

In1992,aDemocraticCongresspasseda “motorvoter” billthatsoughtto increasevoterturnoutamongtheelderly,thepoor,andtheinfirmbyallowing citizenstoregisterastheyrenewtheirdriver’slicenses,orapplyforSocialSecurity,unemployment,welfare,ordisabilitybenefits.PresidentBushSr.vetoedit. Question:WhywouldanAmericanpresidentvetoabillthathelpedotherAmericanstovote?Answer:Onceagain,theywerelikelytovotethewrongway.

Thefollowingyearabillwaspassedallowingregistrationatmotorvehicleandmilitaryrecruitingoffices,buttoavoidaRepublicanSenatefilibuster itcontainednoprovisionforvoterregistrationatwelfareandunemployment offices.Therehavebeenwidespreadreportsaslateas2009thateventhislimitedlawwasnotbeingadequatelyenforced.28

THEWARAGAINSTIMAGINARY “VOTERFRAUD”

Today,whilemanylegalrestrictionshavebeenremoved,newbarrierstovotingloom.InvariousWesterndemocracies,governmentsactivelypursueprogramstoregistervoters,leadingtohighregistrationratesandhighvoter participation.Incontrast,U.S.federalandstateofficialshaveahistoryof makingitdifficultforworkingpeopletoregisterandvote.Inadozenor morestateswithintheUnitedStateswefindthefollowing:

• Would-bevotersmayberequiredtoprovetheircitizenshipwithapassport, birthcertificate,orothergovernmentID,documentsthatpoorandelderly citizensoftenlack.Peoplewhohadbeenvotingformanyyearssuddenly foundthemselvesdisqualified.InMissourialone,newlyinstalledphotoID requirementsthreatentodisfranchiseupto240,000stateresidents.

• InsomestatescitizensarebeingrequiredtopayvoterIDfees which amountstoanunconstitutionalpolltax,feltmostheavilybylowincomevoters.

• LegislationpendinginsomestatesprohibitstheelderlyfromusingphotoIDs issuedbyretirementcentersorneighborhoodassociationswhengoingtothe polls.Manylow-incomeelderlydonothavedriver’slicensestouseasIDs.

• Registrationcentersareusuallyopenonlyduringworkinghourswhen blue-collarandlower-levelservicepeoplecannotgetofffromwork.The locationsofregistrationcenterscanberemoteandfrequentlychanged.

• Registrationformsaresometimesunnecessarilycomplex,inshortsupply, poorlydistributed,andsluggishlyprocessed.

• Onerousandunnecessaryrulesareimposedongrassrootsvoterregistrationdrives,suchasrequiringregistrationformstobeturnedinwithin forty-eighthoursafterbeingfilledout;ormakingitillegalforanyoneto getwithinonehundredfeetofalineofvoterstoofferlegaladviceregardingtheirvotingrights.

• Ifyournameintheregistrationdatabase(JohnSmith)doesnotperfectly matchyournameasspelledonyourdriver’slicenseorsomeotherID(John L.Smith),youcanbeturnedawayatthepolls,andmanyhavebeen.

• Pollingplacesaresometimesnotsituatedinaccessiblelocations.Inone Texascounty,officialscloseddownallbutoneofthirteenpollingstations,andBlackandLatinovoterturnoutplummetedfromtwenty-three hundredtothreehundred.InpartsofMississippi,apersonmighthaveto registerbothatthetownandcountycourthouses,whichcouldmean drivingninetymilesroundtrip.

• Inrecentelections,morethanoneinfiveregisteredvotersdidnotvote becauseoflongworkhours,physicaldisabilities,parentalresponsibilities, lackoftransportation,orotherdifficulties.Insomedemocracies,measuresaretakenbyofficialstoassistvotersfacingsuchobstacles,butnot intheUnitedStates.29

Accordingtothestandardview,workingpeopleandthepoorhavealow voterturnoutbecausetheyarewantingininformationandcivicawareness. Butiftheyaresonaturallyinclinedtoapathy,onewonderswhyentrenched interestsfinditnecessarytotakesuchstrenuousmeasurestodiscouragetheir participation.

DauntingIDandregistrationrequirementsaresupposedlyintendedto keepne’er-do-wellsfromattemptingtocastballotsinsomeoneelse’sname,a problemthat despiterepeatedinvestigations hasnotbeenshowntoexistin anynumbers.MostrecentlytheCenturyFoundationfoundnoevidenceof voterimpersonationoroffelonsorotherpersonstryingtoillegallycastballots.30 StillRepublicanofficialscontinuetoinventstoriesaboutdrovesof fraudulentvoters “stealingdriver’slicensesorpassportssotheycansneak intotheboothandcastanillegalballot.GOPleadershaveintimidatedvoters ofcolor,unfairlypurgedvoterrolls,andsetupunconstitutionalbarriersto theballotbox allinthenameofcleaningup ‘voterfraud.’”31 Thisuntiring crusadeisobviouslyaimedatlimitingthenumberofvotersfromdemographic groupsthatfavortheDemocrats.

Republicaneffortstosuppressthevotehaveenjoyedsomesuccess.Inthe 2008presidentialelection,4millionto5millionvotersdidnotcastaballot

becausetheyencounteredregistrationdifficultiesorfailedtoreceiveabsentee ballots.Anadditional2millionto4millionregisteredvoterswerediscouragedfromvotingduetoadministrativehassleslikelonglinesandnewvoter identificationrequirements.32 Hadtheelectionbeenaclosercontest,asuppressedvoteofthismagnitudewouldhaveproducedadifferentoutcome.

WhenUnitedAutoWorkersunionmemberstookelectiondayoff,they wereabletoworkatbringingoutthevote,serveaspollwatchers,andfind timethemselvestovote.Yetmostworkerscannotparticipateatthatlevelbecauseelectionsareheldonaworkday(Tuesday),makingvotingdifficultfor thosewhohavelatecommutes.

Onepositivedevelopment:Everystateintheunionnowallowspeopleto voteseveraldaysearlierthanelectionday.Insomestates earlyvoting isprovidedonlyforthosewhohaveanexcuse.Inotherstatesearlyvotingisavailabletoanyonewhomightwanttoavailthemselvesofit.Inthe2008election, mindfulofthepunishinglongvoterlinesofpreviouselections,earlyvoters turnedoutinrecordnumberstotalingabout30percentofthetotalvote.

About5millionAmericansareprohibitedfromcastingaballotbecause ofpastcriminalrecordsorbecausetheyarecurrentlybehindbars.Threestates (Florida,Kentucky,andVirginia)stillimposelifetimedisfranchisementon anyoneeverconvictedofafelony,impactingdisproportionatelyonlow-income communitiesofcolor.Otherstateshavescaledbacksimilarbansinrecentyears.

Peoplewhowerestillbehindbarsaredeniedthevoteinallbuttwostates (MaineandVermont),yettheyarecountedaspartofthepopulationofthe communitiesinwhichtheprisonsarelocated,creatingpoliticaldistrictsthat wouldnototherwiseexist.Whenfundsandlegislativeseatsareallocated accordingtopopulation,conservativeruralcommunitieswithlargeprison populationsdisproportionatelygleanmoreseatsandfundsforthemselves. Citiesloseoutonfundsthatcouldbeusedforbothcrimepreventionandprisonerrehabilitation.Inmatesshouldbecountedasresidentsofthecommunity towhichtheyarelikelytoreturnafterincarceration,theplaceswherereentry programsneedtobefunded.33

SHADYELECTIONS

Oftenpresumedtohavediedoutwithold-timemachinepolitics,shadyelectoral methodsarewithusmorethanever.InoneoftheclosestcontestsinU.S.history, the2000presidentialelectionbetweenVicePresidentAlGoreandTexasGovernorGeorgeW.Bush,thefinaloutcomehingedonhowthevotewentinFlorida. Independentinvestigationsinthatstaterevealedseriousirregularitiesdirected mostlyagainstethnicminoritiesandlow-incomeresidentswhousuallyvoted Democratic.Somethirty-sixthousandnewlyregisteredvoterswereturned awaybecausetheirnameshadneverbeenaddedtothevoterrollsbyFlorida’s secretaryofstateKathleenHarris,aRepublicanwhowasinchargeofthestate’s electionprocesswhileherselfbeinganactivememberoftheBushelectioncampaign.Otherswereturnedawaybecausetheyweredeclared almostalwaysincorrectly—“convictedfelons.” InseveralDemocraticprecincts,stateofficials closedthepollsearly,leavinglinesofwould-bevotersstranded.Underorders

fromGovernorJebBush(BushJr.’sbrother),statetroopersnearpollingsitesdelayedpeopleforhourswhilesearchingtheircars.Someprecinctsrequiredtwo photoIDs,whichmanycitizensdonothave.Uncountedballotboxeswentmissingorwerefoundinunexplainedplacesorwerenevercollectedfromcertain AfricanAmericanprecincts.Duringtherecount,theRepublicannationalleadershipshippedinsomeyoungbullies,mostlyGOPcongressionalaidesfrom Washington,D.C.,tostormtheDaleCountyCanvassingBoard,punchand kickoneoftheofficials,shoutandbangontheirofficedoors,andgenerally createdaclimateofintimidationthatcausedtheboardtoabandonitsrecount andacceptthedubiouspro-Bushtally.34

EventhoughBushlostthenation’spopularvotetoGorebyoverhalfa millionintheofficialcount(andprobablymorethanthatinanhonestcount), thesevariouscoerciveactionssuppressedenoughpro-Goreballotstogive FloridatoBushbyaboutfivehundredvotes,alongwiththeElectoralCollege andthepresidencyitself.Similarabusesoccurredinotherpartsofthecountry. Astudybycomputerscientistsandsocialscientistsestimatedthat4millionto 6millionvoteswereleftuncountedinthe2000election.35

The2004presidentialelectionbetweenDemocraticchallengerSenatorJohn KerryandtheRepublicanincumbent,PresidentBush,amountedtoanotherstolen election.Some105millioncitizensvotedin2000,butin2004theturnoutclimbed toatleast122million.Preelectionsurveysindicatedthatamongtherecord 16.8millionnewvotersKerrywasaheavyfavorite,afactthatwentlargelyunreportedbythepress.Inaddition,therewereabout2millionprogressiveswhohad votedforRalphNaderin2000butwhoswitchedtoKerryin2004.Yetthe official2004talliesshowedBushwith62millionvotes,about11.6million morevotesthanhegotin2000.MeanwhileKerryshowedonly8millionmore votesthanGorereceivedin2000.Tohaveachievedhisremarkable2004tally, Bushwouldhavehadtokeepallhis50.4millionfrom2000,plusamajorityof thenewvoters,plusalargeshareoftheveryliberalNaderdefectors.Nothingin thecampaignandintheopinionpollssuggestedsuchamasscrossover.The numbersdidnotaddup.

InkeystateslikeOhio,theDemocratsachievedimmensesuccessatregisteringnewvoters,outdoingtheRepublicansbyasmuchasfivetoone.MoreovertheDemocraticPartywasunusuallyunitedarounditscandidate or certainlyagainsttheincumbentpresident.Incontrast,elementswithinthe GOPdisplayedopendisaffection.ProminentRepublicans,includingsomeformerofficeholders,diplomats,andmilitarybrass,publiclyvoicedseriousmisgivingsaboutwhattheysawastheBushadministration’shugebudgetdeficits, recklessforeignpolicy,pronouncedtheocratictendencies,andthreatstoindividualliberties.SixtynewspapersthathadendorsedBushin2000refusedto dosoin2004;fortyofthemendorsedKerry.36

Allthroughelectionday2004,exitpollsshowedKerrywellahead,yetthe officialtallygaveBushavictory.Beforetheelection,severalRepublicanlights hadannouncedtheirintentiontosuppresstheDemocraticvote.Inaninterviewwith U.S.News&WorldReport,PennsylvaniaHouseSpeakerJohn PerzelobservedthatKerrywouldneedahugenumberofvotesinPhiladelphia tocarrythestate: “It’simportantformetokeepthatnumberdown.”

Rep.JohnPappageorge(R-MI)wasquotedinthe DetroitFreePress assaying, “IfwedonotsuppresstheDetroitvote,we’regoingtohaveatoughtimeinthis election.” InNevada,formerexecutivedirectorofthestateGOPDanBurdish toldthepress, “IamlookingtotakeDemocratsoffthevoterrolls.”37 Hereis anincompletelistofhowtheGOP “victory” wassecured:

• InsomeplaceslargenumbersofDemocraticregistrationformsdisappeared. Absenteeballotssometimesweremailedouttovotersjustbeforeelection day,toolatetobereturnedontime,ortheywerenotmailedatall.

• OverseasballotsnormallyandreliablydistributedbytheStateDepartment wereforsomereasondistributedbythePentagonin2004.Nearlyhalfofthe 6millionAmericanvoterslivingabroad anoticeablenumberofwhom formedanti-Bushorganizations neverreceivedtheirballotsorgotthem toolatetovote.Militarypersonnel,usuallymoreinclinedtowardsupportingthepresident,encounterednosuchproblemswiththeiroverseasballots.

• VoterOutreachofAmerica,acompanyfundedbytheRepublicanNational Committee,collectedthousandsofvoterregistrationformsinNevada,promisingtoturnthemintopublicofficials,butthensystematicallydestroyedthe onesbelongingtoDemocrats.

• TensofthousandsofDemocraticvoterswerestrickenfromtherollsin severalstatesbecauseof “felonies” nevercommitted,orcommittedby someoneelse,orfornogivenreason.RegistrationbooksinDemocratic precinctswerefrequentlyandinexplicablyout-of-dateorincomplete.

• InstateslikeOhio,Democratsenjoyedrecordturnoutsbutweredeprived ofsufficientnumbersofpollingstationsandvotingmachines.Manyof themachinesintheirprecinctskeptmysteriouslybreakingdown.After waitinglonghoursmanypeopledepartedwithoutvoting.Pro-Bushprecinctshadnosuchtroubles.

• Asimilarpatternwasobservedwithstudentpopulationsinseveralstates. Studentsatconservativereligiouscollegeshadlittleornowaitatthe polls,whereasstudentsfromliberalartscollegeswereforcedtolineup foraslongastenhours,causingmanytogiveup.

• ApollingstationinaconservativeevangelicalchurchinMiamiCounty, Ohio,recordedanimpossiblyhighturnoutof98percent,whileapolling placeinDemocraticinner-cityClevelandrecordedanimpossiblylowturnoutof7percent.

• Latino,NativeAmerican,andAfricanAmericanvotersinNewMexico whofavoredKerrybytwotoonewerefivetimesmorelikelytohave theirballotsspoiledanddiscardedindistrictssupervisedbyRepublican electionofficials.InthesesameDemocraticareas,Bush “won” anastonishing68to31percentupsetvictory.

• Cadresofright-wingactivists,manyofthemreligiousfundamentalistsfinancedbytheRepublicanParty,handedoutflyersinkeyDemocraticprecinctswarningthatvoterswhohadunpaidparkingtickets,anarrestrecord, orowedchildsupportwouldbearrestedatthepolls alluntrue.

• DemocraticpollwatchersinOhio,Arizona,andotherstates,whotriedto monitorelectionnightvotecounting,weremenacedandshutoutbysquads

ofRepublicantoughs.InWarrenCounty,Ohio,GOPofficialsannounceda “terroristattack” alert,andorderedthepresstoleave.Theythenmovedall ballotstoawarehousewheretheirsecretcountingproducedsomefourteen thousandmorevotesforBushthanhehadreceivedin2000.

• Bushdidremarkablywellwithphantompopulations.Thenumberofhis votesintwocountiesinOhioexceededthenumberofregisteredvoters, creatingturnoutratesashighas124percent.InasmallconservativesuburbanprecinctofColumbus,whereonly638peoplewereregistered,the touch-screenmachinestallied4,258votesforBush.InalmosthalfofNew Mexico’scounties,morevoteswerereportedthanwererecordedasbeing cast,andthetallieswereconsistentlyinBush’sfavor.38

ExitpollsshowedKerrysolidlyaheadofBushinboththepopularvoteand theElectoralCollege.Exitpollsareanexceptionallyaccuratemeasureofelections.InthreerecentelectionsinGermany,exitpollswereneveroffbymore thanthree-tenthsof1percent.Unlikeordinaryopinionpolls,theexitsampleis drawnfrompeoplewhohaveactuallyjustvoted.Itrulesoutthosewhosaythey willvotebutnevermakeittothepolls,thosewhocannotbesampledbecause theyhavenotelephoneorotherwisecannotbereachedathome,thosewhoare undecidedorwhochangetheirmindsaboutwhomtosupport,andthosewho areturnedawayatthepollsforonereasonoranother.Exitpollshavecometo beconsideredsoreliablethatinternationalorganizationsusethemtovalidate electionresultsincountriesaroundtheworld.

Republicansarguedthatin2004theexitpollswereinaccuratebecause theyweretakenonlyinthemorningwhenKerryvoterscameoutingreater numbers.Infact,thepollingwasdoneatrandomintervalsallthroughthe day,andtheeveningresultsweremuchthesameastheearlyreturns.

Mostrevealing,thediscrepanciesbetweenexitpollsandofficialtallies wereneverrandombutworkedtoBush’sadvantageintenofelevenswing statesthatweretooclosetocall,sometimesbyasmuchas9.5percentasin NewHampshire,anunheardofmarginoferrorforanexitpoll.InNevada, Ohio,NewMexico,andIowa,exitpollsregisteredsolidvictoriesforKerry, yettheofficialtallywenttoBush,virtuallyastatisticalimpossibility.39

Instatesthatwerenothotlycontested,theexitpollsprovedquiteaccurate. ThusexitpollsinUtahpredictedaBushvictoryof70.8to26.4percent;the actualresultwas71.1to26.4percent.InMissouri,wheretheexitpollspredicted aBushvictoryof54to46percent,thefinalresultwas53to46percent.

Oneexplanationforthestrangeanomaliesinvotetallieswasfoundinthe widespreaduseoftouch-screenelectronicvotingmachines.Thesemachines producedresultsthatconsistentlyfavoredBushoverKerry,ofteninchilling contradictiontoexitpolls.In2003morethanninehundredcomputerprofessionalssignedapetitionurgingthatalltouch-screensystemsincludeaverifiableaudittrail.Touch-screenvotingmachinescanbeeasilyprogrammedto throwvotestothewrongcandidateormakevotesdisappearwhileleaving theimpressionthateverythingisworkingfine.Atinynumberofoperatives canaccesstheentirenetworkthroughonemachineandchangeresultsat will.Thetouch-screenmachinesarecoded,tested,andcertifiedincomplete

secrecy.Verifiedcountsareimpossiblebecausethemachinesleavenoreliable papertrail.Anyprogrammercanwritecodethatdisplaysoneresultonthe screen,recordssomethingelse,andprintsyetsomethingelse.Thereisno knownwaytoensurethisdoesnothappen.40

Sincetheintroductionoftouch-screenvoting,mysteriouscongressionalelectionresultshavebeenincreasing.In2000and2002,SenateandHousecontests andstatelegislativeracesinNorthCarolina,Nebraska,Alabama,Minnesota, Colorado,andelsewhereproduceddramaticandpuzzlingupsets,alwaysatthe expenseofDemocratswhowereaheadinthepolls.InsomecountiesinTexas, Virginia,andOhio,voterswhopressedtheDemocrat’snamefoundthatthe Republicancandidatewaschosen.InCormalCounty,Texas,threeGOPcandidatesallwonbyexactly18,181votesapiece,anearstatisticalimpossibility.

AllofGeorgia’svotersusedDieboldtouch-screenmachinesin2002,and Georgia’sincumbentDemocraticgovernorandincumbentDemocraticsenator,whowerebothwellaheadinthepollsjustbeforetheelection,lostin amazingdouble-digitvotingshifts.41

Thismaybethemosttellingdatumofall:InNewMexicoin2004Kerry lostallprecinctsequippedwithtouch-screenmachines,irrespectiveofincome levels,ethnicity,andpastvotingpatterns.Theonlythingthatconsistentlycorrelatedwithhisdefeatwasthetouch-screenmachineitself.AndinFlorida Bushregisteredinexplicablysharpjumpsinhisvote(comparedto2000)in countiesthatusedtouch-screenmachines.42

CompanieslikeDiebold,Sequoia,andES&Sthatmarketthetouch-screen machinesareownedbymilitantsupportersoftheRepublicanParty.TheCEO ofDiebold,WaldenO’Dell,raisedhugesumsfortheBushcampaign.(In2009 Dieboldsolditsvoting-machinedivisiontoES&S,itslargestcompetitor,puttinganevenmoremonopolisticgriponthevoting-machinesystem.)These companiesrefusedtoexplainhowtheirmachinesworked,claimingproprietaryrights,aclaimthathasbeenbackedincourt.Electionofficialsarenot allowedtoevaluatethesecretsoftware.Apparentlycorporatetradesecrets aremoreimportantthanvotingrights.

Thecompaniesalsoarguedthatsecrecywasneededinordertomaintain security.Onesecuritytechnologistdisagrees: “Anyvoting-machinecompany thatclaimsitscodemustremainsecretforsecurityreasonsislying.Security incomputersystemscomesfromtransparency opensystemsthatpasspublic scrutiny andnotsecrecy.”43

Thesolutionistouseonlyelectronicvotingmachinesthatproducereadily countablepaperballotresults.Electionofficialswouldberequiredtoconduct randomhandrecountsofpaperballotsin3or4percentofprecincts,and moreinverycloseraces.Suchroutineauditsareanimportantcheckonthe accuracyofthecomputercount.Thebestsystemofallistheoneinwhich votersdirectlyrecordtheirvotesonpaperandthepaperballotsarethen jointlycountedbyofficialsofallpoliticalparties.44

Incidentsofelectoralfraudalsowerereportedinthe2006and2008electionsbutbythenagreatdealoflighthadbeenthrownonthestrangeanomaliesofelectronicvotingmachines,alongwithcourtchallengesandpublic protests allofwhichmayhavediscouragedthepartisanhackers.

PALEDEMOCRACY

Whatpolicymakersdocanhaveseriouseffectsonourwell-being.Soitdoes matterwhogetselected.Andwhogetselectedismuchdeterminedbyhowthe electoralsystemisrun.InWesternEuropeancountries,withtheirstrongparty systemsandseveralweeksofrelativelybriefcampaigning,moneydoesnot reignsupremeasintheUnitedStates.Benefitingfromthemoredemocratic systemofproportionalrepresentation,left-orientedpartiesinEuropehaveestablishedaviablepresenceinparliaments,evenrulingfromtimetotime.Consequentlytheyhavebeenabletocreateworkconditions,humanservices,and livingstandardsconsiderablysuperiortothosefoundintheUnitedStates.

Overthelonghauljustabouteverylife-affirmingpolicythathascomeout ofgovernmentoriginatednotwithpolicymakersandpoliticalleadersbutwith thecommonpeople,beittheeight-hourworkday,theabolitionofchildlabor,publiceducation,therighttocollectivebargaining,workers’ benefits,occupationalsafety,civilrights,civilliberties,women’srights,gayrights,health care,consumerprotection,andenvironmentalprotection.Whenanissuewins broad,well-organizedpopularsupportandreceivessome(usuallyreluctant) attentioninthemedia,thenofficeholdersarelessabletoremainforeverindifferenttoit.

Thewaypeoplerespondtopoliticalrealitydependsonthewaythatrealityispresentedtothem.Iflargenumbershavebecomeapatheticandcynical, includingmanywhovote,itisatleastpartlybecauseaquestionableelectoral systemdiscouragesthekindofcreativemassinvolvementthatdemocracyis supposedtonurture.Butevenwithinaconstrictedtwo-partycontext,elections ifkeptsomewhathonest areoneofthepotentiallysoftspotsinthe capitalistpowerstructure.

C H A P T E R

Congress:ThePocketing ofPower

TheCongresscreatedbytheframersoftheConstitutionisabicameralbody, dividedintotheHouseofRepresentatives,whose435seatsaredistributed amongthestatesaccordingtopopulation,andtheSenate,withtwoseats perstateregardlessofpopulation.Thusninestates California,NewYork, Florida,Texas,Pennsylvania,Illinois,Ohio,Minnesota,andNewJersey containmorethanhalfthenation’spopulationbutonly18oftheSenate’s 100seats.WhomandwhatdoestheCongressrepresent?

ACONGRESSFORTHEMONEY

ThepeopleelectedtoCongressarenotdemographicallyrepresentativeofthe nation.Womenare52percentofourpopulationbutcomposedonly92ofthe 435membersoftheHouseofRepresentativesinthe111thCongressin2010, and17of100U.S.senators.AfricanAmericansandLatinostogetherarea quarterofthenation’spopulation,yetAfricanAmericansheldonly42seats intheHouse,whileLatinosoccupied25;theSenatehadonlyoneAfrican AmericansenatorandthreeLatinos.Inaddition,occupationalbackgrounds areheavilyskewedtowardtheupperbrackets.Thoughtheyareonlyasmall fractionofthepopulation,lawyers(manyofthemcorporateattorneys)composeabouthalfofbothhouses.Bankers,investors,entrepreneurs,andbusinessexecutivescomposethenextlargestgroup,alongwithformermayors, statelegislators,andotherlocalofficeholders.TherearealmostnobluecollarpersonsorotherordinaryworkingpeopleinCongress,althoughsome membersareoflow-incomefamilyorigin.1

Plutocracy rulefortherichbytherich prevailsinCongressforthe mostpart.Asonesenatoradmitted, “AtleasthalfofthemembersoftheSenatetodayaremillionaires.… We’vebecomeaplutocracy.… TheSenatewas meanttorepresenttheinterestsofthestates;instead,itrepresentstheinterests ofaclass.”2 Thelowerchambertoo,remarkedanothercritic,isevolving “fromaHouseofRepresentativestoaHouseofLords.”3 ManyHouseand Senatemembersfilefinancialdisclosureformsthatgiveavagueandincompletelistingoftheirpersonalwealth.PersonselectedtoCongressthesedays tendtobeevenwealthierthaninearliertimes becauseescalatingcampaign costsgiverichindividualsanevergreateradvantagewhenrunningforoffice.

Inadditiontotheirprivateincome,thepeoplewhorepresentusinCongress receiveasalaryof$174,000(asof2010),whichaloneputstheminthetop3percentbracket.Manyofthemenjoyvastlydifferentlifestylesandincomeopportunitiesthanthosewhomtheyclaimtorepresent.Wegettransportationpolicy madebylawmakerswhoneverhavetoendurethesuffocationofacrowdedbus orhuntforaparkingspace,agriculturalpolicybythosewhonevertriedkeepinga familyfarmgoing,safetylegislationbylawmakerswhoneversetfootinafactory ormine,andminimum-wagelawsbythosewhoneverhavetotrytosupporta familyonpovertyincome.SowehaveRep.JimTalent(R-MO)whorepeatedly votedagainstraisingtheminimumwagewhilehimselfteachingatwohour-a-weekclassatWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louisfor$90,000ayear,or about$1,500anhour,inadditiontohiscongressionalsalary.4

Wehavehealthcarepoliciesformulatedbylawmakerswhoneverhaveto sitforhoursinacrowdedclinicorgowithoutcare.MembersofCongress includingthoseconservativeswhorantagainstpubliclyfundedmedical coverage enjoyallthebenefitsofsocializedmedicine:freemedicalcare, freehospitalization,freesurgery,andfreecheckupswithnoco-payments, nodeductibles,nohiddenfees,nodisqualifyingpreconditions,allfreefor themselvesandtheirfamilies.AndaftertheyleaveCongress,theyare guaranteedprivatemedicalinsuranceinadditiontoMedicare.Thereisnot onerecordedinstanceofanyright-wingmemberofCongressrefusingthis freesocialisticmedicalcareevenastheydenounceitasunsuitableforthe restofus.

Likewise,whileattackingourSocialSecurityretirementprograms,the GOP-dominated109thCongressitselfenjoyedaretirementplanthatallows anyonewhohasservedintheHouseorSenatetodrawapensionforthe restofhisorherlifeuponleavingoffice,theamountdependingontime served,alongwithcostoflivingincreasesovertheyears.Andunlikemost pensions,membersofCongressdonothavetopayapennyintotheplan.

“Congressisthebestthatmoneycanbuy,” saidthehumoristWillRogers. Giventheskyrocketingcostsofmedia-drivenelectoralcampaigns,thequipis truerthanever.MembersofCongressgowherethemoneyis,scramblingfor congressionalcommitteeassignmentsthatdealwithissuesofgreatestinterest tobigdonors.Lawmakerswhoreceivedcontributionsfromtobaccocompanies werethreetimesmorelikelytohavevotedagainstcrackdownsoncigarette salestominors.ThesamemembersofCongressresponsibleforspendingbillionsontheF-22fighterplaneandrelatedmilitaryhardware,andinsistingon anadditionaldozenoftheplanes whichthePentagondidnotwant received over$1.3millionfromtheweaponsbuildersin2008.5

Politicaldonationscanrepresentsomeofthemostprofitableinvestmentsa businesscanmake.For$36.5millionincampaigndonations,thebankingindustrywasgrantedderegulationandsavingsandloanbailoutlegislationthat wouldcosttheU.S.publicatleast$1trillion.Thetimberindustryspentonly $8milliononcontributionstosecurealoggingroadsubsidyworth$458million,areturnoninvestmentofover5,700percent.Withamere$5millionin campaigndonations,thebroadcastingindustrywasabletoprocurefreedigital TVlicenses,agiveawayofpublicpropertyworth$70billion,forastaggering 1,400,000percentreturnoninvestment.6

Thereisasaying: “Thedollarvotesmoretimesthantheman.” Thepowerof moneyworksceaselesslytoreducetheinfluenceofcitizenswhohavenothingto offerbuttheirvotes.MostsenatorsandmanyHouserepresentativesgetthe greaterpartoftheirmoneyfromoutsidetheirdistrictsorhomestates.Senator RobertDole(R-Kan.),forinstance,workedhardtogetabillion-dollarfarmsubsidyfortobaccogrowers,andreceivedgenerouscontributionsfromthetobacco industry.ButtobaccoisvirtuallyanunknowncropinKansas,thestatethat electedhim,sowhomwasherepresenting?7

Politicianscanclaimthatmoneydoesnotinfluencetheirvotes,buttheir votescertainlyinfluencethemoneyflow.Thosewhovotethewaypowerful interestswantaremoreapttoberewardedwithhandsomedonationsfrom thosesameinterests.InJune2008,standingbeforearoomofoilexecutives,

RepublicanpresidentialcandidateJohnMcCainabandonedhispreviouspositionagainstcoastaloildrillinganddeclaredhissupportforit.Amonthlater, oilandgasexecutivesdonatedatotalof$1milliontoMcCain’scampaign.8

Bigdonorsmightbestrungalongnowandthen,contributinginthehope ofbuyingalegislator’seventualsupport,buttheydonotlongrewardthose whohabituallyopposethem.Legislatorsthemselvesadmittheyfeelobliged toaccommodatebigcontributors.AtaSenateDemocraticCaucus,Senator HaroldHughes(D-Iowa)oncesaidhisconsciencewouldnotallowhimto continueinpoliticsbecauseofthewayhehadbeenforcedtoraisemoney. ThelateSenatorHubertHumphrey(D-Minn.)concurred,bemoaningthe “demeaninganddegrading” wayhehadtoraisemoney,and “howcandidates literallyhadtoselltheirsouls.”9

LOBBYISTS:THEOTHERLAWMAKERS

Lobbyistsarepersonshiredbyinterestgroupstoinfluencelegislativeandadministrativepolicies.Somepoliticalscientistsseelobbyingaspartofthe “informationprocess”:theofficeholder’sperceptionofanissueisinfluencedprimarilyby theinformationprovidedhimorher andthelobbyist’sjobistobetheprovider.Oftentheinformationpresentedonbehalfofanissueislessimportant thanwhoispresentingit.Asonecongressionalcommitteecounselexplained: “There’sthetwenty-three-year-oldconsumerlobbyistandthebusinessman whogivesyou$5,000.Whomareyougoingtolistento?”10

Alongwiththeslickbrochuresandexperttestimony,corporatelobbyistsoffersucculentcampaigncontributions,fatlecturefees,easy-termloans,prepaid vacationjaunts,luxuryresorts,four-starrestaurants,lushbuffets,lavishparties withattractiveescorts,stadiumsuitesatmajorsportingevents,andotherhustlingenticementsofmoney.

Legislatorssometimesrelyonlobbyiststowritetheirspeeches,plantstoriesinthepressontheirbehalf,launchfundraisingdrives,andevenwritesome ofthebillsthatthelawmakerssubmittoCongress.

Some34,000lobbyistsprowltheCapitol’slobbies(hencetheirname)or seekfavorablerulingsfromagencieswithinthevastexecutivebureaucracy, theirnumbershavingdoubledinrecentyears.Lobbyistsoutnumberlegislators bysixty-threetoone.Theamounttheyspendtoinfluencelawmakersiseven morethantheamountspenttoelectthem.11

High-poweredWashingtonlobbyistsareoftencorporateattorneys,businesspeople,orformerpublicofficeholderswithgoodconnectionsingovernment.Businesslobbyistscanbecreditedwiththwartingorwateringdown antitrust,environmental,foodsafety,healthcare,prolabor,andproconsumer measures,exercisinganinfluenceovergovernmentthateclipsesjustaboutevery othermajorinterest.12 Almosteightyforeigngovernmentsalsohavelobbyistsin Washingtonlookingfortradeandaidagreements,includingsomeregimesthat havebeenamongtheworld’sworsthumanrightsabusers.

Officeholderswhoproveespeciallycooperativetowardlobbyinginterests mightlaterberewardedwithlucrativepositionsinthecorporateworldwhen theyreturntoprivatelife.Barredfromlobbyingforonlyoneyearafter

leavingpublicservice,theyarebecominglobbyistswithincreasingfrequency. ArecentexampleisRep.BillyTauzin(R-La.)who,havingplayedanactive roleinpassingthetrillion-dollarboondoggleMedicareprescriptiondrugbill, wasreportedlyoffereda$2million-a-yearjobwithPhRMA,thepharmaceuticalindustry’sleadinglobbyinggroup.Luredbyhugeincomes,morethan 270formermembersofCongresshaveregisteredtolobbyoverthelastdecade (alongwithabout2,000formercongressionalstaffpeople).

Inrecentyears,acampaignknownastheKStreetProjectwaslaunched byHouseRepublicanleaders.Theygottradeassociationsandlobbyingfirms tofireDemocraticlobbyistsandhireonlydesignatedRepublicans,ineffect imposingaone-partymonopolyovertheinfluencesystem.13 Somelobbyists, inareverseflow,havesubsequentlywonelectiontoCongress,furtherblurringthelinebetweenlobbyistsandlawmakers.Manythousandsofdisclosure documentsthatarerequiredbylawforlobbyiststofilearenotfiled.

Themosteffectiveresourcethatlobbyistshaveattheircommandis money.Moneybuysaccessibilitytotheofficeholderandtheopportunityto shapehisorherjudgments.Accessalonedoesnotguaranteeinfluence.About acenturyago,beforehebecamepresidentoftheUnitedStates,Woodrow Wilsonpointedout:

SupposeyougotoWashingtonandtrytogetatyourGovernment.Youwillalwaysfindthatwhileyouarepolitelylistenedto,themenreallyconsultedarethe menwhohavethebigstake thebigbankers,thebigmanufacturers,andthebig mastersofcommerce.… ThemastersoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesare thecombinedcapitalistsandmanufacturersoftheUnitedStates.14

WhenafundraisingdinnerinWashingtonnettedtheRepublicanParty $9millioninbigdonations,PresidentBushSr.’spresssecretaryMarlinFitzwater defendedtheevent: “[Thedonors]arebuyingintothepoliticalprocess. That’s whatthepoliticalpartiesandthepoliticaloperationisallabout.” Askedhowless wealthypersonscouldbuyintotheprocess,Fitzwaterrepliedvaguely, “Theyhave todemandaccessinotherways.”15

Thosewhoarguethatlobbyistsareeffectivenotbecauseofmoneybutbecausetheyshapethe “informationflow” mightconsiderthattheabilitytodisseminateinformationandpropagateone’sinterestsitselfpresumesorganization, expertise,exposure,andstaff thingsthatmoneycanbuy.Themerepossession ofgreatwealthandcontrolofindustrygivecorporateinterestsasocialstanding unknowntoordinaryworkingcitizens.Theirneedsareparadedasthe “needsof theeconomy” andofthenationitself.

Oneex-lobbyistconcludesthatthelobbyist’smainjobistocircumvent existinglawsandgetpreferentialtreatmentfromCongress “forclientswho havenolegalrightstothem.”16 OnoneoccasionlobbyistsfromBoeing,the BusinessRoundtable,theNationalAssociationofManufacturers,andothers usedacongressionalcommitteeroombeneaththeHousechamberasacommandpost,withitsHousetelephonesandfaxmachines,inasuccessfuleffort towinapprovalofafree-tradebill.Someofthecorporatelobbyistsrefusedto explainhowtheygottherewhenchallengedbyagroupofcongressional Democrats.17

Afavorableadjustmentinratesforinterstatecarriers,aspecialtaxbenefit forafamilyoiltrust,ahigh-interestbondissueforbiginvestors,theleasingof publiclandstoaprivatecompany,emergencyfundingforafalteringaeronautics plant,amassivebailoutforbigbanks,apostalsubsidyforadvertisingfirms,the easingofsafetystandardsforafoodprocessor,theeasingofpollutioncontrols forachemicalplant allthesehundredsofbillsandtheirspecialamendments andthousandsofadministrativerulings,whichmeansomuchtoparticularbusinessinterests,spurtheeffortsoflegislatorsandadministratorswhilegoing largelyunnoticedbyapublicthatpaysthemonetaryandhumancostsandseldomhasthemeanstomakeitscase,orevendiscoverithasacase.

Public-interestgroupsthatattempttospeakforthegeneralpopulacedo nothaveaneasytimeofit,especiallywhentheirproposalsaredirected againstpowerfuleconomicinterests.Therelativescarcityofpowerresources (themostcrucialbeingmoney)limitstheirefforts.Manyofthesecitizen groupsdevoteaninordinateamountoftimeforagingforfundsjusttomaintaintheirofficesandtinystaffs.

Despitetheseinequities,thereexists “theschoolofhappypluralism,” which seespoweraswidelyanddemocraticallydiffused.Onepoliticalscientistconcludesthat “nearlyeveryvigorouspushinonedirection” byalobbyinginterest “stimulatesanopponentorcoalitionofopponentstopushintheoppositedirection.Thisnaturalself-balancingfactorcomesintoplaysooftenthatitalmost amountstoalaw.”18 Theevidencepresentedinthisbookdoesnotsupport suchacheerfulview.Dothehomeless,theunemployed,andmostordinarycitizensreallyhavethekindofpoliticalcloutthatmakesthemfigureasnearequal contestantsintheinfluencesystemwithhigh-rollingcorporatelobbyists?

Supposedlythediversityofcultural,economic,andethnicgroupsinoursocietycreatesmultiplecross-pressuresthatmitigatethestrengthofanyoneallegiance.ThussomevotersmightfavortheDemocratsonbread-and-butterissues butsupporttheRepublicans’ antigayandantiabortionstances.Suchcrosspressuresdonotseemtoapplytothepoliticallyactivesegmentsofthebigbusinesscommunitythatfrequentlycolludearoundcommonclassinterests, givingmutualsupporttoeachother’sagendasinaprocessknownas logrolling. Logrollingisnotthesameascompromise.Ratherthancheckingand bluntingtheselfishdemandsofeachgroupasincompromisesituations, special-interestlegislatorsandlobbyistscobbletogetherwinningvotesinCongressbybackingoneanother’sclaimsattheexpenseofthosewhohavelittle powerintheorganizedinfluencesystem.

Pressuregroupeffortsaredirectednotonlyatofficeholdersbutalsoatthe public,inwhathasbeencalled grassrootslobbying.Thegoalistobombard thelawmakerswithamediablitzandmessagesfromconcernedpersonsin theirhomeconstituencies.Amongtheearliestpractitionersofgrassrootslobbyingwereliberalpublic-interestgroups.Butitwasnotlongbeforebusiness associationsalsoadoptedthisapproach,thedifferencebeingthattheyhave beenabletospendvastlymoreonshapingopinionvisibility.

Corporatespecialinterestssometimeshidebehindpressure-group front organizations thathaveuplifting,public-service-soundingnames.TheNational WetlandsCoalitionisreallyawell-financedlobbyofoilandminingcompanies

andreal-estatedeveloperswiththesinglemissionofundoingtheregulations thatprotectourwetlandsandendangeredspecies.TheCoalitionforAmerican GrowthandAmericanJobsisreallydedicatedtofacilitatingcorporateoutsourcingandexportofjobstocheaperlabormarketsabroad.Frontgroups canspendimmensesumsonpoliticalactivitieswithouthavingtodisclosetheir donorsandexpendituresaslongastheydonotexpresslyadvocatevotingfora particularcandidate.19

Somepressuregroupsdonotrepresenttheconstituenciestheyclaimto.For instancetheAmericanMedicalAssociation(AMA)claimstospeakforthemedicalprofessioninitsoppositiontopublichealthinsurance.ButtheAMAnow representsonly19percentofpracticingphysicians,abouthalfofwhomsupport asingle-payerhealthsystem.Lesspublicizedbutlargermedicalgroupssuchas thePhysiciansforaNationalHealthProgram,theAmericanCollegeofPhysicians,andtheAmericanMedicalStudentAssociation,nottomentionvarious nursesassociations,areinsharpdisagreementwiththeAMA.20

Somegrassrootslobbyingisintendedtobuildaclimateofopinionfavorabletothecorporategiantsratherthantopushaparticularpieceoflegislation. Thesteel,oil,andelectronicscompaniesdonoturgethepublictosupportthe latesttaxloopholeorbusinesshandout.Ifanything,theypreferthatcitizens nottroublethemselveswithsuchmatters,buttheydo “educate” thepublic withawholemenuoffalseclaimsaboutthemanyjobstheycreate,theselfless servicestheyprovidethecommunity,andthelovingcaretheysupposedlygive totheenvironment.Withthiskindof institutionaladvertising,thecorporations sellthemselvesandtheentirebusinesssystemratherthansellingjusttheir particularproducts.

THEVARIETIESOFCORRUPTION

MembersofCongresswillsometimesactaspressurepoliticianswithoutproddingfromanypressuregroup,becausetheyalreadyarewellfundedbythe group,orhavelucrativeholdingsoftheirowninthesameindustry,orfear thegroup’spoliticalcloutatelectiontime,orareideologicallydriventosupportitscause.Legislatorswithlargeagribusinessholdingssitoncommittees thatshapeagriculturalprogramsdirectlybenefitingthemselves.Fullyathird ofthelawmakersholdoutsidejobsaslawyersorofficersofcorporations andfinancialinstitutionsthatlinkthemwiththeveryindustriestheyoversee. Morethanone-thirdofthesenatorsmakemoneyeverytimethemilitarybudgetincreasesbecausetheyhaveinvestmentsinthedefenseindustry.Almost halftheSenateandoverahundredHousemembershaveinterestsinbanking, includingmanywhositoncommitteesthatdealwithbanking.

Somesenatorsandrepresentativestravelforfunatgovernmentexpense undertheguiseofconductingcommitteeinvestigations,apracticeknownas junketing.Inonefive-yearperiod,lawmakersandtheirstaffmembersindulgedin23,000 “fact-finding” junketscostingalmost$50million.Thetab waspickedupmostlybyprivatesponsorsinterestedinwinninglegislativefavors.Thelegislatorsandtheirdedicatedassistantsjourneyedtoinvestigate suchurgenttroublespotsasHawaii(150trips),Paris(200),andItaly(140).21

MembersofCongressalsohavebeenknowntoplacerelativesonthepayrollandpockettheirsalariesortakesalarykickbacksfromstaffmembers. Somehavebilledboththegovernmentandprivateclientsforthesameexpense,orhaveusedunspenttravelallocationsandunspentcampaigncontributionsforpersonalindulgences.22

Thedonationsthatlobbyistsmaketocongressionalcampaignsarelegalas longasthereisnoexplicitpromiseofofficialfavorsinexchangeforthemoney. Lawmakerswhomostcloselyboostcorporateagendasnotsurprisinglyseem mostlikelytoluxuriateincorporatelargesse.Corporationsalsoareallowedto makeunlimiteddonationstopayforacooperativeCongressperson’slegalexpenses.WhenHousemajorityleaderTomDeLay(R-Tex.)cameunderinvestigationforvariousshadydealings,severalofthenation’slargestfirmsandtheir executivesdonatedhundredsofthousandsofdollarstohisdefensefund.23

Evenbytoday’sjadedandpermissivestandards,lobbyistsandlegislators mightstilldothingsthataredeemedunlawful.In2005themostnotoriousof thesewaslobbyistJackAbramoffwhowaschargedwithbribingmembersof CongressandtheBushadministrationinexchangeforofficialfavors.Then therewasRep.RandyCunningham(R-Cal.)whopleadedguiltytoaccepting upto$2.4millioninbribesfromdefensecontractorsandevading$1million intaxes,forwhichhewassentencedtoeightyearsandfourmonthsinfederal prison,theseverestsentencemetedouttoamemberofCongressasofthen.24

Numerouspoliticoswhopreachedfamilyvaluesanddenouncedlibertinelifestyleswerethemselvesguiltyofillicitliaisonsandotherhypocriticalpractices. AprimeexampleisRep.DanBurton(R-In.),anoutspokenproponentof “family values,” amarriedfatherofthree,witha100percentapprovalratingfromthe right-wingChristianCoalition.CallingPresidentClintona “scumbag” because ofhisextramaritalactivities,Burtonhimselfwaseventuallyforcedtoadmittofatheringachildduringanextramaritalaffair.Heusedcampaignmoneyandfederalfundstohirewomenofdubiouscredentialsaspartofhiscongressionalstaff. Oneofhisladiesreceivedaboutahalf-milliondollarsinpayments,butitremained unclearwhatshedidtoearnsuchgenerouswages.Burtonalsopaidrentonher house whichheclaimedwashis “campaignheadquarters” thoughoddlyitwas locatedoutsidehisdistrict.Healsoreimbursedhimselfforthousandsofdollars annuallyintravelexpenses,andunexplained “campaignexpenses” forgifts,flowers,golfballs,andsundryotherthings.Asof2010,BurtonwasstillinCongress.25

Ofthedozensofothernotablecasesofmoralhypocrisyanddishonestywas SenatorLarryCraig,aRepublicanfromIdaho.Anoutspokenopponentofgay marriageandgaysinthemilitary,Craigwasarrestedformakingsexualadvancestowardanundercoverpoliceofficerinamen’stoilet.Hepleadedguilty todisorderlyconduct.Severalothermen,includingonefromCraig’scollege days,identifiedthesenatorashavingengagedinsexualactivitywiththemor havingmadeovertureswiththatintent.Hedidnotrunforreelection.26

Scoresoflawmakersortheiraideshavebeenindictedorconvictedofbribery, influencepeddling,extortion,andothercrimes.Andthosewereonlytheonesunluckyenoughtogetcaught.Numerousothermembershaveretiredfromofficeto avoidcriminalcharges.TheHouseandSenateethicscommitteesarechargedwith overseeingandenforcingethicscodes,buttheydoalessthanimpressivejobofit.

In1997,theHousebarredoutsidegroupsandindividualsfromlodging ethicscomplaintsagainstitsmembers.WhenTomDeLaywasfacingfelony indictmentsin2004,theHouseGOPpushedthrougharuletoensurethat suchcriminalchargeswouldnotpreventhimfromkeepinghispostasHouse MajorityLeader.Whenthisprovedtoooutrageous,HouseRepublicans adoptedarulerequiringthatanethicscomplainthadtomusteramajority ofvotesontheEthicsCommittee.Butmembershiponthecommitteewas evenlysplitaccordingtopartyaffiliation,soparty-linevotesmadeitnighon impossibleforethicscomplaintstoseethelightofday.

If,astheysay,powercorrupts,itusuallygetsahelpinghandfrommoney. MembersofCongressarenottheonlyculprits.Injustonesix-yearperiod,the numberofotherpublicofficeholdersconvictedincluded3cabinetofficers,3governors,34statelegislators,20judges,5stateattorneys-general,28mayors, 11districtattorneys,170policeofficers,andaU.S.vicepresident,Spiro Agnew,whoresignedinexchangeforthedroppingofchargesofbribery,extortion,andincome-taxevasion.AU.S.president,RichardNixon,escapedimpeachmentandjailbyresigningfromofficeandbeinggrantedapardonbyhis successor,GeraldFord.

AGovernmentAccountabilityOfficestudyfoundover77,000casesof fraudinfederaldepartmentsandagenciesduringatwo-and-a-half-yearperiod,nearlyhalfinthePentagon.Onlyasmallnumberoftheindividualsinvolvedwereprosecuted.27

Thenumberofhigh-levelmembersoftheReaganadministrationaccused ofunethicalorillegalconductwasrecordbreaking.Thechargesincluded fraud,improperstockdealings,taxviolations,perjury,obstructingcongressionalinvestigations,acceptingillegalloans,gifts,andfavors,andotherwise usingpublicresourcesforpersonalgain.Onlyafewwenttojail;manyresignedbutmanystayedon,includingAttorneyGeneralEdwinMeese,whose memorylapsedseventy-ninetimes(“Idon’tremember”)whenquestionedbeforeaSenatecommitteeregardingahostofshadyfinancialdealings.28

Someobserversseecorruptionasamoreorlessacceptablefactoflife. Passingalittlemoneyunderthetableissupposedlyjustanotherwayofoiling thewheelsofgovernmentandgettingthingsdone.29 Butcorruptionoftengoes beyondthepettybribetoreachmomentousproportions.Ratherthanbeinga violationoftherulesofthegame,itbecomesthenameofthegame,something morethanmerelyanoutgrowthofapolitician’sflawedcharacter.Corruption ingovernmentpromotespoliciesthatdrainthepublictreasuretofeedtheprivatepurse.Itvitiateslawsandregulationsthatmightotherwisesafeguard communityinterests.Itproducesfavoritismforthefewandinjuryandneglect forthemany.Privatevenalitybecomesapublicenemy.

SPECIALINTERESTSANDSECRECY

Foryears,powerinCongressrestedwiththetwentyorsostanding(thatis, permanent)committeesineachhousethatdeterminedthedestinyofbills:rewritingsome,approvingafew,andburyingmost.Thecommitteesweredominatedbychairpersonswhorosetotheirpositionsmostlybyseniority,thatis,

bybeingrepeatedlyreelected,afeatbestaccomplishedinasafedistrictorpredominantlyone-partystate.

Bothpartiesinbothhouseshaveacaucusor “conference” consistingofthe entiremembershipofthepartyinthatparticularhouse.Thepartycaucuselects themajorityorminorityleaderandpartywhips.Themajorityparty’scaucus alsoelectsthecommitteeandsubcommitteechairsandcontrolstheirofficialinvestigativeactivities.Totalingover240intheHouseandSenatecombined,the subcommitteeshavestaffsoftheirownandfixedlegislativejurisdictions.

Thesubcommitteessimplifythelobbyist’staskofcontrollinglegislation. Eachspecial-interestgrouphasitsownspecial-interestsubcommittee.For example,beitcotton,corn,wheat,peanut,tobacco,orriceproducers,each majoragribusinessinterestisrepresentedonaparticularsubcommitteeofthe SenateandHouseAgriculturalCommitteesbysenatorsandrepresentatives readytodobattleontheirbehalf.Todecentralizepowerinthiswayisnotto democratizeit.Theseparateunitsareforthebenefitofspecificgroups,oftento theneglectoftheunorganizedpublic.

Muchismadeofthe “powerfulchairmen” saidtopresideoverthisorthat committee.ThusthechairoftheHouseArmedServicesCommitteewasalways considered “powerful,” butitwasbecauseheservedthepowerfulinterestsofcorporateAmericaandthemilitary.Powerdoesnotadheretoapositioninsome mysticalfashion.WhenaprogressiveDemocrat,RonDellums,becamechairof theHouseArmedServicesCommitteethroughseniority,andsoughttorollback somemilitaryspending,hefelthispositiontobetenuousindeed,asmostofhis committeerespondedlesstohisleadershipandmoretothebigcontractorsand

bigcampaigndonorsfromthedefenseindustry.Suddenlythepowerfulcommittee chairwasnotsopowerful.

Someappropriationsareknownas porkbarrel orjust pork or earmarks. Suchearmarksaretuckedawayinlargerspendingbills,havelimitedlegislative sponsorship,andareusuallytackedonatthelastminute(sometimesgivingthem theadditionalnameof add-ons).Porkgenerallyconsistsofprojectsthatareof localinterestbutarehighlyvisiblerepresentationsofthelegislator’sabilityto bringhomethefederalbacon:a$400,000parkinglotforatownofthreehundredpeopleinAlaska,$250,000tohighlightthehealthbenefitsofCalifornia wine,and$550,000foraDr.SeussmemorialinMassachusetts.Congressional pork-barrelspendingusedtoaverageseveralbilliondollarsayear,butby2006 ithadclimbedto$27billionforsome15,000projects.30 Notallearmarksare frivolousorwasteful;manyarequiteuseful.Takentogetherearmarksrepresent atinysumcomparedtothehundredsofbillionsdoledoutannuallyforfatdefensecontracts,corporatesubsidies,andtaxbreaksforthesuperrich.

Whenitinvolvesthepoorandthepowerless,Congressknowshowtosave money.ARepublican-controlledCongress,withassistancefromconservative Democrats,cutfoodprogramsforinfantsandseniorcitizens,assistanceprogramsforthedisabled,home-careandtherapyprogramsfortheinfirmandhandicapped,andmedicalcare,home-heatingaid,andjobandhousingprograms forlow-incomefamiliesandelderly thekindofcutsthattransferintosuffering andhardshipforthemostvulnerablemembersofsociety.31

IncontrasttheCongressiskeenlysupportiveofthenationalsecuritystate andthearmsindustry.In1982,amassivegrassrootsmovementforabilateral, verifiablefreezeonnuclearweaponssweptthecountry,yetthelawmakerscontinuedtovoteformajorescalationsinnuclearweaponry.In2000,over80percentoftheU.S.publicfavoredabanonnuclearweaponstesting,yetthe ComprehensiveTestBanTreatywasdefeatedintheSenatebya51to48vote; all51wereRepublicansenators.In2009,asubstantialmajorityofthepublic disapprovedofU.S.militaryinvolvementinIraqandAfghanistan,yetthe Democratic-controlledCongresscontinuedtovoteforfundstomaintainit.

Congressseemsunabletoreininthenationalsecuritystate.Whenthe lawmakersruledthatnomilitaryaidwastobegiventomercenaryforcesin Nicaragua,fundsforright-wingcontraterroristscontinuedtobefoundeven duringtheperiodofthemoststringentcongressionalprohibitions.Morerecently,thePentagoncontinuedtoaidIndonesianmilitaryunitsdespiteacongressionalbanintendedtocurbthetortureandmurderscommittedbythese sameunits.

ThePentagonandvariousintelligenceagencies,includingtheCIA,DIA (DefenseIntelligenceAgency),andNSA,sponsorfellowshipprogramsthatenablethemtoplacetheiremployeesoncongressionalstaffsforayearatatime, influencinglawmakersinwaysquitedifferentlythanwouldacadreofcongressionalfellowsfromantipovertyorenvironmentalorganizations.Thereis littletopreventfellowsfrombeingassignedtocongressionalstaffsforthe expresspurposeofspyingonparticularHouseorSenatemembers.Congressionalfellowshipsarealsoawardedtoemployeesofcorporatefirmswithan interestinmilitarycontractsandotherlegislation,includingGeneralElectric,

GeneralDynamics,andDuPont withnoprovisionmadeforpossibleconflict ofinterest.32

Congressionalcommitteesholdmanyoftheirsessionsbehindcloseddoors, keepinginfluentialbusinessgroupsinformedwhilekeepingthepublicinthe dark. “Thethingthatreallymakesmemadisthedualstandard,” complaineda Senatecommitteestaffmember. “It’sperfectlyacceptabletoturnoverinformationaboutwhat’sgoingonincommitteetotheautoindustryortheutilitiesbut nottothepublic.”33 Secrecycanenveloptheentirelawmakingprocess.Abill cuttingcorporatetaxesby$7.3billionwas(a)drawnupbytheHouseWays andMeansCommitteeinthreedaysofsecretsessions,(b)passedbytheHouse underaclosedruleafteronlyonehourofdebatewith(c)aboutonlythirtymemberspresentwho(d)passedthebillwithoutbenefitofarollcallvote.

Legislationcanhavedeceptivepackagingandhiddencontents.Abillthat raisedtheminimumwageby85centscontainedlesserknownprovisionsthat favoredtransnationalcorporationswithtaxsheltersandopportunitiestoroll backworkerbenefitsandraidpensionfunds.In2006,abillofferingalong overduebutpaltryincreaseintheminimumwagealsohadattachedtoita hugetaxcutfortheveryrich.ItwasdefeatedbySenateDemocrats.

Someofthemostsignificantlegislationisdraftedclandestinely.Withoutbenefitofpublichearingsandpublicdebate,acoterieofhigh-placedgovernmentofficialsandcorporateexecutivessecretlyputtogethertheNorthAmericanFree TradeAgreement(NAFTA),atwo-thousand-pagebillthatwentlargelyunread bythelawmakersvotingonit.ItwaspresentedtotheHouseofRepresentatives withafast-trackproviso. Fasttrack requiresthatCongressacceptorrejectan agreementintotowithoutamendingitandwithonlytwodaysofdebate

THELEGISLATIVELABYRINTH

AsintendedbytheframersoftheConstitution,theverystructureofCongress hasaconservativeeffectonitsperformance.Thestaggeredtermsofthe Senate withonlyone-thirdelectedeverytwoyears aredesignedtoblunt anymasssentimentforasweepingturnover.ThedivisionoftheCongressinto twoseparatehousesmakesconcertedlegislativeactionallthemoredifficult.

AtypicalbillbeforeCongressmustmakeitswaythroughvariouscommitteesof,say,theHouseofRepresentatives,duringwhichtimeitmightbe givenahearing,besubjectedtoamendments,recommittedtoitsoriginating committee,orpigeonholed(killed).Ifitsurvivesthisprocess,itgoesbefore theentireHousewhereitisdebated,passed,orrejected.Ifpassedbythe House,thebillissenttotheSenate,whicheitherplacesitdirectlyonitscalendarfordebateandvoteorrefersittoastandingcommitteetorepeatthe sameprocessofhearingsandamendments.Itcandieincommitteeorbesent totheSenatefloor.TheSenatemightdefeatthebillorpasstheHouseversion eitherunchangedoramended.IftheHouserefusestoaccepttheSenate amendments,a conferencecommittee isputtogetherconsistingofseveralseniormembersfromeachhouse.Shouldtheconferencecommitteebeableto reachacompromise,anidenticalversionofthebillisreturnedtoeachhouse forafinalvote.

Sometimesconferencecommitteesgointobusinessforthemselves,introducingelaboratechanges.ThusunderaGOP-controlledCongress,aconference committeeconsistingentirelyofHouseandSenateRepublicansdeletedfrom thefinalversionofan$87billionspendingbillaprovisionthatwouldhavepenalizedcorporationsguiltyofwarprofiteeringinIraqorAfghanistan.34

Abillthatdoesnotmakeitthroughbothhousesbeforethenextcongressionalelectionmustbereintroducedandtheentireprocessbegunanew.Ifpassed bybothhouses,thebillgoestothepresidentwhoeithersignsitintolaworvetoes it.Thepresident’svetocanbeoverriddenonlybytwo-thirdsofthemembersof eachhousewhoarepresentandvoting.Ifthepresidentfailstosignthelegislation withintendaysafterpassage,itautomaticallybecomeslawunlessCongress adjournsinthattime,inwhichcaseithasbeen pocketvetoed andsodies.

Thebillthatsurvivesthislegislativelabyrinthtobecomelawmaybeonly an authorization acttobringsomeprogramintoexistence.Congressthen mustrepeattheentireprocessforan appropriations billtofinancetheauthorization somethingthelawmakersoccasionallyfailtodo.

Variousdilatorytactics,fromtime-consumingquorumcallstoSenatefilibusters,canthwartlegislativeaction.Forseventyyears,untilthe1950s,the filibuster (limitlessdebateintheSenatedesignedtoobstructlegislativeaction) waswieldedbySouthernDemocratstoblock257antilynchingbills.EventuallyacloturerulewaspassedmandatingthattheSenatecouldenddebateby athree-fifthsvote(sixtyvotes). Proceduralfilibusters ratherthanactualones havebecomethemorelikelypractice.Ifamotiontoenddebategetssixtyor morevotes,thenitisassumedthatcloturehasbeenachievedandnofilibuster canbesuccessfullyattempted.Ifitfailstogetsixtyvotes,thenitistreatedas havingbeenblockedbyfilibuster.

Inthe1980sand1990s,Republicansusedtheproceduralfilibusterfarmore frequentlythandidDemocrats.Theyfilibusteredorthreatenedtofilibusterbills thatsupportedarmscontrol,publicfinancingofcongressionalcampaigns,limits onprivatecampaignspending,legalabortionsatmilitaryhospitals,human rightsconditionsonmilitaryaidtoElSalvador,amodesttax-rateincreaseon therich,accessiblevoterregistrationforthepoorandunemployed,outlawing theuseofscabsaspermanentreplacementsofstrikers,anda$16.3billionjobs program. 35 In1998,abillthatbannedlobbyists’ giftsandmealsandabilldesignedtoendloopholesincampaignfinancingwerekilledwhenproponents couldnotachievethesixtyvotesneededtoovercomeafilibusterthreat.Some billsaresocompromisedandwatereddowntomakethemfilibusterproofthat theyendupbeingoflittleworth

TheSenaterequirementofsixtyvotestopassabill ifafilibusterchallenge arises isarguablyunconstitutional.TheConstitutionrequiresasupermajority (two-thirds)inonlyfiveinstances:tooverrideapresidentialveto,ratifyatreaty, proposeanamendmenttotheConstitution,convictanimpeachedofficial,and expelamemberoftheSenateorHouse.Itdoesnotcallforasupermajorityfor ordinarylegislation.36

About80percentofthebillsnevermaketheirwayoutofthelegislativelabyrinthtobecomelaw.Manyofthesearebestleftburied.Butthelawmakers’ wisdomisnottheonlydeterminantofwhatgetsthrough;classpowerisalsoatwork.

Legislationintendedtoassisttheneedymovesalongtheslowlane:a$100million billtofundsummerjobsforunemployedyouthisdebatedinCongressforeight months,withdozensofattemptsatcripplingamendments;apilotprojectsupplyingschoolbreakfastsforasmallnumberofmalnourishedchildrenisdebatedat agonizinglength.ButwhenContinentalIllinoisBankisabouttogobankrupt,billionsofdollarsarehandedoutforaquickrescuetransfusion,withhardlyanydeliberation.Hundredsofbillionsarereadilychanneledintothesavingsandloan bailout.Billionsfornewweaponssystemsarepassedinamatterofdays.NAFTA isrammedthroughwithoutamendmentintwodays.Anddomesticprogramsthat hadtakenmanyyearsofstruggletoachievearecutbymanybillionsofdollarsina fewweeks.Themajorfinancialinterestsmaynotalwaysgetalltheywant,but theyusuallyenjoythefastlaneinCongress.

TheUSAPatriotActalsotraveledthefastlane,beingrushedthrough Congresssoquicklythatmostmembershadnochancetoreaditandnonotion ofitsextremeandrepressiveprovisions(discussedinChapter10).Throughout hisfirstyearinoffice,PresidentObamakeptthePatriotActintactwithallits potentiallyoppressivefeatures.

INCUMBENCYANDTERMLIMITS

FormembersofCongressgettingreelectedisamajorconcern;forsomeitis theironlyconcern.Inanycase,thegreatmajorityofthemarequitesuccessful atit.TheturnoverinCongressisrarelymorethan5to8percent.Inthe2000 election98percentoftheincumbentswhochosetorunagainwerereelected. Thereareseveralreasonsforthis:

Campaignfundingandconstituentservice.Bydefinition,incumbentsare peoplewhohavealreadydemonstratedanabilitytomusterenoughmoneyand votestowin.Theymaintainanofficeintheirhomedistricttoperformservices forconstituents,doinglittlefavorsforlittlepeopleandbigfavorsforbigpeople, gatheringvotesfromtheformerandcampaignmoneyfromthelatter.

Namerecognition.Incumbentsgenerallyenjoyaheadstartoverpotential challengersinnamerecognition.Theyissuepressreleasesandusetheir frankingprivileges (freecongressionalmailings)tocorrespondwithconstituents, sendingoutnewslettersthatadvertisetheirdevotedeffortsaslawmakers.

One-partydominance.Manystatesanddistrictsaredemographicallyinclinedtowardonepartyoranother,andmanydistrictsaregerrymanderedto concentratepartystrengthinlopsidedways,somuchsothatitissometimes difficulttorecruitachallenger.Thosewhofacetoughreelectionchallenges andhaveproblemsraisingfundsaremoreinclinedtoretirethanthosewho occupysafeandwell-financedseats.37

ConservativeshadnothingagainstlimitlessincumbencyinCongresswhen conservativeSouthernDemocratsorRepublicansdominatedtheinfluentialcommitteeleadershippositions.Butwhenseniorpositionsbegangoingtomoderately liberalandevenprogressiveDemocrats,includingmembersoftheCongressional BlackCaucus,conservativesbecamethemovingforcebehind termlimits (allowingalegislatortoservealimitednumberoftermswithnofurtheropportunityto bereelectedtothesameoffice).Somemisguidedprogressivesjoinedinthe

campaign,believingthattermlimitswouldridtheCongressofentrenchedoligarchsandbringinfusionsoffreshideasandimprovedlegislativeperformance.

OthersarguedthataCongressinwhichmemberscouldserveonlyoneor twotermswouldlackinstitutionalmemoryandexperienceandbewantingin professionalefficacy.Whenonerecallsthatittakesmanyyearsofstruggleto passmajorpublic-interestlegislation,whoinCongresswouldbeabletostick aroundlongenoughtoseethingsthrough?

Termlimitsactuallywereadoptedbyreferendumsinvariousstatelegislatures, andtheresultshavenotbeenencouraging.Thereisweakerlegislativeleadership andgreaterpowerforbureaucraticchiefs,legislativestaffers,and,aboveall,lobbyists.Withoutbenefitofaveteranleadershipwithrealinstitutionalmemory, the “perpetuallyinexperienced” legislators,limitedtoonlytwoterms,commit frequenttacticalandproceduralerrors.Sometimesthereareprolongeddebateson frivolousresolutionsbuthardlyanydiscussiononbillsofmajorimportance.Budgetsarepassedinrecordtimebecauselawmakersoftendonotfullyunderstand whattheyarevotingfor.Newlyarrivedlegislatorsundolawsthathadjustbeen passedthetermbefore,orgiveexhaustivereconsiderationtobillsthathadbeendefeatedthepreviousterm,orremainblithelyignorantaboutpastlegislativedisasters thatareinneedoffixing. “Ittakeshoursjusttogeteverybodyinlineforasingle vote.… [M]anyaredistractedbynewcampaignsforotheroffices.”38

Withtermlimits,theelectedpositionisseenmorethaneverasatemporaryposition.Legislatorsaresometimesinclinedtodepartevenbeforetheir termsarefinishedinordertotakeanappointivepostorrunforsomeother office. “Theydon’thavemuchexperience;alltheyhavearepoliticalfutures. Donorsaremoreimportantthanconstituents,” apublic-interestadvocatesaid oftheterm-limitedCalifornialowerhouse.Termlimitscreateaperpetually freshmanandsophomorelegislaturethatis “moreamateurish,muchmorejuvenileandmuchlessinformed,” saidanother.39

Ofthetwenty-onestatesthathadadoptedtermlimitssince1990,the statesupremecourtsinfour(Massachusetts,Oregon,Washington,and Wyoming)haveruledthatlimitswereunconstitutional.Intwootherstates (IdahoandUtah)thestatelegislatureshaverepealedlimits.Thatleavesfifteen stateswithtermlimitsforstatelawmakers.40

In1992,highlypublicizedandwell-financedinitiativestolimittermsinthe U.S.Congresstosixortwelveyears(dependingonthestate)wonvoterendorsementsinfourteenstates;thelimitsappliedonlytothecongressionaldelegationsof therespectivestates.Butseveralyearslater,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthat ArticleIoftheConstitutionprohibitsastatefromerectingnewqualifyingbarriers forcongressionalcandidates,includingincumbentsrunningforreelection.41 The decisioninvalidatedthecongressionaltermlimitprovisionsoftwenty-threestates. SoasoftodaytherearenotermlimitsontheU.S.Congress.

LEGISLATIVEDEMOCRACYUNDERSIEGE

BehindCongresstherestandstheentirecorporatesocialorder,withitshold overtheeconomyandwealthofsociety,itscontrolofmassmedia,andits high-paidlobbyistsandmoneyedcontributors.Givenallthis,itissurprising

thatanydemocraticvictoriesarewoninCongress.Yet,fromtimetotime popularpressuresprevailandprogressivelawmakersdomanagetopush worthwhilemeasuresthroughCongress,orblocksomethingegregious.

Thelegislatorsalsosometimesperformdemocraticwatchdogfunctionsover administrativeagencies,checkingtoseewhyaLaborDepartmentfieldofficeis notfunctioning,whyaSocialSecurityofficeisbeingclosed,whyacancerclinic hasnotreceiveditsfunding,whyvacanciesinanagencyinvestigatingracketeeringhavenotbeenfilled,whyareportonwageratesatruralhospitalshasnot beenreleased,whycompensationhasnotbeenmadetoinjuredveterans,and othersuchmatters.

Themostusefulwatchdogofgovernment,theGovernmentAccountability Office(formerlytheGeneralAccountingOffice),createdanddirectedby Congresstoinvestigateeverythingfrommilitarywastetoenvironmentalabuse, operatesattherequestoflegislatorsandreportsdirectlytoCongress.This congressionalagencyisanimportantdemocraticpressureonbehalfofordinary people,proddingarecalcitrantandoftensecretivefederalbureaucracy.

EvenduringtherightistReaganandBushSr.presidencies,CongressapprovedtheexpansionofMedicare,strengthenedmajorcivilrightsstatutesand environmentalprograms,andimposedsanctionsonSouthAfricabecauseofits racistapartheidpolicy.Congress,then,isnotjustaspecial-interestarena.Itis alsoaplacewherelargercriticalissuesaresometimesjoined,wheredemocratic inputscanberegistered,whereprogressiveforcesoccasionallycanmountattacksagainstaconservativestatusquoormaintainsome(partiallysuccessful) defenseagainstthefree-marketrightistrollback.

IntimespastthemajoritypartyinCongress,beitDemocraticorRepublican,usuallymaintainedadegreeofaccommodationandcompromisetoward theminorityparty,accordingitproportionaterepresentationonstanding committeesandconferencecommittees,accesstoproposedlegislation,and equaldebatingtime.Theunderstandingwasthattoday’smajoritypartyis likelytofinditselfintheminoritysomeday,atwhichtimeitwouldwantto betreatedwiththesameconsideration.

Withtheincreasingnumberofgerrymanderedandtouch-screenupsetvictoriesforRepublicancandidates,theGOPmajorityleadershipinCongressin 2002–2006showedagrowingdisinclinationtopracticeproceduraldemocracy, feelingthatitwouldpredominateindefinitelyasthelegislativemajority.Bills werewritteninsecrecy,oftenbyright-winglobbyistsandotherspecialinterests, withnohearingscalled,andnorealisticdebateallowedinmostinstances. Omnibusbills,thousandsofpageslong,werebroughttotheHousefloorwith noadvancenotice,inviolationoftheseventy-two-hourrule.Democratswere excludedentirelyfromconferencecommittees,wheretheRepublicansrewrote legislationevenaftertheconferencewasclosed,usuallyendingupwithfar moreconservativebillsthanwhatoriginallywentintoconference.

TheHouseoperatedinincreasingsecrecy.Duringthespringandsummer monthsof2003,intheweehoursofwhatwasusuallyFridaynightwhenmany membershadlefttovisitwithconstituents,theGOPHouseleadershiprammed throughcutsinveteransbenefitsbythreevotes,slashededucationandhealth carebyfivevotes,gaveenormoustaxcutstotheveryrichbyahandfulofvotes,

evisceratedtheHeadStartassistanceprogramforlow-incomechildrenbyone vote,andpassedtheMedicareprivatizationandprescriptiondrugbillbyone vote.Asoneparticipant,Rep.SherrodBrown(D-Ohio),describedit: Alwaysinthemiddleofthenight.Alwaysafterthepresshadpassedtheirdeadlines.AlwaysaftertheAmericanpeoplehadturnedoffthenewsandgoneto bed.… Whatdidthepublicmiss?Theydidn’tseetheHousevotes,whichnormallytakenomorethan20minutes,draggingonforaslongasanhouras membersoftheRepublicanleadershiptrolledforenoughvotestocobbletogether amajority … coercingenoughRepublicanmembersintoswitchingtheirvotesto producethedesiredresult.Inotherwords,theydidn’tseethesubversionof democracy.42

InkeepingwithHouserules,votingissupposedtolastfifteenminutesbut onnumerousoccasions whenthefinaltallydidnotgothewayGOPleaders wanted theykepttherollcallvoteopensometimesforseveralhoursintothe earlymorning,cajolingandarm-twistingtogetthevotestheWhiteHousedemanded.Inoneinstance,Rep.NickSmith(R-Mich.)statedpubliclythathe waspressuredtochangehis “no” voteto “yes” bypartyleaderswhoassured himthatifhecooperated, “businessinterests” wouldcontribute$100,000to hisson’scampaigntosucceedhiminCongress,andifhedidnot,theywould makesurehissonnevermadeittoCongress.Hestoodfirm,andinfact,his sonwasopposedanddefeatedinthatyear’sRepublicanprimary.43

HowcanwecreateaCongressthatismoreresponsivetovotersandless responsivetomoneyedinterestsandlegislativemanipulators?

First andforemost,weneedhonestelections,notonesthatarestolenby thosewhocontroltheregistrationandvoting,orwhoareinanunanswerable positiontofixthefinaltally(seethediscussioninChapter14).

Second,candidatesshouldwinofficeinsteadofbuyingtheirwayin.What isneededisasystemofpubliccampaignfinancingthatneutralizestheinfluenceofprivatecontributions.Candidateswhoacceptpublicfundingwould havetoagreetolimittheirspendingtotheamountofthepublicallocation. Thosewhodeclinetaxpayermoneywouldbefreeofthatspendinglimit buttheiropponentswouldthenqualifyforpublicfundsequaltoanyamount spentbytheprivatelyfundedcandidate.Limitlessprivatefundingwouldbe allowed butitwouldbematchedandthereforeneutralizedbypublicfunding.InstateslikeMaineandArizonathathavepublicfinancingofelections, theamountsspentbycandidateshavedroppeddramatically.

Third,strictprohibitionsshouldbeplacedonlobbyistgiftsandservices thatarenowlittlemorethanlegalizedbribery.

Fourth,broadcastmediashouldberequiredtosetasidefreeandequal timeforallcandidatesduringcampaigns.Theairwavesarethepropertyof theAmericanpeople,partofthepublicdomain.Broadcastersaregrantedlicensestooperatestations,butthatdoesnotmeantheyowntheairwavesto useastheychoose.Itisnoinfringementontheirfreespeechtoobligethem,as apublicservice,tomakesomeportionofbroadcasttimeavailabletooffice seekerswhowanttodiscusspublicissues.

Fifth andfinally,campaigntimesaretoolong.Candidatesstartannouncingtheircandidacyandjockeyingforpositionmorethanayearbefore

electionday.Longercampaignscreatebiggercampaignbills,moredependencyonthosewithmoney,moremass-marketingofacandidate’simage withlesstimegiventoactualissuesandpolicies.

Withhonestvotecounts,secureaccesstovoterregistrationandballots, publicfinancingofcampaigns,limitsonprivateperks,andfreeaccesstomedia,therepresentativesystemwouldbemoredemocraticinprocessandcontent.Majorpublicofficewouldbemoreaccessibletoothersbesidestherich orthosesupportedbytherich.Anddemocracywouldhavemuchmorehope andsubstancetoit. 214 Chapter15

C H A P T E R

ThePresident:Guardian oftheSystem

Thepresident,wearetold,playsmanyroles:chiefexecutive, “chieflegislator,” commander-in-chief,headofstate,andpartyleader.Seldommentionedisthe president’sroleaspromoterandguardianofcorporatecapitalism.Thepresidentistheembodimentoftheexecutive-centeredstatesystemthatservescorporateinterestsathomeandabroad.

SALESMANOFTHESYSTEM

Everymodernpresidenthasservedasthepolitico-economicsystem’sideologicalsalesperson,praising “freeenterprise” andhailingAmericaasthegreatest countryintheworld.Prosperity,ourpresidentstellus,ishereornotfaroff butsoarethenation’smanywild-eyedenemies,betheycommunists,revolutionaries,terrorists,Islamic “fanatics,” orwhatever.Thereisnoshortageof adversariessupposedlywaitingtopounceupontheUnitedStates,thwarted onlybythereadinessofU.S.militaryforcesaroundtheworld.

WhetherDemocratorRepublican,liberalorconservative,thepresident tendstotreatcapitalistinterestsassynonymouswiththenation’swell-being. Americawillachievenewheightsspurredon “byfreedomandtheprofitmotive,” PresidentReaganannounced. “Thisisafree-enterprisecountry,” said PresidentBillClinton. “Iwanttocreatemoremillionairesinmypresidency” thandidotherpresidents.1

Presidentsdescribetheoverseasinvestmentsofgiantcorporationsas “U.S. interests” abroad,tobedefendedatallcosts orcertainlyatgreatcosttothe taxpayer.Thepresident’sprimarycommitmentabroadisnottodemocracyas suchbuttofree-marketcapitalism.InanaddressbeforetheUnitedNations,

27September1993,PresidentClintonsaid: “Ouroverridingpurposeistoexpand andstrengthentheworld’scommunityofmarket-baseddemocracies.” Infact, U.S.presidentshavesupportedanynumberofmarket-based dictatorships in LatinAmerica,theMiddleEast,andelsewhere.Andtheyhavehelpeddestroy anynumberofpopular-basedgovernmentsthatsoughtalternativestofreemarketcorporatism,asinChile,Nicaragua,SouthYemen,Indonesia,EastTimor, Mozambique,Iraq,andYugoslavia suggestingthatthepresident’sprimeservice isnottodemocracybuttotheglobalfreemarket.

AttheConstitutionalConventionof1787,thewealthyplanterCharles Pinckneyproposedthatnoonequalifyforthepresidencywhowasnotworth atleast$100,000 amunificentsuminthosedays.Althoughtheproposal wasneverwrittenintotheConstitution,itseeminglyhasbeenfollowedin practice.Inmoderntimesalmostallmajorpresidentialcandidateshavebeen millionaireseitherwhentheyfirstcampaignedfortheofficeorbythetime theyleftit.

Presidentshavereliedheavilyonthejudgmentsofcorporateleaders, drawingtheirtopadvisorsprimarilyfromindustryandbanking.OnedescriptionofPresidentFordcouldeasilyapplytomostotherWhiteHouseoccupants:He “followsthejudgmentofthemajorinternationaloilcompanieson oilproblemsinthesamewaythatheamiablyheedstheadviceofotherbig businessesontheproblemsthatinterestthem.… Heis… asolidbelieverin thebusinessideologyofruggedindividualism,freemarketsandpricecompetition virtuesthatexistmoreclearlyinhismindthantheydointhepractices oftheinternationaloilindustry.”2 216 Chapter16

Duringtheeconomiccrisisof2008–2009,PresidentObamashowedhimself incapableofdeliveringathoroughcritiqueofWallStreet’sirresponsiblefinancial legerdemain.Hearguedagainstputtingacaponthemultimillion-dollarbonuses thatinducedfinancialspeculatorstotakeunwarrantedrisks.Obamarepeatedly announcedthat “weareallinthistogether” wheninfactthegeneralpublicwas takingmostofthelossesandpayingmostoftheexpensesonbehalfoftheWall Streetspeculators.

Presidentsareascapableoftradingfavorsformoneyasanyinfluencepeddling,special-interestpolitician.Bigcontributorsmaydisclaimanyintention oftryingtobuyinfluence,butifitshouldhappenthattheyfindthemselvesor theirfirmsburdenedbyaproblemthatonlytheWhiteHousecanhandle,they seenoreasonwhytheyshouldn’tbeallowedtoexercisetheirrightslikeother citizensandasktheirelectedrepresentative,whointhiscasehappenstobetheir friend,thepresidentoftheUnitedStates,foralittlehelp.Thesuccessanygroup enjoysinwinningWhiteHouseintercessionhaslesstodowiththejusticeofits causethanwiththemonetaryresourcesitcommandsandtheplaceitoccupies intheclassstructure.

PresidentNixonhelpedsettleamultibillion-dollarsuitagainstITTand thenreceiveda$400,000donationfromthatcorporation.Reaganpushed throughthederegulationofoilandgasolineprices,thenreceivedhugecontributionsfromtheoilindustry.A “team” of249fatcatsputupatleast $100,000eachtohelpelectBushSr.in1988.Inreturn,theyallweregranted specialdispensationsonregulatoryandlegalmatters.Seventy-onebigcontributorstoBushJr.’s2000campaignwereawardedno-bidcontractstotaling $8billionforlucrativeprojectsinIraqandAfghanistan.Bushwaivedpaymentofatleast$7billioningovernmentroyaltiesfortheoilandgastaken frompubliclyownedreserves,alltobenefitanindustrythatwasalreadymakingrecordprofits.Inhistwopresidentialcampaigns,BushJr.receivedatotal of$61.5millionfromoilandgascompaniesalone.3 AmongBarackObama’s biggestcampaigncontributorsinthe2008presidentialracewereGoldman Sachs,Microsoft,Citigroup,JPMorganChase,MorganStanley,andGeneral Electric,almostallofwhombenefiteddirectlyfromthemultibillion-dollar bailoutsubsequentlydoledoutbytheObamaadministration.4

Likeanylocalpolitical-patronagedispenser,presidentswillawardchoice poststobigcontributors.BushSr.receivedatotalof$900,000frompersonshe laterappointedtoambassadorships;manyhadnopoliticalordiplomaticexperience.Nixoninsistedthatpeoplewhowereofferedambassadorshipsberequired “topayatleast$250,000” incampaigncontributions.BushJr.appointedbigdonorsasSecretariesofCommerceandLaborandchiefofHomelandSecurity.5 Speakingtoagatheringofhiswealthysupportersinthe2004campaign,heremarked, “Whatanimpressivecrowd,thehavesandthehave-mores.Somepeople callyoutheelite.Icallyoumybase.”6

Giventhattheylivelikeopulentpotentates,itisprobablynoteasyfor presidentstoremainkeenlyawareofthetravailsenduredbyordinaryworking people.ThepresidentresidesintheWhiteHouse,arent-free,132-roommansion setonaneighteen-acreestate,withawell-stockedwinecellar,tenniscourts,aprivatemovietheater,gymnasium,bowlingalley,andheatedoutdoorswimming

pool.Inaddition,thepresidenthasadomesticstaffofaboutonehundred,includingsixbutlers,thefreeservicesofapersonalphysician,adozenchauffeuredlimousines,andnumeroushelicoptersandjets,includingAirForceOne.Hehas accesstotheimperialluxuriesofCampDavidandothercountryretreats,free vacations,ahugeexpenseallowance andforthefewthingshehimselfmust payfor a$400,000annualsalary.7

Journalistsandpoliticalscientistshavedescribedthepresidencyasa “mankillingjob.” Yetpresidentstakemorevacationsandlivefarbetterandlonger thantheaverageAmericanmale.Afterleavingofficetheycontinuetofeedfrom thepublictroughonanannualpensionof$180,100withadjustedincreasesfor inflation,plusfundsforofficespace,staff,andtravelexpenses,alongwithfulltimeSecretServiceprotection.Someex-presidentspickupotherperks,aswhen agroupofself-described “independentlywealthy” individualsboughtasumptuousestateinfashionableBelAir,California,whichtheygavetoRonaldReagan whenheleftoffice,inappreciationforallhehaddoneforthem.

Itissaidthatthegreatnessoftheofficelendsgreatnesstoitsoccupant,sothat evenpersonsofmediocreendowmentgrowinresponsetothepresidency’sresponsibilitiesandpowers.Closerexaminationrevealsthatpresidentshavebeen justasreadilycorruptedasennobledbyhighoffice.AtleastsixpresidentsemployedillegalFBIwiretapstogatherincriminatinginformationonrivalpolitical figures.TheWhiteHousetapes,whichrecordedNixon’sOvalOfficeconversations,showedhimtobeavindictive,bigoted,foul-mouthedmanwhoseshallownessthemajesticofficecouldcloakbutnottransform.Onoccasion,Nixon requestedtheIRStostopauditingtheincomesofclosefriendsandgoafterhis politicalenemies.Officialauditsrevealedthatheunderpaidhistaxesby $444,022whilespendingover$2.4millionoftaxpayers’ moneyonimprovementsofhisprivateestate.8

PresidentReaganrepeatedlyfabricatedstoriesandanecdotesaboutnonexistentevents.TheIran-contraaffairrevealedhimtobeamanipulatoranddissemblerwhofelthimselfunaccountabletoCongressandabovethelaw.Likesomeof hispredecessors,BushJr.provedhimselfimpatientandill-temperedwithsubordinates,giventoself-righteousattacksagainstcritics,andreadytocoverupanumberofshadydealsfromhispast,includinginsidertradingwithHarkenEnergy shares.Asonecolumnistcomplained: “HowcanBushcrackthewhiponBigBusinesswhenhe’sawhollyownedsubsidiaryofit?”9 Thesamecanbesaidofother politicalleadersinbothRepublicanandDemocraticadministrations.

THETWOFACESOFTHEPRESIDENT

Oneofthepresident’smanyrolesis “chiefliar,” performedbyofferingthepublic adeceptiveadmixtureofpopulistrhetoricandplutocraticpolicy.Presidents RichardNixonandGeraldFordbothvoicedtheirsupportforenvironmentalism andthenopenednewforestlandstostripmining.BothgavelipservicetotheproblemsoftheVietnamveteran,theplightoftheelderly,andtheneedsofthepoor, yetcutbenefitstothesegroups.PresidentJimmyCarterpromisedtoreducethe militarybudgetandarmssales;insteadheincreasedboth.Hetalkedofhelping theneedy,butproposedcutbacksinyouthsummerjobs,childnutrition programs,andotherbenefits,whileofferinglavishsubsidiestobigbusiness.10

Thegapbetweenrhetoricandpolicybecameavirtualchasmduringthe Reaganyears.PresidentReaganlaudedourveterans,butofferedabudgetthat reducedveterans’ healthcare.Hedescribedhimselfasachampionofracialequalitywithoutmentioningthathehadcutinner-cityprogramsandhaddonenothing toenforcecivilrights.Heannouncedthathistaxcutshadbenefitedworkingfolks andnottherich thoughthefiguressaidjusttheopposite.Hecalledfortherule oflawininternationalaffairs,yetlaunchedanunlawfulinvasionofGrenadaand amercenarywarofattritionagainstNicaragua.AndherefusedtoacceptthelawfuljurisdictionoftheWorldCourtwhenNicaraguabroughtthecasebeforethat tribunal.11

Reagan’ssuccessor,PresidentGeorgeBushSr.,proclaimedhimselfthe “educationpresident,” yetslashededucationfundsfordisadvantagedchildrenand others.Astheself-professed “environmentpresident,” BushSr.opposedinternationalmeasuresagainstglobalwarmingandozonedepletion.12

“Thecouragetochange” wasthecampaignthemethathelpedgetBillClinton, aDemocrat,electedpresidentin1992,yethedidnotseeminterestedinchanging muchofanything.Hedidnothingtoliberalizethelaborlawsthatmadeunion organizingsodifficult.Hesupporteda$3billionreductionforlow-income housing.Hevowedtoconfrontthecataclysmicproblemsofglobalwarming, thenhimselfdidnothingaboutgreenhousegases.13

ClintontalkedofworldpeacebutbombedIraqonfalsepretextsandkept sanctionsagainstthatcountryinplaceforeightyears,causingthedeathoftens ofthousands.HebombedYugoslaviaround-the-clockforseventy-eightdays, wreakingfarmoredeathanddestructionthanthe “civilwar” heprofessedtobe suppressing.HepubliclyapologizedtotheGuatemalannationfortheroleplayed bytheUnitedStatesintrainingandassistingtheGuatemalanmilitaryinitsmass murders.Atthesametime,hisadministrationreinitiatedaidtothatsame military.14

MostofClinton’sappointeeswereofcorporatebackground.ClintonreappointedtheultraconservativeRepublicanAlanGreenspanaschairofthepowerfulFederalReserveSystem.HepickedRepublicanstoserveashissecretaries ofDefenseandStateandasspecialadvisorstohisstaff.Yetpollsindicatedthat peoplethoughtofClintonasaliberal.Nearly60percentincorrectlybelieved thatheadvocateduniversalhealthcoverage.Mostthoughtthatlaborcontributedmoretohiscampaignsthanbigbusiness;actuallybusinessgavemore.The public “appeartolikehisagenda evenif,asitturnsout,theydon’tknow whatitis.”15 Inthis,Clintonsuccessfullyperformedtheroleofeverypresident inacorporate-dominatedsystem,convincingthepeoplehewastheirmanwhen infacthewassomeoneelse’s.

GeorgeBushJr.wassecondtononeinhisabilitytosayonethinganddoanother.Whenfirstcampaigningforoffice,Bushsaidhewouldreducegovernment spendingandstayoutofforeignwars.Onceinofficeheincreasedspendingtorecordlevelsandplungedthecountryintotwowars.Hepromisedto “keepthegovernmentfromraidingtheSocialSecuritysurplus,” yethisyearlybudgetsraided theSocialSecuritysurplustopayforotherprograms.BushhailedAmerica’smilitary,buthecuthealthcarebenefitsformilitaryveterans,closedseveraloftheir hospitals,anddirectedtheVeteransAdministrationtostopinformingveterans abouttheirbenefits.Herepeatedlyclaimedthathistaxcutsbenefitedmiddle-and

low-incomepeople,wheninfact,thelion’ssharewenttothetop1percent,and over30percentoftaxpayersatlowerrungsgotnothingatall.16 Likeeveryother recentpresident,Bushvowedtoprotecttheenvironment,yetheweakenedorrevokedrulesthatprotectedwildlifeorlimitedcarbon,sulfur,andmercuryemissionsintheatmosphere,andarsenicindrinkingwater.17

Bushsaidnothingaboutwhathisadministrationwasdoingforwomen, probablybecauseitwasnotdoingmuch.Herefusedtofundfamily-planningprograms;heproposeda$20millionreductioninassistanceto(largelyfemale)victimsofdomesticviolence,andcutsinnutritionprogramsforpregnantwomen andinfants.Hemouthedsomegeneralitiesaboutracialequalitybuteliminated theminoritybusinessdevelopmentagency.18

Bushreducedfederalspendingoneducation,libraries,schoollunches,child care,remedialreading,andprogramstohelpabusedchildren.Heclaimedthat “ourfirstgoal” wasemploymentfor “everymanandwomanwhoseeksajob.” Buthedidnothingtopromoteemploymentprogramsandpresidedoveran economythatlostalmost3millionjobsinthreeyears.19

Bushdeclinedtoparticipateinaninternationalefforttocrackdownontax andmoney-launderinghavens.HeclaimedthatwarwithIraqwasnecessarybecauseIraqileaderSaddamHusseinhadactivelinkstothealQaedaterroristorganizationandpossessedweaponsofmassdestruction.Infact,theCIAreported thattherewerenolinksbetweenSaddamandalQaeda.AndUNinspectorsreportedtheyhadfreeaccessinIraqandfoundnoweaponsofmassdestruction, nordidtheU.S.militaryonceitoccupiedthecountry.20

In2008,theDemocraticcontenderforthepresidency,BarackObama,campaignedonapromiseof change andavague “Yeswecan” slogan.Onceinoffice heseemedtoeffectrelativelyfewchangesinpolicy.Heproducedamilitarybudget ofrecordsize.AfterpromisingtoreversetheegregiousaspectsofBush’s “faithbasedinitiatives” andrestoretheseparationofchurchandstate,Obamaretained andextendedsuchinitiatives.WhiletalkingabouthelpingMainStreet’sworking families,Obamapresidedoveramultitrillion-dollarbailoutforWallStreetbankers.Heacceptedsubstantialcutsinhisstimulusspendingpackagethatwas supposedlydesignedtoputmillionsofunemployedbacktowork.Heruledthat dispossessedhomeownerswhohavefallenpreytothedeceptionsandgreedof mortgagebrokersandlenderswouldnotbeeligibleforrelief.

Hespentmuchoftheearlymonthsofhispresidencytryingtorulebybipartisanconsensus,reachingouttouncompromisingreactionaryGOPopponentswho tookeveryconcessionhemadeasaninvitationtopoundawayathimallthe harder.Bytheendofhisfirstyear,Obamabegantolooklikeaweakpresident incapableoffightingforprogressivechange.21

Obamadidlittletoreininthenationalsecuritystate.HeappointedLeon PanettaasdirectoroftheCIA,andPanettapromptlybecameatotaladvocateof theagency’sprerogatives,makingnoattempttocleanhouse.PresidentObama didnotrescindthedomesticwiretappingprograminstalledbyBushJr.,andhe continuedthepracticeofsendingterroristsuspectstothirdcountriesforinterrogation.Theseprisoners(euphemisticallydesignatedas “detainees”)oftenwerearrestedonflimsyevidence,givennolegaldefense,nevertried,confinedindefinitely inviolationofhabeascorpus,andsubjectedtoharshtreatmentincluding

protractedtorture.ObamarefusedtoreleasehundredsofPentagonphotosshowingtheabuseofprisonersbyU.S.personnel,althoughhedidpromisethatthere wouldbenosuchtortureonhiswatch.22

Likeotherpoliticians,onlymoreso,thepresidentiscaughtbetweenthedemandsofdemocracyandthepowersofplutocracy.Hemustmakeashowof servingthepeoplewhileadvancingthemajordomesticandglobalinterestsof corporateAmerica.Healsomustdoforthecapitalistsystemwhatindividualcapitalistscannotdo.Thepresidentmustreconcileconflictsbetweenvariousbusinessinterests,usuallydecidinginfavorofbigindustryandbigfinanceand againstsmallbusinessandsmallinvestors.Sometimeshemustopposetheinterestsofindividualcompaniesorindustries,keepingtheminlinewiththeoverall needsofthecorporateeconomy.Whenengagedinsuchconflictsthepresident takesonanappearanceofopposingthespecialinterests(particularindustries) onbehalfofthecommoninterest.Infact,hemightbetterbedescribedas protectingthecommoninterestsofthespecialinterests bykeepingthefreemarketfrom devouringitself.

WhenPresidentObamahandedouthundredsofbillionsofdollarstolarge financialinstitutions,whiledoingnexttonothingtohelpthemillionswhowere losingtheirhomesbecauseofdeceptivepredatorymortgagessoldtothemby thosesamebigfinancialinterests,washeservingthe nationalinterest ora special interest?Muchdependsonhowthelabelsareapplied.Ifwebelievethenational interestentailstheneedsofindustryandothermajorcomponentsofcorporate Americathathavesucharippleeffectonthenational(andinternational)economy,thenthepresidentwasrespondingtoanationalinterest.Bythisview,the socialneedsofhomeowners aconstituencyofmanymillions aredefinedasa morelimited “special” interest.

Otherswouldarguethatthenationalinterestisnotservedwhengiantinvestmentfirmsreceivefavoredtreatmentattheexpenseofworkers,homeowners,and taxpayers.Justbecausecorporationshavenationwideholdingsdoesnotmean theyservetheinterestsofthenation’spopulace.The “nationalinterest” or “publicinterest” shouldencompasstheordinarypublicratherthanrelativelysmall groupsofcorporateelites.Contrarytoconventionalbelief,thepublicmoniesdistributedtothesefavoredfewdonot “trickledown” tothemassofworkingpeople atthebottom asthedispossessedhomeownersandnewlyunemployedcan testify.

Whicheverpositiononetakes,itbecomesclearthatthereisnoneutralwayof definingthenationalinterest.Whateverpolicythepresidentpursues,heislikelyto behelpingsomeclassinterestsratherthanothers.Itisamatterofhistoricalrecord thatpresidentsusuallyhavechosenadefinitionofthenationalinterestthatserves thegiantconglomerates,atcosttouslessermortals.

FEDSVS.STATES

ChampionsofbigbusinessforeverdreamofamarriagebetweenBigBusinessand LittleGovernment.ItiseasierforDuPonttocontrolthestateofDelawarethan dealwiththeentirefederalgovernment.Conservativesarguedforstatesrights throughmuchofthetwentiethcenturywhenthefederalgovernmentwas

advancingcivilrightsforminoritiesandexpandinghumanservicesforeveryone. Inthe1980s,RepublicanPresidentReagansought “tocurbthesizeandinfluence ofthefederalestablishment” bygivingmanyreducedsocialprogramsbacktothe states(whenhecouldnotabolishthemoutright).Thissupposedlywouldrevitalizestategovernments.Inactuality,statesandcitiesweregivengreaterresponsibilityfordealingwithsocialproblemsbutlessresourcestodosogiventhedrastic cutsinfederalrevenuesharing.

Twentyyearslater,variationsofthisproblempersisted.In2005,Connecticutsuedthefederalgovernment,arguingthatitshouldnotberequiredto spend$50millionofitsownmoneytocarryoutthefederalstandardized schooltestprogramsundertheso-calledNoChildLeftBehindAct.In2006, Texasandfourotherstates,respondingtotheadministration’sMedicareprescriptiondruglaw,suedthefederalgovernment,arguingthatitwasaviolationoftheConstitutionforstatestorelinquishtheirowntaxpayerdollarsfor afederallylegislatedprogram.

Whenstatesinitiateprogressiveactions,conservativesdiscardtheirstates’ rightspostureandusethecentralgovernmenttooverridestatepowers.Forinstance,theReaganadministrationarguedthatthestateswereprohibitedfrom establishingnuclearplantemissionstandardsmorestringentthanthoseimposed byfederalauthorities.YearslatertheBushadministrationandaRepublicancontrolledCongress(a)pushedforabillthatwouldwipeoutanystatefoodsafety regulationsthatwerestricterthanfederalstandards,(b)movedclassactionlawsuitsfromstatetofederalcourtswhereplaintiffsfacedmoreobstacleswhensuing corporationsforwrongdoing,(c)assertedthatthefederalgovernmentwas exemptfromstatecleanupandenvironmentallaws,(d)prohibitedstatesfrom buyingqualitymedicationsfromCanadathatwerefarlessexpensivethanwhat wassoldbyU.S.pharmaceuticals.23

Lawsthataffectthepersonalrealm familyrelations,contracts,probate,certaincrimes areusuallylefttothestates,becausepeopleindifferentpartsofthe countrytakedifferentapproaches.Thusmarriagelawsvaryfromstatetostateon suchthingsasageofconsent,communityproperty,groundsfordivorce,same-sex wedlock,andchildcustody.

Since1787,conservativeshavebeenforastrongcentralgovernmentora weakone,strongstateandlocalgovernmentsorweakones,federalsupremacy overstatesorstatesupremacyoverfederal,dependingonwhicharrangement bestservedmoneyedinterestsatanyparticularjuncture.Abstractnotionssuch as “states’ rights” anda “revitalizedfederalism” arenotanenduntothemselves butameansofservingthedominantcorporateclass.

ALOADEDELECTORALCOLLEGE

UnderArticle2,Section1oftheConstitution,presidentsarenotelectedbythe peoplebutbyamajorityof “electors,” appointedinsuchmannerasthevarious statelegislaturesmightdirect.Thenumberofelectorsallottedtoeachstateis equaltothetotalnumberofitsseatsintheHouseofRepresentativesplusitstwo senators.24

Whenelectingapresidentweactuallyarevotingforaslateofpartydesignatedelectorswhoarepledgedtothecandidateofourchoice.Afterthe election,thevictoriousslatesofelectorsgatherintheirrespectivestatesand casttheirballotstoelectthepresident.Since1796atleastseventeenelectors havefailedtosupportthecandidatetowhomtheyhadbeenpledged.In1960a NixonelectorfromOklahomavotedforSenatorHarryByrd,asdidsixofthe elevenAlabamaelectorspledgedtoJohnKennedy.In2000,oneofthethree DemocraticelectorsfromtheDistrictofColumbiaabstained,eventhough thedistrictwentheavilyforGore.In2004,oneRepublicanelectorfromWest VirginiaannouncedhemightnotvoteforBush.Twenty-sixstateshavepassed laws requiring electorstovoteastheyoriginallypledgedtodo.

TheframersoftheConstitutionassumedthatthe ElectoralCollege, asitbecameknown,wouldgenerallyconsistofpropertiedandeducatedgentlemen whowouldmeetmonthsaftertheelectiontodeliberateandselectapresident, actingasadamperonpopularpassionsandmisjudgments.Itwasexpected thatcandidateswouldseldomachieveamajorityoftheElectoralCollege,in whichcasetheelectionwouldbethrownintotheHouseofRepresentatives, whereeachstatedelegationwouldvoteasasingleunit,castingonlyonevote.

Byawardingastate’sentireelectoralvoteonawinner-take-allbasistothe candidatewhowinsapluralityofthestate’spopularvote,theElectoralCollegeoftencreatesartificialorexaggeratedmajoritiesoutofslimpluralities. Thirteentimessince1838,acandidatewithaplurality(thelargestvoteofall thevariouscandidatesbutstillshortofamajority)waselectedpresidentby theartificiallymagnifiedmajorityoftheElectoralCollege.Thishappensbecauseacandidatemighthave,say,47percentofthevoteinaparticularstate (withtheother53percentdividedamongseveralothercandidates),butwins 100percentofthewinner-take-allElectoralCollegevote,thusgreatlyinflating thewinningtally.In1984Reaganwon58.8percentofthevotescastbut 97.5percentoftheElectoralCollege.Underthissystem,the location ofvotes sometimesbecomesmoreimportantthantheactualnumberofvotes.

Itisalsonighonimpossibleforathird-partycandidate,whosesupportis thinlyspreadaroundthenationratherthanconcentratedinoneregionorafew states,tocarryastateandmakeashowingintheElectoralCollege.Thisfreezing outofthird-partycandidatesisseenasavirtuebythosewhobelievethatthetwopartysystemisabulwarkagainstfractiousmultipartycoalitions.

Thereareotherswhobelievethatapolityisnotfullyademocracyunless everyone’svoteiscountedasequal.TheElectoralCollegedoesnotprovidean equalcount;itdistortsthepopularvotebygivingeachstate,regardlessofitspopulation,twoextraelectoralvotes,equivalenttoitsseatsintheU.S.Senate.Hence smallstatesareoverrepresentedandlargeonesareunderrepresented.Wyoming, withapopulationof500,000,isguaranteedtheminimumthreeelectoralvotes allottedtoeachstate(andtotheDistrictofColumbia),oroneelectorforevery 167,000people.Incontrast,Californiawithits35millionpeopleandfifty-five electoralvotes,hasoneelectorforevery645,000votes,onlyaboutone-fourth thevotepowerofWyoming.

BecausetheRepublicanscontrolanumberofrelativelylesspopulated westernandsouthernstates,thisgivesthemproportionatelymoreelectoral

votesperpopularvotes,whichhelpsexplainhowinthe2000presidential election,VicePresidentAlGorewonthepopularvoteby543,895ballots, butTexasgovernorGeorgeW.Bushwonalargernumberofsmallerstates withtheirpaddedelectoralvotes,therebygleaningabare271–266Electoral Collegemajority,inwhatmanysawasastolenelection(seeChapter14).

Whenahighlydubiouspro-BushvotecountinFloridawaschallengedin thecourts,theRepublican-controlledFloridalegislaturedeclareditsintentto brushasideallchallengesandsummarilyacceptthelistofpro-Bushelectors thattheFloridasecretaryofstate,anactivememberoftheBushcampaign, hadcertifiedasthewinningslate.TheFloridalawmakerswerewithintheir legal(ifnotmoral)rights,forArticleII,Section1oftheConstitutionstates, theelectorsineachstateshallbeappointed “insuchmannerastheLegislature thereofmaydirect,” demonstratingyetanotherprofoundlyundemocraticfeatureoftheElectoralCollege.

Ithasbeenarguedthatbytreatingthelargestatesasgiantblocksofelectoral votes,theElectoralCollegeenhancestheirimportance,andbecauselargestates likeNewYorkandCaliforniatendtobeliberal,thisworkstotheadvantageof liberals.Butthereisnosetcorrelationbetweenstatesizeandideology.Texasisa largestateyetoneofthemoreconservative.AndbothNewYorkandCalifornia haveelectedconservativeRepublicangovernorswithsomefrequency.

AnadditionaldistortioncausedbytheElectoralCollegeunderthewinnertake-allruleisnotbetweenlargeandsmallstatesbutbetween “sure” states(in whichonepartyseemslikethecertainwinner)and “unsure” or “battleground” states,whichofferacloseracewithanuncertainoutcome.Presidentialcandidatesdonexttonothinginsafestatesbecausesucheffortswouldhavelittle effectuponthefinalElectoralCollegecount.Insteadtheyconcentratetheir mediaadvertising,publicappearances,issues,andvoterturnouteffortsonthe dozenorsobattlegroundstateswhereastrongcampaigncanmakeadifference. BecauseoftheElectoralCollege,nationalcontestsarenottrulynational.

Withthe directelection ofthepresident,everyvotewouldcountequally regardlessoflocation,whetherinaone-sidedlyDemocraticorRepublicanstate oranevenlydividedone,whetherinsparselypopulatedWyomingorhugely populatedCalifornia.Therewouldbenopossibilityofsomeonewinningthe votebutlosingtheelection,andnopossibilityofastatelegislaturepickinga slateofelectorscontrarytotheoneelected.AnattempttointroduceaconstitutionalamendmentthroughCongressforthedirectelectionofthepresident failedin1977–1978,becauseoftheoppositionofmembersfromsmallerstates advantagedbythetwoextraelectorvotes.Overthelastseveraldecades,opinionpollshaveconsistentlyfoundlargemajoritiesacrossthenationfavoring directpresidentialelections.25

ShortofabolishingtheElectoralCollege,astatecouldallocateitselectoralvotestocandidatesinproportiontotheirpopularvoteinthatstate.As ofnow,MaineandNebraskagivetwoelectoralvotestothestatewidewinner andoneelectoralvoteforeverycongressionaldistrictthatapresidentialcandidatecarries.In2004,anamendmenttoabolishtheElectoralCollegewas introducedintheHouseofRepresentativesbutwentnowhere.

THEWOULD-BEABSOLUTEMONARCH

Article1oftheConstitutiongivesCongressthepowertodeclarewar,makethe lawsoftheland,raisetaxes,andspendmoney.Article2seemsfarmorelimited; itgivesthepresidentthepowertoappointambassadors,federaljudges,andseniorexecutiveofficers(subjecttoSenateconfirmation),andtomaketreaties (subjecttoratificationbytwo-thirdsofthesenatorsvoting).Thepresidentcan vetolaws(butthevetocanbeoverriddenbyatwo-thirdsvoteinbothhouses), andhecancallCongressintospecialsessionanddoafewotherincidental things.Thepresidenthastworeallysignificantfunctions:toseethatthelaws arefaithfullyexecutedandtoserveascommander-in-chiefofthearmy.Allin all,relyingsolelyontheConstitution,wemightthinkthatCongressdetermines policyandwritesthelaws,whilethepresidentdoesCongress’sbiddingby puttinglawsintooperation.

Therealityissomethingelse.Inthelastcenturyorso,theroleofgovernment hasgrownenormouslyatthemunicipal,state,andfederallevelsandintheexecutive,legislative,andjudicialbranches.Butthetasksofservingcapitalism’svast needsandinterestsinwarandpeacehavefallendisproportionatelyonthelevel ofgovernmentthatisnationalandinternationalinscope:thefederal;andonthe branchmostsuitedtocarryingoutthenecessarytechnical,organizational,and militarymeasures:theexecutive.

Theexecutivebranchtodayisavastconglomerationofdepartmentsand agencies,itslargestsinglecomponentbeingthePentagon.TheExecutiveOffice ofthePresidentcontainsanumberofadministrativeunitstohelpthepresident formulateandcoordinateoverallpolicy.Thegrowthofpresidentialpowers hasbeensogreatastohavefrequentlyeclipsedCongress andsometimesthe Constitutionitself.

Conservativeslongcalledfor “limitedgovernment,” yettheyalsohavecome toappreciatetheusesofastrongpresidencyinadvancingthecausesofmilitaryindustrialcapitalismathomeandabroad.Itwasaright-wingpresident,Ronald Reagan,whobroadenedtherealmofexecutivepower.Reaganrequested(unsuccessfully)an itemveto thatwouldhaveallowedhimtovetoselectportionsofany billhesigned.HecalledforrepealoftheTwenty-secondAmendment,whichlimits presidentstojusttwoterms.Incontrast,someofhisliberalopponentstalked aboutmakingtheexecutivemoreaccountabletoCongress,andsaidnothingbad abouttheTwenty-secondAmendmentandnothinggoodaboutanitemveto.

Presidentsfrequentlyclaimextraconstitutionalprerogatives,suchasthe following:

ExecutivePrivilege:WithholdingInformation. Attimes,presidentsplace themselvesandtheirassociatesabovethereachofcongressionalinvestigation byclaimingthattheseparationofpowersgivesthemaninherentrightofexecutiveprivilege,therighttounaccountablesecrecyregardingExecutiveOffice documentsandplans.Executiveprivilegehasbeenusedtodenyinformation oneverythingfromundeclaredwarstoillegalcampaignfundsandburglaries (Watergate).TheSupremeCourthascollaboratedinpromotingexecutive privilegeassomethingdeservingofconstitutionalstanding,decidingthata

“presumptiveprivilege” forwithholdinginformation(innoncriminalcases) belongstothepresident.Presumptiveindeed,sincetheconceptofexecutiveprivilegedoesnotexistintheConstitutionoranylaw.26

In2000,VicePresidentDickCheneychairedataskforceconsistingmostly ofhisformeroilindustryassociatestorewritethenation’senergypolicyaccordingtotheirspecifications.Theirplan,itwaseventuallyrevealed,includeddrillinginwildernessareasandeliminatingcleanairlaws.Italsocontained elaborateprovisionsforamilitaryinvasionofIraq(thiswaswellbeforethe 9/11attacksontheWorldTradeCenter).WhentheGovernmentAccountability Officeaskedforthenamesoftaskforcemembersandtranscriptsofthemeetings,Cheneyrefused,citing “executiveprivilege,” whichapparentlynowcovers thevicepresident,oilexecutives,andwar-for-oilpolicies.

In1974,CongresspassedtheFreedomofInformationActtoguaranteecitizensaccesstogovernmentinformation.In1978,thePresidentialRecordsAct furtherestablishedthatpresidentialpapersandtapesbelongtothegovernment, nottoformerpresidents,andweretobeopenedtothepublictwelveyearsaftera presidentleftoffice.Butthroughmuchof2001,BushJr.delayedreleaseof Reagan’spresidentialrecords,ineffectprotectingsomemembersofhisownadministrationwhohadservedunderReagan nottomentionhisownfatherwho hadbeenReagan’svicepresident.ThenBushunilaterallyrewrotethePresidentialRecordsActwithanexecutiveordergivinghimselfandallformerpresidents therighttovetorequeststoopenpresidentialrecords.Bushclaimedthatitwasa matterof “nationalsecurity,” butnationalsecuritydocumentsalreadywere excludedfrompublicinquiry.27

TheObamaadministrationcontinued,likeitspredecessors,toarguethat the statesecretsprivilege wasrootedintheConstitution.TheWhiteHouse maintainedthatonnationalsecuritygroundstheexecutivebranchcouldhave lawsuitsdismissedandevidencekeptsecretfromthecourts.Civillibertarians arguethatsuchanuntrammeledprivilegeeasilybecomesawayofconcealing theworstkindsofgovernmentmisconduct.28 TheWhiteHousethenattempted tokeeptheprivilegebutwithlimitationsuponit.Obama’sAttorneyGeneral EricHolderdecidedthatmilitaryandintelligenceagencieswouldnotbefreeto withholdanythingandeverythingtheywantedto;theynowneededtheapprovaloftheJusticeDepartmenttokeepclassifiedevidenceoutofcourtand outofsight.HolderalsoinitiatedaninvestigationoftheCIA’sabuseof prisoners.29

ExecutiveOrder:RulebyDecree. Astheaboveexampleshows,thepresidentwillfrequentlyissueanexecutiveorder,adecreeorregulationthathas theimpactofalawwithoutauthorizationfromCongress(ortheConstitution).Reaganunilaterallyabrogatedthetreatyofcommerceandfriendship withNicaraguainordertowageawarofattritionagainstthatcountry. Reagan,BushSr.,andBushJr.allusedexecutiveorderstotakewetlandsout ofprotectionandgrantfavorablederegulationstoindustry.WhenCongress resistedClinton’srequestfora$40billionpackagetobailoutMexicanand WallStreetfinanciers,thepresidentresortedtoexecutivefiat,offeringthe financiersupto$20billionfromafundoriginallysetuptosupporttheU.S. dollarininternationalmarkets.

Inthewakeofthe9/11attack,BushJr.issuedahostofexecutiveorders supposedlytoenhancenationalsecurity,oneofwhichrescindedcertainlabor protectionsrequiredoffederalcontractors.Whenafederalcourtrevoked Bush’sdecision,thepresidentignoredthecourtdecision,justifyinghisactionas aresponseto “nationalemergency.” ExecutiveOrder11000allowsthegovernmenttomobilizeciviliansintoworkbrigadesundergovernmentsupervision; 11002designatesthePostmasterGeneraltooperateanationalregistrationof allpersons;and11004allowsthegovernmenttodesignateresidentialareasto beabandonedandmovewholepopulationstonewlocations.30

NonenforcementandUnilateralDecisions.

TheSupremeCourthaslong beenawarethatitsdecisionshavetheforceoflawonlyifotheragenciesofgovernmentchoosetoabidebythem.Congressbelatedlycametothesamerealization,developinganewappreciationoftheexecutive’spowertocommandthe personnel,matériel,andprogramsneededforcarryingoutdecisions.Thepeculiardangerofexecutivepoweristhatitexecutes.Theexecutivealonehasthe powerofimplementation,acting orrefusingtoact withtheforceofstate, oftenwithinitiativesallitsownmaking.Considerthefollowing:

• TheReaganadministrationterminatedbenefitsforhundredsofthousands ofdisabledAmericans.Whenfederalcourtsfoundtheactiontobeillegal, theadministrationannounceditwouldignoretheunfavorablecourt decisions.

• WhenafederaljudgeorderedtheBushSr.administrationtomakesurplus federalpropertyavailabletothehomelessundera1987law,theWhite Houserefusedtoexecutethecourtorder.

• BoththeReaganandBushSr.administrationsimpounded(refusedto spend)billionsappropriatedbyCongressforhousingandlow-incomeprograms,andimpoundedbillionsintendedforimprovementsinmasstransit andairsafety.

• CongressprohibitedmilitarysalestotheGuatemalandictatorship,yetthe WhiteHousewentaheadandsold$14millionworthofmilitaryequipment tothatregime.

• WhentheCongressfailedtopassBushJr.’sfaith-basedinitiatives,he signedanexecutiveorderallowingChristianreligiousgroupstoreceive over$1.1billiontocarryouttheirownprograms.Themoneycameout oftheoperationalbudgetsofotherfederalagencies.

• TheBushJr.administrationunilaterallyreshapedenvironmentalpolicyfor thebenefitofloggingcompaniesandotherdevelopers,offeringagenerous settlementthatweakenedenvironmentalandspeciesprotectionswhenever industrysued. “Noneofthedecisionswassubjecttopriorpubliccomment orcongressionalapproval.”31

PresidentialSigningStatements.

BushJr.repeatedlyresortedtoanextraconstitutional,extrajudicialdeviceknownas presidentialsigningstatements.A signingstatementisamemorandumthepresidentmightissueafterhesignsabill intolaw.Itspurposeistocreatearecordoflegalobjectionsabouttheactorsome provisionofitforjudgestoconsiderinanyfuturecourtchallenge.Duringaperiod of213years,forty-twopresidentsissuedstatementsregardingsixhundred

provisionsoflaw.Duringhisfirst6years,Bushusedsigningstatementsovereight hundredtimes inamoreextensiveway toindicatethathewouldleaveunenforcedalloranyportionofalaw.RatherthanvetoingabillandfacingthepossibilityofhavinghisvetooverriddenafteropendebateinCongress,Bushresorted tothisunilateralandunaccountablemethodofvirtuallynullifyinganylawhe disliked.

Bushissuedasigningstatementdeclaringhewouldnotobeyalawthatrestrictedthegovernment’scontingencyplanstosecretlysearchprivatehomesand seizeprivatepapersandrecordsatwill.Heissuedanotherassertingthathe wouldnotobeyalawforbiddingtheWhiteHousetocensororwithholdscientificdatarequestedbyCongress.Perhapshismostinfamoussigningstatement camewhenhedeclaredhimselfnotboundbythebanontorturepassedoverwhelminglybyCongress.Nordidheseehimselfboundbycongressional oversightpowersintheapplicationofthePatriotAct.SenatorsontheJudiciary CommitteeaccusedBushofan “unprecedented” and “astonishing” powergrab todoashepleasedwithoutregardtothelawspassedbyCongress.32

MidnightRegulations. Whenpresidentsareabouttoleaveoffice,theydiscoveragooddealofunfinishedbusiness.Sointheclosingdaysoftheiradministrationstheyissueafloodofpresidentialdictatesknownasmidnight regulations.BushJr.’smidnightregulationsincludedrulingsthatundermined theCleanAirActandtheEndangeredSpeciesAct,eliminatedenvironmental protectionsforfisheries,madeithardertoprotectworkersfromtoxicexposures,andmadeittougherforemployeestotakefamilyleaveormedicalleave.33

UnitaryExecutiveand “InherentPower.” Todaysomeconservatives propagatetheconceptofaunitaryexecutive,thenotionthatthepresidenthas autonomousconstitutionalpowersthatinhereintheofficeitself,allowinghim toactasheseesfitinmattersofnationalsecurity,overridingtheCongressand usurpingjudicialoversightwhenthepresidentdeemsitnecessary.Tobesure, Article2oftheConstitutionsaysthat “executivepower” isvestedinthepresident.Butithasneverbeenmadeclearwhatthattermmeans,neitherinMadison’sdaynortoday.WhatseemscertainisthattheframersoftheConstitution didnotintendtogivethepresidentunanswerabletotalisticpower.

Yetpresidentsthemselveshavesometimesmadeclaimtodictatorialabsolutistpower.WhenaskedwhetheraU.S.militaryforayintoBolivia,ostensiblyto catchdrugtraffickers,wasinthenationalinterest,PresidentReagansaid, “Anythingwedoisinthenationalinterest.” PresidentNixonwentevenfurther,assertingan “inherentexecutivepower” undertheConstitutiontocommiteven criminalactswhenimpelledbywhatheconsideredtobenationalsecurityconsiderations.Asheputit, “Whenthepresidentdoesit,thatmeansitisnotillegal.”34

PresidentBushSr.statedthathewouldnotifyCongressofcovertoperations abouttobelaunched unlesshedecidednotto, “basedonmyassertionofthe authoritiesgrantedthisofficebytheConstitution.” In2002,PresidentBushJr. remarked, “IdonotneedtoexplainwhyIsaythings.That’stheinterestingthing aboutbeingthepresident… Idon’tfeellikeIoweanybodyanexplanation.”35 BushacknowledgedthathehadnotcompliedwiththeForeignIntelligenceSurveillanceActof1978,whichforbidswiretappingandeavesdroppingonAmericanswithoutawarrant.Hemaintainedthata2001authorizationtousemilitary

forceagainstterroristsand “thepresident’sinherentconstitutionalpowers” allowedhimtoviolatetheact.36 Infact,suchpowersarenotdesignatedinthe Constitution.

ThroughouthispresidencyBushassertedthatinmattersofnationalsecurity hewasunboundbyU.S.laworinternationaltreaties,includinglawsprohibiting thetortureofprisoners.Heclaimedthepowertoimprisonatwill “enemycombatants,” personsroundedupnotfromanybattlefieldbutfromfarmsandvillagesinAfghanistanandIraqsometimessolelyonaccusationsfromafeuding neighbororfromsomeoneinterestedintherewardmoney.Foryearssuchdetaineesweredeprivedoflegalcounsel,formalcharges,andcourttrial.37

The “unitaryexecutive” isaeuphemismforanexecutiveclaiminganunlimitedstatistempowermentfreeofanychecksandbalancesandotherconstitutionalrestraints,apresidentialautocracy.Usingunilateralinitiatives,the presidentwillfullyconcoctshisownlaws—“bythepowerandauthorityvested inmebyme”—somethingnotallowedbytheConstitution.38 Insideeverypresidentisadivine-rightsmonarchtryingtogetout.

WarPowers. Thegrowthofunaccountableexecutivepowerisnowhere moreevidentthanintherealmofinternationalconflict. “Waristhetruenurse ofexecutiveaggrandizement,” wroteJamesMadisonin1787.Itwasnottheintentoftheframerstoconferuponthepresidentanypowertostartawar.The ConstitutiongaveCongressthesolerighttodeclarewar.Butascommanderin-chief,presidentsoverthelasttwocenturieshavecommittedU.S.armedforces intoactionabroadalmostthreehundredtimes.Inonlyfiveoftheseconflictshas Congressdeclaredwar,thelasttimeinDecember1941toenterWorldWarII.In morerecenttimes,U.S.presidentshaveinvadedthesovereignstatesofGrenada andPanama;bombedIraq,Somalia,andYugoslavia;invadedandoccupied Yugoslavia,Afghanistan,andIraq;andsupportedproxywarsagainstascore ofothernations,overthrowinggovernmentsandengaginginunlawfulblockadesandotheractsofwar,withoutadeclarationofwarfromCongress.Against theexpressedwillofCongress,PresidentReaganusedU.S.planesandbasesto wageamercenarywaragainstNicaraguainthe1980s.

Congressionalattemptstoreininunilateralpresidentialwarmakinghave provenineffective.TheWarPowersAct,passedin1973overPresidentNixon’s veto,requiresthatthepresidentseekcongressionalapprovalwithinsixtydays afterlaunchingamilitaryaction.TheactallowsthepresidenttounilaterallyengageU.S.troopsonlyincaseofanattackontheUnitedStatesoritsterritories, possessions,orarmedforces.Presidentshaveregularlyviolatedtheact.Clinton engagedU.S.airforcesincombatforseventy-eightdaysoverYugoslavia,never botheringtogetcongressionalapprovalbeyondsixtydays.AndU.S.military advisorsinColombiaengagedincombatactionswithoutbenefitofstatutory orconstitutionalmandate.

InOctober2002,aRepublican-controlledCongressvotedthepresident powertoengageinwaratanyfuturetimeshouldhe unilaterally decidetodo so.BushJr.tookthenationintowarswithAfghanistanandIraq.Bothinvasions haveproventobeprotractedandcostlyinlivesandtreasure,andbothwerecontinuedbytheObamaadministration.Supposedlythesewarshavemadeallofus muchsafer.

Recentpresidentshaveclaimeda “constitutionalandhistoricpower” to conductforeignaffairswithoutlimitationsfromCongress.InfacttheConstitutiondoesnotgrantthepresidenttherighttowagecovert(orovert)actions againstothernations.Thepowerofasingularrulertoleadanentirenation intowar,treatingthearmyashispersonalforce,isthepowerofanabsolute monarch,animperialpresidency.39

ExecutiveAgreements. ThepresidentcancircumventtheSenate’sconstitutionalpowertoratifytreatiesbyunilaterallyenteringinto executiveagreements withforeignnations,anotherextraconstitutionalcontrivance.Even treatiesthatareformallyratifiedbytheSenatemaythenbesubjectedtoselectiveinterpretationbytheWhiteHouse.Somesenatorscomplainedthatthe president’sinterpretationofatreaty’s “truemeaning” underminedtheSenate’sconstitutionaldutytoratifyatreatybecausetheSenatewouldhaveno certaintyaboutwhatitwasactuallyapproving.40 Treatiesaside,theWhite Housemakesclaimtosecretmeasuresandappropriations.Thusmanysenatorshadnotheardoftheautomatedbattlefieldprogramforwhichtheyhad unwittinglyvotedappropriations.CongressalsounknowinglyfundedCIAcovertoperationsinLaosandThailandthatwereinviolationofcongressional prohibitions.Andthelawmakersorderedahalttoexpansionofanavalbase intheIndianOcean,onlytodiscoverthatconstructionwascontinuing.

CongressionalCollaborationandSurrender. InhisdealingswithCongress,thepresidenthasadecidededge.(a)Hecancommandthekindofmediaattentionthatlesserofficeholderscanonlydreamabout.(b)Lawmakers whovotethewayhewantsoncrucialbillsaremorelikelytogetWhiteHouse supportfortheirhomedistrictprojectsandforupcomingcampaigns. (c)Therebeingonlyonepresidentbutmanylegislators,thechiefexecutive hastheadvantageofunitaryinitiativeandaction.(d)Theexecutivebranch controlsmuchofthecrucialinformation.Congressfrequentlygoesalongbecauseitdependsheavilyonwhattheexecutivedepartmentshavetosay.

ThepresidenttendstobemorepowerfulthanCongresswhenheassumes aconservativestanceandlesspowerfulwhenhewantstopushinaprogressivedirection.Thisreflectsthesociety’swiderdistributionofpoliticoeconomicresourcesofpoweralreadydiscussedinthisbook.Likeanypolitical officeholder,thepresidentismorelikelytoenjoyasuccessfuluseofpower whenhemovesonapathchartedbypowerfulinterests.

TheCongressitselfsometimescollaboratesintheusurpationofitsown power,grantingvariouspresidents,andawideninglistofexecutiveagencies, confidentialfundsforwhichnodetailedinvoicesarerequired.WhenaRepublicanpresidenthasarigidlypartisanRepublicanCongressathiscall,then thereisevenlesscheckonhispower.Thusthe109thGOP-controlledCongressrepeatedlyfailedtochallengetheBushadministration’sillegaluseofdomesticsurveillance,itsunilateralclaimtoexpandedpowers,andtheindefinite detentionandmistreatmentofdesignated “enemycombatants.”

FromtimetotimeCongresshasfoughtback.Bothhousesnowhavebudgetcommitteeswithstaffsthatcanmoreeffectivelyreviewthepresident’sbudgetaryproposals.Alongwiththeinvestigationsconductedbyitsstanding committeesandsubcommittees,CongresshastheGovernmentAccountability

Office,whichisindependentoftheexecutivebranchandcarriesoutassignmentsforcongressionalmembersofallparties,anagencycreatedandfunded byCongresstoinvestigategovernmentdoingsandreportdirectlytoCongress andtheAmericanpublic.TheGAOplaysanimportantroleinuncoveringexecutivewaste,wrongdoing,mismanagement,andnonenforcementofthelaw. Tosumup,thepurposeofexecutivepoweristoadvancetheprocessof “free-market” capitalaccumulation.Thereisnotlikelytobemuchprogressive changefromthetop,nomatterwhoisintheWhiteHouse,unlessthereisalso masssocialunrestandmobilizationforfundamentalreformsatthebase.Until then,presidentswillpursuetheirprerogativesandtheirwars.

ThePoliticalEconomy ofBureaucracy

Bureaucracycanbefoundinjustabouteveryareaofmoderncapitalistsociety, inbigcorporations,universities,religiousestablishments,andotherprivate organizationsaswellasingovernment.Abureaucracyisanorganizationthat (a)mobilizeshumanandmaterialresourcesforexplicitlydefinedprojectsor purposes,(b)isstaffedbycareerpersonnelwithspecializedskillsanddesignated responsibilities,and(c)iscoordinatedbyahierarchyofcommand.1

THEMYTHANDREALITYOFINEFFICIENCY

Bureaucracieshavecertainbothersomecharacteristicsthatseemtoinhereinthe natureofthebeast.Forinstance,theneedforconsistentandaccountableoperatingprocedurescancreateatendencytowardredtapeandalimitedcapacityto providenewinitiatives.Theneedtodivideresponsibilitiesoverwidelydispersed activitiescancauseproblemsofcoordinationandaccountability.Fortheaveragecitizentherearetheincomprehensibleformsandlabyrinthinerunarounds orchestratedbythepettyautocratsanduncaringtimeserverswhoinhabitthe bureaucraciesofprivatebusinessaswellasgovernment.Still,bureaucraciesperformcrucialandcomplextasks forbetterorworse. “Thefeatoflandingmen onthemoon,” observesDuaneLockard, “wasnotonlyascientificachievement butabureaucraticoneaswell.”2 ThesamemightbesaidoftheVietnam War,theSocialSecuritysystem,thenationalhighwayprogram,andmostother large-scaleundertakings.

Accordingtotheprevailingcorporateideology,governmentbureaucracy isaninefficientdrainonthemoreproductiveprivateeconomy.Theproposedremedyistoeitherabolishgovernmentprogramsor privatize them,

thatis,handthemovertoprivatecontractors.Freemarketeersinsistthat everythingworksbetterintheprivatesector,andgovernmentshouldbe “runmorelikeabusiness.” Onemightwonderhowthatcouldbepossible. Governmentdealswithcomplexsocialproblems,conflictinggoals,andcompetingconstituencies.Exactlywhatbusinessesshouldgovernmentberunlike? Thefiftythousandfirmsthatgobankrupteveryyear?Orthelargesuccessful corporations themselvesgiantbureaucraciesandrecipientsofbillionsofdollarsinpublicsubsidies thatregularlyskirtthelaw,payfewornotaxes,and cateronlytopayingcustomers?Dowewantgovernmentrunliketheprivate companiesthatarecontrolledbysometimesswindlingdirectors,whoanswer tonoonebutthemselvesandafewbanksandbiginvestors?

Ifwerungovernmentlikeabusiness(whateverthatmeans),thenwho willtakecareofthecostly,nonprofitpublicservicesthatthepublic and businessitself demand?Forinstance,whowillprovidethevastsumsthat governmentspendsonroadsandhighwaysrequiredbytheautomotiveand truckingindustries?thesnowremovalservices?thecompensatorypayments totheunfortunateswhosehomesandfarmsareinthewayofnewhighways? andthehighwaypatrolsthatreinindrunkendriversandothermenacingmotorists?Insuchinstances,isgovernmentaburdenontheautoindustry,orisit theotherwayaround?

Therearegrossinefficienciesandwastein privatebusiness, buttheyare rarelypublicized.Operationalexpensesaregenerally less inpublicbureaucraciesthaninprivateorganizations.Administrativecostsforthegovernment’s Medicareprogramareunder3centsperdollar.Administrativecostsforprivatehealthinsuranceare26centsperdollar.Inrecentdecades,topfederal salarieshavedeclinedinrealbuyingpowerwhiletheearningsofcorporate executiveshaveskyrocketed.3

SocialSecurityhasbeenamorereliableandlessexpensiveretirementprogramthanprivatepensionplans.ARoperpollaskedpeopletoestimatethe administrativecostsofSocialSecurityasapercentageofbenefits.Conditioned tothinkofgovernmentprogramsasinefficient,respondentsguessed50percent,onaverage.Actuallyonly1percentisspentonadministration.Bycomparison,theadministrativecostsforprivateinsuranceareabout13percentof annualpayments.Likewise,administrativecostsatnonprofitpublichospitals averagelessthanatprivate-profithospitals.4

Publicpowerutilitiesownedbylocalgovernmentsofferratesaveraging 20percentlessthanthosechargedbyprivatepowercompanies.Infouryears afteritwascreatedin1998,theLongIslandPowerAuthorityinNewYork cutrates20percent,savingcustomersanestimated$2.1billion.PublicutilitiesinPaloAltoandLosAngelesofferedratesthatwere20to40percentless thanwhatwaschargedbytheprivatelyownedPacificGas&Electric(PG&E) elsewhereinCalifornia.ThePaloAltoandLosAngelespublicutilitiesspent zeroonlobbyingandonpaymentstoprivatestockholders,whereasPG&E spentover$2milliononlobbyingandtransferred$5.1billioninthreeyears fromcustomerstomostlyaffluentstockholders.Inoneyear,thePaloAlto publicutilitytransferred$7.3million,andthe(muchlarger)L.A.publicutility $124million,totheirrespectivelocalgovernmentstobespentonpublic

services.PG&Etransferrednothingbacktothecommunitiesfromwhichitso handsomelyprofited.5

Corporateleaderswanttoeliminatesocialspendingprogramsnotbecause theydon’tworkbutbecausetheyoftendo.Andwhentheydo,theydemonstrate thatnot-for-profitpublic-ownedservices(socialism)canoutperformfor-profit public-ownedservices(capitalism)atleastinmanybasicareas.Conrail,a government-ownedrailsystem,gavebetterserviceatlesscostthantheinvestorownedlinesitreplaced.Butthisverysuccesswasintolerabletothosewhocorrectlyseenonprofitpublicownershipasathreattotheprivate-profitsystem.So, Conrailwas “privatized” (soldbacktoprivateinvestors)atagiveawayprice. LikewisetherailsystemsinEuropearegovernmentownedandaresuperiorto anythingwehave.

SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI),createdin1972,providesaminimum monthlyincomefortheelderlyanddisabled,alongwithSocialSecuritypayments.Withallthisfunding,destitutionamongtheelderlyanddisabled shouldhavedropped.Itdid.

Thefoodstampprogramwassupposedtosubstantiallyreducehunger andmalnutrition.Itdid.

Freemarketeershavearguedthatantipovertyprogramsdidnotendpoverty,true,buttheywereneverdesignedtodoso.Theprogramsweremeantto providebenefitsthatalleviatedsomeofthemisery,andtheydid.

Inonedecade,governmentrequirementsforseatbelts,speedlimits,emergencypublichealthfacilities,andsafetyfeaturesonconsumerproductshelped producea21percentdropinaccidentalfatalities.SincetheOccupational SafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)wasestablished,evenwithitsseriousunderstaffing,thejobfatalityratehasbeencutinhalfandanestimated 140,000workers’ liveshavebeensaved.6 WeneedmoreofOSHA,notless.

Thebusinesscommunityopposessuchprogramsbecausetheyexpandthe publicsector;theyprovideforsocialneeds,andcreatealternativesourcesof individualincomeandpublicrevenues,leavingpeoplelessdesperatelycompetingforjobs,andlesswillingtoworkformiserablewages.Theydemonstratethatlifecanbeservedwellwithoutanyonemakingahugeprofitand growingrichofftherestofus.

Environmentalregulationsdobenefitthepublicwithcleanerairandwater, buttheycutintoindustryprofits.Publichousingdiddramaticallyreduceovercrowdingandhomelessnessbetween1940and1980,butitcreatedawholestock ofhousingunitsthatcompetewiththeprivatesupply,helpingtodampenrentsin theprivatehousingmarket.Rentcontroldidkeepmillionsofunitsaffordable whileallowinglandlordstomake “reasonable” profits,butnowhereasmuch profitsastheyotherwisecouldmakewithoutrentcontrol.7

Wecanappreciatewhatpublicprogramsaccomplishwhentheprogramsare cutback.Therollbacksinpublichousingandrentcontrolwereaccompaniedby asharpriseinlandlordprofitsandhomelessness.Inthe1970sthesightofhomelesspeoplewasrelativelyrare.BytheReaganeraofthe1980s,homelessness becamecommonplace.Theclosingofvenerealdiseaseclinicsfueledanoticeable increaseinVDcases.Theheartlessreductionsinwelfareandnutritionpayments increasedhungeramongimpoverishedadultsandchildren.Awateringdownof

worker-safetyrules,clean-airstandards,andpesticidecontrolsfurthertoxified theenvironmentandcostthenationinhumanlife.Andcutsinpublicworks constructionledtooverflowingsewersandcorrodingbridges.8

DEREGULATIONANDPRIVATIZATION

Businesswantsanendtoanyregulationsthatlimitprofitopportunities.Inthelast decade,thankstocampaignswagedbyitslobbyists,thenation’selectricpower industryunderwent deregulation. Stateafterstateremovedthepriceregulations theyhadsettolimithowmuchtheutilitycouldchargecustomers.Utilitybills doubledandeventripled,bringingevergreaterprofits.Customersinelevenderegulatedstatespayabout$50billionmoreannuallyfortheirutilitypowerthan theircounterpartsinregulatedstates. “Therealitybehindthosenumbersisalot ofbent,gnarledhandstremblingwhentheyopentheelectricbill.”9

Thosewhoarguethatthefreemarketwillbestprovideforusseemtoforgetwhyutilitieshadtheirratesregulatedinthefirstplace:theydonotoperate inacompetitivemarket;theyaremonopoliesthatprovideanessentialcommoditytoacaptivemarket.

Afterthereignofseveralconservativeadministrations,Americansin2006 weregettingonlyhalfasmuchenergyfromwind,solar,andgeothermal sourcesastheyhadtwentyyearsearlier.10 Deregulationcanoftenbeamatter oflifeanddeath.AnamendmenttotheNationalHighwaySafetyAct,abolishingfederalsafetyregulationsonsmalltomediumtrucks,ledtoadiscernibleincreaseinaccidentsandfatalities.

Alongwithderegulatingtheprivatesector,corporateAmericaadvocates privatizing thepublicsectorbysellingofftoprivateinvestorsthenation’spublic schools,hospitals,housing,postalservices,transitsystems,andmunicipalwater systems.Capitalismconstantlyfeedsoffsocialismbyextractingsubsidies,grants, loanguarantees,bailoutsfromthepublictreasury,asocialismfortherich.Over twentystatesintheUnitedStateshaveenactedlegislationallowingprivatecorporations,includinginvestmentfirmslikeGoldmanSachs,MorganStanley,and theCarlyleGroup,tobuyorleasepublichighwayandtransportationinfrastructurefromwhichtheywillpocketbillionsofdollarsintollcollections.11

Generallythefirststeptowardprivatizationistodrasticallydefundthe publicservice,thuscausingittodeteriorate.Thisinturnistreatedasproof that “governmentdoesn’twork” andneedstobehandedovertoprivatecorporationsthatpresumablywillgetthejobdonemoreefficiently.

Experiencedemonstratesotherwise.CommunitiesinFlorida,Maryland, Michigan,Connecticut,andelsewherefoundprivate-profitvoucherschools morecostlyandlessserviceableandhaverevertedtoapublicschoolsystem.A reportbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducationshowedthatinreadingandmathematicsstudentsattendingpublicschoolsgenerallydidaswellas,orbetterthan, private-schoolstudentsofcomparablebackgrounds.12 Tobesure,thereare publicschoolsalloverthecountrythataremiserablyequippedandunderstaffed,butwhattheyneedisbetterfunding,notfurtherbudgetslashing.

Shortofcompleteprivatization,manyfunctionswithingovernmentsat thefederal,state,andlocallevelshavebeencontractedouttoprivatebusiness. TheInternalRevenueServicehiredcommercialdebtcollectorstocollectback

taxesfromdelinquenttaxpayers.Theprivateagentskeepasmuchas25percentofwhattheyrecover.EveryoneagreedthatIRSworkerscouldcollectunpaidtaxesmorecheaplyandeffectivelythanprivatecontractors,butbecause ofstaffshortages,theIRSisoftenunabletofollowupforyearsonthebig cases. 13 Again,thepublicserviceisoftenunderminedbylackoffundsand staff,servingasanexcusetopromoteprivatization.

TodaytheU.S.governmentspendsmoreonprivatecontractorsthanon federalworkers.Beithighlyskilledprofessionalworkorjanitorialmaintenance,theserviceusuallyendsupcostingthegovernmentmorewhencontractedout.Thoughprivatecontractorsspendlessmoneyonworkerwages andbenefits,theyfunnelmuchmoreintoupper-managementsalariesand stockholderprofits.Furthermore,privatecontractorsdoinggovernmentwork areoftenleftunsupervisedandwasteoroverchargebillionsofdollars as demonstratedmostrecentlybythecorruptandprofiteeringprivateservices contractedbythePentagoninIraq.14

Thestoryisthesameinothercountries.InBritainandChile,government pensionfundswereprivatized.Vastfortunesweremadebythosewhohandled theaccountswhilethepensionersendedupwithalmostnothing.InBolivia,the privatizationofoilrefineriesledtoa15percenthikeingasprices.NewZealand sold$14billioninpublicassetstoprivateinterests,includingrailways,telecommunications,utilities,andwaterresources,leadingtomoreexpensiveservices,a decreaseinthevalueofNewZealand’sdollar,andagrowthinthegapbetween richandpoor.IncountriesthroughoutEasternEurope,thefree-marketprivatizationthatreplacedthesocialistsystemledtopoorerandvastlymoreexpensive services,andmuchplunderingofpublicnaturalresourcesbyprivateinterests.15

Thepublicsectorcarriesouttasksthatprivatebusinesscannothandle. Considerthemuchmalignedpostoffice:whatprivatecorporationwoulddeliveraletterthreethousandmiles,doortodoor,forthepriceofapostage stamp,orforwardyourmailtoanewaddressatnoextracost?Republican administrations,however,attemptedtoputtheU.S.PostalServiceonamore “profit-motivated ” basis.Theycontractedoutpostaljobstolow-wagenonunioncompanies,reduceddeliveryservice,paidfatbonusestotopmanagement,anddisregardedhealthandsafetyregulationsforpostalworkers all resultinginmoreexpensiveandlessefficientservice.

Incitiesthroughoutthenation,working-classneighborhoodshavebeen razedtomakewayforshoppingmalls,industrialparks,sportsarenas,andconventioncenters,builtwith public fundstobenefitalreadyrichprivateinvestors. Theseprojectsincurmultimillion-dollarstateandmunicipaldebtsthatconstitutealargepartoftheU.S.urbanfiscalcrisis.Insteadofcontrastingtheprofitabilityofprivatebusinesswiththedebt-riddencostlinessofgovernment,wewoulddo bettertoseethecausalconnectionbetweenthetwo.

GovernmentincapitalistAmericaisusuallynotallowedtocompetewiththe privatesector.UnusedofficesinaU.S.governmentbuildingmaynotberented out,foritwouldputgovernmentincompetitionwithprivaterentals.Governmentisallowedtooperateonlyinthe unprofitablemarketsthatbusinessdoes notwant.Thus,publichospitalsshownoneofthehandsomeprofitsofprivate onesbecausetheyhandletheuninsuredmodest-incomepeoplewhocannot

affordtheastronomicalcostsofprivatehealthcare.And “theDepartmentof HousingandUrbanDevelopmentcansubsidizelow-incomehousing,butitcan neitherbuildunitsitselfnordivertprivateinvestmentfrommiddle-classsuburbandevelopment.”16

SECRECYANDDECEPTION,WASTEANDCORRUPTION

Bothpublicandprivatebureaucracieshaveadecidedtendencytowardsecrecy.The moresecrecy,themoreadministratorscandowhattheywantwithouthavingto answerforit.Mostofthesecrecyinpublicbureaucracyisonbehalfofprivatebusiness,themilitary,andintelligenceagencies.Thegovernmenthassuppressedinformationconcerningbankbailouts,toxic-wastedisposal,hazardouschemical substancesinwatersupplies,andtheharmfuleffectsofpesticidesandnuclear powerplants.ThegovernmentwithheldinformationregardingthemedicalproblemsoftensofthousandsofU.S.militarypersonnelexposedtonucleartestsin the1950s.Alsokeptsecretwasinformationontheilleffectsofdefoliantsinthe VietnamWar,chemicalweaponryduringtheGulfWar(1990–1991),andnuclear testsandgermwarfareexperimentsuponcivilianpopulationsinU.S.urbanareas.17

PresidentReaganissuedapresidentialdirectivethatforcedsome2million governmentworkerstotakeapledgeofsecrecyandoflifetimegovernmentcensorshipoftheirwritingsandspeeches.Administratorshavesoughttoundercutthe FreedomofInformationActbyoutrightdenialofrequests,orbyimposingyears ofdelaybeforereleasingmaterials,orinkingoutmoreandmoreinformationon thereleaseddocuments,andsometimeschargingexorbitantcopyingfees.18

Thetotalnumberofgovernmentclassifieddocumentsisnotknown,though thefigureisestimatedatwellintothebillions.Atleast70percentofthemillions ofWorldWarIIdocumentsrelatedtowarcrimesstillremainsecret,someseventyyearslater.Inthelastdecade,incooperationwiththeCIAandotherintelligenceagencies,theNationalArchivesbeganreclassifyingthousandsofhistorical documentsthathadbeendeclassifiedandavailabletothepublicforyears,includingsomealreadypublishedorphotocopiedlongagobyhistorians.Noone explainedwhythesematerialswerebeingremovedfromthepubliceye.19

TheBushJr.administrationsuppressedevidenceaboutdangerouslevelsof mercuryandleademissions.Itrewroteandotherwisedownplayedtheconclusionsofgovernmentscientistsonthelinkbetweenglobalwarmingandfossilfuel emissions.Itoverruledanearlierreviewbytopgovernmentscientiststhatsupportedthemedicaluseofmarijuana.Theadministrationknowinglywithheld datafromCongressshowingthattheMedicaredrugprescriptionprogramimposedonmillionsofseniorcitizenswouldcostfarmorethanthepresidenthad acknowledged.DuringBush’sreign,allgovernment-sponsoredenvironmental andhealthstudiesrequiredWhiteHouseclearancebeforebeingreleased,allowingtheadministrationtosuppressstudiesthathighlightedthedangersofchemicalsinourfood,environment,andconsumerproducts.Theadministrationalso alteredascientificanalysisofthedeleteriousimpactofcattlegrazinginorderto allowexpandedaccesstopubliclandsbyranchers.20

NativeAmericanstriedtogettheInteriorDepartmenttostopthedaily destructionofelectronicandhard-copydocumentsthatdetailedhowbillions

ofdollarsingrazing,logging,mining,andoilroyaltiesfromIndian-owned landwentmissing.21

Governmentsecrecybreedsunaccountabilityandultimatelywasteandcorruption.TheDepartmentofAgriculturegavebillionsofdollarsworthofcontractstoagribusinessfirmsthatwerecaughtriggingbids,fixingprices,and defraudinggovernmentprograms.Affordablehousinggrantsandmortgageinsurance,intendedforlow-incomeelderly,wenttoluxuryresorts.Thetopofficialsinvolvedinsuchdealsreceivedlavishperksfromcorporateclients.

TheWhiteHouse’sownOfficeofManagementandBudgetfoundthatyear afteryearagenciesanddepartmentscouldnotaccountfortensofbillionsofdollars.Whatismore,whentheyrealizedtheirhugeaccountingdiscrepancies, ratherthansearchingtoseewherethemoneywent,theysimplyentered multibillion-dollarbalanceadjustments,writingoffthemissingsumsbyfabricatingnewnumbersthatwere “unsupported,unapproved,anderroneous.” ManagementoftheDepartmentofDefense(Pentagon)wasdeemed “theworst ingovernment,” routinelyshowingthebiggestlosses,andunabletoaccountfor muchofitsenormousannualbudgetanditsworldwideassetsofover$1trillion. Accountingsystemsweresochaoticinmanydepartmentsthatauditswereimpossible.Thousandsofemployeeshadbeenauthorizedtoprocesspayments withoutoversightoraccounting,furtherraisingtheriskoffraudandtheft.22 (Oneofthebetter-managedbudgetswasintheSocialSecurityAdministration.)

Oneauditfoundspendingabusesbyofficialsandcontractorsinvirtually everyaspectofoperationscarriedoutbytheNationalAeronauticsandSpace Administration(NASA).Thelosses,estimatedatover$3.5billion,were “only thetipoftheiceberg.” MeanwhiletheArmyCorpsofEngineersrepeatedly failedtocollectmostoftheroyaltiesonmorethanthreehundredoilandgas leases,andcouldnotaccountforthesumsthathadbeencollected.Butnoone wasprosecuted.23

Publicservantswhobecome whistleblowers bygoingpublicaboutwrongdoingsoftenrisktheircareers(insteadofbeinghailedasdedicatedpublicservants).Inthefederalbureaucracy,asinmostotherorganizations including corporations,churches,universities,police,andmilitary thereusuallyismore concernaboutthebadpublicitycausedbydisclosuresofwrongdoingthanabout thewrongdoingitself.Someinstancesofhowwhistleblowershavebeentreated:

• Afterreportingthathissuperiorswerefavoringcertainwealthytaxpayers,anIRSdivisionchiefwastransferredtoanobscureoffice,had hispayreduced,andwassubjectedtoacriminalinvestigationfor “unauthorizeddisclosuresoftaxpayerinformation.”

• Whenseveralscientistsannouncedthatradiationsafetystandardswereat leasttentimestoolow,theDepartmentofEnergy beholdentothenuclearindustry firedthem,confiscatedtheirdata,andpubliclyattacked theirintegrity.

• AU.S.sailorservingonanaircraftcarriercouldnolongertoleratethe dumpingofrawsewageandtrashintotheoceaneveryday,including plastics,computers,andtoxins.Forgoingpublichewascourt-martialed, demoted,andsentencedtothebrig.

•

AStateDepartmentpolicyadvisorrevealedthattheCIAhadcoveredup twomurderscommittedbyoneofitsoperatives.Thedisclosurecauseda publicoutcrythatpromptedtheCIAtoriditselfofmanyhirelingswho wereimplicatedinmajorcrimesabroad.Thewhistleblower’sreward?He wasdeclaredasecurityrisk,hadhisStateDepartmentcareerdestroyed, andfacedacriminalinvestigation.24

Thesearenotisolatedinstances.TheboardcreatedbytheWhistleblower ProtectionActtohandlecomplaintshadabacklogofonethousandcasesonly fourmonthsafteritscreation.Inoneyearaloneitreceived814complaintsof reprisalsagainstwhistleblowers.25 DuringtheBushJr.administration,whistleblowersinthePentagon,FDA,CIA,FBI,MineSafetyandHealthAdministration,andthedepartmentsofJustice,Interior,Energy,andHealthand HumanServicesfoundthemselvessubjectedtoreprisalsandwereremoved fromtheirpositions.26 TheWhiteHousehasarguedinseveralcasesthatgovernmentinformationisgovernmentproperty;thereforeemployeeswhotake andreleasesuchinformationareguiltyoftheft.Thusleakinginformation aboutcrimesisitselftreatedasacrime.

Butblowingthewhistlesometimesbringrewards.UndertheFalseClaims Act,whistleblowerswhoexposecompaniesthatswindlethegovernmentare promiseduptoaquarterofthemoneyrecovered.Sinceitsinceptiontheact hasgeneratedmorethan$12billioninretrievedfundsforthefederaltreasury andover$1billionforhundredsofwhistleblowers. 27

NONENFORCEMENT:POLITICSINCOMMAND

Contrarytotheconventionalwisdom,anonymousbureaucratsdonotusurp powerforthemselves.Infact,careerbureaucratsprettymuchdoastheyare toldbytheirpoliticallyappointedagencyheads.Theprofessionalethicofmost bureaucratsis:remainneutralandwaitforthepolicylinetobesetfromabove. Thisusuallymeans:avoiddoinganythingthatmightprovetroublesometothe powersthatbe.Politicsisincommand.

Manyrulingsbybureaucraticagencies,publisheddailyintheFederalRegister,areassignificantasmajorpiecesoflegislation.Intheabsenceofprecise guidelinesfromCongress,theyoftentaketheplaceoflegislation,handeddown byagencyheadsorbytheWhiteHouse.Thus,withoutawordofpublicdebate, thePriceCommissionapprovedmorethan$2billioninutilityrateincreases. UnderaWhiteHousedirective,theSocialSecurityAdministrationwasobliged touse “strictereligibility” rulestodeprive265,000disabledpersonsofpublic assistance.

Thepoliticalprocessdoesnotendwiththepassageofabillbutcontinuesat theadministrativelevel,albeitinmorecovertfashion,influencinghowalawis administered.Therehasbeenlaxenforcementortotalnonenforcementofdrug safetystandards,consumerprotectionlaws,civilrights,votingrights,collective bargainingrights,andprotectionofpubliclandsandparks.Mostnonenforcementisnottheresultofbureaucraticinertiabutpoliticalintent,perpetratedby right-wingpolicymakerswhoareunsympathetictotheregulatoryprograms.

AprimeexamplewouldbetheBushJr.administration’sunwillingnesstoenforcetheantitrustlaws,leavingunchallengedtheincreasingmonopolyconcentrationsandmergersperpetratedbygiantcompanies.Onecriticcomplained, “Thisisastoryabouthowideologyhastakenoverthelawenforcement process.”28

Bushalso “managedtoeffectaradicaltransformationofthenation’senvironmentallaws,quietlyandsubtly,bymeansofregulatorychangesandbureaucraticdirectives,” includingnovelandoftenobscurerulerevisionsthat underminedtheCleanAirAct.29 AtopEPAofficialoftwelveyearsandadecoratedcivilservant,EricSchaeffer,resigned,chargingthattheBushadministrationrefusedtocrackdownoncompaniesthatpoured7milliontonsof toxicsubstancesintotheaireveryyear.30

Amongthefewthingsworkinginfavorofpublic-interestregulationsare public-interestgroups.Mostenforcementcasesagainstpowerfulcorporate polluters,forinstance,areinitiatedbyenvironmentalandlocalcitizens groups.TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyrarelyinitiatesactionandusuallyopposestoughenvironmentallaws.Citizenenvironmentalgroupssueto makeEPAdowhatitisgettingpaidtodoandwhatthelawrequiresitto do.ButitoftentakesyearsofstrugglebeforetheEPAwillact.

Oftenagenciesarenotsufficientlystaffedtohandletheenormoustasks thatconfrontthem.TheEPAstaffcanmonitorbutafractionoftheonethousandnewpotentiallytoxicchemicalsthatindustrypoursintotheenvironment eachyear.TheFederalAviationAdministrationregularlydropsalargenumberofairlinesafetycasesbecauseithastoofewlawyerstodothework.31

Afternearlyayearinoffice,thecentrist-orientedObamaadministrationhad donelittletoimproveenforcementofenvironmentallaws.Effectivelawsare alreadyonthebooksbuttheyremainlargelyunderappliedbytheEPA.President Obamawascalleduponbypublic-interestgroupstoimposestrictermonitoring ofwaterandairquality,andthesafetyofthefoodsupply.Thegroupswanted betterfundingandstrongersupportforagenciessuchastheEPA,theCentersfor DiseaseControlandPrevention,theConsumerProductSafetyCommission,and othersthathadsuffereddrasticbudgetcutsunderthepreviousadministrationor hadbeendeterredbytheWhiteHousefromcarryingouttheirmissions.32

Likewise,representativesofafarmworkersunioncomplainedthatenforcementofexistinglaws,notenactmentofnewones,wasneededtoalleviatethe housingandsafetyproblemsfacedbyfarmworkers.InObama’sfirstyearin theWhiteHouse,theGovernmentAccountabilityOffice(GAO)foundthatthe LaborDepartmentwasregularlyfailingtoenforceminimum-wage,overtime andchildlaborlaws,leavingmillionsofworkersvulnerable.33

Peoplewhoinsistthatthingsdonotgetdonebecausethatisthenatureofthe bureaucraticbeastseemtoforgetthatonlycertainkindsofthingsdonotgetdone, whereasotherthingsaredonealltoomuch.Thelawmakingsome13millionchildreneligibleformedicalexaminationandtreatmenthadthesamelegalstatusas thelawtodevelopa “StarWars” outer-spaceweaponsystem,thelatterbackedby theWhiteHouse,giantindustrialcontractors,researchinstitutes,Pentagonbrass, andkeymembersofCongress.Ifanything,theStarWarsprogramwasvastly moreexpensiveandofgreatertechnicalandadministrativecomplexity.Yetit

movedahead,whilethechildren’shealthprogrammovedhardlyatall.Several yearslater,almost85percentoftheyoungstershadbeenleftunexamined,causing “unnecessarycrippling,retardation,orevendeathofthousands,” accordingtoa Housesubcommitteereport.Theimportantdifferencebetweenthetwoprograms wasnotbureaucraticbutpolitical.

Theeffectivenessofalaworanadministrativeprogramdependsonthe powerofthegroupssupportingthem.Lawsthatservepowerfulclienteleare likelytoenjoyavigorouslife,whereaslawsthathaveonlythepowerlessto supportthemareoftenstillborn.Anagencysetuptoregulateindustryonbehalfofconsumers,workers,ortheenvironmentmaypossessazealforreform initsyouth,butbeforelongitislikelytobereinedin.Thecapitalistpolitical economyisthegraveyardofreform-mindedadministrativebodies.

InitsyouthfuldaysafterWorldWarI,theFederalTradeCommission(FTC) movedvigorouslyagainstbigbusiness,butrepresentativesofindustryprevailed uponthepresidenttoreplacesomeofthecommissionersbyothersmoresympathetictothecorporations.34 Somesixtyyearslater,thepatternwastorepeatitself. Staffedbyconsumeradvocates,theFTCbeganvigorousactionagainstshady businesspractices,onlytofinditselfunderfirefromthebusinesscommunityand theiracolytesinCongressandtheWhiteHouse.TheFTChaditsjurisdictional powersabridgedanditsbudgetcut.Insimilarfashion,theConsumerProduct SafetyCommissionhaditsstaffcutbymorethanhalfandwasthenstackedwith conservativeswhohadneithertrainingnorinterestinproductsafety.35

Frequently,membersofCongressdemandtoknowwhyanagencyis botheringtheirconstituentsortheircampaigncontributors.Administrators whodonotwantunfavorablepublicityoracutintheirappropriationsare likelytoapplythelawinwaysthatsatisfythelegislatorswhocontroltheir budgets.Also,thepromiseofalucrativepostwithaprivatefirmwhoseintereststheyfavoredwhileinpublicofficecanexerciseaconsiderableinfluence onthejudgmentsofadministrators.

Bureaucraticrulingscangotheotherwaysometimes,strengtheningregulatorylawsratherthanunderminingthem.InSeptember2009,givenabit morepoliticalroomundertheObamaadministration,theEPAannounced thatitwasorderingareviewofnumerouspermitstominecoalbyblowing thetopsoffmountainsinAppalachianstates.Theagencywastoconsiderthe possibilitythatsuchapracticewasgravelydamagingtowaterquality.36

”

SERVINGTHE “REGULATED

Thereareregulatoryagenciesthatareunderthecommandofvariousexecutivedepartments,suchastheLaborDepartment’sOccupationalSafetyand HealthAdministration(OSHA)andtheJusticeDepartment’sDrugEnforcementAdministration(DEA).Andthereareindependentregulatorycommissions,suchastheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)andFederal TradeCommission(FTC),thatoperateoutsidetheexecutivebranch,making quasi-judicialrulingsthatcanbeappealedonlytothecourts.Theyreport directlytoCongressbuttheirpersonnelareappointedbythepresident,with Senateconfirmation.

Thesevariousagenciesfrequentlybecomeprotectorsoftheindustriesthey aresupposedtoregulate:

• TheFCCservesthetelephonecompaniesandthemedianetworks.

• TheFederalEnergyRegulatoryCommissionmaintainsapermissivepolicytowardenergyproducers.

• TheDepartmentofTransportationdeferstotheoil-highway-automotive combine.

• TheArmyCorpsofEngineersandtheBureauofReclamationcontinueto mutilatethenaturalenvironmentonbehalfofutilities,agribusiness,and developers.

• TheDepartmentofInteriorservestheoil,gas,mining,agribusiness,and timbercompanies.

• TheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionobliginglyservesthenuclearindustry,extendingoperatinglicensestoagingplantsthatposeseriousproblems,whileeasingrestrictionsonconstruction.

• AndthePentagon spendingmorethanalltheotheragencies combined givesuntiringsupporttothearmsindustry.

In1949,withalimitedbudgetofonly$2million,theFoodandDrug Administration(FDA)proceededagainstthousandsofviolators.Today,with abudgetahundredtimeslarger,theFDArarelytakesactionagainstmajor foodordrugcompanies.Ithaslearneddiscretion.Nowpharmaceuticalfirms canmakeallsortsofdubiousclaimsaboutthesafetyandefficacyoftheir drugsandchargejustaboutanypricethemarketwillbear.37

WhenMonsantomarketeditsbovinegrowthhormone(BGH),theFDAapprovedthedrugdespiteaGAOstudyshowingharmfuleffectstocowsandpotentiallytohumans.WhenDr.RichardBurroughsvoicedhisconcernsaboutthe approvalofBGH,hewasfiredfromtheFDA.38 Theagencyalsoruledthatmilk producerswhorefusedtousethedrugandwishedtolabeltheirmilkasfreeof BGHwouldnotbeallowedtodoso,arulingthatwasrescindedaftermuch publicoutcry.(MilkproducersmuststillgivenoticeoncontainersthatBGH causesnoilleffects,aclaimthathasneverbeensubstantiated.)

TheFDAischargedwithprotectingmuchofthenation’sfoodsupplybut asof2010ithadneithertheauthoritynorresourcestodoso.Theagency couldonlytrytocajolefoodproducerstovoluntarilyrecalltheirproductafter peoplehavetakenillorevendied.AbillpendingintheHouseofRepresentativeswouldgivetheFDAmorepowertoimposeandenforcesafetystandards forthefoodweeat.39

Ahundredorsopeopledieeveryyearfromfoodpoisoningandthousandsofothersaresickened,yettheDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)exerciseslittlecontrolovermeatproduction.Allitcandoistrytopersuadeameat companytorecallataintedproduct.ProposalstogiveUSDAstrongerenforcementpowershavebeenopposedbypowerfullobbiesandlawmakersbeholdentomeatproducers.40

Overthepastfiftyyears,intensivechemicalfarminghasdamagedthe qualityofmillionsofacresofoncefertilesoil,enoughtocauseadiscernible dropinthenutritionallevelofmanygrainsandvegetables.TheUSDAis

awareoftheproblembutshowsnoinclinationtoactonit.Everresponsiveto giantagribusiness,theUSDAattemptedtopromulgatenationalstandardsfor organicfoodsthatincludedirradiatedandgeneticallymodifiedfoods.The movewasstalledbystrongpublicopposition.41

Inresponsetopublicpressure,Congresspassedalawin1996tolower pesticidelimitsinfoodinordertoprotectchildren.Yet,yearslaternotone limitwasloweredasthelawrequires.Pesticidelevelswereactuallyincreasing infruitsandvegetables.42

InviolationoftheFairLaborStandardsAct,millionsofchildreninthe UnitedStatestoillonghoursathazardousjobsinsweatshops,mills,fastfoodrestaurants,andonagribusinessfarms.Eachyeartensofthousandsof themareinjuredandhundredsarekilledattheworkplace.Employersare nottooworriedaboutviolationsbecausethelawsarerarelyenforced.The averagebusinesscanexpecttobeinspectedonceeveryfiftyyears,ifthat. Theaveragefinehandeddownincasesinvolvingworkplacedeathorpermanentinjuryofchildrenisrelativelylight.43

InmostinstancesinvolvingcorporateAmerica,federalregulatorsdonot regulate,eitherbecausetheiragencyistooweddedtotheparticularindustry ortoointimidatedbyit,orbecausetheagency’slegislativemandatedoesnot provideenoughenforcementpower.Eveniftheywishedtocrackdownonbig business,mostfederalagenciesarewoefullyunderstaffedoroutmannedby cadresofhigh-paidcorporatelawyers.

Butenforcementcanbequitestringentwhenusedasapoliticalweapon againstthelesspowerful.Thuswhiledisplayinglittleenthusiasmforregulatingbigbusiness,theBushJr.administrationsaddledlaborunions atevery levelfromthesmallestlocaltothenationalleadership withanightmareof endlesspunitivefinancialreportingrequirementsdesignedtoeatuptheunions’ resourcesandparalyzetheiractivities.44

Conservativeadministrationsthatarehostiletothewholeideaofusinggovernmenttoservepublicneedsoften promote policiesofinaction.ThiswasdramaticallyillustratedbytheBush-appointedofficialsofHomelandSecurityand theFederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)whohadnoexperienceor interestinsecurityordisastermanagement,andwhoneverevenestablisheda clearchainofcommandfordomesticemergency.Whenahorrendoushurricane hitNewOrleansandsurroundingareasin2005,HomelandSecurityandFEMA remainedinactiveforseveraldays.Althoughforewarned,FEMAdidnothing abouttheweakenedleveesthatbrokeandfloodedmuchofNewOrleans.It madenouseoftrucks,boats,medicalpersonnel,andfoodthatwereoffered fromvariousquartersincludingothergovernmentagencies.Itmadelittleeffort torescue,evacuate,andmobilizerelieffordisastervictims.Anditmisappropriatedandsquanderedhugesumsofrelieffundsallocatedtoit.45

Nonperformanceisduelesstobureaucraticinertiathantopoliticalintent. Aconservativeadministrationdeliberatelyappointsagencyheadswhodolittletoaddressproblemsandareopposedtogovernmentsolutions.

Sofederalmeat-inspectionlawshavebeenadministeredbyofficialswitha historyofoppositiontomeatinspection.Public-housingprogramshavebeen supervisedbyformerrealtyinvestorswhoareopenlyhostiletopublic

housing.Environmentalprogramshavebeenadministeredbyformerindustry representativesantagonistictoenvironmentalregulations.

BradleySmith,whoconsideredlimitsoncampaignspendingtobeunconstitutional,wasgivenaRepublicanseatontheFederalElectionCommission, whichenforceslimitsoncampaignspending.

SpencerAbraham,whotwicesponsoredbillsthatwouldhaveeliminated theDepartmentofEnergywhilehewasaU.S.senator,wasappointedbyBushJr. asSecretaryofEnergy,fromwhichposthedideverythingtochampioncoaland nuclearinterests,andnothingtodevelopcleanenergysources.

TochairtheSecuritiesandExchangeCommission(SEC),Bushchose HarveyPitt,acorporatelawyerwhohadbeenafrequentcriticofSECregulationsandhadrepresentedmanyofthesameindustrieshenowwassupposed toregulatewithoutfearorfavor.Ahostofoil,gas,andcoalindustrylobbyistswhoopposedindustryregulationbytheInteriorDepartmentweregiven keyregulatorypostsinInterior.BushalsopickedMargaretSpellingasSecretaryofEducationeventhoughshehadneverspentadayasteacherorschool administrator,andhaddisplayednointerestineducationalissues.Sheproved tobeastrongproponentofprivatizingpublicschools.46

PresidentObamaappointedTimothyGeithnerasTreasurysecretaryto supervisethefinancialbailoutof2008–2009.Geithnerhadbeenpresidentof theFederalReserveBankofNewYorkandwasclosetomanyofthespeculatorsandinvestorsatGoldmanSachsandAIGandotherWallStreetfinanciers,theverypeoplehewassupposedtobereininginandregulating.

LikewiseObamaappointedLawrenceSummersasdirectoroftheWhite HouseNationalEconomicCounciltoassistintryingtobringtheunregulated bankingcrisisundercontrol.ThissameSummers,whileservingasClinton’s SecretaryoftheTreasury,hadworkedfortherepealofkeyregulatorybankingprovisions,aderegulationthatarguablyledtothesubprimemortgagecrisis.ButSummersinsistedthatfinancialcrisesarecausedbyan excess of regulation.Thisself-professedfreemarketeerwasnowcalledupontoregulate hisfriends,theWallStreetmoguls.

PUBLICAUTHORITYINPRIVATEHANDS

Alongwithitsfundsandservices,governmentsometimessurrendersitsveryauthoritytobigbusiness.Controloffederallandsandwaterhasbeenhandedover tolocal “home-rule” boardsdominatedbylargeranchers,whotherebysuccessfullytransformtheireconomicpowerintoapubliclysanctionedauthority.47 In everysignificantlineofindustry, advisorycommittees staffedbyrepresentatives ofleadingcorporationsworkcloselywithgovernmentagencies,makingmostof theimportantrecommendationsatmeetingsnotopentopressorpublic.Their reportsbecomethebasisforgovernmentactionsandnewlegislation,winning themspecialadvantagesoversmallercompetitors,workers,andconsumers.

Undertheguiseof “voluntaristic” and “decentralized” policymaking,the federalgovernmentoftengrantsbusinessassociations dominatedbythebiggestfirms thepowertonominatetheirownpersonneltopubliclicensing boardsandotheradministrativebodies.Suchmeasurestransfersovereign

authoritytofavoredprivateproducers.Thereexists,then,unbeknownstto mostAmericans,alargenumberofprivatedecisionmakerswhoexercisepublicauthoritytosuitthemselveswithouthavingtoanswertothepublic.

AmongoneofthemostpowerfuloftheseistheFederalReserve,which controlsthenation’sinterestratesandmoneysupply.Atthebehestofthe majorbanks,in1913CongressandPresidentWoodrowWilsoncreatedthe FederalReserveBoard.ItskeyarchitectwasNelsonAldrich,father-in-lawof JohnD.RockefellerJr.Allfederallychartedbanksandmanystatebanksare membersofthe “Fed,” asitiscalled.TheFed’sseven-personboardofgovernorsisappointedtostaggeredfourteen-yeartermsbytheU.S.president,who canmakeonlytwoappointmentsduringhisfour-yearterm.Onceappointed, theboardmembersanswertonoonebutthebankingindustry.ThefiveregionalmembersoftheFed’stoppolicycommitteeareselectedbybankers fromthevariousregions.

TheU.S.ConstitutiongaveCongresstheexclusivepowertocreate money.ButthecoterieofprivatebankerswhocomposetheFednowexercise thissovereignpower.Checkthemoneyinyourwallet;everybillofwhatever denominationislabeled “FederalReserveNote.” WhentheTreasuryneeds money,itmustturntothisprivatebankinginstitution,theFederalReserve. TheTreasuryprintsinterest-bearingU.S.GovernmentSecurities,anissueof, say,$10billionfacevalue.ThesesecuritiesareIOUsthataregiventothe Fed.TheFedthenenters$10billionasadebit,whichisgiventotheTreasury. IfTreasurywantsitincash,theFedhasthecashprintedattheBureauof EngravingandPrinting,thesameplacegovernmentsecuritiesareprinted.

TheFedthenenters$10billiononitsbooksasacreditowedtoitbythe Treasury,andnowcollectsinterestonthe$10billionasset.Whenthereserve ratioiseighttoone,theFedcanlend$8forevery$1dollarithasonreserve.In effect,muchofthemoneyitlendsiscreatedoutofthinair!Insteadofissuing interest-freemoneyofitsown,theU.S.Treasuryisborrowingfromaprivate bankingsource,theFed,incurringanenormousdebt.Thusthemajorbanks areallowedtocreatefiatmoneyandcollectinterestonthatmoneyfromthegovernmentandthetaxpayers.TheFederalReserveisamoney-makingmachine, returning$16billionto$24billionayearinprofits,agrandsourceofincome thatgoesdirectlyintothebulgingcoffersofatinyfinancialclass.48

In1963,PresidentJohnKennedyvoicedhisunhappinesswiththisfiduciaryarrangement.Hebeganissuingsilver-backedTreasurynotesascurrency toreplaceFederalReserveNotes,therebybeginningtosavetaxpayersbillions ofdollars.Withinafewmonths,Kennedywasassassinatedandtheprinting ofinterest-freeTreasurynoteswasstoppedalmostimmediately.

Congressholdsanagencyaccountableprimarilybycontrollingitsappropriations,buttheFedevadesthiscontrolbydrawingitsoperatingfundsfrom thebillionsofdollarsitcollectsininterestongovernmentsecurities.In1996, inwhatthe NewYorkTimes called “arareindependentexamination” of “the secretivecentralbank,” theGAOissuedareportcriticizingtheFed’smanagementofitsownfinances.TheGAOnotedthattheFeddidnotalwaysseek fullycompetitivebidsforservicesitbought,andthatithadaccumulateda $3.7billioncontingencyfundthatshouldhavebeenreturnedtotheTreasury.49

GenerallytheFedpursuesaconservative,deflationarypolicy,makingit difficultforthepresidentandCongresstoprimeasluggisheconomy.The Fed’sautonomysupposedlydemonstratesits “independence” frompolitics. Buteverythingitdoeshasapoliticaleffect,usuallyfavorabletobankingand otherbigmoneyedinterests.TheFed’sbigbankershavepublicauthorityto actasnonelectedoligarchswhocanmanipulatethemoneysupply,pocket enormousearnings,andimpactontheeconomyindefianceofelectedofficials,whilebeinganswerabletonoone.

InAugust2009,inwhatmightbeconsideredasmallvictoryforthe Americanpublic,afederalcourtruledthattheFederalReserveshouldopen itsbooksforthefirsttimeandrevealhowitwasspendingthenation’smoney. Meanwhile270representativesinCongressco-sponsoredabilltohavethe GAOaudittheFed.Playinguponpublicfears,theFedcontinuedtoresistdisclosure,claimingthatsuchtransparencywouldjeopardizeitsindependence anddestabilizetheeconomy asiftheeconomywerenotalreadyunstable.

REGULATIONANDBUSINESSIDEOLOGY

Ifgovernmentiscorporatecapitalism’sproviderandprotectorathomeand abroad,andifgovernmentandbusinessaresointermingledastobeoftenindistinguishable,whyarebusinesspeoplesocriticalof “governmentmeddling intheeconomy”?Thereareanumberofexplanations.First,corporateAmericaisnotatallagainst monopolisticregulations thatlimitentryintoamarket, weakensmallercompetitors,subsidizeselectindustries,setproductionstandardsthatonlybigcompaniescanmeet,andencouragemonopolypricing.

Itis publicserviceregulation thatbigbusinesswantseliminated,such thingsasantitrustlaws,andworker,consumer,andenvironmentalprotections.Theseareanathematobusinessbecausetheybenefitthegeneralpublic whilecuttingintotheprofitsoftheprivilegedinvestor.Deregulationinthe public-servicerealmleavesbusinessfreertopursueprofitswithoutincurring anyobligationforthesocialcostsofthatpursuit.Deregulationhasgiventhe miningcompaniesafreehandtodevastatewholeregionswithouthavingto payanyrestorationcosts.Deregulationallowscorporateexecutivestopad theirpaycheckswithfringebenefitsandstockoptionswithouthavingtotell stockholdersortaxcollectors,anarrangementthatonebusinessjournalist called “alicensetosteal.”50 Deregulationalsohasenabledbankstoincrease customer-servicefeesatatimewhentheirowncomputerizedcustomer-service costshavedeclined.

Businessisnotreallycommittedtosomeabstract “free-market” principle. Governmentregulationsthatenhanceprofitsarequietlysupportedandthose thatcutintoprofitsareloudlydenounced.Itisonlyinthelattercasethatthe cryforderegulationisheardthroughoutthenation’sboardrooms.

Businesspeopleadheretothebusinessideology,abeliefinthevirtuesof privateenterprisefreeof “governmentmeddling.” Thatbusinessleadersmight violatethiscreedintheirowncorporateaffairsdoesnotmeantheirdevotion toitisconsciouslyhypocritical.Beliefsarenolesssincerelyheldbecausethey areself-serving.Quitethecontrary,itisacreed’scongruitywithafavorable

self-imageandself-interestthatmakesitsoconvincingtoitsproponentsregardlessofwhatthefactsare.Manybusinesspeople,includingthosewho havebenefitedinalmosteverywayfromgovernmentcontracts,subsidies, andtaxlaws,believetheirgainsaretheresultoftheirownself-relianceand talentsinahighlycompetitive “private” market.Theybelievethattheassistancebusinessgetsfromthegovernmentbenefitsthenationaleconomy, whereastheassistanceothersgetisahandouttoparasites.

Whatisreallyneededisnotanendlessproliferationofregulatoryunits butachangeintheconditionsthatdemandsomuchregulation thatis,adifferentmethodofownershipandadifferentpurposeforproduction,onethat putspeoplebeforeprofits.

TheSupremelyPoliticalCourt

SupremeCourtjusticesandotherfederaljudgesarenominatedbythepresidentandsubjecttoconfirmationbytheSenate.Theyhavelifetenureandcan beremovedfromofficeonlyformisconductandonlythroughimpeachment bytheHouseandconvictionbyatwo-thirdsvoteafteratrialintheSenate. ThesizeoftheSupremeCourtisdeterminedbystatute,fluctuatingoverthe yearsfromsixtotenmembers,beingfixedatninesince1877.

WHOJUDGES?

AllthreebranchesofgovernmentaresworntoupholdtheConstitution,but theSupremeCourtaloneformallyreviewstheconstitutionalityofactions bytheothertwobranches,atleastinthosecasesbroughtbeforeit.Nothing intheConstitutiongivestheCourtthispowerof judicialreview, buttheproceedingsoftheConstitutionalConventionof1787revealthatmanydelegates expectedthejudiciarytooverturnlawsitdeemedinconsistentwiththeConstitution.1 Ofevengreatersignificanceis judicialinterpretation, theCourt’s powertodecidetheintentandscopeoflawsastheyareappliedinactual situations.

Byitsnature,theSupremeCourtissomethingofanaristocraticbranch: itsmembersareappointedratherthanelected;theyenjoylifetenureandare formallyaccountabletonooneonceinoffice;andtheyhavethefinalwordon constitutionalmatters.Ofthe111justiceswhohavesatontheCourtupto 2010,therehavebeen106Whitemales,2AfricanAmericanmales,and3White women(oneofwhomisLatino).

Inclassbackgroundandpoliticalproclivity,thejustices(andfederaljudges atotherlevels)havemorecommonlyidentifiedwiththelandedintereststhan withthelandless,theslaveownersratherthantheslaves,theindustrialists

“I’mhappytosaythatmyfinaljudgmentofacaseisalmostalwaysconsistentwithmy prejudgmentofthecase.”

ratherthantheworkers,theexponentsofHerbertSpencerratherthanof KarlMarx.ALincolnappointeetotheCourt,JusticeSamuelFreemanMiller, madenoteofthejudiciary’sclassbiases: “Itisvaintocontendwithjudges whohavebeenatthebar,theadvocatesforfortyyearsofrailroadcompanies, andalltheformsofassociatedcapital….Alltheirtraining,alltheirfeelingsare fromthestartinfavorofthosewhoneednosuchinfluence.”2 Throughmost ofitshistory,notesonescholar, “theCourt’spersonnelwererecruitedmainly fromtheclassofcorporatelawyers,sotherewasnoshortageofempathywith thedesiresofexpandingcapitalism.”3

FederaljudgesandSupremeCourtjusticeshavebeenknowntoenjoyexpensivegiftsandlavishtripspaidforbycorporationsandotheraffluentintereststhatseektoinfluencetheirjudicialrulings.Therearenorulestoregulate thesepracticesortotrackanyconflictofinterestorpersonallinksthatjudges mighthavetolitigants.AGAOreportfoundthatjudgesimproperlyissued hundredsofdecisionsinvolvingcorporationsinwhichtheythemselvesowned stock.Onejudgethrewoutlawsuitsagainstamedicalcenteronwhoseboard hesat.4 JusticeAntoninScaliawentonanall-expenses-paidduck-huntingtrip withVicePresidentDickCheneyin2004,thentwoweekslaterrefusedto recusehimselfbeforedecidinginCheney’sfavorinacasethatwasofkeen personalandpoliticalinteresttothevicepresident.5

Electedjudgesinstatecourtsaroundthecountryroutinelyacceptcampaign contributionsfromlawyersandlitigants,andseldomrecusethemselvesfrom casesinvolvingthesesamedonors.Inoneinstance,ajudgerefusedtodisqualify himselfandtwicecastthedecidingvotetothrowouta$50millionjuryverdict againstacorporationthathaddonated$3milliontohiscampaign.In2009, theU.S.SupremeCourtbyaslimmajority(withfourconservativesopposed) ruledthatjudgesmustrecusethemselvesfromsuchcases.6

ChiefJusticeCharlesEvansHughesonceremarked, “Weareundera ConstitutionbuttheConstitutioniswhatthejudgessayitis.”7 Andwhat theysayislargelydeterminedbytheirideologicalpredilections.Ifthejustices lookfavorablyuponapolicy,thentheyareinclinedtoargue, “ThereisnothingintheConstitutionthatprohibitsit.” Iftheydonotlikethepolicy,then theywillsay, “ThereisnothingintheConstitutionthatallowsit.” ThusJustice AnthonyKennedywroteinsupportofamilitarydeathpenaltycasethatthere isnothingintheConstitutionprohibitingCongressfromdelegatingtothe president,actingascommanderinchief,thepowertoimposethedeathpenalty inmilitarycapitalmurdercases.Butwithequallogiconecouldarguethat thereisnothingintheConstitutionthat grants Congresstherighttodelegate suchanimmenseandfatalpower.

OccasionallyapresidentwillselectsomeonefortheCourtwhosebehavior goescontrarytoexpectations,butalmostalwaysthejustices’ votingrecords areclosetotheideologicalpreferencesofthepresidentwhoappointsthem.8 Inthe1980s,PresidentReaganwassecondtononeinthisendeavor,systematicallystockingmorethanhalfofthe744federaljudgeshipswithconservativeideologues,mostlyintheirthirtiesandforties,whowouldbehanding downdecisionsandshapingthelawofthelandforthenextthreetofive decades.9

Reagan’ssuccessor,GeorgeBushSr.,appointedanadditional195federal judges,allconservatives,usuallyyoungish,includingClarenceThomas,a forty-three-year-oldreactionarymediocritytoreplacethegreatThurgood MarshallontheSupremeCourt.

WhenBillClinton,aDemocrat,becamepresident,hehadanopportunity tofillmorethanonehundredjudicialvacanciesandbringalittlemoreideologicalbalancetotheappellateanddistrictcourts.Arecordnumberofhis appointmentswerewomenorethnicminoritymembers(orboth),butonthe wholetheyweretheleastprogressiveofanymodernDemocraticpresident,renderingliberaldecisionsinonly46percentofcases.10 Overhalfofthesixty-five federaljudgesheappointedin1998weremillionaires.Clintonwasquickto dropjudicialcandidateswhentherewasseriousoppositionfromRepublicans, ashappenedinoversixtyinstances.

PresidentBushJr.whinedrepeatedlyaboutthe “obstructionism” ofSenateDemocratsinblockinghisnomineesforjudgeships.Infact,injustafew yearstheSenateconfirmedovertwohundredofhisselectionsandblocked onlyten sevenofwhomwereeventuallyconfirmed.Bush’sappointeesincludedCarolynKuhl,whodevotedyearstopreservingtaxbreaksforcolleges thatpracticedracialdiscrimination,andJayBybee,whosaidthattheFirst Amendmentshouldnotbeusedtolimitthestates’ infringementsonliberty

andthatCongresshasnopowertostopviolenceagainstwomenandlittle powertolimitwhatthepresidentdoes.WhileservingintheJusticeDepartment,Bybeeauthoredamemoarguingforthelegalityoftorture.11

Theappointmentandconfirmationofjudgesandjusticeshasbecomea heavilypoliticizedprocess,withvariousconservativeandliberalgroupsmobilizingfororagainstanomineeinattemptstoswaythepublicandtheSenate. Theantagonistsunderstandthattheideologyofthecandidateisakeydeterminantinhowheorshewilldecidecases.12

InpreparationfortheirconfirmationhearingsbeforetheSenateJudiciary Committee,bothChiefJusticeJohnRobertsandJusticeSamuelAlito(BushJr. appointees)engagedindressrehearsalhearingswheretheywereinterrogated andcoachedbyWhiteHousehandlersinhowtoavoidmakingstatements thatwouldrevealtheirideologicalcommitments.Duringconfirmationproceedings,eachnomineerepeatedlyinsistedthathewouldapproachissues withanopenmind,judgingeachcasepurelyonitsmerits.Robertsclaimed hewouldbeasneutralasanumpire,notmakingtherulesbutevenhandedly applyingthemwith “modestyandhumility” (hiswords).

WhenaskedbythesenatorsaboutOregon’sDeathwithDignityAct, Robertssaidhebelievedthatthefederalgovernmentshouldnotenterthis arenaandthat “therighttobeleftaloneisoneofourbasicrights.” Butonce ontheCourt,hedecidedthatthefederalgovernmentindeedshouldenterthis arenaandshouldoverrulethereferendumtwiceaffirmedbyOregon’svoters toletterminallyillpatientsendtheirownliveshumanely.13 Inshort,Roberts andAlitomisledthesenators.Onceconfirmedtheyfollowedtheirownideologicalpredilectionsquitepredictably. “Robert’srecord[asChiefJustice]isnot thatofahumblemoderatebut … ofadoctrinaireconservative….Inevery majorcasesincehebecamethenation’sseventeenthChiefJustice,Roberts hassidedwiththeprosecutionoverthedefendant,thestateoverthecondemned,theexecutivebranchoverthelegislative,andthecorporatedefendant overtheindividualplaintiff.”14

CONSERVATIVEJUDICIALACTIVISM(EARLYTIMES)

MuchofthedebateabouttheSupremeCourttodaycentersonwhether(a)the Courtshouldactpoliticallyandideologicallybyexercisingaliberal “judicial activism,” vigorouslysupportingindividualrightsandsocialneeds,or(b)employaconservative “judicialrestraint” and “strictconstruction,” cleaving closetothetraditionalintentoftheConstitutionandnotinjectingapersonal partisanagenda.Inpractice,however,throughmostofitshistorytheCourt hasengagedina conservativejudicialactivism, pursuingapartisanagendain defenseofwealthyinterestsandotherprivilegedgroups.Beitslaveryorsegregation,childlabororthesixteen-hourworkday,stateseditionlawsorassaults ontheFirstAmendment,SupremeCourtjusticeshaveshownaninfernalagilityinfindingconstitutionaljustificationsforthecontinuationofalmostevery inequityandiniquity.

InitsearlydaysunderChiefJusticeJohnMarshall,theCourtemergedas anactivistguardianofcorporateproperty.Considerthelandmarkcase Trustees

ofDartmouthCollegev.Woodward (1819).Inresponsetothedemandsof farmersandartisansforaffordableeducation,theNewHampshirestatelegislatureturnedDartmouthCollege,aneliteprivateschool,intoapublicuniversity. Dartmouth’strusteesopposedthemove,butthestatecourtconcludedthat thelegislaturehadactedwithinitsprovince,foreducationwas “amatterof thehighestpublicconcern.” Furthermore,thetrusteeshadnopropertyrightin Dartmouth;theirrightofofficewasapublictrust.TheMarshallCourtthought otherwise.Dartmouth’scorporatecharter(grantedbytheEnglishCrownin 1769beforetherewasaUnitedStates)wasacontractthatcouldnotbeimpairedbylegislativeenactment.Dartmouthwasaprivatecorporationand wouldhavetoremainone.

WhentheframerswroteintheConstitutionthatstatescouldnotimpair contractobligations,theywerethinkingofcontractsbetweenindividuals.But in DartmouthCollege, Marshalldecidedthatastate’sefforttocreateademocraticeducationsystemwas “apowerofatleastdoubtfulutility.” Moreimportantwasastate’sobligationtopreservecontractswithprivatecorporations (eventhoughcorporationsarementionednowhereintheConstitution).

Variousjustices,includingMarshallhimself,wereslaveholderswhoupheldtheprimacyofpropertyrightsinslaves,rejectingallslavepetitionsfor freedom.RightupuntiltheeveoftheCivilWar,inthefamous DredScottv. Sandford (1857),theCourtconcludedthat,betheyslaveorfree,Blackswere a “subordinateandinferiorclassofbeings” withoutconstitutionalrights.

Whenthefederalgovernmentwantedtoestablishnationalbanks,give awayhalfthecountrytoprivatespeculators,subsidizeindustries,setupcommissionsthatfixedpricesandinterestratesforlargemanufacturersand banks,sendMarinestosecurecorporateinvestmentsinCentralAmericaand elsewhere,imprisonpeoplewhodenouncedcapitalismandspokeoutagainst war,deportimmigrantradicalswithoutatrial,orusetheUnitedStatesArmy toshootworkersandbreakstrikes,theconservativeactivistswhodominated theCourtinventivelydevisedlooseconstructionistactivistinterpretationsof theconstitutioninordertomoveinthesereactionarydirections.

Butwhenthefederalorstategovernmentssoughttolimitworkdayhours, setminimum-wageoroccupationalsafetystandards,ensurethesafetyofconsumerproducts,guaranteeworkersrightstocollectivebargaining,thenthe Courtruledthatourswasalimitedformofgovernmentthatcouldnottamper withpropertyrightsandthe “freemarket” bydeprivingownerandworkerof “substantivedueprocess” and “freedomofcontract.”“Substantivedueprocess,” aself-contradictoryconceptthatexistsnowhereintheConstitution, wasacontrivanceofconservativejudicialactivism.Ineffect,conservative financialinterestswerenowtobetreatedaspartofjudicialdueprocess. ThisallowedtheCourttodeclarelawsunconstitutionaleveniftherewasno violationofdueprocess.15

Moreoftenthannot,theSupremeCourthasbeenaconservativeactivist force.ItpreventedCongressfrominstitutingaprogressiveincometax,adecisionthattookeighteenyearsandtheSixteenthAmendmenttotheConstitutiontocircumvent.TheCourtupheldtheinterestsofslaveholdersrightup totheCivilWarandacceptedracistsegregationforalmostacenturyafter.

Itdelayedfemalesuffrageforforty-eightyears,adecisionundoneonlybythe NineteenthAmendment.AndithaspreventedCongressfromplacinglimitationsonpersonalcampaignspendingbyrichcandidates.

TheFourteenthAmendment,adoptedin1868ostensiblytoestablishfull citizenshipforBlacks,saysinpart, “NoStateshall … depriveanypersonof life,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocessoflaw;nordenytoanyperson withinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws.” OncemoreconservativejudicialactivismreignedsupremeastheCourtdecidedthat “person” includedcorporationsandthattheFourteenthAmendmentwasreallyintended toprotectbusinessconglomerationsfromthe “vexatiousregulations” ofthe states.16 By1920,conservativeactivistsonfederalcourtshadstruckdown roughlythreehundredlaborlawsthathadbeenpassedbystatelegislaturesto easetheinhumaneconditionsenduredbyworkingpeople.Between1880and 1931,thecourtsissuedmorethan1,800injunctionsagainstlaborstrikes.(An injunctionisacourtorderprohibitingapartyfromtakingaspecificaction.)

WhenCongressoutlawedchildlabor,theCourt’sconservativemajority foundittobeausurpationofthereservedpowersofthestatesunderthe TenthAmendment,whichreads: “ThePowersnotdelegatedtotheUnited StatesbythisConstitution,norprohibitedbyittotheStates,arereservedto theStatesrespectivelyortothepeople.” Butwhenthestatespassedsocialwelfarelegislation,theCourt’sconservativejudicialactivistsfounditinviolationof “substantivedueprocess” undertheFourteenthAmendment.17 Thus theyusedtheTenthAmendmenttostopfederalreformsinitiatedunderthe FourteenthAmendment,andtheyusedtheFourteenthtostopstatereforms initiatedundertheTenth.Juridicallyspeaking,itishardtogetmorebrazenly activistthanthat.

In1896,aconservativeactivistSupremeCourtproduced Plessyv.Ferguson, whichrenderedaninventivereadingtotheFourteenthAmendment’s equalprotectionclause. Plessy legitimatedtheracistpracticeofsegregation byenunciatingthe separatebutequal doctrine:theforcedseparationofBlacks fromWhitesinpublicfacilitiesdidnotimputeinferiorityaslongasfacilities weremoreorlessequal(whichtheyrarelywere).

Convincedthattheytoowerepersonsdespitethetreatmentaccorded thembyamale-dominatedsociety,womenbegantoarguethattheFourteenth andFifthAmendmentsappliedtothemandthatthevotingrestrictionsimposedonthembystateandfederalgovernmentsshouldbeabolished.The FifthAmendmentsays,amongotherthings,thatnopersonshallbedenied “dueprocessoflaw.” (ItappliestothefederalgovernmentjustastheFourteenthAmendmentdueprocessclauseappliestothestates.)Butin Minorv. Happersett (1875),theall-maleconservativeactivistCourtfashionedanother torturedinterpretation:womenwerecitizens,true,butcitizenshipdidnot necessarily confertherightofsuffrage.18 TheCourtmadeupitsmindthat “privilegesandimmunitiesofcitizens,”“dueprocess,” and “equalprotectionof thelaws” appliedtosuch “persons” asbusinesscorporations,butneitherto womennortopersonsofAfricandescent.

WellintotheNewDealera,theSupremeCourtwastheactivistbastionof laissez-fairecapitalism,strikingdown oftenbyslim5to4majorities reforms

producedbythestatelegislaturesandCongress.From1937onward,under pressurefromthepublicandtheWhiteHouse,andwiththeswitchofoneconservativejusticetothesideoftheliberals,theCourtbegantoaccepttheconstitutionalityofNewDeallegislation.

CIRCUMVENTINGTHEFIRSTAMENDMENT

TheSupremeCourtopposedrestrictionsoncapitalisteconomicpower,but supportedrestrictionsonthecivillibertiesofpersonswhoagitatedagainst thatpower.TheFirstAmendmentsays, “Congressshallmakenolaw … abridgingthefreedomofspeech,orofthepress.” Yet,fromtheAlienand SeditionActsof1798totoday,Congressandthestatelegislatureshave passednumerouslawstopenalizetheexpressionofpoliticallyhereticalideas as “seditious” or “subversive.” DuringtheFirstWorldWar,almosttwothousandprosecutionswerecarriedout,mostlyagainstanticapitalistswhoexpressedoppositiontothewar,includingtheU.S.socialistleaderEugene VictorDebs,whowasthrownintoprison.Oneindividual,whoinprivate conversationinarelative’shomeopinedthatitwasarichman’swar,was fined$5,000andsentencedtotwentyyears.19

DuringWorldWarI,aradicalnamedCharlesSchenckdistributedaleafletthaturgedrepealofthedraftandcondemnedthewarasinspiredbyWall Street.Schenckwaschargedwithattemptingtocauseinsubordinationamong U.S.militaryforcesandobstructingrecruitment,bothviolationsoftheEspionageActof1917.TheSupremeCourtupheldhisconviction.Inordinary times,JusticeOliverWendellHolmesreasoned,suchspeechisprotectedby theFirstAmendment,butwhenanationisatwar,statementslikeSchenck’s create “aclearandpresentdanger” ofbringingabout “evilsthatCongresshas arighttoprevent.” Freespeech,Holmesargued, “doesnotprotectamanin falselyshoutingfireinacrowdedtheaterandcausingapanic.”

Theanalogyisfarfetched.Schenckwasnotinatheater;hewasdistributing leafletsagainstthewar.Holmeswassummoningthesameargumentparaded byeveryrulerwhohassoughttoabrogateapeople’sfreedom:thesearedangeroustimes;nationalsecuritynecessitatesasuspensionofdemocraticrights.20

MorethanoncetheCourttreatedtheallegedlyperniciousqualityofa radicalideaasjustificationforitssuppression.Whenthetopleadershipof theCommunistPartywasconvictedundertheSmithAct,whichmadeitafelonytoteachoradvocatetheviolentoverthrowofthegovernment,theCourt upheldtheconvictions,arguingin Dennisetal.v.UnitedStates (1951)that therewasnofreedomundertheConstitutionforthosewhoconspiredto propagaterevolutionarymovements.Freespeechwasnotanabsolutevalue butoneofmanycompetingones.JusticesHugoBlackandWilliamO.Douglasdissented,arguingthatthedefendantshadnotbeenchargedwithanyacts orevenwithsayinganythingaboutviolentrevolution,butwereintendingto publishandteachtheclassicwritingsofMarxism-Leninism.Inanycase,the FirstAmendmentwasdesignedtoprotecttheveryhereticalviewswemight findoffensiveandfearsome.Safelyorthodoxideasrarelyneededconstitutionalprotection,theyargued.

Sixyearslater,fourteenmorecommunistleaderswereconvictedunder theSmithActforpropagatingforbiddenpoliticalbeliefs.Thistime,with boththepoliticalclimateandtheCourt’smakeuphavingshifted,thejustices ruledthattheSmithActprohibitedonlyincitementtounlawfulactionsand not “advocacyofabstractdoctrine.” Theconvictionswereoverturned.Justice BlackaddedtheopinionthattheSmithActitselfshouldbedeclaredunconstitutionalbecause “theFirstAmendmentforbidsCongresstopunishpeople fortalkingaboutpublicaffairs,whetherornotsuchdiscussionincitestoaction,legalorillegal.”21 Inresponsetopressurefromfree-speechadvocates, CongressrepealedtheSmithActin1977.

Communistsmightsometimesbedeniedfreespeech,butnotliquorand tobaccocompanies.TheCourt’sconservativejudicialactivistsdetermined thatRhodeIsland’sbanonadvertisingliquorpricesviolated “commercial speech,” asdidaMassachusettslawrequiringtobaccoadsinstorestobeat leastfivefeethigh,outofchildren’sdirectvision.22 TheCourt’sconservative activistsruled,inthewordsofJusticeLewisPowell,thatcorporatespending toinfluencevotesduringareferendumcampaign “isatypeofspeechindispensabletodecision-makinginademocracy.”23 Inadissentingopinion, JusticesByronWhite,WilliamJ.Brennan,andThurgoodMarshallargued that “corporationsareartificialentitiescreatedbylawforthepurposeoffurtheringcertaineconomicends.” Theirenormouseconomicpowerthreatens “theveryheartofourdemocracy,theelectionprocess.”

TheCourt’srecordintheareaofpersonalliberties,thoughgravelywanting,isnottotallydevoidofmerit.Itoverturnedattemptsbythestatestocensorpublications,todenyindividualstherighttopeacefulassembly,andto weakentheseparationbetweenchurchandstate. 24 ButitalsoallowedU.S. ArmyIntelligencetospyonlawfulcivilianpoliticalactivity,andprohibited civiliansfrombringingpoliticalliteratureanddemonstrationstomilitary posts.25 Reportersweredeniedarighttoconfidentialnewssourceswhen subpoenaedbyofficials,thuslimitingtheirabilitytoprotectinformantsand conductinvestigations.26

TheCourtdecidedthatbansonpoliticalsignsinpublicplaceswerenota restrictiononfreespeech,norbansondemonstrationsandleafletingatshoppingmalls.27 Whenhandcuffed,peacefulprotestorshadtheireyesforcedopen anddeliberatelyswabbedwithstingingpepperspraychemicalsbypoliceofficers,theCourt’sconservativemajorityruledthattherewasnoneedlesspain andbrutalityinvolvediftheofficersreasonablybelievedthatthelevelofforce waslegallypermissible.28 Sopolicecanuseunreasonableforceaslongas they thinkitisreasonable.

In Thornburghv.Abbott (1989),prisonofficialsweregrantedalmosta freehandindecidingwhatpublicationsprisonerscouldreceive,acensorship appliedmostlytopoliticallydissidentliterature.Aswithprisoners,sowith students.TheCourtdeterminedthathighschooladministratorscouldcensor studentpublicationsandtransferfacultywhodealtwithclassroomsubjects thattheirsuperiorsdisliked.29 Thefederalcourtshaverepeatedlyruledthat teachersorotheremployeeswhoaredeniedcontractsorotherwisediscriminated

againstbecauseoftheirpoliticalviewshavenogroundsforlegalredress, unlikeemployeeswhoencounterracialorgenderdiscrimination.

TheCourtdidupholdtherighttocriticizepublicfigureseveninobjectionableways.30 ButitalsodecidedthataMichiganstateworker,whohad beendeniedapromotionbecausethepoliceRedsquadhadafileonhispoliticallyactivebrother,couldnotsuethestate,adecisionthatplacedthestate’s politicallyrepressiveactsabovelegalchallenge.31 In1996,thehighcourt ruledthattheFBIcouldmaintainfilesonAmericanswhowereengagedinlegalpoliticalactivitiesprotectedbytheFirstAmendment eventhoughCongresshadpassedthePrivacyActprohibitingsuchsurveillance.32

In Garcettiv.Ceballos (2006),a5to4majorityfoundthattheFirst Amendmentdidnotprotectpublicemployeesagainstretaliationbytheir supervisorsforanythingsaidwhileperformingtheirduties.Thismeantthat whistleblowerswhomadetheircomplaintspublicfacedagreaterdangerof retaliation.Inadissent,JusticeStevenssaid, “Thenotionthatthereisacategoricaldifferencebetweenspeakingasacitizenandspeakinginthecourseof one’semploymentisquitewrong.”

Throughallthis,theconservativemajorityontheCourttodayremains steadfastinprotectingusfromhearingnaughtywordsontheair.33

FREEDOMFORREVOLUTIONARIES(ANDOTHERS)?

Somepeoplearguethatrevolutionariesviolatethedemocraticrulesofthe gameandshouldnotbeallowedtotakeadvantageoftheverylibertiesthey seektodestroy;inordertopreserveourfreedom,wemayhavetodeprive somepeopleoftheirs.34 Severalrejoindersmightbeoffered.

First,bysuppressing “harmful” thoughts,politicalrulersareineffect makingupourmindsforus,deprivingusoftheopportunitytohearanddebateheterodoxideas.Anexchangewithanticapitalistrevolutionaryadvocates isforbiddenbecausethedissidenthasbeensilenced whichineffectputsa limitonourowncriticalthoughtsregardingthissubject.

Second,itisnottruethatanticapitalistsarededicatedtothedestruction offreedom.Muchoftheworking-classfermentinUnitedStatesinstigated bysocialistsandcommunistsactuallywidenedtheareasofdissentand helpedextendthefranchisetopropertylessworkingpeople.Thecrucialrole communistsplayedinstrugglingforlaborreforms,peace,andcivilrights strengthenedratherthanundermineddemocraticforces.Likewise,themilitant antiwarprotestsconductedbyself-professedrevolutionariesduringthe VietnamerabroadenedthespectrumofcriticalinformationregardingU.S. foreignpolicy,atleastforatime.

Third,theconstructionofnewsocioeconomicalternativeswouldbringan increaseinfreedom,includingfreedomfrompovertyandhunger,freedomto shareinthemakingofdecisionsthatgovernone’sworkandcommunity,and freedomtoexperimentwithnewformsofproductionandownership.Admittedlysomefreedomsenjoyedtodaywouldbelostinarevolutionarydemocraticsocialistsociety,suchasthefreedomtoexploitotherpeopleandget

richfromtheirlabor,thefreedomtosquandernaturalresourcesandtreatthe environmentasaseptictank,thefreedomtomonopolizeinformationand exerciseunaccountablesocioeconomicpower.

Inmanycountries,revolutionarymovementsbroughtanincreaseinfreedombyadvancingtheconditionsnecessaryforhealthandhumanlife,providingjobsfortheunemployedandeducationfortheilliterate,using economicresourcesforsocialdevelopmentrath erthanforcorporateprofit, endingforeignexploitation,andinvolvingmuchofthepopulaceinthetask ofeconomicreconstruction.Revolutionscanextendanumberofrealfreedomswithoutdestroyingthosethatneverexistedforthepeopleofthose countries.Theargumentcanbedebated,butnotifitissuppressed.

Finally,asapointofhistoricalfact,thethreatofrevolutionintheUnited Stateshasneverbeenasrealorharmfultoourlibertiesasthemeasurestaken to “protect ” usfromrevolutionaryideas.Inthenameofnationalsecurity andthe “waronterrorism, ” authoritieswillsuppressanymobilizedopinion thatisseenas “givingcomforttotheenemiesofourland. ” Insteadofworryingaboutsomefuturerevolutionarymenace,weshouldrealizethatfreedomisinshortsupplyinthepresentsociety.Therealdangercomesfrom thoseatthetopwhowouldinsulateusfrom “unacceptable” viewpoints. Noideaisasdangerousastheforcethatseekstorepressit.(SeethediscussioninChapter11.)

ASTHECOURTTURNS

WhatdirectiontheSupremeCourttakesdependslargelyontheclimateofthe timesandonthepoliticalcompositionofthejustices.Inthe1960s,fortified bythesocialactivismofthewidersocietyandaliberalmajorityonthebench, theCourtunderChiefJusticeEarlWarrenforthefirsttimeinU.S.history ruledrepeatedlyonbehalfofthelessaffluent,issuinganumberofdecisions that(a)protectcivilliberties,(b)reapportionlegislativedistrictsinaccordance withpopulationdistribution,and(c)extendtheeconomicrightsofthepoor.35 TheWarrenCourthandeddownseveraldecisionsaimedatabolishingracial segregation.Themostcelebrated, Brownv.BoardofEducation (1954),unanimouslyruledthat “separateeducationalfacilitiesareinherentlyunequal” becauseoftheinescapableimputationofinferioritycastuponthesegregated minority.Inaddition,theCourtnullifiedstateprohibitionsagainstinterracial marriage.36

IntheyearsafterWarren,theCourtmovedmostlyinarightwarddirectiononavarietyofcrucialissues.37 Whatfollowsisarepresentativeselection ofcases.

AbortionandGenderMistreatment. Abortionandsexdiscrimination caseshavereceivedmixedtreatment.Onthepositiveside,theCourthasruled that(a)sexualharassmentonthejobviolatedaperson’scivilrights,(b)victimsofsexualharassmentcanobtainmonetarydamagesfromtheinstitution inwhichtheharassmentoccurred,and(c)schoolsareliableunderfederallaw forfailingtostopastudentfromsubjectinganotherstudenttosevereandcontinualsexualharassment. 38

Thejusticesdeclaredunconstitutionalarequirementthatwomenseeking abortionsmustnotifytheirhusbands,butinanothercasetheydecidedthat underagewomenmustobtainparentalconsentforanabortion.39 Thereasoningseemstobethatayoungwomanisnotmatureenoughtodecideabout gettinganabortionbutsheismatureenoughtobeforcedtobecomeamother andraiseachild.In Websterv.ReproductiveHealthServices (1989),the Courtgavestatesbroadpowerstoimposerestrictionsonabortions,suchas barringtheuseofpublicmoney,medicalpersonnel,andfacilities.In2003 thejusticesdecidedthatstateshadtherighttoforcewomenseekinganabortiontobecounseledagainsthavingone,aswellastofaceotherobstacles,includingpostponingthedecisionandreturningforanadditionaltriptothe clinic whichcanworkahardshiponlow-incomewomenwhomusttravel fartofindanabortionclinic.40

In Scheidlerv.NationalOrganizationforWomen (2003),theCourtreversedapreviousdecisionandruledthatantiabortionprotestorswhoblocked clinicsandharassedabortionproviderswerenotsubjecttoheavypenalties underthefederalracketeeringlaw.Butin Stenbergv.Carhart (2000),the Courtruled5to4thatthegovernmentcouldnotprohibitdoctorsfromperforminglate-termabortion,becauseitmightbethemostmedicallyappropriatewayofterminatingsomepregnancies.

AffirmativeActionandCivilRights. JusticeHarryBlackmunexplainedin UniversityofCaliforniav.Bakke (1978)thataffirmativeactionhadtobe takentocorrectlong-standingracialinequities.Butbythelate1980s,thejusticesweremakingitmoredifficulttoestablishdiscriminationclaimsagainst employers,andweresharplylimitingtheabilityofstateandlocalgovernmentstosetasideasmallfixedpercentageofcontractsforminoritybusinesses. 41 A5to4majoritydecidedthatifanemployerasserts “business necessity” tojustifyaracistorsexistpractice,theburdenisontheworkerto proveintentandshowthatthepracticeisnotjobrelated.42 Itisoftenimpossibletodemonstrateintent.Wecanseetheeffectsofanactionbutusuallycan onlydivinethemotive.

In Ledbetterv.Goodyear (2007),theonlywomanamongsixteenmenat thesamemanagementleveldiscoveredaftertwentyyearsofemploymentthat shehadbeenearninglessthananyofhercolleagues,includingthosewithless seniority.Toolate,theSupremeCourt’sconservativemajorityruled:employeesmaynotbringsuitunlesstheyhavefiledaformalcomplaintwithafederal agencywithin180days “aftertheallegedunlawfulemploymentpractice occurred.” Thisseeminglyunrealisticrequirementcouldpreventthousandsof discriminationcasesfrombeingfiled.Inanycase,the180-daylimitationwas generatedoutofthinair,anotherinstanceofconservativejuristslegislating fromthebench.

Overthepastseveraldecadestherehavebeenafewvictoriesforracial justice.Forinstance, Palmorev.Sidoti (1984)ruledthatadivorcedwoman cannotbedeniedcustodyofherchildrenbecausesheremarriedamanofanotherrace.Forthemostpart,however,conservativejudgeshaverefusedto redressracialgrievancesrelatingtovotingrights,schoolredistricting,and lawschooladmission.43 In Grutterv.Bollinger (2003),theCourtdidrule

thattheUniversityofMichiganLawSchoolcouldconsideranapplicant’srace asanadditionalqualificationinordertopromotecampusdiversity.

Inacompaniondecision,however,thejusticesstruckdownMichigan’s undergraduateadmissionsystemthatawardedpointsforminoritystatus. (Theuniversityalsograntedadmissionpointstochildrenofalumni,rural residents,andstudentswhosefamiliesmakebigdonations,butnoneofthese specialtreatmentswerechallenged.)Ironically,thesternestopponentofaffirmativeactionontheCourthasbeenJusticeClarenceThomas,anultraconservativeAfricanAmerican,whohimselfgotintoYaleLawSchoolbecauseof affirmativeaction.

Onthebrighterside,theSupremeCourtissuedunanimousdecisionssupportinglegalprotectionsforemployeeswhowerevictimsofracialandgender discriminationandharassment.44

CriminalJustice. In Masseyv.Washington (1991),thejusticesdecided thatsentencingamentallyretardedthirteen-year-oldtolifeimprisonment wasnotaviolationoftheEighthAmendment’sprohibitionagainst “cruel andunusualpunishment.” Theyouth’soldercodefendanttestifiedthat Massey “wasjustthere” andhadnotkilledanyone.

TheCourtupheldalifesentencegiventoamanforthreeminorfrauds totaling$230.ChiefJusticeWilliamRehnquistarguedthatthiswasnotexcessiveandthatcruelandunusualpunishmentmightbewhensomeoneisgiven, say,alifesentencefor “overtimeparking”—anexamplesofarfetchedasto allowfornearlyanykindofexcess.45 In1991,theCourtruledthatalifesentencewithoutparoleforafirst-timeconvictionofcocainepossessionwasnot cruelandunusualpunishment.In2003,theSupremeCourt’sconservative majoritycontinuedonitsmedievalcourse,sustainingafifty-year-to-lifemandatoryminimumsentenceforanoffenderconvictedoftwocountsofpetty theft.Hehadahistoryofminoroffensesbutnoviolentcrimes.46 Thatsame year, Ewingv.California upheldaconvictionoftwenty-fiveyearsforsomeonewhostolethreegolfclubs.

TheCourt’sever-inventiveconservativeactivistsdecidedthatwhenimposingsentence,federaljudgesmaytakeintoaccountnotonlythecrimesfor whichdefendantswereconvictedbutadditionalchargesforwhichjuries foundthem notguilty.Thusachargethatcannotbeprovenincourtmight stillbringpunishment.47 Toitscredit,theCourtcameoutstronglyagainst racialbiasinjuryselection,specificallyprosecutors’ practiceofdeliberately challengingandremovingAfricanAmericansfromjurypanels.48 Thejustices reaffirmedtherightofdefendantstocompetentrepresentation,callingfora newtrialforaconvictwhoseattorneyhadsleptthroughsubstantialportions ofhistrial.49

Thejusticesseemtothinkchildrencanfendforthemselves.Theprohibition againstcruelandunusualpunishment,theydecided,doesnotprotectschoolchildrenfromcorporalpunishmenteveniftheyareseverelyinjuredbyschool officials.Andthedueprocessclausedoesnotprotectanindividualfromanotherindividual,notevenachildfromanabusiveparent.50

Childabusersseemtogetmorejuridicalconsiderationthantheirvictims. Bya5to4votein Stognerv.California (2003),theCourtstruckdowna

Californialawthathadextendedthestatuteoflimitationsforprosecuting suspectedsexabusers,puttingastoptocriminalinvestigationsacrossthe state.Themajorityarguedthatlengtheningthestatuteoflimitationsviolated theConstitution’sexpostfactoclause,whichprohibitschangingthelawand makingsomethingacrimeafterthefact.Actuallytheactsinvolved were crimeswhentheywerecommitted.Onlythetimeavailableforprosecution hadbeenchanged.Stognerrapedhisownyoungdaughters.Inthiscase,it wasfourconservativeswhohadthegoodsensetodissent.

TheFourthAmendmentprotectionagainstunreasonablesearchesand seizureswasseriouslyweakenedwhentheCourtupheldthepolice’spower toconductsweepingsearchesinprivatehomesandonbuses,toarrestindividualswithoutawarrant,andtoholdthemwithoutacourthearing.51

Theconservativeactivistsruledthatinordertofilelawsuitsagainstinhumaneprisonconditions,inmateshadtoshowthatprisonofficialsexhibited “deliberateindifference.” Itwasnotexplainedhowonecoulddemonstrate deliberateneglectiftheinhumaneprisonconditionsthemselvesdidnot.52 By a6to3majorityin Hopev.Pelzer (2002),theCourtdiddeclareunconstitutionalanAlabamaprisonpracticeofhandcuffinginmatestoametalpolefor hoursintheblazingsummerheat,seeingitascruelandunusualpunishment.

In McNallyv.UnitedStates (1987),theCourtreinedintheprosecutory powerwhenappliedtoupper-classwhite-collaroffenders,makingitmoredifficulttobringmailfraudchargesagainstpersonsinprivatebusiness,government,andthejudiciary.JusticeStevensdissented,wondering “whyaCourt thathasnotbeenparticularlyreceptivetotherightsofcriminaldefendants” nowprotects “theeliteclassofpowerfulindividualswhowillbenefitfromthis decision.”

TheCourthasruledthatthefederalgovernmentdoesnothavethe authoritytobangunpossessionnearschoolsorprosecuteperpetratorsof domesticviolence.Suchmatterscameunderthejurisdictionofthestates. Yet,undertheinterstatecommerceclause,thefedscouldregulatethemedicinaluseofmarijuana,becauselocallygrownpotmighteventuallyendup crossingstatelines(whichisalsotrueofgunscirculatednearschools).The decisionaffirmedthefederalgovernment’sprosecutionofpeopleinCalifornia whosmokedpottoeasethesymptomsofmultiplesclerosisandotherpainful anddebilitatingdiseases.53

DeathPenalty. GenerallytheSupremeCourthasbeenpruningdownthe deathpenalty. Cokerv.Georgia (1977)declaredthatdeathisanexcessive penaltyforthecrimeofrape. Kennedyv.Louisiana (2008)ruledthateven rapeofachildwasnotsufficientcauseforexecution onlythoseconvictedof first-degreemurdercanbeexecuted. Fordv.Wainwright (1986)madeitunconstitutionaltoexecuteaninsanepersonbecauseadefendantmustbeable tocomprehendtheproceedingsandpunishment. Atkinsv.Virginia (2002) didthesameformentallyretardedpersons,asdid Roperv.Simmons (2005) forthosewhowereundereighteenatthetimeoftheircrime. Ringv.Arizona (2002)heldthatjuries,notjudges,mustmakethecriticalfindingsthatsend convictedmurdererstodeathrow. Bazev.Rees (2008)ruledthatlethalinjectiondrugsusedbyKentuckyandmostotherstatesdonotconstitutecruel

andunusualpunishment,thusclearingthewayforaresumptionofexecutions nationwide.

EconomicInequality. InseemingviolationoftheFourteenthAmendment’sequalprotectionclause,thejusticesdecidedthatastatemayvarythe qualityofeducationinaccordancewiththeamountoftaxablewealthlocated initsschooldistricts,thusallowingjustaboutanydegreeofdeprivation.54

Despitealawlimitingwatersubsidiestofarmsof160acresorlessandto farmerswho “liveonorneartheland,” theCourtheldthatlargecommercial farms,includingonesownedbyStandardOil,wereentitledtothesubsidies.55 California’sProposition13restrictedtaxincreasesonpropertyboughtbefore 1975,sothatpersonswithnewlypurchasedhomescarrytaxburdensasmuch asthirteentimesheavierthanlongtimeandoftenmoreaffluentowners,in whatamountstoakindofcastesystem.56

ElectoralSystem. Severaldecisionsbyconservativejudicialactivists snippedawayatthe “one-person,one-vote’” reapportionmentruleand allowedforgreaterpopulationdisparitiesamongstateandcongressional legislativedistricts.57 TheCourtcontinuedtoholdthatstatescouldnotprohibitcorporationsfromspendingunlimitedamountstoinfluencetheoutcome ofpublicreferenda,becausesuchexpenditureswereaformof “speech” and businessfirmsweretobeconsidered “persons.” Norcouldlimitsbeimposed ontheamountthatrichcandidatesexpendontheirowncampaigns,orthe amountthattheyandpoliticalpartiesmayspendonothercandidatesifthe expenditureismade “independently,” thatis,withoutbeingcontrolledin anywaybythecandidate.58

In2000,inanapparentdeparturefromthisstance,theSupremeCourt,in a6to3decision,upheldastate’sauthoritytoimposestrictlimitsoncampaigncontributions,becausepreservingtheintegrityoftheelectoralprocess outweighedanindividual’srighttogivelargesumstoafavoredcandidate. AsJusticeStevensnoted: “Moneyisproperty;itisnotspeech.”59 In2001 andagainin2004,byslimmajoritiestheCourtupheldlimitsonhowmuch “softmoney” politicalpartiesandrichdonorscouldspendoncandidates’ ads, includingadsthattargetacandidate’sconstituencyclosetoelectiontimeand promoteacandidateinsomeway.60

In CitizensUnitedv.FederalElectionCommission (2009),ratherthan showingjudicialrestraintbydeferringtotheelectedbranch,theconservative justicesdisplayeddisdainforCongress’sattemptstolimitcampaignspending. InsteadtheconservativeactivistsoverthrewtheCourt’sownpriorrulingslimitingcampaignspending. “Whattheconservativesseemedmostconcerned about,” wroteoneeditorialist “wasprotectingtheinterestsofcorporations.”61

TheCourtheld5to4thatstatescouldnotimposetermlimitsontheir representativesinCongress;theConstitutionallowedforonlythreequalifying restrictions:age,residency,andcitizenship.62 Thejusticesalsodecidedthat statescanprohibitsmallpartiesfromendorsingamajor-partycandidate, thusrulingoutcross-endorsementsorfusionticketsanddiminishingtheleverageaminorpartymighthave.63

The600,000orsoU.S.citizens(overwhelminglyDemocrats)whoreside inWashington,D.C.(theDistrictofColumbia)andpayfederaltaxeshave

noconstitutionalrighttorepresentationinCongress,thejusticesdecided,in seemingviolationoftheone-person,one-voterule.64

InaclearvictoryforRepublicans,theSupremeCourt’sconservative majorityruledthatIndianacouldrequirevoterstoproduceaphotoIDbefore beingallowedtocastaballot.Therequirement,alsoimposedbyseveralother states,issupposedlyintendedtothwartvoterfraud.ButproponentswereunabletoproduceasingleinstanceinIndianaofapersonposingasanotherin ordertocastaballot.Opponentsarguedthatsuchlawscouldcausemany eligiblevoterstostayhomeiftheydidnothaveanup-to-datedriver’slicense orpassportorsomeothergovernment-issuedphotoID,documentsthatpoor andelderlycitizensoftenlack.65 InseemingdefianceoftheSupremeCourt, thefollowingyeartheIndianalawwasoverturnedbyanIndianastateappellatecourt,whichruledthatthelawdidnottreatallvotersequallysincenoID requirementswereimposedonvoterswhousedmail-inballots.66

In2006,theCourtruledthattheTexaslegislaturecouldredrawcongressionaldistrictsinmid-decade(districtsthathadbeenjudgedbybothpartiesas fairlydonejusttwoyearsbefore),ineffectallowingagerrymanderingthat gavetheRepublicanPartysixadditionalcongressionalseatsandtheDemocratssixfewer.Therulingsetasidethelong-standingpractice,asexplicitly describedintheConstitution,ofredrawingdistrictsonceeverytenyearsafter thenationalcensus.67

Environment. Thejusticeslegislatedfromthebenchinthe ExxonValdez case.TheExxonoiltanker,steeredbyacaptainwhohadbeendrinking heavily,ranagroundinAlaska’sPrinceWilliamSoundinMarch1989,spilling11milliongallonsofoil thelargestspillonrecordinNorthAmerica,fouling1,200milesofpristineAlaskacoastline,causingseriousecologicaldamage, killingmarinelife,anddestroyingthehomelandandlivelihoodsofnearly 33,000people.Exxonwasfined$5billioninpunitivedamages.(Thecompany wasearningabout$30billionto$40billionayear.)TheSupremeCourtgallopedtoExxon’srescueandreducedthedamagesbynine-tenthsto$500million,rulingthatcompensationpaymentsandpunitivepaymentsshouldbeona one-to-oneratio.Hereagaintheactivistconservativeswerelegislatingpurely ontheirown.Criticsoftherulingsaidtheycouldfindnojustificationforthe Court’sratio.Thevictimsinthecasewereleftshockedanddisappointed, awardedabout$15,000each,notenoughtobeginpayingoffdebtsafter almosttwentyyearsoflitigation.68

TheSupremeCourtalsorescuedgold-miningcompanieswhenitruled thattheCleanWaterActdoesnotpreventthemfromdumpingmillionsof tonsoftoxicwasteintorivers,streams,lakes,andbays,obliteratinglifein thesewaterbodies.69

ExecutivePower. Conservativejudicialactivistssupportanexpandedrole forpresidentialpowerandexecutiveprivilege.Overtheyears,federalcourts haverefusedtohearcaseschallengingthepresidentonsuchthingsastheundeclaredwarinVietnam,theunprovokedU.S.invasionofGrenada,theimpositionofembargoesonNicaragua,theU.S.invasionofPanama,andtheU.S. bombingofIraqandYugoslavia.AMassachusettslawmandatingthatthe stateboycottcompaniesthatdobusinesswiththebrutaldictatorshipof

Myanmar(Burma)wasstruckdownbecauseitwasjudgedasinterferingin thepresident’scapacitytoactforthenationonforeignaffairs.70

Cheneyv.UnitedStates (2004)ruledthattheWhiteHousehadconstitutionalimmunityfromalllegaldemandsforinformation,exceptwhenunder criminalinvestigation.AsJusticeScaliaarguedapprovingly, “Ithinkexecutive privilegemeanswheneverthepresidentfeelsheisthreatened,hecansimply refusetocomplywithacourtorder.Hehasthepower … tosay ‘Nothisintrudestoomuchuponmypowers.’”71 But Hamdanv.Rumsfeld (2006)did reininthatautocraticmonarchicalpowerabitwhenamajorityofjustices repudiatedtheplantoputGuantanamodetainees(heldfiveyearsas “terrorist suspects”)ontrialbymilitarycommissions.TheCourtruledthatthecommissionshadnobasisinfederalorinternationallaw,thattestimonywas extractedthroughcoercion,andthatdefendantshadbeendeniedtherightto attendtheirtrials.

LaborandCorporateEconomy. OverthelastdecadetheSupremeCourt hasdeliveredaseriesofvictoriestobigcorporationsattheexpenseofworkingpeople,rulingthat(a)workershavenorighttostrikeoversafetyissuesif theircontractprovidesagrievanceprocedure,denying,forexample,miners therighttowalkoffthejobinthefaceofimmediatelydangeroussafetyviolationsthatmanagementrefusedtoremedy,(b)employerscanpenalizeworkers forunionizingbyclosingdownoperationsanddenyingthemjobs,(c)unions cannotcollectfeesfromnonunionemployeesthatareusedforpoliticalcampaigncontributions,onlythosefeesandduesnecessarytoperformitsduties asacollectivebargainingrepresentative,and(d)companiescangivepreferentialhiringtoscabswhocrossedpicketlines.72

In NLRBv.KentuckyRiverCommunityCare (2001),a5to4majority decidedthatnurseswhohelpless-skilledworkerstodeliverservicescanbe classifiedas “supervisors” andthereforearenotallowedtoorganizeaunion. Thedissentingjusticesarguedthatsuchanarbitrarilybroaddefinitionof “supervisor” threatenedtherightofmanyotherprofessionalemployeesto organize.

In2003,theCourtruledthatundocumentedimmigrantshadnoright tobereinstatedintheirjobsiftheywerefiredforjoiningaunion,norcould theyhopetocollectbackpayforthetimetheyweredeprivedofwork.73 RetaliatoryfiringsforunionorganizingareaviolationoftheNationalLabor RelationsAct,butthisseemednottofazetheCourt’sconservativeactivists wholegislatefromthebench.Inanothercasetheconservativejusticesdecided thatpunitivedamagesagainstcorporationsare “unconstitutional” iftheyare manytimeshigherthantheamountawardedforinjuries.74 Punitivedamages areawardedinajurytrial(soitishardtoseehowdueprocesshasbeendenied),andsuchawardsaremeanttopunishbusinesswrongdoersinamounts thathaveanimpact.ButagainoutofthinairtheCourt’sconservativeactivistssetupstandardsexclusivelyoftheirowndevising.

SeparationofChurchandState. TheFirstAmendmentreadsinpart: “Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof.” (An establishedchurch isonethatislargely orfullysupportedbythegovernmentorrecognizedastheofficialreligionof

thenation.)Disregardingthisseparationofchurchandstate,theCourthas longheldthatreligiousorganizationscanenjoyvariousexemptionsfromtaxation,ineffectforcinglaypersonstopickupthatportionofthetaxburden thatreligiousbodiesdonotpay.75 Thuspeoplearebeingforcedtosubsidize religionstheymaynotbelievein.

Inaseriesof5to4decisions,adeeplydividedCourtruledthat(a)federal fundsgiventoreligiousgroupstopromotechastitydidnotviolateseparation ofchurchandstate,(b)tuition,textbook,andtransportationcostsforprivate schools(includingreligiousones)weretaxdeductible,(c)auniversitycould notrefusetosubsidizeastudentreligiouspublicationwithmandatorystudent activityfees,and(d)federalmoneymaybeusedtopayforspecialeducation teachersandotherinstructionalequipmentinparochialschools.76

In Zelmanv.Simmons-Harris (2002),a5to4majorityupheldaprogram thatallowsparentstousepublicmoneytopayforprivateschools,mostlyreligiousones.In Chandlerv.Siegelman (2001),thejusticesletstandalowercourt rulingthatallowsmomentsofprayeratgraduationsandfootballgames.

In support ofchurch-stateseparation,theCourtruledthatauthorities cannotrequirepublicschoolstoteachthebiblicalnotion(“creationism”) thattheworldwasmadebyGodasaperfectlyfinishedproductinsixdays. Andstatescouldwithholdstatescholarshipsfromstudentspreparingforthe ministry.77 Thecourtalsoupheldalowerfederalcourtorderrequiringthe removalofaTenCommandmentsmonumentfromtheAlabamastatejudicial building.78

TheSupremeCourt’sideologicalbiasisreflectednotonlyinthedecisions ithandsdownbutinthecasesitselectsorrefusestoreview.Duringthelast twodecadesofconservativedomination,reviewaccesshasbeensharplycurtailedforplaintiffsrepresentinglabor,minorities,consumers,andindividual rights.Powerlessandpauperizedindividualshavehadadiminishingchanceof gettingtheircasesreviewed,unlikepowerfulandprestigiouspetitionerssuch asthegovernmentandgiantcorporations.Stateandfederalprosecutorswere abletogainahearingbythehighcourtataratefiftytimesgreaterthandefendants.Criminaldefendantswhocouldaffordthelegalfilingfeeweretwiceas likelytobegrantedaSupremeCourtreviewaswereindigentdefendants.79

CONSERVATIVEJUDICIALACTIVISM(PRESENTDAY)

BecausetheCourtcanneitherfashionlegislationnorenforceitsdecisions,it hasbeendeemedthe “leastdangerousbranch.” Butamilitantlyconservative Courtbolsteredbyaconservativeexecutivecanexercisequiteanactivistinfluence.AgainandagaintheCourt’sconservativeactivistsimposedtheirown torturedlogictocases,blatantlyviolatingtheclearlanguageofalawinorder tounderminetheeffortsofapreviouslyliberalCongress.OrtheCourtupheld conservative-inspiredexecutiveregulationsdesignedtonegateastatutepassed bytheCongress.

Conservativepoliticalleaderscomplainofjudicialactivismwhenjudges expandcivilrights,civilliberties,abortionrights,andtherightsofwomen, gays,minorities,immigrants,andworkers.Butthesesameconservatives

manifestnooutragewhentheSupremeCourtdeclarescorporationstobe “persons,” moneytobe “speech,” andthepresidenttobesupremeandunaccountable.Aconsistentdoublestandardobtains.Judicialactivismthatsupportsdemocraticworking-classrightsandsocioeconomicequalityinvites attack.Judicialactivismthatstrengthensauthoritarianstatismandbig-business prerogativesisreadilyembraced. “Mostactivist,politicizedjudgesonthefederal benchtoday,” notesonecritic, “areconservativeRepublicans.”80

Conservativessaythatjudgesshouldnottryto “legislatefromthe bench,” thewayliberalactivistssupposedlydo.Theyinsistthatjuristsshow modestyandrestraint,includingacarefulregardforpastcourtdecisions.But aYalestudyrevealsthatconservativejusticeslikeThomasandScaliahavea farmoreactiverateofinvalidatingorreinterpretingCongressionallawsthan moreliberaljusticeslikeStephenBreyerandRuthBaderGinsberg.81 The Court’sright-wingjuristshavebeennotonlythemostwillful,ideologically drivenactivistsofall,theyhavebeendownrightadventuristic,showingno hesitationtoinventconceptsandconstructionsoutofthinair,eviscerateperfectlylegitimate(butliberal)laws,shiftargumentsandpremisesastheirideologydictates,rollbackegalitarianpolitico-economicgains,andweakencivil liberties,civilrights,andthedemocraticprocessitself(suchasitis).

Conservativeactivismwasnowheremoreevidentthanin Bushv.Gore (2000).Ina5to4decision,theconservativesoverruledtheFloridaSupreme Court ’sorderforarecountinthe2000presidentialelection,arguingthat becausedifferentcountiesmightusedifferentmodesoftabulatingballots inahandrecount,thiswouldviolatetheequalprotectionclauseofthe FourteenthAmendment.Infact,themethodsusedtocountvotesbyhand inFloridawouldleadtoresultsnolessuniformthanrecountsinanyother stateacrossthenation,asJusticeStevensnotedinhisdissent.TheDemocraticcandidate,VicePresidentAlGore,wasbehindbyonlyahundredor sovotesinFloridaandwasgaininggroundwitheachattemptatrecount. TheCourt ’sconservativejudicialactivistsdidnotgiveFloridaachanceto fixtheproblem.Theyabruptlyendedthecountingandineffectappointed BushJr. thecandidatewhofailedtogetamajorityofboththepopular voteandtheElectoralCollege presidentoftheUnitedStates.82 Inthis case,JusticesThomasandScaliabothrefusedtorecusethemselveseven thoughThomaswasmarriedtoaconsultantintheBushcampaignand ScaliahadtwosonsemployedinlawfirmsrepresentingBushinthevery sameFloridaproceedings.

TheCourt ’sconservativeshaveheldthatthefederalgovernmentmust notusetheequalprotectionclauseoftheFourteenthAmendmenttoforce statestostopviolenceagainstwomen,ormandateamoreequitablemode ofpropertytaxesoramoreequitabledistributionoffundsbetweenrich andpoorschooldistricts.Butin Bush thesesamejusticesnowruledthat theequalprotectionclausecouldbeusedtostopalegalrecountconducted bythestateofFlorida.Atthesametime,theyexplicitlystatedthat Bushv. Gore couldnotbeconsideredaprecedentforotherequalprotectionissues. InnoothercaseintheCourt ’ shistoryhavethejusticesprohibitedtheprecedentsetfrombeingtreatedasaprecedent.Inotherwords,theFourteenth

Amendmentwasoperativeonlywhentheconservativeactivistsdecideto activateit,notatanyothertime.

Lifetenurewassupposedtoshieldthefederaljudiciaryfromoutsideinfluencesandplaceitabovepartisanpolitics.Experienceshowsthatfederal judgesareaspoliticalandideologicalasanyoneelse.Afixedtermoftenor twelveyears,assomestatesallowtheirstatejudges,wouldstillgiveajurist significantindependence,butitwouldnotallowhimorhertoremainunaccountableforanentirelifetime.Judgeswhoexhibitahostileviewtoward constitutionalrightseventuallycouldbereplaced.Withmoreturnover,ideologicallypartisangroupsmightfinditmoredifficulttopackthecourtsfor manyyearsahead.

ThejusticesreadnotonlytheConstitutionbutalsothenewspapers.They talknotonlytoeachotherbuttofriendsandacquaintances.Fewjuristsremainuntouchedbythegreattidesofpublicopinionandbythesubtlershifts invaluesandperceptions.TheCourtisalwaysoperatinginaclimateofopinionshapedbypoliticalforceslargerthanitself.Thehopeisthatdemocratic forceswillproveincreasinglyeffectiveinrestrainingthereactionaryoligarchic activismofthefederalcourts.

DemocracyfortheFew

Thiscountrycontainsadiversearrayofinterestgroups.Ifthatiswhatis meantby “pluralism,” thentheUnitedStatesisapluralisticsociety,asisany societyofsizeandcomplexity.Buttheproponentsofpluralismpresumetobe sayingsomethingabouthow power isdistributedandhowdemocracyworks. Supposedlythegovernmentisnotcontrolledbycorporateeliteswhogetwhat theywantonvirtuallyeveryquestion.Ifthereareelitesinoursociety,theyare checkedintheirdemandsbyconflictingelites.Nogroupcanpressitsadvantagestoofarandanysizableinterestcanfindawaywithinthepoliticalsystemtomakeitsinfluencefelt.Governmentstandsaboveanyoneparticular influencebutrespondstomany.Sosaythepluralists.1

PLURALISMFORTHEFEW

Theevidenceofferedintheprecedingchaptersleavesuswithreasontodoubt thattheUnitedStatesisapluralisticdemocracyasdescribedabove.Most governmentpoliciesfavorlarge-investorinterestsatasubstantialcosttothe restofthepopulace.Longandharddemocraticstruggleshavewonsome realbenefitsforthepubic,yetinequitiesandsocialinjusticesofimmenseproportionscontinueandevenworsen.Thereiscommodityglutintheprivate marketandchronicscarcityinpublicservices.Whilethesuperrichgetever richer,possessedwithmoremoneythantheyknowwhattodowith,thenumberofpeoplelivingbeloworperilouslynearthepovertylevelhascontinued toclimb.

Tothinkofgovernmentasnothingmorethanarefereeamidstavast arrayof “countervailing” groups(whichpresumablyrepresentalltheimportantinterestswithinsociety)istoforgetthatgovernmentbestservesthose

whocanbestservethemselves.PowerinAmerica “ispluralandfluid,” claimedonepluralist.2 Inreality,powerisstructuredthroughentrenched, well-organized,well-financed,politico-economicchannels.Wealthisthemost crucialpowerresource.Itcreatesapervasivepoliticaladvantage,andaffords readyaccesstomostotherresources.

ThosewhocelebratetheexistingplutocracyhavelittletosayaboutthepervasiveroleofpoliticalrepressioninU.S.society,thepurgingandexclusionof anticapitalistdissidentsfromgovernment,fromthelabormovement,themedia, andacademia,andfrompubliclifeingeneral.Theyhavelittletosayaboutthe surveillanceandharassmentofprotestorganizationsandpublic-interestadvocacygroups.Theyseemnevertoalludetothenear-monopolycontrolofideas andinformationthatisthedailyfareofthenewsandentertainmentsectorsof themassmedia,creatingaclimateofopinionfavorabletotheowning-classideologyathomeandabroad.Noraretheplutocraticcelebrantsmuchtroubledby anelectoralsysteminwhichvotesaresuppressedandvastsumsofmoneyarea prerequisiteforoffice.

Apologistsfortheexistingsystemmakemuchofthefactthatwealthyinterestsdonotalwaysoperatewithclearanddeliberatepurpose.Tobesure, likeeveryoneelse,elitessometimesmakemistakesandsufferconfusionabout tactics.Butiftheyarenotomniscientandinfallible,neitheraretheyinastate ofchronicconfusion.Iftheydonotalwayscalculatecorrectlyinthepursuitof theirclassinterests,theydosooftenandsuccessfullyenough.Andtheyare keenlyawarethattheydohaveclassinterests.

IstheAmericanpolityruledbyasecretive,conspiratorial,omnipotent, monolithicpowerelite?No,theplutocracy,orrulingclass,doesnotfitthat simplecaricature.Firstofall,norulingclassinhistory,nomatterhowautocratic,haseverachievedomnipotence.Allhavehadtomakeconcessionsand allowforunexpectedandundesireddevelopments.Inaddition,rulingelites arenotalwayssecretive.Theinfluencetheyexerciseovergoverningbodiesis sometimescovertbutoftenamatterofpublicrecord,someofitreportedeven inthemainstreammedia.Theirinfluenceisexercisedthroughcontrolofthe toppostsinbusinessandgovernment,andtheircontrolofinterlockingdirectoratesandtrusteeshipswhoseexistence,thoughnotwidelyadvertised,is publicknowledge.Theseelitesdooftenfinditdesirabletoplaninsecret, minimizeordistorttheflowofinformation,andpursuepoliciesthatmayviolatethelawstheyprofesstouphold.Examplesaplentyhavebeenofferedin thisbook.

Americangovernmentisnotruledbyamonolithicelite.Occasionally sharpdifferencesariseinrulingcirclesabouthowbesttoadvancetheinterests ofthemoneyedclass.Differencescanarisebetweenmoderateandextreme conservatives,betweensmallandlargeinvestors,anddomesticandinternationalcorporations.Buttheseconflictsseldomtakeintoaccounttheinterests oftheworkingpublic.Whenpushcomestoshove,whatholdsthevarious elitestogetheristheircommoninterestinpreservinganeconomicsystem thatensurestheaccumulationofcorporatewealthandtheprivilegedlifestyles ofthesuperrich.

Doesthisamounttoa “conspiracytheory” ofsociety?First,itshouldbe notedthatnotallconspiraciesaretheories;somedoexist.Acommonviewis thatconspiracyisonlytheimaginingsofkooks.Butjustbecausesomepeople havefantasiesofconspiraciesdoesnotmeanthatallconspiraciesarefantasies.TherewasthesecretiveplantoescalatetheVietnamWarasrevealedin thePentagonPapers,theWatergatebreak-in,theFBICOINTELPROdisruptionofdissidentgroups,theseveralphonybutwell-orchestrated “energy crises” thatsharplyboostoilprices,theIran-contraconspiracy,andthehundredsofsavingsandloanconspiracies.

Rulingelitesinsistuponconspiringinsecret,withoutbeingheldaccountabletoanyone,forexample,VicePresidentCheney’ssecretmeetingwithoil magnatestomapoutnationalenergypolicy(seeChapter16).Theysometimes callit “nationalsecurity.” Butwhenonesuggeststhattheirplans(whether covertorovert)areintendedtobenefittheinterestsoftheirclassatcosttothe restofus,oneisdismissedasa “conspiracytheorist.” Itisallowedthatfarmers, steelworkers,orschoolteachersmayconcerttoadvancetheirinterests,butit maynotbesuggestedthatmoneyedelitesdoasmuch evenwhentheyoccupy thetopdecision-makingpostsofgovernmentandfinance.Instead,weareasked tobelievethattheseestimablepersonsofhighstationwalkthroughlifeindifferenttothefateoftheirvastholdings.

Althoughthereisnoonegrandpowerelite,thereiscontinualcommunicationandcoordinationbetweenvariouscorporateandgovernmentalelitesin almosteverypolicyarea,centeringaroundthecommoninterestsofthecorporateowningclass.Manyofthestrongercorporategroupstendtopredominate intheirparticularspheresofinterest,moreorlessunmolestedbyotherelites. Inanycase,theconflictsamongmoneyedelitesseldomworktotheadvantage ofthemassofpeople.Theyareconflictsofhavesversushaves.Oftentheyare resolvednotbycompromisebutbylogrollingandcollusion.Thesemutually satisfyingarrangementsamong “competitors” usuallycomeattheexpenseof thepublicinterest.Tobesure,thedemandsoftheunfortunatesmaybeheard occasionallyasaclamoroutsidethegate,andnowandthenconcessionsare grantedtotaketheedgeofftheirrestiveness.

Bigbusinessprevailsnotonlybecauseitusescampaigndonationsand shrewdlobbyiststomanipulatepolicymakers.Businessalsoexertsanoverallinfluenceasasystemofpower,awayoforganizingcapital,employment,and large-scaleproduction.Becausebigbusinesscontrolsmuchofthenation’seconomy,governmentperforceentersintoauniquelyintimaterelationshipwithit. Thehealthoftheeconomyistreatedbypolicymakersasanecessarycondition forthehealthofthenation,andsinceithappensthattheeconomyismostlyin thehandsoflargeinterests,thenpresumablygovernment’sservicetothepublic isbestaccomplishedbyservicetothoseinterests,soitisoftenthought.The goalsofbusiness(highprofits,cheaplabor,easyaccesstorichnaturalresources,andsecureandexpandingmarkets)becomethegoalsofgovernment, andthe “nationalinterest” becomesidentifiedwiththesystemicneedsofcorporatecapitalism.Inordertokeepthepeace,businessmayoccasionallyaccept reformsandregulationsitdoesnotlike,butgovernmentcannotignorebusiness’sownreasonforbeing,thatis,thenever-endingaccumulationofcapital.

THELIMITSOFREFORM

GovernmentinvolvementintheU.S.economyrepresentsnotsocialism(asthat termisnormallyunderstoodbysocialists)butstate-supportedcapitalism,not thecommunizationofprivatewealthbuttheprivatizationofthecommonwealth.Thisdevelopmenthasbroughtagreatdealofgovernmentinvolvement,butofakindthatrevolveslargelyaroundbolsteringtheprofitsystem, notlimitingorreplacingit.Incapitalistcountries,governmentgenerallynationalizessickandunprofitableindustriesandprivatizesprofitablepublic ones inbothcasesforthebenefitofbiginvestors.In1986,inwhat amountedtoabailoutofprivateinvestors,thesocialdemocraticgovernment inSpainnationalizedvastprivateholdingstoaverttheircollapse.Afterbringingthembacktohealthwithgenerousnourishmentfromthepublictreasure, theyweresoldbacktoprivatecompanies.ThesamewasdonewithConrailin theUnitedStates,aswehaveseen.LikewiseaconservativeGreekgovernment privatizedthestate-ownedtelecommunicationssystem,whichhadbeen reportingcontinuousprofitsforseveralyears.

Whenacapitalistgovernmenttakesoveranenterprise,itusuallygivesfull compensationtothepreviousowners.Hence,thesamewealthyinvestorswho onceownedtheprivatestocksnowownpublicbondsandcollecttheinterest onthesebonds.Thewealthoftheenterpriseremainsinprivatehandswhereas nominalownershipispublic,asocialismfortherich.Whatthepublicownsin thiscaseisahugebondeddebt withalltherisksandlossesandnoneofthe profits.State-supportedcapitalismcannotprosperwithoutpassingitsimmensediseconomiesontothepublic.

Defendersoftheexistingsystemassertthatthehistoryof “democratic capitalism” hasbeenoneof gradualreform.Tobesure,importantreforms havebeenwonbyworkingpeople.Totheextentthatthepresenteconomic orderhasanythinghumaneandcivilaboutit,itisbecauseofthestruggles ofmillionsofpeopleengagedinadvancingtheirlivingstandardandtheir rightsascitizens.Itissomewhatironictocreditcapitalismwiththegeniusof gradualreformwhen(a)mosteconomicreformsthroughhistoryhavebeen vehementlyandsometimesviolentlyresistedbythecapitalistclassandwere wononlyafterprolonged,bitter,andsometimesbloodypopularstruggle, and(b)mostoftheproblemsneedingreformhavebeencausedorintensified bycorporatecapitalism.

Fundamentalreformisdifficulttoeffectbecausethosewhohavetheinterestinchangehavenotthepower,whilethosewhohavethepowerhavenot theinterest,beingdisinclinedtocommitclasssuicide.Itisnotthatmostofficeholdershavebeenunabletofigureoutthestepsforegalitarianchange;it isthattheyarenotwillingtogothatway.Forthemthecompellingqualityof anyargumentisdeterminedlessbyitslogicandevidencethanbythestrength ofitsadvocates.Thewantsofanunorganizedpublicwithfewpowerresourcesofitsownandnocohesivepoliticalagendaareseldomtranslated intopolicyimperativesbyofficials.

Furthermore,thereasonourlabor,skills,technology,andnaturalresourcesarenotusedforsocialneedsisthattheyareusedforcorporategain,

ifusedatall.Thecorporationscannotandwillnotbuildlow-renthouses,feed thepoor,cleanuptheenvironment,orofferhighereducationtoanyqualified low-incomeperson unlessgovernmentgivesthemlucrativecontractstodo so.Thecorporationdoesnotexistforsocialreconstructionbutforprivate profit.Oursocialandecologicalproblemsarerationaloutcomesofabasically irrationalsystem,asystemstructurednotforsatisfyinghumanneedbutfor magnifyinghumangreed.

HowcanwespeakoftheU.S.politico-economicsystemasbeingaproductofthedemocraticwill?

Whatdemocraticmandatedirectsthegovernmenttogiveawaymore monieseveryyeartothetop1percentofthepopulationininterestpayments onpublicbondsthanarespentonservicestothebottom20percent?

Whenwasthepublicconsultedoninterestratesandagribusiness subsidies?

Whendidthepublicinsistonhavingunsafeoverpriceddrugs,andgeneticallyalteredfoods,andhormone-riddenmeatandmilk andfederalagencies thatprotectratherthanpunishthecompaniesthatmarketsuchthings?

WhendidtheAmericanpeopleurgethatutilitycompaniesbeallowedto overchargeconsumers?

Whendidthevoiceofthepeopleclamorforunsafeworkconditionsin minesandfactoriesandonfarms,andforrecyclingradioactivemetalsinto consumerproductsandindustrialsludgeintoagriculturaltopsoil?

Howoftenhavethepeopledemonstratedformultibillion-dollartaxbreaks forthesuperrich,andprivatizationofSocialSecurity,andamultibillion-dollar spaceshuttleprogramthatdamagestheozonelayerandleavesusmoreburdenedbytaxesanddeprivedofnecessaryservices?

Whendidwedemandanunworkablemultibillion-dollarspacemissile programthatonlyincreasesthedangersofnuclearinstability?

Whendidthepopulaceinsistthatthelawsofthelandbeoverruledby internationalnonelectiveanonymoustradepanelsinservicetothetransnationalcorporations?

WhatdemocraticwilldecreedthatwedestroytheCambodiancountryside between1969and1971inabombingcampaignconductedwithouttheconsentoreventheknowledgeofCongressandthepublic?

WhendidpublicopiniondemandthatwewageamercenarywarofattritionagainstNicaragua,orinvadeGrenada,Panama,Somalia,Afghanistan, Iraq,andHaiti,slaughteringtensofthousandsinthedoing;orsupportwars againstpopularforcesinElSalvador,Guatemala,Angola,Mozambique,the WesternSahara,andEastTimor;orsubvertprogressivegovernmentsinChile, Indonesia,Yugoslavia,andadozenothercountries?

Farfromgivingtheirassent,ordinarypeoplehavehadtostruggleto findoutwhatisgoingon.Oftentheirleaderssweepthemalongwithheavy dosagesofpatriotichypeandfearofimminentdangers.Yet,despiteall that,substantialsegmentsofthepublicmobilizeagainsttheworstabuses andmostblatantprivilegesofplutocracy,againstthespoliationofthe environment,andagainstbiggermilitarybudgetsandarmedinterventionsin otherlands.

DEMOCRACYASPOPULARSTRUGGLE

Therulingclasshasseveralwaysofexpropriatingtheearningsofthepeople.

First,as workers peoplereceiveonlyaportionofthevaluetheirlabor powercreates.Therestgoestotheownersofcapital.Onbehalfofowners, managerscontinuallydevisemethodstoincreasetherateofproductionand profit.

Second,as consumers peoplearevictimizedbymonopolypracticesthat forcethemtospendmoreforless.Theyareconfrontedwithincreasinglyexploitativeformsofinvoluntaryconsumption,aswhenrelativelyinexpensive mass-transitsystemsareeliminatedtocreateagreaterdependencyonautomobiles,orlow-rentalapartmentsareconvertedtohigh-pricedcondominiums,or autilitycompanydoublesitspricesafterderegulation.

Third,as taxpayers workingpeoplehavehadtoshoulderaneverlarger portionofthetaxburden,whilecorporateAmericaandthesuperrichpay proportionatelylessandless.Indeed,thedramaticdeclineinbusinesstaxes andestatetaxeshasbeenamajorcauseofdebtgrowth.Andaswehave seen,thenationaldebtitselfisasourceofincomeforthemoneyedcreditor classandanadditionalburdenonthepopulace.

Fourth,as citizens thepeopleendurethehiddendiseconomiesfoistedonto thembyprivatebusiness,aswhenachemicalcompanycontaminatesacommunity’sairorgroundwaterwithitstoxicwastes,orwhentheverysurvival oftheplanetisthreatenedbyglobalwarming.

Thereigningsystemofpowerandwealth,withitsattendantinjustices, activatesaresistancefromworkers,consumers,communitygroups,andtaxpayers whoareusuallyoneandthesamepeople.Thereexists,then,notonly plutocraticdominancebutpopularoppositionanddemandsforreform.

ThereisatraditionofpopularstruggleintheUnitedStatesthathas beendownplayedandignored.Itebbsandflowsbutneverceases.Moved byacombinationofangerandhope,ordinarypeoplehaveorganized,agitated,demonstrated,andengagedinelectoralchallenges,civildisobedience, strikes,sit-ins,takeovers,boycotts,andsometimesviolentclasheswiththe authorities forsocioeconomicbettermentathomeandpeaceabroad.Against theheaviestodds,dissentershavesufferedmanydefeatsbutwonsomeimportantvictories,forciblyextractingconcessionsandimposingreformsuponresistantrulers.

Democracyissomethingmorethanasetofpoliticalprocedures.Tobe worthyofitsname,democracyshouldproduce outcomes thatadvancethe well-beingofthepeople.Thestruggleforpoliticaldemocracy therightto vote,assemble,petition,anddissent hasbeenlargelypropelledbythestruggleforeconomicandsocialdemocracy,byadesiretodemocratizetherulesof thepoliticalgameinordertobeinabetterpositiontofightforone’ssocioeconomicinterests.Inaword,thestrugglefordemocracyhasbeenaninherentpartofthestruggleagainstplutocracy.

Throughthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,themoneyedclasses resistedtheexpansionofdemocraticrights,beituniversalsuffrage,abolitionism,civilliberties,oraffirmativeaction.Theyknewthatthegrowthof

popularrightswouldonlystrengthenpopularforcesandimposelimitsonelite privileges.Theyinstinctivelyunderstood,eveniftheyseldompubliclyarticulatedit,thatitisnotsocialismthatsubvertsdemocracy,butdemocracythat subvertscapitalism.

Thereactionaryagendabeingsuccessfullyadvancedinrecentyearsis designedtotakeusbacktothedaysbeforetheNewDeal,toacountrywith asmallmiddleclassandalargeimpoverishedmass,whentheUnitedStates wasa “ThirdWorld” nationlongbeforethetermhadbeencoined.Wages arehelddownbyforcingpeopletocompetemoreintenselyforworkonterms mostfavorabletomanagement.Historically,thisisdonewithspeedups, downgrading,layoffs,unionbusting,andthethreatofplantclosings.Inaddition,ownerseliminatejobsthroughmechanizationandmovingtocheaper labormarketsoverseas.Theyalsohavesoughttoeasechild-laborlaws,lower theemployableageforsomejobs,bringinmoreimmigrants,andraisethe retirementage,furtherincreasingthenumberofworkerscompetingforjobs.

Anotherwaytodepresswagesistoeliminatealternativesourcesofsupport.Thehistoricalprocessofcreatingpeoplewillingtoworkforsubsistence wagesentaileddrivingthemoffthelandandintothefactories,denyingthem accesstofarmsandtothegame,fuel,andfruitsofthecommons.Divorced fromthissustenance,thepeasantbecametheproletarian.Today,unemploymentbenefitsandotherformsofpublicassistancearereducedinorderto denyalternativesourcesofincome.Publicjobsareeliminatedsothatmore workerswillcompeteforemploymentintheprivatesector,helpingtodepress wages.

Stillanotherwaytoholddownwagesandmaximizeprofitsistokeepthe workforcedividedandpoorlyorganized.RacismhelpstochanneltheeconomicfearsandangerofWhitesawayfromemployersandtowardminorities andimmigrantswhoareseenascompetitorsforscarcejobs,education,and housing.Whenlargenumbersofworkersareunderpaidbecausetheyare Blacks,Latinos,illegalimmigrants,orfemales,thisdepresseswagesandincreasesprofits.

Theplutocracystrugglestokeeptheworkingpopulaceinitsplace.The feelingamongthesuperrichisthattoomuchalreadygoestothepeopleand intothenonprofitsector.Asthecommonlotofthecitizenryadvances,sodo theirexpectations.Acenturyagotheworkingpopulacelivedinhovelsand toiledtwelvetofourteenhoursadayforpovertywages,frequentlyunder gruesomeconditionswithnobenefits.Theirchildrenmoreoftenwentto workthantoschool.Butafterdecadesofstruggle,workingpeoplewereable tobettertheirlot.Bythe1970smillionsofthemwereworkingeight-hour daysandhadjobseniority,paidvacations,time-and-halfovertime,company medicalinsurance,andadequateretirementpensions;manylivedindecent housingandevencouldpayamortgageonahomeoftheirown,whiletheir kidswenttopublicschoolandsometopublicuniversities.Alongwiththis cameimprovementsinoccupationalsafety,consumersafety,andhealthcare.

Theplutocracywondered,wherewillitend?Thebetteroffthecommon peoplebecome,thestillbetterofftheywanttobe,itseemed.Andmoreforthe generalpopulacemeantlessfortheprivilegedfew.Bythe1970sitlookedlike

thiscountrymightendupasaquasi-egalitarian socialdemocracy unless somethingwasdoneaboutit.AsPaulVolckersaidwhenhewaschairofthe FederalReservein1980, “ThestandardoflivingoftheaverageAmericanhas todecline.”3

Declineitdid.Whatmuchofthisbookhasdocumentedisthereactionary rollbacktoanearliertime:anincreaseinpoverty,homelessness,substandard housing,andsubstandardschools;longerworkdayswithnoovertimepay;no jobsecurityorseniority;wageandbenefitcutbacks;agrowingtaxburdenincreasinglyshiftedontothebacksofthelowerandmiddleclasses,coupledwith arunawaynationaldebt;fewerifanyvacationdays;expensiveprofit-driven butdangerouslyinadequatehealthcare;privatizationofpublicservices;reducingdisabilityassistanceandfamilysupport;andunderminingoccupational safetyregulationsandconsumerandenvironmentalprotections.

Whendemocraticforcesmobilizetodefendtheirstandardofliving,the rulingclassmustattacknotonlytheirstandardoflivingbuttheverydemocraticrightsthathelpthemdefendit.Democracybecomesaproblemforthe plutocracynotwhenitfailstoworkbutwhenitworkstoowell,helpingthe populacetomovetowardamoreequitableandfavorablesocialorder,narrowingthegaphowevermodestlybetweenthesuperrichandtherestofus. Sodemocracymustbedilutedandsubverted,smotheredwithdisinformation andmediapuffery,withriggedelectoralcontests,andlargesectorsofthepublicdisfranchised,bringingfauxvictoriestothemorereactionarycandidates. Atthesametime,therightoflabortoorganizeandstrikecomeunderpersistentattackbycourtsandlegislatures.Federalsecurityagenciesandlocalpolicerepresscommunityactivistsandattacktheirrighttoprotest.AndU.S. leadersenterintoaseriesofinternationaltradeagreementstobypassour democraticsovereigntyaltogetherandsecureacorporatesupremacy,elevating investmentinterestsabovealldemocraticrights.

THEROLESOFTHESTATE

ThestateisthesinglemostimportantinstrumentthatcorporateAmericahas atitscommand.Thepowertousepoliceandmilitaryforce,thepowerofeminentdomain,thepowertotaxandlegislate,tousepublicfundsforprivate profit,floatlimitlesscredit,mobilizehighlyemotivesymbolsofloyaltyand legitimacy,andsuppresspoliticaldissidence suchresourcesofstategivecorporateAmericaadurabilityitcouldneverprovideforitself.

Thestatealsofunctionstostabilizerelationsamonggiantfirms.Historically, “firmsinanoligopolisticindustryoftenturntothefederalgovernment todoforthemwhattheycannotdoforthemselves namely,enforceobediencetotherulesoftheirowncartel.”4 Acentralfunctionofthecapitaliststate istoprotectcapitalismfromitself,fromthecapitalistswhoplundernotonly thepublicbuttheprivateinvestmentsystem,killingthegoosethatlaysthe goldeneggs.

Thestateisalsotheplacewhereliberalandconservativeruling-classfactionsstruggleoverhowbesttokeepthesystemafloat.Themoreliberaland centristelementsarguethatthoseatthetopofthesocialpyramidshouldgive

alittleinordertokeepalot.Ifconservativegoalsaretoosuccessful,ifwages andbuyingpowerarecutbacktoofarandproductionincreasedtoomuch, thenthecontradictionsofthefreemarketintensify.Profitsmaybemaintained andevenincreasedforatimethroughvariousfinancialcontrivances,but overcapacityandoverproductionleadtoeconomicrecession,unemployment grows,marketsshrink,discontentdeepens,andsmallandnotsosmallbusinessesperish.Thecapitalistsystembeginstodevouritself.

Asthepyramidbeginstotremblefromreactionaryvictories,someofthe lessmyopicoccupantsoftheapexdevelopanewappreciationforthebase thatsustainsthem.Theycallforconcessionstothosebelow.Butthemorereactionaryfreemarketeerspresseverbackwardwiththeiragenda.Ifdemand slumpsandthepieexpandsonlyslightlyornotatall,thatisquiteallright aslongastheslicegoingtotheowningclasscontinuestogrow.Ifprofits aregoingup,thentheeconomyis “doingwell”—eveniftheworkingpublic isfallingbehindinrealwages,ashappenedduringmuchof2001–2009.

Thestatealsoactsonbehalfoftheplutocracyattheinternationallevel. Onewaytoeasetheeconomiccompetitionbetweencapitalistnationsisto destroythecompetingcapitalofothercountrieseitherbyundersellingand drivingthemoutofbusinessasinmuchoftheThirdWorld,orbyforcedprivatizationanddeindustrializationasinEasternEuropeandtheformerSoviet Union,orbysanctionsandmassivebombingsofacountry’sindustrialand ecologicalbaseandexpropriatingitsrichresourcesasinIraqandYugoslavia. Theelitesofacountrythathasachievedworldsuperpowerstatus,suchasthe UnitedStates,haveaspecialadvantageinsuchglobalstratagems.

Thestatebestprotectstheexistingclassstructurebyenlistingtheloyalty andsupportofthepopulace,gettingthemtocollaborateintheirownmistreatment.Thestateestablishesitslegitimacyintheeyesofthepeopleby keepinganappearanceofpopularruleandneutralityinregardtoeconomic interests,andbyplayingonthepublic’spatrioticprideandfear,conjuring upimagesofcataclysmicattackbyforeignforces,domesticsubversives,communists,andnowIslamicterrorists.

Havingcorrectlydiscernedthat “Americandemocracy” asprofessedby establishmentopinionmakersissomethingofasham,somepeopleincorrectly dismissthedemocraticrightswonbypopularforcesasbeingoflittleaccount. Butthesedemocraticrightsandtheorganizedstrengthofdemocraticforces are,atpresent,allwehavetokeepsomerulersfromimposingadictatorial finalsolution,adraconianruletosecuretheunlimiteddominanceofcapital overlabor.Marxanticipatedthatclassstrugglewouldbringtheoverthrow ofcapitalism.Shortofthat,classstruggleconstrainsandaltersthecapitalist state,sothatthestateitself,orportionsofit,becomesacontestedarena.

Thevastinequalityineconomicpowerthatexistsinourcapitalistsociety translatesintoagreatinequalityofsocialpower.Morethanhalfacentury agoSupremeCourtJusticeLouisBrandeiscommented, “Wecanhavedemocracyinthiscountry,orwecanhavegreatwealthconcentratedinthehandsof afew,butwecan’thaveboth.” Andsomeyearsearlier,theGermansociologistMaxWeberwrote: “Thequestionis:Howarefreedomanddemocracy inthelongrunatallpossibleunderthedominationofhighlydeveloped

capitalism?”5 Thatquestionisstillwithus.Asthecrisisofcapitalismdeepens, asthecontradictionbetweentheegalitarianexpectationsofdemocracyand thedemoralizingthieveryofthefreemarketsharpens,thestatemustact moredeceptivelyandrepressivelytoholdtogethertheexistingpoliticoeconomicsystem.

Whydoesn’tthecapitalistclassintheUnitedStatesresorttofascistrule? Itwouldmakethingseasier:noorganizeddissent,noenvironmentaloroccupationalprotectionstoworryabout,noelectionsorlaborunions.InacountryliketheUnitedStates,thesuccessofadictatorialsolutiontothecrisisof capitalismwoulddependonwhethertherulingclasscouldstuffthedemocraticgeniebackintothebottle.Rulingelitesarerestrainedintheirautocratic impulsesbythefearthattheymightnotgetawaywithit,thatthepeopleand theenlistedranksofthearmedforceswouldnotgoalong.

Furthermore,astatethatreliessolelyonitsbayonetstoruleisexposed forwhatitisatitscore,aninstrumentofclassdomination.Itlosescredibility, generatesresistanceratherthancompliance,andrisksignitingarebelliousand evenrevolutionaryconsciousness.Givensecureandgrowingprofitmargins, elitesgenerallyprefera “democracyforthefew” toanoutrightdictatorship. RepresentativegovernmentisaserviceableformofgovernanceforcorporateAmerica evenifasometimestroublesomeone.Byofferingamodicum oflibertyandself-ruletothepopulace,itmasksthemoneyedinterestsserved bythestate.Ratherthanrelyingexclusivelyontheclubandthegun,bourgeoisdemocracyplaysthecontradictoryrolesof protectorofcapital and servantofthepeople. Byemployingaseeminglybenignlegitimatepower,itmore effectivelymarshalspopularsupportandmaintainsaprivilegedstatusquo.

Whatissaidofthestateistrueofthelaw,thebureaucracy,thepolitical parties,thelegislators,theuniversities,theprofessions,andthemedia.Inorder tobestfulfilltheirclass-controlfunctionsyetkeeptheirsociallegitimacy,these institutionsmustmaintaintheappearanceofneutralityandautonomy.Tofosterthatappearance,theymustoccasionallyexercisesomecriticalindependence andautonomyfromthestateandfromcapitalism.Theymustsaveafewdecisionsforthepeople,andtakeminimallycorrectivemeasurestocountersome ofthemanyegregioustransgressionsagainstdemocraticinterests.

WHATISTOBEDONE?

ItisnotquitetruethatAmericansaresobrainwashedbyright-wingpropagandiststhattheyrejectallimprovementsintheirpolitico-economiclives. Herearesomeexamplestothecontrary:

WhensuccessiveWhiteHouseadministrationsdidnothingtoraisethe minimumwage,ascoreofstateschosetohiketheirminimumwagestoadollarormoreabovethefederallevel.Dozensofcitiesimplementedliving-wage requirementsforcompanieswithmunicipalcontracts.Theylaunchedlegislativeinitiativesonpublichealthandsafety,theenvironment,andpolitical campaigncontributions.ManycommunitieshavesuccessfullymobilizedtoexcludeWal-Martandotherlargeretailersbecausethesecompanieshavedismal laborpracticesandwreakhavoconlocalbusinesses.6

NevadavotedtorequireitslegislatorstofundK–12educationbeforeany otherbudgetexpenditure.Arkansasvotedtoputitslotterymoneyintoeducation.NorthCarolinachosetoputmoneycollectedfromfinesintoitspublic schoolsystemandisrequiringamoreequitabledistributionofstatefunds amongrichandpoorschooldistricts.Mainevotersrejectedacapontheir propertytaxes,beingunwillingtoinvitethedisastrouseffectsuponthemselves thatProposition13hasdelivereduponCalifornia.Montanavotersokayed medicalmarijuana.Coloradovotedforaprogramtopromoterenewableenergy.AndWashingtonStatevotedtobannuclear-wastedumping.7

ManytownshipsinPennsylvania,NewHampshire,andelsewherehave adoptedordinancesassertingcommunityrightstoself-governanceandbanningcorporationsfromdumpingsewagesludge,bottlingthecommunity ’s water,andotherunwantedcorporateoperations.Growingnumbersofpeople intheUnitedStatesandabroadareorganizingtoprotecttheclimate.Many aremobilizingagainstgeneticallymodifiedfoodsandinsupportoflocal organicagriculture.8

Theseandotherchangesareneededtobringustoamoreequitableand democraticsociety.Herearesomerecommendations: AgricultureandEcology. Distributetoalmost2millionneedyfarmers muchofthebillionsoffederaldollarsnowhandedouttorichagribusiness firms.Encourageorganicfarmingandphaseoutpesticides,herbicides,chemicalfertilizers,hormone-saturatedmeatproducts,andgeneticallymodified crops.In2007,researcherstoldaUNconferencethatalarge-scaleshiftto organicagriculturecouldhelpfightworldhungerwhilealsohelpingtheenvironment.Farmerswhogobacktotraditionalmethodsdonothavetospend moneyonexpensivechemicalsandtendtogrowmorediverseandsustainable crops. 9

“Andso,whiletheend-of-the-worldscenariowillberifewithunimaginablehorrors,we believethatthepre-endperiodwillbefilledwithunprecedentedopportunitiesforprofit.”

Stoptheagribusinessmergermaniathatnowcontrolsalmostallofthe world’sfoodsupply.AgribusinessconglomerateslikeCargillandContinental shouldbebrokenupor,betteryet,nationalized.

Engageinaconcertedeffortatconservationandecologicalrestoration, includingwaterandwasterecycling.Stopthedevelopmentofethanoland hydrogencell “alternative” energies;theythemselvesareenvironmentally damagingintheirproductionanduse.Phaseoutdamsandnuclearplants, andinitiateacrashprogramtodevelopsustainablealternativeenergysources. Thisisnotimpossibletodo.Swedenhaseliminatedtheuseofnuclearpower andmaysoonbecompletelydoingawaywithfossilfuels,replacingthemwith wind,solar,thermal,andtidalenergies.

Launchbirthcontrolandlegalabortionprogramsacrosstheglobein hopeofgettingcontrolofthepopulationexplosionthatpromisestodefeat anysustainableenvironmentalprogram.

Buildrapidmass-transitsystemswithinandbetweencitiesforsafe,economicaltransportation,andproducezero-emissionvehiclestominimizethe disastrousecologicaleffectsoffossilfuels.Fordhadelectriccarsasearlyas the1920s.StanfordOvshinsky,presidentofEnergyConversionDevices,built anewlydevelopedelectriccarthathadalongdrivingrangeonabatterythat lastedalifetime,usedenvironmentallysafematerials,waseasilymanufactured, withoperationalcoststhatwerefarlessthanagas-drivencar allreasonswhy theoilandautoindustrieswerenotsupportiveofelectriccarsandhadthem recalledanddestroyedinCalifornia.10

Meanwhile,aroundtheworldhundredsofmillionsofautomobileswith internalcombustionenginescontinuetoproduceenormousquantitiesoftoxic pollutionandgreenhousegases.Thedangersofglobalwarmingaresoimmense, socompoundingandfastactingthatanall-outeffortisneededtoreversethe ecologicalapocalypseofflood,drought,andfamine. Thisisthesinglemost urgentproblemtheworldfaces (orrefusestoface).Unlesswemoveswiftly, changingdirection180degrees,wewillfaceafuturesocatastrophicthatit defiesdescription,anditmaycomemuchsoonerthanwethink.

EconomicReform.Reintroduceasteepprogressiveincometaxforrich individualsandcorporations withoutthemanyloopholesthatstillexist. Eliminateoff-shoretaxsheltersandforeigntaxcreditsfortransnationalcorporations,therebybringinginhundredsofbillionsinadditionalrevenues.Put acaponcorporatetaxwrite-offsforadvertising,equipment,andCEOstock optionsandperks.Strengthentheestatetaxinsteadofeliminatingit.Givetax relieftoworkingpeopleandlow-incomeemployees.

Corporationsshouldbereducedtosmallerunitswithemployeeandcommunitycontrolpanelstoprotectthepublic’sinterests.Asinthenineteenthcentury, theyshouldbeprohibitedfromowningstockinothercorporations,andgranted chartersforonlylimitedtimes,suchastwentyorthirtyyears,andforspecific businesspurposes,chartersthatcanberevokedbythegovernmentforcause. Companydirectorsshouldbeheldcriminallyliableforcorporatemalfeasance andforviolationsofconsumer,environmental,andoccupationalsafetylaws. ElectoralSystem. Tocurbthepowerofthemoneyedinterestsandlobbyists,allcandidatesincludingminor-partyonesshouldbeprovidedwithpublic

financing asalreadyisthecaseinMaine,Vermont,andforjudgeshipsin NorthCarolina.Inaddition,astrictcapshouldbeplacedoncampaignspendingbyallpartyorganizations,candidates,andsupporters.Thevariousstates shouldinstituteproportionalrepresentationsothateveryvotewillcountand majorpartieswillnolongerdominatethelegislaturewithartificiallyinflated majorities.Alsoneededisastandardfederalelectorallawallowinguniform andeasyballotaccessforthirdpartiesandindependents.Weshouldabolish theElectoralCollegetoavoidartificiallyinflatedmajoritiesthatfavorthe two-partymonopolyandunderminethepopularvote.Ifthepresidentwere directlyelected,everyvotewouldcountequallyregardlessofitslocation.

Weneedprotectionagainstattemptsbylocalauthoritiestosuppressor intimidatevoters,aswasdonebyRepublicanofficialsinseveralstatesduring thestolenpresidentialelectionsof2000and2006(seeChapter14).Asof now,ineachstateelectionsarepresidedoverbythesecretariesofstateswho oftenareactivepartypartisans,aswasthecaseinFloridaandOhio.Whatwe needisafederalnonpartisancommissionofprofessionalcivilservantstopresideovertheelectoralprocesstoensurethatpeoplearenotbeingfalselychallengedorarbitrarilyremovedfromvoterrolls.Asanadditionalsafeguard teamsofforeignobservers,perhapsfromtheUnitedNations,shouldobserve andreportonelectionproceedingsandtestifyastotheirfairnessandhonesty.

Alsoneededaremoreaccessiblepollingandregistrationsitesinlowincomeareas;andanelectionthatisheldonanentireweekendinsteadofa Tuesdaysothatpersonswhomustcommutefarandworklonghourswill havesufficientopportunitytogettothepolls.Mostimportant,weneedpaper ballotswhoseresultscanbeimmediatelyandhonestlyrecordedinplaceofthe touch-screenmachinesthatsoeasilyleadtofraudulentcounts.

TheDistrictofColumbiashouldbegrantedstatehood.Asofnowits 607,000citizensaredeniedgenuineself-ruleandfullrepresentationinCongress. Theyelectamayorandcitycouncil,butCongressandthepresidentretainthe powertooverruleallthecity’slawsandbudgets.Washington,D.C.,remains oneofthenation’sinternalcolonies.

EmploymentConditions.

Americansareworkingharderandlongerfor less,oftenwithnojobsecurity.Manyimportantvitalservicesareneeded, yetmanypeopleareunemployed.Jobprograms,moreencompassingthan theonescreatedduringtheNewDeal,couldemploypeopletoreclaimtheenvironment,buildaffordablehousingandmass-transitsystems,rebuildacrumblinginfrastructure,andprovideservicesfortheagedandinfirmandforthe publicingeneral.

Peoplecouldbeputtoworkproducinggoodsandservicesincompetition withtheprivatemarket,creatingmoreincomeandmorebuyingpower.The NewDeal’sWPAengagedintheproductionofgoods,manufacturingclothes andmattressesforreliefclients,surgicalgownsforhospitals,andcanned foodsforthejoblesspoor.Thiskindofnot-for-profitpublicproductionto meethumanneedsbringsinrevenuestothegovernmentbothinthesalesof thegoodsandintaxesontheincomesofthenewjobscreated.Eliminated fromthepictureisprivateprofitforthosewhoparasiticallyliveoffthelabor ofothers whichexplainstheirfiercehostilitytowardgovernmentattempts

atdirectproduction.Theydenounceitas socialism whichiswhatitisin embryonicform.

FiscalPolicy.

Thenationaldebtisatransferpaymentfromtaxpayersto bondholders,fromlabortocapital,fromhave-notsandhave-littlestohaveit-alls.Governmentcouldenddeficitspendingbytaxingthefinancialclass fromwhomitnowborrows.Itmuststopbribingtherichwithinvestment subsidiesandotherguarantees,andredirectcapitalinvestmentstowardnotfor-profitpublicgoals.TheU.S.Treasuryshouldcreateandcontrolitsown moneysupplyinsteadofallowingtheFederalReserveanditsprivatebankers topocketbillionsofdollarseveryyearthroughitsprivatizedmonopolized moneysupply.

Gender,Racial,andCriminalJustice.

Endracialandgenderdiscriminatorypracticesinallinstitutionalsettings.Vigorouslyenforcethelawtoprotect abortionclinicsfromvigilanteviolence,womenfrommaleabuse,minorities andhomosexualsfromhatecrimes,andchildrenfromincestrapeandother formsofadultabuse.Releasethehundredsofdissenterswhoareserving longprisontermsontrumped-upchargesandwhosemajoroffenseistheir outspokencriticismoftheexistingsystem.Releasethetensofthousandswho areenduringdraconianprisonsentencesforrelativelyminorandnonviolent drugoffenses.

HealthCareandSafety. AllowallAmericanstoreceivecoveragesimilar totheMedicarenowenjoyedbyseniors,butincludingalternativehealthtreatments.Fundingmightcomefromthegeneralbudgetasinthesingle-payer planusedinCanadaandelsewhere,providingcomprehensiveservicetoall. Undersingle-payerhealthcare,thebillionsofdollarsthatarenowpocketed byHMOinvestorsandexecutiveswouldbeusedforactualmedicaltreatment.Wewouldgetbettercoverageanduniversalcoverageforhalfofwhat wearepayingnowtotheself-enrichinginsurancecompanies,HMOs,and private-profithospitals.

Thousandsofadditionalfederalinspectorsareneededforenforcementof occupationalsafetyandconsumerprotectionlaws. “Wherearewegoingto getthemoneytopayforallthis?” onehears.Thequestionisneveraskedin regardtothegargantuandefensebudgetorenormouscorporatesubsidies.As alreadynoted,wecangettheadditionalfundsfromamoreprogressivetax systemandfrommajorcutsinbig-businesssubsidiesandmilitaryspending.

LaborLaw. Providegovernmentprotectionstoworkerswhonowrisk theirjobswhentryingtoorganizeunions.Prohibitmanagement’suseofpermanentreplacementscabsforstrikingworkers.Penalizeemployerswhorefuse tonegotiateacontractafterunioncertificationhasbeenwon.Repealtherestrictive “righttowork” and “openshop” lawsthatunderminecollectivebargaining.Lifttheminimumwagetoalivablelevel.Inanumberofstates,there are “livingwagemovements” thatseektodenycontractsandpublicsubsidies tocompaniesthatdonotpaytheirworkersalivablescale.

Repealall “freetrade” agreements;theyplaceacountry’sdemocratic sovereigntyinthehandsofnonelective,secretive,internationaltribunalsthat underminelocaleconomiesanddiminishlivingstandardsthroughoutthe world.

MilitarySpending. TheDefenseDepartmentspendingbingeofthelast twodecadeshascreatedacrushingtaxburden,andhastransformedthe UnitedStatesfromtheworld’sbiggestlenderintotheworld’sbiggestspender andbiggestdebtornation.Wecouldsavehundredsofbillionsofdollarseach yearbyclampingdownonthemassivecorruption,duplication,pricegouging, andwasteinmilitaryspending withoutanyrisktoournationalsecurity.To saveadditionalbillionseachyearandcutdownonthedamagedonetothe environment,theUnitedStatesshouldstopallnucleartests,includingundergroundones,andwageadiplomaticoffensiveforanuclear-freeworld.

Withnolosstoour “nationalsecurity,” Washingtonalsocouldsavetens ofbillionsofdollarsifitstoppedpursuingforeigninterventionsanddropped itscostlyanddangerousStarWarsantimissilemissileprogram.11

Thelossofjobsthatwillcomewithriddingourselvesofawareconomy couldbemitigatedbyembarkinguponamassiveconversiontoapeacetime economy,puttingthemoniessavedfromthebloatedmilitarybudgetintohuman servicesanddomesticneedsenumeratedearlier.Theshiftawayfromwarspendingwouldimproveourqualityoflifeandleadtoahealthierstrongeroverall economy,whilebringingseriouslossestoprofiteeringdefensecontractors.

NationalSecurityState. Prohibitcovertactionsbyintelligenceagencies againstanticapitalistsocialmovementsathomeandabroad.EndU.S.sponsoredcounterinsurgencywarsagainstthepooroftheworld.Eliminate allforeignaidtoregimesengagedinoppressingtheirownpeoples.ThebillionsofU.S.taxdollarsthatflowintotheSwissbankaccountsofforeign autocratsandmilitaristscouldbemuchbetterspentonhumanservicesat home.LiftthetradesanctionsimposedonCubaandothercountriesthat havedaredtodeviatefromthefree-marketorthodoxy.

TheFreedomofInformationActshouldbeenforcedinsteadofunderminedbythoseuphighwhosaytheyhavenothingtohide,thentrytohide almosteverythingtheydo.

NewsMedia. TheairwavesarethepropertyoftheAmericanpeople.As partoftheirpublic-servicelicensingrequirements,televisionandradiostations shouldberequiredtogive freeofcharge publicairtimetoallpoliticalviewpoints,includingdissidentandradicalones.Themediashouldberequiredto giveequaltimetoallcandidates,notjustDemocratsandRepublicans.Freeairtimeeachdayforeverypoliticalpartyduringthemonthbeforeelectionday,as wasdoneinNicaragua,helpsleveltheplayingfieldandgreatlydiminishesthe needtoraiselargesumsto buy airtime.Incampaigndebates,thecandidates shouldbequestionedbyrepresentativesfromlabor,peace,consumer,environmental,feminist,civilrights,andgayrightsgroups,insteadofjustinanemedia punditswholimittheuniverseofdiscoursesoasnottogiveoffensetotheir corporateoverlords.

SocialSecurityandTaxation. ReformSocialSecurityinaprogressive waybycutting2percentfromthecurrent12.4percentSocialSecurityflat taxrate,andoffsetthatlostrevenuebyeliminatingthecaponhowmuchincomecanbetaxed.Atpresent,earningsofmorethan$97,000areexempt fromFICAwithholdingtax.Thischangewouldgiveanaverageworkingfamilymodesttaxreliefandwouldhelpreversetheregressiveployofraising

FICApayrolltaxesforlow-andmiddle-incomepeoplewhilereducingtaxes forthewealthy.

Closemanyloopholesthatallowrichindividualstogetawaywithso muchuntaxedincome.Endfederalandstatetaxgiveawaystocorporations. Inmoststatestherichpayasmallerportionoftheirincomeinstateandlocal taxesandthepoorpaythehighest.Raisethestateincometaxinallstatesina strongprogressivedirection.

TransportationandInfrastructure. Developanationwidehigh-speedrail systemthatcouldtransportpassengersandfreightatfarlesscostwithmuch greaterspeed,cuttingbackongas-guzzlingcarsandtruckswhilesavingthousandsoflivesandbillionsofgallonsoffuel,andreducinggreenhousegas emissionsbymillionsoftons.AsofnowtheUnitedStateshasthemostbackwardrailroadsystemofallindustrialnations.

Aswithtransportation,sowithourentireinfrastructure:government investmenthasbeenpivotalindevelopingtherailroads,highways,andmasscommunicationsystems.Nowitisneededtorefurbishwaterandsewagesystems,bridgesandtunnels,electricgrids,nationalparks,andnumerousother things.Anationalbankwouldbeagreataidinfundingsuchpublicwork projects,whichthemselveswouldcreatemanydecent-payingjobs.12

THEREALITYOFPUBLICPRODUCTION

Noneofthemeasureslistedabovewillprevailunlessthestructuralproblems ofcapitalismarethemselvesresolved.Whatisneededthenispublicownership ofthemajormeansofproductionandpublicownershipofthemoneyed poweritself inotherwords,somemeasureof socialism.

Butcansocialismwork?Isitnotjustadreamintheoryandanightmare inpractice?Canthegovernmentproduceanythingofworth?Asmentionedin anearlierchapter,variousprivateindustries(defense,railroads,satellitecommunication,aeronautics,theInternet,andnuclearpower,tonamesome)exist todayonlybecausethegovernmentfundedtheresearchanddevelopmentand providedmostoftheriskcapital.Marketforcesarenotanecessarybasisfor scientificandtechnologicaldevelopment.Thegreatachievementsofnumerous U.S.universityandgovernmentlaboratoriesduringandafterWorldWarII wereconductedunderconditionsofcentralfederalplanningandnot-forprofitpublicfunding.Wealreadyhavesomesocializedservices,andthey workquitewellwhensufficientlyfunded.Ourroadsandsomeutilitiesarepubliclyowned,asareourbridges,ports,andairports.Insomestatessoareliquor stores,whichyearlygeneratehundredsofmillionsofdollarsinstaterevenues. TherearecreditunionsandafewprivatelyownedbanksliketheCommunityBankoftheBay(NorthernCalifornia)whoseprimarypurposeisto makeloanstolow-andmiddle-incomecommunities.Weneedpublicbanks thatcanbecapitalizedwithstatefundsandwithlaborunionpensionsthat arenowinprivatebanks.TheBankofNorthDakotaistheonlybankwholly ownedbyastate.Inearliertimesithelpedfarmerswhowerebeingtaken advantageofbygrainmonopoliesandprivatebanks.Today,theBankof NorthDakotaisanimportantsourceofcreditforfarmers,smallbusinesses,

andlocalgovernments.(NorthDakotaisoneofonlytwostatesthatwerenot drowningindebtanddeficitsasof2010.)Otherstateshaveconsideredcreatingstatebanks,butprivatebankinginterestshaveblockedenactment.

Weshouldcreateanationalbankwithmoneyissueddirectlybythe TreasuryDepartmenttoprovidelow-interesteasy-termloansforpeoplewho wanttostartsmallbusinesses,gotoschool,orownahome anationalbank thatisrunonanonprofitbasis,thegoalbeingnottoplunderthepublicbut tomakecreditavailableforthosewhohaveaproductiveneed.

Oftenunnoticedisthe “thirdsector” oftheeconomy,consistingofmore than30,000worker-runproducercooperativesandthousandsofconsumer cooperatives,creditunions,housingco-ops,andruralutilityco-ops;along withscoresofcooperativebanks,cooperativeinsurancecompanies,andtelecommunicationandcableco-ops.Employeesownamajorityofthestockinat least1,000companies.13 Constructiontradeunionshaveusedpensionfunds tobuildlow-costhousingandtostartunionized,employee-ownedcontracting firms.TheOrganicConsumersAssociation,withamembershipof250,000 strong,worksfortheconversionofthenation’sagriculturalsystemtoorganic farmingandcallsforamoratoriumongeneticallyengineeredcrops.

Therearealsotheexamplesof “lemonsocialism,” inwhichgovernments incapitalistcountrieshavetakenoverailingprivateindustriesandnursed thembacktohealth,testimonytothecomparativecapacitiesofprivateand publiccapital,socialismrescuingcapitalismasusual.InFranceimmediately afterWorldWarII,thegovernmentnationalizedbanks,railways,andnatural resourcesinasuccessfulattempttospeedupreconstruction.TheFrenchtelephone,gas,andelectriccompanieswerealsopublicmonopolies.PublicownershipinFrancebroughtsuchmarvelsasthehigh-speedTGVtrain,superior totrainsprovidedbyU.S.capitalism.ThepubliclyownedrailroadsinFrance andItalyworkmuchbetterthantheprivatelyownedonesintheUnitedStates (whichworktotheextenttheydobecauseofpublicsubsidies).

ThestateandmunicipaluniversitiesandcommunitycollegesintheUnited Statesarepublicandtherefore “socialist”—shockingnewstosomeofthestudentswhoattendthem andsomeofthemareamongtheverybestinstitutionsofhigherlearninginthecountry(althoughallofthemarebecoming lessandlessaffordablebecauseoftuitionincreasesandhencelesssocialist).

Publiclyownedutilitiesinthiscountryarebettermanagedthaninvestorownedones;andbecausetheydonothavetoproducehugesalariesfortheir CEOsandbigprofitsforstockholders,theirratesarelowerandtheyputmillionsofdollarsinprofitsbackintothepublicbudget.

ThenthereistheBritishNationalHealthService,whichcosts50percent lessthanourprivatesystemyetguaranteesmorebasicmedicalcare.Even thoughaTorygovernmentduringthe1980simposedbudgetstringencyon Britishhealthcare “inordertosqueezeeconomiesfromthesystematthe expenseofquality,” amajorityofBritonsstillwanttokeeptheirsocialized healthservice.14

AlltheindustrializedWesternEuropeandemocraciesprovidefreemedical care,education,andhumanservicesforthoseinneed,alongwithstronggovernmentregulationsoncorporationsandfinancialinstitutions.Citizensofthese

countriesworkfewerhoursthandoAmericansandenjoyfive-andsix-week vacations.Theyalsohavefarmoregenerousbenefitsandsick-leavepolicies.15

Freemarketeersinvariouscountriesdowhattheycantounderminepublicservicesbydeprivingthemoffundsandeventuallyprivatizingthem.16 The privatizationofpostalservicesinNewZealandbroughtatidyprofitforinvestors,ariseinpostalrates,wageandbenefitcutsforpostalworkers,anda closingofmorethanathirdofthecountry’spostoffices;insum,poorerserviceathighercost:capitalismreplacingsocialism.Likewise,theprivatization oftelephoneandgasutilitiesinGreatBritainresultedindramaticallyhigher managementsalaries,soaringrates,andinferiorservice.Rightistgovernments rushtoprivatizebecausepublicownership does work,atleastinregardto certainservices.Agrowingandpopularnot-for-profitpublicsectorisathreat toprivateinvestors.

Mostsocialistsarenotagainstpersonal-useprivateproperty,suchasa home.Andsomearenotevenagainstsmallbusinessesintheservicesector. Noraremostsocialistsagainstmodestincomedifferentialsorspecialmonetaryrewardsforpersonswhomakeoutstandingcontributionstosociety.

Thereisnoguaranteethatasocializedeconomywillalwayssucceed.The state-ownedeconomiesofEasternEuropeandtheformerSovietUnionsufferedultimatelyfataldistortionsintheirdevelopmentbecauseof(a)thebacklogofpovertyandwantinthesocietiestheyinherited;(b)yearsofcapitalist encirclement,embargo,invasion,devastatingwars,andcostlyarmsbuildup; (c)excessivebureaucratizationandpoorincentivesystems;(d)lackofadministrativeinitiativeandtechnologicalinnovation;and(e)arepressivepolitical rulethatallowedlittlecriticalexpressionandfeedback.Atthesametime,it shouldbeacknowledgedthattheformercommuniststatestransformedimpoverishedsemi-feudalcountriesintorelativelyadvancedsocieties.Whatever theirmistakesandcrimes,theyachievedwhatcapitalismcannotandhasno intentionofaccomplishing:adequatefood,housing,andclothingforall;economicsecurityinoldage;freemedicalcare;freeeducationatalllevels;anda guaranteedincome.

Asthepeoplesintheseformercommunistcountriesarenowdiscovering, the “freemarket” meansfreedommostlyforthosewhohavemoneyanda drasticdeclineinlivingstandardsformosteveryoneelse.Withtheadventof “free-marketreforms” intheUSSRandEasternEurope,inflationdiminished workers’ realwagesandpensions,anddissolvedtheirsavings.Healthand educationsystemswereprivatizedandthendeteriorated.Unemployment,poverty,beggary,homelessness,crime,violence,suicide,mentaldepression,and prostitutionskyrocketed.By70and80percentmajorities,thepeopleinthese newlyarrivedfree-marketcountriestestifythatlifehadbeenbetterunderthe Communists.Thebreakupoffarmcollectivesandcooperativesandthereversiontoprivatefarmingcauseda40percentdeclineinagriculturalproductivity incountrieslikeHungaryandEastGermany wherecollectivefarmingactuallyhadperformedaswellandoftenbetterthantheheavilysubsidizedprivate farmingintheWest.17

Thequestionofwhatkindofpublicownershipweshouldstrugglefor deservesmoreextensivetreatmentthancanbegivenhere.Americansocialism

cannotbemodeledontheSovietUnion,China,Cuba,orothercountrieswith differenthistorical,economic,andculturaldevelopments.Butthesecountries oughttobeexaminedsothatwemightlearnfromtheiraccomplishments,problems,failures,andcrimes.Ourgoalshouldbeanegalitarian,communitarian, environmentallyconscious,democraticsocialism,withavarietyofparticipatory andproductiveforms,offeringbotheconomicsecurityanddemocracy.

Whatisneededtobringaboutfundamentalchangeiswidespreadorganizing,notonlyaroundparticularissuesbutforamovementthatcanproject boththedesirabilityofanalternativesystemandthegreatnecessityfordemocraticchange,amovementreadytoembracenewalternatives,includingpublic ownershipofthemajorcorporationsandworkercontrolofproduction.With timeandstruggle,wemighthopethatpeoplewillbecomeincreasinglyintolerantofthegrowinginjusticesofthereactionaryandinequitablefree-market systemandwillmovetowardaprofoundlydemocraticsolution.Perhapsthen thedaywillcome,asitcameinsocialordersofthepast,whenthosewho seeminvinciblewillbeshakenfromtheirpinnacles.

Thereisnothingsacredabouttheexistingsystem.Alleconomicandpoliticalinstitutionsarecontrivancesthatshouldservetheinterestsofthepeople. Whentheyfailtodoso,theyshouldbereplacedbysomethingmoreresponsive,morejust,andmoredemocratic.Marxsaidthis,andsodidJefferson. Itisarevolutionarydoctrine,andverymuchanAmericanone.

Acknowledgments

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Notes

CHAPTER d 1 PARTISANPOLITICS

1.JohnLocke, TreatiseofCivilGovernment (Appleton-Century-Croft,1937),82;Adam Smith, AnInquiryintotheNatureand CausesoftheWealthofNations (EncyclopaediaBritannica,1952,originally1776), 309,311.

2.SeeWilliamApplemanWilliams, The GreatEvasion (QuadrangleBooks,1964), forananalysisofthewayMarxistthought hasbeenstigmatizedorignoredbyAmerican intellectualsandthosewhopaytheirsalaries.

3.Foradevelopmentofthisview,seeMichael Parenti, Superpatriotism (CityLights,2004).

CHAPTER d 2 ACONSTITUTION FORTHEFEW

1.AdamSmith, AnInquiryintotheNature andCausesoftheWealthofNations (EncyclopaediaBritannica,Inc.,1952),311.

2.SidneyAronson, StatusandKinshipinthe HigherCivilService (HarvardUniversity Press,1964);andDanielM.Friedenberg, Life,Liberty,andthePursuitofLand:The PlunderofEarlyAmerica (Prometheus Books,1992).

3.Aronson, StatusandKinship,49;A.E. McKinley, TheSuffrageFranchiseinthe ThirteenEnglishColoniesinAmerica (B.Franklin,1969,originally1905).

4.QuotedinHerbertAptheker, EarlyYears oftheRepublic (InternationalPublishers, 1976),41.

5.Ontheclassinterestsoftheframers,see CharlesBeard, AnEconomicInterpretationoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates (Macmillan,1936,originally1913).Even ForrestMcDonald,aconservativecriticof Beard’sinterpretation,documentstheopulentbackgroundoffifty-threeofthefiftyfivedelegates;seehis We,thePeople:The EconomicOriginsoftheConstitution (UniversityofChicagoPress,1958),chapter2.

6.ArticlesofConfederation,in National Documents (UnitBookPublishing,1905), 59–71.

7.JenniferNedelsky, PrivatePropertyand theLimitsofAmericanConstitutionalism (UniversityofChicagoPress,1994), 27–28,159.

8.MerrillJensen, TheArticlesofConfederation (UniversityofWisconsinPress,1948),30.

9.BernardHerman, TheStolenHouse (UniversityPressofVirginia,1992);Clifford LindseyAlderman, ColonistsforSale:The StoryofIndenturedServantsinAmerica (Macmillan,1975).

10.Jensen, TheArticlesofConfederation, 9–10;Beard, AnEconomicInterpretation,28;Aptheker, EarlyYearsofthe Republic,33–36.

11.Aptheker, EarlyYearsoftheRepublic,137, 144–145.

12.DavidSzatmary, Shays’ Rebellion:The MakingofanAgrarianInsurrection (UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1980).

13.Fortheseandotherunflatteringcomments bythedelegatesregardingthecommon peopleanddemocracy,seeMaxFarrand (ed.), RecordsoftheFederalConvention of1787 (YaleUniversityPress,1966 [1937]),vols.1–3,passim.

14.Beard, AnEconomicInterpretation,passim.Enormousprofitsaccruedtoholders ofpublicsecurities.

15.Aptheker, EarlyYearsoftheRepublic,114.

16.Foranexcellentstudyoftheenormousinfluencewieldedatthefoundingbytheslaveholdingclass,seePaulFinkelman, Slavery andtheFounders (M.E.Sharpe,1996).

17.Amendmentscouldalsobeproposed throughaconstitutionalconventioncalled byCongressonapplicationoftwo-thirds ofthestatelegislaturesandratifiedbyconventionsinthree-fourthsofthestates.This methodhasyettobetried.

18.Farrand, RecordsoftheFederalConvention,vol.2,200ff.

19.StaughtonLynd, ClassConflict,Slavery andtheUnitedStatesConstitution (BobbsMerrill,1967).Fordiscussionsoftheclass interestsbehindtheAmericanRevolution, seeAlfredYoung(ed.), TheAmerican Revolution:ExplorationsintheHistory ofAmericanRadicalism (NorthernIllinois UniversityPress,1977);andEdwardCountryman, APeopleinRevolution (Johns HopkinsUniversityPress,1982).

20.Forexamplesofthosewhoconfusethe founders’ broadclassinterestswiththenationalinterest,seeDavidG.Smith, TheConventionandtheConstitution (St.Martin’s Press,1965);alsoseveraloftheessaysin RobertGoldwinandWilliamSchambra (eds.), HowDemocraticIstheConstitution? (AmericanEnterpriseInstitute,1980).

21.Farrand, RecordsoftheFederalConvention,vol.1,xii–xv.

22.JamesMadison, Federalist No.10.

23.CeceliaM.Kenyon(ed.), TheAntiFederalists (Bobbs-Merrill,1966),246–247.

24.JacksonTurnerMain, TheAntifederalists (UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1961); andMichaelGillespieandMichaelLienesch(eds.), RatifyingtheConstitution (UniversityPressofKansas,1989).

25.ThissectionontheConstitution’sprogressivefeaturesisdrawnmostlyfrom

Aptheker, EarlyYearsoftheRepublic, 71ff.andpassim.

26.R.P.Nettelhorst, “NotesontheFounding FathersandtheSeparationofChurchand State,” http://www.theology.edu/journal/ volume2/ushistor.htm;RobertBoston, Why theReligiousRightIsWrongAboutSeparationofChurch&State (PrometheusBooks, 1993);JimWalker, “Little-KnownU.S. Document…, ” http://www.sullivan-county. com/nfo/dispatch/fathers_quote2.htm.

CHAPTER d 3 RISEOFTHE CORPORATESTATE

1.AndrewLipscomb(ed.), TheWritingsof ThomasJefferson (G.P.Putnam’s,1897), vol.15,112;EdwardPessen, Riches,Class andPowerBeforetheCivilWar (D.C. Heath,1973),278,304.

2.JohnSpargo, TheBitterCryoftheChildren (QuadrangleBooks,1968,originally 1906);EdwardPessen, TheManyFaceted JacksonianEra (GreenwoodPress,1977), 7–31;OttoL.Bettmann, TheGoodOld Days TheyWereTerrible (RandomHouse, 1974),152–153.

3.DaleVanEvery, Disinherited:TheLost BirthrightoftheAmericanIndian (Avon Library,1967);DavidStannard, American Holocaust:TheConquestoftheNew World (OxfordUniversityPress,1993).

4.DouglasBlackmon, SlaverybyAnother Name (AnchorBooks,2009).

5.BoyerandMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory, 216–221.AcomprehensivestudyisPhilip Foner, HistoryoftheLaborMovementin theUnitedStates,vols.1–6(International Publishers,1947,1955,1964,1965,1980, 1981).

6.RichardBoyerandHerbertMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory (UnitedElectrical,Radio andMachineWorkers,1971),passim.

7.Fortheseandotherexamplesofcorporate stateviolence,seeSidneyLens, Radicalism inAmerica (ThomasY.Crowell,1969); DanielFusfeld, TheRiseandRepression ofRadicalLaborintheUnitedStates 1877–1918 (CharlesH.Kerr,1985);Foner, HistoryoftheLaborMovement;Boyer andMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory

8.WilliamPrestonJr., AliensandDissenters (HarvardUniversityPress,1963),24;see alsoMatthewJosephson, TheRobberBarons (Harcourt,Brace,1934),365.

9.RichardGrossmanandFrankT.Adams, TakingCareofBusiness:Citizenshipand theCharterofIncorporation (CharterInk., 1993);and WhyDoCorporationsHave MoreRightsThanYou? publicationof DemocracyUnlimited(Arcata,CA),n.d.

10.Josephson, TheRobberBarons,395.

11.Josephson, TheRobberBarons,52.

12.JamesS.Allen, Reconstruction:TheBattle forDemocracy,1865–1876 (International Publishers,1937);EricFoner, Reconstruction (Harper&Row,1988).

13.Blackmon, SlaverybyAnotherName, passim.

14.GabrielKolko, TheTriumphofConservatism (QuadrangleBooks,1967),chapters1 and2.

15.Kolko, TheTriumphofConservatism, 281–284;alsoFrankHarrisBlighton, WoodrowWilsonandCo.(FoxPrinting House,1916).

16.BoyerandMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory, 180–184andpassim.

17.JohnHigham, StrangersintheLand (RutgersUniversityPress,1988),212and passim.

18.RobertMurray, RedScare (McGrawHill, 1955),95–98;ChristopherMay, Inthe NameofWar (HarvardUniversityPress, 1989).

19.WilliamApplemanWilliams, “American InterventioninRussia:1917–1920,” in DavidHorowitz(ed.), Containmentand Revolution (BeaconPress,1967),38.

20.HowardZinn, APeople’sHistoryofthe UnitedStates (Harper&Row,1980), 376;alsotheBrookingsInstitutionstudy citedinBoyerandMorais, Labor’sUntold Story,237.

21.CharlesEckert, “ShirleyTempleandthe HouseofRockefeller,” inDonaldLazare (ed.), AmericanMediaandMassCulture (UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1987),174.

22.RhondaLevine, ClassStruggleandthe NewDeal (UniversityPressofKansas, 1988),70.

23.BoyerandMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory, 249.

24.Zinn, APeople’sHistory,378.

25.IrvingBernstein, TurbulentYears,AHistoryoftheAmericanWorker1933–1941 (HoughtonMifflin,1970);Boyerand Morais, Labor’sUntoldStory,passim.

27.FrancesFoxPivenandRichardCloward, RegulatingthePoor (Pantheon,1971),76; alsoBernstein, “TheNewDeal,” 269–270.

28.ChristopherD.Cook, DietforaDead Planet (NewPress,2004),101.

29.PivenandCloward, RegulatingthePoor, chapters2and3;NickTaylor, AmericanMade:TheEnduringLegacyoftheWPA, WhenFDRPutAmericatoWork (Bantam, 2008).

30.PivenandCloward, RegulatingthePoor,46.

31.GabrielKolko, WealthandPowerinAmerica (Praeger,1962),31;PaulConkin, The NewDeal (ThomasY.Crowell,1967),67.

32.MichaelGoldfield, “WorkerInsurgency, RadicalOrganization,andNewDealLabor Legislation,” AmericanPoliticalScience Review,83,December1989,1258;alsoArt Preis, Labor’sGiantStep (Pioneer,1964); RogerKeeran, TheCommunistPartyand theAutoWorkers’ Union (InternationalPublishers,1981).

33.IraKatznelson, WhenAffirmativeAction WasWhite (Norton,2005);andBernstein, “TheNewDeal,” 278–279.

CHAPTER d 4 WEALTHANDWANT INTHEUNITEDSTATES

1.AdamSmith, AnInquiryintotheNature andCausesoftheWealthofNations (EncyclopaediaBritannica,1952),33.

2.SeeDavidChandler’sreportathttp:// www.lcurve.org.

3.PaulKrugman, “TheDeathofHoratio Alger,” http://thenation.com/doc.mhtml?= 20040105&s=krugman.

4.DavidCayJohnston, “RichestAreLeaving EventheRichFarBehind,” NewYork Times,5June2005.

5.DonMonkcrud, “USIncomeInequality ContinuestoGrow,” CapitalTimes, 18July2009.

6.MichaelParenti, “TheSuperrichAreOut ofSight,” http://www.michaelparenti.org/ Superrich.html.

7.Forasimilarmodel,seeDavidChandler’s “L-curve,” http://www.lcurve.org/.

8.TheForbes400,Forbes.com,http://www. forbes.com/2008/09/16/forbes-400-billio naires-lists-400list08.

9.JamesBrock, “MergerManiaandIts Discontents:ThePriceofCorporate

26.BartonBernstein, “TheNewDeal,” inBartonBernstein(ed.), TowardaNewPast (Pantheon,1963),269;Levine, ClassStruggleandtheNewDeal,chapters1and4.

Consolidation,” MultinationalMonitor, July/August2005.

10.Ontransnationalcorporations,seeDavid Model, CorporateRule (BlackRoseBooks, 2003).

11.Monkcrud, “USIncomeInequalityContinuestoGrow.”

12.CEOCompensation,Forbes.com,http:// www.forbes.com/lists/2008/12/lead_best bosses08_CEO-Compe nsation_CompTot Disp.html/.

13. NewYorkTimes,editorial,15September 2002.

14. NewYorkTimes,1October2000;David Gordon, FatandMean:TheCorporate SqueezeofWorkingAmericansandthe MythofManagerial “Downsizing” (MartinKesslerBooks/TheFreePress,1996).

15.LewisLapham, “Notebook,” Harper’ s, April1991.

16. NewYorkTimes,17October2005.

17. WallStreetJournal,30August1978.

18.ChristopherD.Cook, DietforaDead Planet:HowtheFoodIndustryIsKilling Us (NewPress,2004),125–152.

19.USDA,2007CensusofAgriculture,http:// www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/ Online_Highlights/Fact_Sheets/farm_num bers.pdf.

20. “FarmsandAntibiotics,” NewYorkTimes, 24July2009.

21.Cook, DietforaDeadPlanet,160–186; andFactActs,Summer2005.

22.MarcLappéandBrittBailey, Againstthe Grain:BiotechnologyandtheCorporate TakeoverofYourFood (CommonCouragePress,2002).

23.RobSmart, “GuessWho’sControllingOur FoodSupply,” CommonDreams.org,27 July2009;NathanBatalion, “50Harmful EffectsofGeneticallyModified(GM) Foods,updated2009,RawWisdom.com, http://www.raw-wisdom.com/geneticallymodified-food.

24.SueBranford, “WhyArgentinaCan’tFeed Itself,” TheEcologist,8October2002.

25.KathleenMcAfeein SanFranciscoChronicle,6June2004.

26.LukeAnderson, GeneticEngineering, FoodandOurEnvironment (Lilliput Press,2000).

27. “SayNotoGeneticEngineering,” Greenpeace,24November2008,http://www. greenpeace.org/international/press/releases/ stop-gm-crops-save-our-food.Onecasein CanadawaswonagainstMonsantobya

farmer;see Monsantov.Schmeiser,http:// www.percyschmeiser.com.

28.DonaldBarlettandJamesSteele, “Monsanto’sHarvestofFear,” VanityFair,May 2008,http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/ features/2008/05/monsanto200805.

29.Quotedin Hunger,U.S.A. (BeaconPress, 1968),4.

30. “WorkerProductivityGrowsataRapid Pace,” NewYorkTimes,12August2009; DannySchecter, “CanDoingWhatSeemsto BetheRightThingTurnOuttoBetheWrong Thing?” ZNetDailyCommentary,18July 2009,http://www.zcommuncations.org/.

31.QuotedinPaulBaranandPaulSweezy, MonopolyCapital (MonthlyReview, 1966),49.

32.DavidK.Shipler, TheWorkingPoor: InvisibleinAmerica (Vintage,2008).

33.MichaelLuo, “OutofWork,andToo DowntoSearchOn,” NewYorkTimes, 7September2009.

34. NewYorkTimes,15Julyand11August2009.

35.SeethedailylaborreportsoftheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics.

36.U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics,July2009, http://www.bls.gov/.

37. SanFranciscoChronicle,17August2005; ChicagoSun-Times,26January2006.

38. WorkingHard,FallingShort,reportby WorkingPoorFamiliesProject,12October 2004;KeithYearman, “GreenShootsin America’sRuins,” ZMagazine,March2005.

39.MarkR.Rank, OneNationUnderPrivileged (OxfordUniversityPress,2004); NewYorkTimes,6March2006.

40.KennethSumerford, “USPublicDebtand ConsumerDebt IncreasingandDangerousin2008,” EzineArticles,n.d.,http:// ezinearticles.com.

41. “Fundamentals:U.S.DebtCrisis2008–2009,” UniversityofKMT,http://www. ukmtpress.com/universityofkmtpress/ id234.html.

42.AlanMichaelColling, TheStudentLoan Scam:TheMostOppressiveDebtinU.S. History andHowWeCanFightBack (BeaconPress,2009).

43.U.S.CensusBureau, Income,Poverty,and HealthInsuranceCoverageintheUnited States:2007,August2008,http://www. census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p60-235.pdf (21May2009).

44.HollySklar,LaryssaMykta,andSusan Wefald, RaisetheFloor:WagesandPolices ThatWorkforAllofUs (Ms.Foundation

forWomen,2001);BethShulman, The BetrayalofWork (NewPress,2005).

45. “BrokenLaws,UnprotectedWorkers,” studybyCenterforUrbanEconomicDevelopmentandotherinstitutions,released 2September2009.

46.2009FederalPovertyGuidelines,http:// www.atdn.org/access/poverty.html; “How WeMeasurePoverty,” OregonCenterfor PublicPolicy,February2000.

47. LosAngelesTimes,16October2008; JeremyRifkin, TheEuropeanDream (Tarcher,2004),39–80.

48.ReportsbytheNationalCenterforHealth Statistics;also SanFranciscoChronicle, 13November2007.

49.MichaelHudson(ed.), MerchantsofMisery:HowCorporateAmericaProfitsfrom Poverty (CommonCouragePress,2002).

50.SeeUrbanLeague’sannualreport, The StateofBlackAmerica,2009.

51. “TheImpactofInstitutionalRacismon theEmploymentandEducationalOpportunitiesforMinorityYouth,” Annual MeetingNationalYouthEmployment Coalition,13December1999,http:// www.nyec.org/racismpanel.htm; Oakland Tribune,9August2000.

52.SeeAFL-CIOreport,http://www.aflcio. org/issues/jobseconomy/women/equalpay.

53.SeereportsbyNationalCenterforChildreninPoverty,2009,http://www.nccp. org/topics/childpoverty.html.

54.OralHealthinAmerica:AReportofthe SurgeonGeneral,http://www.surgeongen eral.gov/library/oralhealth/.

55. “TheGrowingFaceofModernHungerin America,” April2009,http://cookingupas tory.com/the-growing-face-of-modern-hun ger-in-america/;andreportsbyFeeding America,www.feedingamerica.org/.

56.UNICEFstudyreportedin LosAngeles Times,15February2007.

57.WilliamRaspberry, “GarbageEaters,” WashingtonPost,2May1984.

58.ShannonMoriarty, “RecessionBabies,” EndHomelessness,21July2009,http:// homelessness.change.org/blog/view/recessi on;HabitatforHumanity, “U.S.Statistics andResearch,” http://www.habitat.org/ how/why/us_stats_research.aspx(23July 2009).

59.Onhomelessness,seeNationalCoalition fortheHomelessNational,http://www. google.com/#hl=en&q=national+coalition+ for+the+homeless+statistics&aq=f&oq=hu

nger+in+america+2009;andNational HealthCarefortheHomeless.www. nhchc.org/publications.

60. “HomesNotHandcuffs:TheCriminalizationofHomelessnessinU.S.Cities,” reportbyNationalLawCenteronHomelessnessandPoverty,andtheNational CoalitionfortheHomeless,2009.

61. “SneakAttackofthe410(k)s,” Labor PartyPress,July2002; NewYorkTimes, 6December2005; SanFranciscoChronicle,22December2004.

62.SeeHelenEpstein, “GhettoMiasma:EnoughtoMakeYouSick,” NewYork TimesMagazine,12October2003;also annualreportsfromNationalInstituteof MentalHealth.

63.ThomasJoiner, WhyPeopleDiebySuicide (HarvardUniversityPress,2006);KarenBalkin(ed.), ViolenceAgainstWomen (GreenhavenPress,2004);NationalClearingHouseonChildAbuseandNeglect, http://nccanch.acf.hhs.gov/2005.

64.ArtPerlo, “FalseHopeontheEconomy,” People’sWeeklyWorld,11–17July2009.

CHAPTER d 5 INSTITUTIONSAND IDEOLOGIES

1.Naderquotedin HomeandGardens, August1991.

2.Forexamplesofcensorshipofhigh-school newspapers,seehttp://www.ioerror.us/ 2005/11/30/two-high-school-newspaperscensored/andhttp://www.beverly-under ground.com/editorials.htm.

3.Onthebiasesoftextbooks,seeMichael Parenti, HistoryasMystery (CityLights, 1999),11–21.

4.MarkMaier, “High-SchoolEconomics: CorporateSponsorshipandPro-Market Bias,” DollarsandSense,May/June2002.

5.JenniferWashburn, UniversityInc.:The CorporateCorruptionofHigherEducation (BasicBooks,2005);alsoreportin ChronicleofHigherEducation,17November2008.

6. SanFranciscoChronicle,13November 2005.

7.StephenBest,AnthonyJ.NocellaII,and PeterMcLaren(eds.), AcademicRepression:ReflectionsfromtheAcademicIndustrialComplex (AKPress,2009).

8.Thislistofcorporateroguesisadapted fromacompilationbyCorporateAccountabilityInternational,2009report.

9.MichaelParenti, Superpatriotism (City Lights,2004),125–127.

10.FrankScott,in CoastalPost (Marin County,California),1February1996.

11.MichaelParenti, GodandHisDemons (Prometheus,2010),chapter13.

12.ForfurtherdiscussionseeMichaelParenti, BlackshirtsandReds:RationalFascism andtheOverthrowofCommunism (City Lights,1997).

13.EconomicPolicyInstitute,www.epinet. org/pulse; NewYorkTimes,24May 2005;PublicCitizen’sHealthResearch Group, HealthLetter,June2004.

14.GallupPolls,http://www.gallup.com/.

15.http://harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/ HarrisPoll.

16.StephenKohn, TheHistoryofAmerican DraftLawViolations 1658–1985(GreenwoodPress,1986).

CHAPTER d 6 POLITICS: WHOGETSWHAT?

1.RichardBoyerandHerbertMorais, Labor’sUntoldStory (UnitedElectrical, RadioandMachineWorkers,1972), 331–332,339.

2.SeeDavidCayJohnston, FreeLunch:How theWealthiestAmericansEnrichThemselvesatGovernmentExpense(andStick YouwiththeBill) (Penguin,2008);Mark Zepezauer, TaketheRichOffWelfare (SouthEndPress,2004);AriannaHuffington, PigsattheTrough:HowCorporate GreedandPoliticalCorruptionAreUnderminingAmerica (ThreeRiversPress,2007).

3.EdmundAndrewsandSimonRomero, “RoyaltiesOwedtoU.S.Treasury,” New YorkTimes,10February2006.

4.StephenSlivinski, “TheCorporateWelfare State:HowtheFederalGovernment SubsidizesU.S.Business,” CatoInstitute, 14May2007,http://www.cato.org/pubs/ pas/pa592.pdf.

5. SanFranciscoChronicle,5August2003.

6.Slivinski, “TheCorporateWelfareState” ; ChristopherD.Cook, DietforaDead Planet (NewPress,2004),225.

7.DevinderSharma, “FarmSubsidies:The ReportCard,” ZNetCommentary, 27November2005;Cook, Dietfora DeadPlanet,226.

8.CarolynLochhead, “FarmBillKillsFarming,” SanFranciscoChronicle,20May 2002.

9.FrankKofsky, HarryS.TrumanandtheWar Scareof1948 (St.Martin’sPress,1994).

10.GeorgeMonbiot, “CongressConfronts ItsContradictions,” Guardian (UK), 30September2008.

11.GeorgeMonbiot, “CongressConfronts ItsContradictions,” ZNet,30September 2008;seealsoSarahAnderson,Chuck Collins,andSamPizzigati, “Beyond theAIGBonuses,” InstituteforPolicyStudies,27March2009,http://www.ips-dc.org/ reports/#623.

12.StephenPizzoetal., InsideJob:TheLootingofAmerica’sSavingsandLoans (HarperCollins,1991).

13.GregSpotts, Wal-Mart:TheHighCostof LowPrice (DisinformationCompany, 2005);AnthonyBianco, Wal-Mart:The BullyofBentonville (BroadwayBusiness, 2007);BillQuinn, HowWal-MartIsDestroyingAmerica(andtheWorld) (Ten SpeedPress,2005).

14.GregLeRoy, TheGreatAmericanJobs Scam (Berrett-Koehler,2005).

15.SeeChapter17foradiscussionofthe FederalReserve.

16. NewYorkTimes,12August2009.

17. NewYorkTimes,3August2009.

18.18RyanGrim, “GoldmanSachs,GamblingwithYourMoney?” 27July2009, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/ 27/goldman-sachs-gambling-wi_n_245566. html;JohnCarney, “Okay,ThisTimeMatt TaibbiNailsGoldmanandtheBailout,” 16July2009,http://www.businessinsider. com-2009-7.

19. NewYorkTimes,11August2009.

20. NewYorkTimes,10August2009;Brian RossandTomShine, “AfterBailout,AIG ExecsHeadtoCaliforniaResort,” 7October 2008,http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/story? id=5973452&page=1.

21. NewYorkTimes,24July2009.

22. NewYorkTimes,14July2009.

23. SanFranciscoChronicle,17November 2005.

24. NewYorkTimes,23March2009.

25.DonMonkcrud, “U.S.IncomeInequality ContinuestoGrow,” CapitalTimes, 18July2009.

26.Quotedin SanFranciscoChronicle, 12December2007;seealsoDavidCay Johnston, PerfectlyLegal:TheCovert CampaigntoRigOurTaxSystemtoBenefittheSuperRich andCheatEveryone Else (Portfolio,2003),13ff.

27.Johnston, PerfectlyLegal,196–208, 221–275; NewYorkTimes,20June2002.

28. “OffshoreTaxHavensunderFire,” Wall StreetJournal DigitalNetwork,11July2009.

29. ChallengesRemaininCombatingAbusive TaxShelters,GAO-04-104T,21October 2003; TaxShelters:ServicesProvidedby ExternalAuditors,GAO-05-171,1February 2005.

30. SanFranciscoChronicle,13September 2002.

31. NewYorkTimes,9July1996.

32. WallStreetJournal,6April2004.

33. JustTaxes,September2004; SanFrancisco Chronicle,21February2002.

34. “AreYouPayingforCorporateFatCats?” Parade,13April2008.

35.DavidLeonhardt, “TheUpsideofPaying MoreTaxes,” NewYorkTimes,25February 2009;SteveHarris, “TaxesontheRich,” San FranciscoChronicle,22April2008.

36.DavidCayJohnston, “HowRichGetRicher:AlltheRestPayMore,” SanFranciscoChronicle,10April2005;Johnston, PerfectlyLegal,162–168,296–299.

37.KevinMcCoy, “IRSCutsBackonAuditsof LargeFirms,” USAToday,14April2008.

38. WashingtonPost,12April2004; New YorkTimes,11January2006.

39. WhoPays?ADistributionalAnalysisofthe TaxSystemsinAll50States,2ndedition, InstituteonTaxationandEconomicPolicy, January2003; CTJUpdate,March2003.

40.Johnston, PerfectlyLegal,73–93.

41. WashingtonPost,12October2004; New YorkTimes,12May,23July,and1August 2006.

42. NewYorkTimes,13January2006.

43. NewYorkTimes,10June2009.

44.KarlMarx, Capital,vol.1(PenguinBooks, 1976),919.

CHAPTER d 7 HEALTHANDHUMAN SERVICES:SACRIFICIALLAMBS

1. “TheWarAgainstthePoor,” JusticeExpress,Winter2002; WashingtonPost, 3November2005.

2.MartaRussell, “NoneCallitCleansing,” ZNetCommentary,15December2005; SanFranciscoChronicle,6February2006.

3. NewYorkTimes,5July2009.

4.ReedAbelson, “InsuredbutUnprotected, andDrivenBankruptbyHealthCrises,” NewYorkTimes,1July2009.

5.JamesD.Scurlock, MaxedOut:Hard TimesintheAgeofEasyCredit (Scribner, 2007);RichardLord, AmericanNightmare:PredatoryLendingandtheForeclosureoftheAmericanDream (Common CouragePress,2004).

6.JackRasmus, “StealingSocialSecurity,” ZMagazine,December2004;DanielBeland, SocialSecurity:HistoryandPolitics fromtheNewDealtothePrivatization Debate (UniversityPressofKansas, 2007).

7.Forthelatestalarm,see NewYorkTimes, 13May2009.

8.DavidCayJohnston, PerfectlyLegal (Penguin,2003),119–130.

9. “ShouldWePreventtheWallStreetRipOffofSocialSecurity?” Solidarity, October2001.

10.Onthevariousdatagivenintheaboveparagraph,seeJimHall, “First,MakeNoMistakes,” Op-Ed, NewYorkTimes,29July 2009; “MakingHospitalsSaferforPatients,” NewYorkTimes,3August2009; “BillsFocusingonInfectionsAreNot StrongEnough,” BayAreaNewsGroup, 2January2009;PaulO’Neill, “Health Care’sInfectiousLosses,” Op-Ed, New YorkTimes,6July2009; NewYorkTimes, 21July2006.

11.JessicaFraser, “StatisticsProvePrescriptionDrugsAre16,400%MoreDeadly thanTerrorists,” www.newstarget.com/ 009278.html.

12. “AreWePoisoningOurKidsintheNameof ProtectingTheirHealth,” statementbyGenerationRescue, USAToday,12February 2008.

13. NewYorkTimes,30January2006.

14. LosAngelesTimes,28July1997.

15.SeeGAOreportin NewYorkTimes,2 March2002.

16.AllenMyerson, “ADoubleStandardin HealthCoverage,” NewYorkTimes,17 March1996; “HospitalfortheRich,” Solidarity,January/February1997.

17.DonaldBartlettandJamesSteele, Critical Condition:HowHealthCareinAmerica BecameBigBusinessandBadMedicine (Doubleday,2004).

18.RonAdler, “WhyYourDoctorIsn’t HappytoSeeYou,” SanFranciscoChronicle,7April2000.

19. “AmericansatRisk:OneinThreeUninsured,” reportbyFamiliesUSA,March 2009,http://www.familiesusa.org;Billy

Wharton, “TheFailureofObama’s Health-CareReform,” Links,July2009, http://links.org.au/node/1159.

20. SanFranciscoChronicle,24May2009; NewYorkTimes,29July2009;Carl Mankowitz,M.D.,correspondence, New YorkTimes,28July2009.

21.ReedAbelson, “InsuredbutUnprotected, andDrivenBankruptbyHealthCrises,” NewYorkTimes,1July2009.

22.Quotedin NewYorkTimes,1July2009.

23.PaulKrugman, “HealthCareRealities,” NewYorkTimes,31July2009.

24.PublicCitizenHealthResearchGroup, HealthLetter,February2004;PaulKrugman’scolumn, NewYorkTimes, 18November2005.

25.SeereportbyKevinSackandMarjorieConnellyin NewYorkTimes,21June2009.

26. “PrescriptionsandProfit,” HealthLetter, PublicCitizenHealthResearchGroup, April2004;WHOreportsummarizedby PhineasBaxandallin DollarsandSense, May/June2001.

27.PaulKrugmanin NewYorkTimes, 27January2006.

28.BobHerbertin NewYorkTimes, 18August2009.

29.C.A.GuerraandJ.M.Moran, Pill Pushers:ABigPharmaBattleforMarket Share (BookSurge,2007); NewYork Times,29April2009.

30. “ObsceneDrugMarkUps,” 2009,http:// blogs.healthfreedomalliance.org/blog/2009/ 06/11/obscene-drug-mark-ups/.

31.ReportbyNationalInstitutesofHealth citedin Solidarity,October2001.

32. BaltimoreSun,19October1996.

33. NewYorkTimes,18and21Januaryand 30July2006.

34.NatashaSinger, “GhostsintheJournals,” NewYorkTimes,19August2009.

35. NewYorkTimes,15April1998; LosAngelesTimes,30June2002.

36.HilaryVarner, “MilkingthePublic,” ChicagoLifeMagazine,October1995.

37. “FACTCallsforEndtoFarmDrugAbuse,” annualreportofFoodAnimalConcerns Trust,Chicago,Winter1999;Humane Societystatement: NewYorkTimes,27February1998; PublicCitizenNews,July/ August2003;ReportbyCenterforFood Safety,26February2003,http://www.cen terforfoodsafety.org/page197.cfm.

38.ChristopherD.Cook, “CoalMiners Slaughter,” 25January2006,http://

www.inthesetimes.com/site/main/article/ 2478/; “NewEffortstoKeepWorkersSafe,” SanFranciscoChronicle,14June2009.

39.ChristopherD.Cook, “LosingLifeand LimbontheJob,” Progressive,February 2000; NewYorkTimes,8January2002.

40.U.S.DepartmentofLabor,http://www. dol.gov/esa/whd/flsa/.

41. NewYorkTimes,2September2009.

42.KimBobo, WageTheftinAmerica:Why MillionsofWorkingAmericansAreNot GettingPaidandWhatWeCanDoAbout It (NewPress:2009).

43.SeeJonathanKozol, TheShameofthe Nation:TheRestorationofApartheid SchoolinginAmerica (Crown,2005); NewYorkTimes,27July2000.

44.JoanRyan, “TrippingUpHeadstart,” San FranciscoChronicle,11February2003; “ConcerningPee-Wee,” Nation,17February2003.

45.LindaPerlstein, Tested:OneAmerican SchoolStrugglestoMaketheGrade (Henry Holt,2008).

46.GailCollins,column, NewYorkTimes, 28May2009.

47.EllenMutariandMelakuLakew, “Class Conflict,” DollarsandSense,January/ February2003; NewYorkTimes,12December2005and7February2006.

48. NewYorkTimes,9November2003.

49. LosAngelesTimes,18April1992.

50.ProjectCensored, “U.S.FacesNational HousingCrisis,” Censored2003 (Seven StoriesPress,2002).

51. “NoSecondChance,” HumanRights Watch,18November2004.

52. “MakingHomeAffordable,” http://www. treas.gov/press/releases/docs/05142009Fact Sheet-MakingHomesAffordable.pdf.

53.JaneHoltzKay, AsphaltNation (UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997).

54.Kay, AsphaltNation.

55.GregLeRoy, “SubsidizingSprawl,” MultinationalMonitor,October2003.

56. “GroundZeroforZeroEmissionVehicles,” CaliforniaToday (publicationofPlanning andConservationLeague),June2000.

57.AlejandroReuss, “CarTrouble,” Dollars andSense,March/April2003;Jeff Nachtigal, “UnlockingGridlock,” Terrain, Fall2004.

58. “MoreMoneyforPublicTransit,” San FranciscoChronicle,14June2009;Jeff Kosseff, “AmericaIsFallingApart,” Oregonian,29June2008.

CHAPTER d 8 THELAST

ENVIRONMENT

1.MarquitaK.Hill, UnderstandingEnvironmentalPollution (CambridgeUniversity Press,2004).

2. NewYorkTimes,28June2003.

3. “CuttingtheHeartOutoftheAncient Redwoods,” GreenpeaceQuarterly,Spring 1997.

4.MichaelBrowerandLeonWarren, The Consumer’ sGuidetoEffectiveEnvironmentalChoices (ThreeRiversPress, 1999).

5.RobertD.Bullard(ed.), TheQuestforEnvironmentalJustice:HumanRightsand thePoliticsofPollution (SierraClub Books,2005).

6.JohnCushmanJr., “USReshapingCancer StrategyasIncidenceinChildrenRises,” NewYorkTimes,29September1997; “ToxicChemicalPesticidesCauseCancer,” CancerReport,no.726,Environmental ResearchFoundation,7June2001

7.CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,2009,http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ FASTATS/asthma.htm.

8.VickiHaddockreportingin SanFrancisco Chronicle,28March2004.

9.AlexandraRomein SanFranciscoChronicle,28March2004;alsoEnvironmental WorkingGroupWebsite,http://www. ewg.org/reports/bodyburden/.

10.ChristopherBryson, TheFluorideDeception (SevenStoriesPress,2004);http://www. FluorideAction.Net; NewYorkTimes, 23March2006.

11.SeestudiesbyEnvironmentalWorking Group,http://www.ewg.org/pesticides.

12. “TheCostsofPesticides,” PesticideNews, no.39,http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/ pn39/pn39p4.htm.

13.PesticidesinAmerica,http://www.texasep. org/html/pes/pes_1usa.html.

14. “GrainProduction,” http://www.wholesystems.org/grain.html.

15.CoalitionforCleanAir,newsletter,June 2005; LosAngelesTimes,4May2001.

16.JamesGustaveSpeth, TheBridgeatthe EdgeoftheWorld:Capitalism,theEnvironment,andCrossingfromCrisistoSustainability (YaleUniversityPress,2009).

17.MaudeBarlow, BlueCovenant:TheGlobal WaterCrisisandtheComingBattleforthe RighttoWater (NewPress,2009);California EnvironmentalNewsService,July2009 report.

18.Accordingtoareportbytheglobal HumanitarianForum, NewYorkTimes, 29May2009.

19.BruceJohansen, “GlobalWarming,” ZMagazine,April2005; Washington Post,17February2006; NewYorkTimes, 3March2006.

20.Forinstance,JamesLovelock, TheVanishingFaceofGaia:AFinalWarning (Basic Books,2009).

21. WashingtonPost,11February2006.

22.DavidPerlman, “DeclineinOceans’ PhytoplanktonAlarmsScientists,” SanFranciscoChronicle,6October2003.

23.ErikReece, LostMountain (Riverhead Books,2006).

24. NewYorkTimes,21July2009.

25.MatthewShaffer, Wastelands: TheThreat ofToxicFertilizer,CALPIRGCharitable Trust,3May2001,http://www.pirg.org/ toxics/reports/wastelands/;DavidSegal, WashingtonPost,27May1997.

26. WashingtonPost,23February2002; “LivingonPoisonedGround,” People, 25March2002.

27.RobertLieberandLynnElliot-Harding, “ProtectOurMostVulnerablefromAerial Spraying,” BerkeleyDailyPlanet,9–15 April2009.

28.KarlGrossman, “ThreeMileIsland,” Extra!,July/August1993.

29.ChristianParenti, “WhatNuclearRenaissance?” Nation,12May2008.

30.RochelleBecker, “NuclearEmperorHas NoClothes,” TurningPoints,Summer2001.

31.RussellMokhiber, “BushPolluterPass,” MultinationalMonitor,October2004.

32. GreenpeaceUpdate,Fall2003;surveyof scientistsbyUnionofConcernedScientists andPublicEmployeesforEnvironmental Responsibility,reportedin SanFrancisco Chronicle,10February2005.

33.NationalPrioritiesProject,http ://national priorities.org/issues/env/threatened/index. html,29July2004;PhysicianforSocialResponsibility, PSRReports,Spring/Summer 2005; NewYorkTimes,28August2003.

34.RobertF.KennedyJr., CrimesAgainst Nature (HarperCollins,2004).

35.MarcReisner, CadillacDesert:TheAmericanWestandItsDisappearingWater, reviseded.(Penguin,1993).

36.AlisonAuld, “FarmingwithFidel,” SustainableTimes,Fall1999;HughWarwick, “Cuba’sOrganicRevolution,” ThirdWorld Resurgence,no.118/119,n.d.(circa2000).

37.MargaretMellon, “WholesomeHarvest,” Nucleus,Winter1997–1998; Organic Gardening,May/June2000.

38. CoolEnergy,TheRenewableSolutionto GlobalWarming (publicationoftheUnion ofConcernedScientists),Cambridge,MA, 1990; NewYorkTimes,15February2006.

39.MichelleMalkin, “EthanolIsaBigFraud,” SanFranciscoChronicle,26August2002.

CHAPTER d 9 UNEQUALBEFORE THELAW

1.RussellMokhiber, “20ThingsaboutCorporateCrime,” MultinationalMonitor, January/February2007;JosephT.Wells, CorporateFraudHandbook,2nded. (Wiley2007).

2.Mokhiber, “20ThingsaboutCorporate Crime.”

3. NewYorkTimes,11May1934and 29April2000;CharlesHigham, Trading withtheEnemy (Dell,1983);Associated Pressreport,14March1998.

4. LosAngelesTimes ,10March1990;AshvilleGlobalReport,21–27October1999; InternalReportofU.S.Departmentof InteriorAudit,ProjectonGovernment Oversight,Washington,D.C.,13April 1995.

5.DavidFriedrichs, TrustedCriminals:White CollarCrimeinContemporarySociety (Wadsworth,1996); NewYorkTimes, 9November1986; WashingtonPost,6March 1991; UtilityNotes,Washington,D.C., 30December1988.

6.MichaelWaldman, WhoRobbedAmerica (RandomHouse,1990).

7. NewYorkTimes,9and11November2005.

8.RobertSherrill, “AYearinCorporate Crime,” Nation,7April1997; NewYork Times,2June1992and22August1995.

9. NewYorkTimes,4August2004;AssociatedPressreport,24March2005.

10. LosAngelesTimes,13March1996.

11. NewYorkTimes,2and20October2005; BethanyMcLeanandPeterElkind, The SmartestGuysintheRoom (Portfolio, 2003);RogerLowenstein, Originsofthe Crash (PenguinPress,2004).

12.NigelJaquiss, “Craig’sList,” Willamette Week (Online),9July2008;JeffManning, “Jurors:WhyNoBergmanCharges?” Oregonian,29June2008.

13.PaulKrugman,column, NewYorkTimes, 7August2009.

14.Forthetradingfirmcases,see NewYork Times,5March2009.TheGEandAIG casesarebothin NewYorkTimes,7August 2009.

15. NewYorkTimes,3September2009.

16.GeneralAccountingOffice, FinancialIntegrityActReport (U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,January1990);RussellMokhiber andRobertWeissman, CorporatePredators (CommonCourage,1999).

17. NewYorkTimes,2March2002and 2March2006.

18.JamesStewart, DenofThieves (Touchstone,1992),527andpassim;and New YorkTimes,30January1993.

19.JerryOppenheimer, Madoffwiththe Money (Wiley,2009);ErinArvedlund, TooGoodtoBeTrue:TheRiseandFall ofBernieMadoff (Portfolio,2009).

20. NewYorkTimes,9and14July2009.

21.KennethHarney, “CongressGoestoWar overMortgageFraud,” SanFrancisco Chronicle,31May2009.

22.HarrisandRoperpollsreportedin New YorkTimes,9December2005.

23.CharlesA.IntriagoandRobertA.Butterworth, “FundGovernmentwithDirty Money,” NewYorkTimes,28April2009.

24.IntriagoandButterworth, “FundGovernmentwithDirtyMoney.”

25.JudgeNicholasCobella,quotedin San JoseMercuryNews,23January2000.

26.DavidBurnham, AbovetheLaw (Scribner, 1996);RalphNaderandWesleySmith, NoContest:CorporateLawyersandthe PerversionofJusticeinAmerica (Random House,1996).

27. “TooManyLawsuits?BlameItonBusiness,” PublicCitizenNews,November/ December2004.

28. “PublicDefender,” EastBayExpress,8–14 August2001; “Harper’sIndex,” Harper’ s, March2004.

29.BarbaraEhrenreich, “IsItNowaCrime toBePoor?” NewYorkTimes,Op-Ed, 9August2009.

30. “FewerLawyersforthePoor,” Parade Magazine,26April2009;JamesF.Short Jr., Poverty,Ethnicity,andViolentCrime (WestviewPress,1997).

31. LosAngelesTimes,16June1990; People’sDailyWorld,23January1990and 7October1995;anddocumentaryfilm, HarlanCounty,USA.

32. SanFranciscoChronicle,24Februaryand 5November2002,and30December

2003; NewYorkTimes,5August1984, and5and7November2002.

33. “TheImpactof ‘ThreeStrikesandYou’re Out’ Laws,” PrisonFocus,Winter1997; “CrimeDropNotLinkedtoArrestRates,” PrisonFocus,Winter2000;and NewYork Times,5Julyand28August2000.

34.ReportbyU.S.BureauofJusticeStatistics, 7November2004;alsoMikkiNorris etal., ShatteredLives (CreativeXpression, 1998).

35. SanFranciscoChronicle,23November 2004;ClydeM.TaylorJr. “HarshMandatorySentencesforSimpleDrugPossession,” September2009,http://knowledgebase.find law.com/kb/2009/Sep/32622.html.

36.VincentSchiraldiandRoseBraz, “The ChoiceBetweenPrisonandSchools,” San FranciscoChronicle,21January2003.

37. “CongressionalFamilyDrugOffendersEscapeMandatorySentences,” NorthCoast Xpress,Spring2000;EarlOfariHutchinsonin SanFranciscoChronicle,19October 2003.

38.RichardMoran, “FBIScareTactics,” New YorkTimes,7May1996.

39.BureauofJusticeStatistics,http://www.ojp. usdoj.gov/bjs/prisons.htm;CNN.com/crime, “Study:WillPut7.3MillioninU.S.Prison Systemin ’07,” 2March2009,http://www. cnn.com/2009/CRIME/03/02/record.prison. population; NewYorkTimes,1Januaryand 23July2009.

40. NewYorkTimes,20August2009;Senator JimWebb, “WhyWeMustFixOurPrisons,” ParadeMagazine,29March2009.

41. NewYorkTimes,23Julyand20August 2009.

42. SanFranciscoChronicle,3July2003and 20August2005;T.J.Parcell, Fish:AMemoirofaBoyinaMan’sPrison (DaCapo, 2007); NewYorkTimes,23June2009.

43.AtulGawande, “Hellhole,” NewYorker, 30March2009; PrisonFocus,Summer2004.

44.AudreyBomse, “CongressClosesCourthouseDoorstoPrisonLitigation,” Legal Journal (NationalLawyersGuild),Winter/ Spring1997.

45.WillieWisely, “WhyPrisonsCostSoMuch,” NorthCoastXpress,April/May1995.

46.DavidMcGowan, DerailingDemocracy (CommonCourage,2000),136;AssociatedPressreport,6July2007.

47.JudithGreene, “BailingOutPrivateJails,” TheAmericanProspect,10September 2001.

48. NewYorkTimes,23February2006;Keith Carson, “TheWorstIsYettoCome,” DailyCalifornian,10August2009.

49.Ehrenreich, “IsItNowaCrimetoBe Poor?”

50.KenMaguire, “WronglyJailedManGets Apology,” AssociatedPress,10October 2003; “DNAtoFreedom,” http://www.usin court.2itb.com/; “ThreeLAPDOfficers Convicted,” PrisonFocus,Spring2001; KayLee’sreportin JusticeXpress,Fall2002.

51.MichaelRadelet,etal., InSpiteofInnocence (NortheasternUniversityPress, 1992);BarrySchecketal., ActualInnocence (Doubleday,1999).

52. NewYorkTimes,22November2005.

53. “InSpiteofInnocence,” newsletter ofCampaigntoEndtheDeathPenalty, Chicago,1998.

54.ReportbyDeathPenaltyInformationCenter,September2009,http://www.death penaltyinfo.org/.

55.http://www.law.north western.edu/depts/ clinic/wrongful/.

56.SeeDavidDowandMarkDow(eds.), MachineryofDeath (Routledge,2002).

57.LindaG.Mills, InsulttoInjury:RethinkingOurResponsestoIntimateAbuse (PrincetonUniversityPress,2006).

58.SarahTofte, “TestingJustice:TheRape KitBackloginLosAngelesCityand County,” HumanRightsWatchreport, 31March2009;NicolasKristof,column, NewYorkTimes,30April2009.

59.BobEgelkoin SanFranciscoChronicle, 27July2005.

60.ChrisLombardi, “JusticeforBattered Women,” Nation,15July2002;Lorraine Dusky, StillUnequal:TheShamefulTruth AboutWomenandJusticeinAmerica (Crown,1996).

61.JenniferGonnerman, “Welfare’sDomestic Violence,” Nation,10March1997.

62.LorraineDusky, StillUnequal (Random House1998).

63.NationalAbortionReproductiveRightsActionLeague(NARAL),Pro-ChoiceAmerica report,July2009; “Violenceandharassment atU.S.abortionclinics,” http://www.reli gioustolerance.org/abo_viol.htm.

64. “SexualAssaultandMisconductAgainst WomeninPrison,” reportbyAmnestyInternational,n.d.; NewYorkTimes,2March 2006.

65.ChristineJose-Kampiner’sreportinDiane Adams(ed.), HealthIssuesforWomenof

Color (SagePublications,1995);Arianna Huffingtonin SanFranciscoExaminer, 25June2000.

66.SeetheannualreportsoftheNationalGay andLesbianTaskForce,Washington, D.C.; SanFranciscoChronicle,30November 2003;andthecaseofSandyNelson,newsletter,NationalLawyersGuild,Seattlechapter,August1995.

67.Lawrence etal. v. Texas (2003)overturning Bowersv.Hardwick (1986).

68.KathyBelge, “WhereCanGaysLegally Marry?” July2009,http://lesbianlife.about. com/cs/wedding/a/wheremarriage.htm.

69. ChildMaltreatment:SummaryofKey Findings,reportbyNationalClearinghouseonChildAbuseandNeglectInformation,2005.

70. “StatisticsSurroundingChildSexual Abuse,” DarknesstoLight,13August 2008;Margaret-EllenPipeetal.(eds.), ChildSexualAbuse:Disclosure,Delay, andDenial (LawrenceErlbaum,2007).

71. NewYorkTimes,7October2000;GAO reportonchildlabor,Washington,D.C., 1October2002.

72. NewYorkTimes,25August2009;Louise Armstrong, AndTheyCallItHelp:The PsychiatricPolicingofAmerica’sChildren (Addison-Wesley,1993);JackCarter, “America’sIncarceratedChildrenToday,” inDwightEdgarAbbott, ICried,You Didn’tListen (FeralHouse,1991).

73.PeterBreggin,M.D., MedicationMadness: TheRoleofPsychiatricDrugsinCasesof Violence,Suicide,andCrime (St.Martin’s Griffin,2009),180–221;MarthaRosenberg, “Seroquel,ZyprexaandGeodonfor Kids?” http://dissidentvoice.org,13June 2009.

74.Ontheabuseofthementallyill,seeRobertWhitaker, MadinAmerica (Perseus, 2003).

75.TimWise, “WhitesSwiminRacialPreference,” IndependentPoliticalNews,Spring 2003; NewYorkTimes,17June2005.

76.TimWisesummarizesthesestudiesinhis “SinsofOmission,” ZNetCommentary, 7July2006.

77. NewYorkTimes,27November2004; EileenPoe-YamagataandMichaelA. Jones, AndJusticeforSome,National CouncilonCrimeandDelinquency,2000.

78. “RacialInequityandDrugArrests,” New YorkTimes editorial,10May2008; New YorkTimes,30April2009;ClaireCooper,

“CocaineJustice:CrackedandBroken,” SanFranciscoChronicle,8March2009.

79.RichardDieter, TheDeathPenaltyin BlackandWhite,reportbyDeathPenalty InformationCenter,http://www.deathpe naltyinfo.org/; WashingtonPost,1July 2002.

80.JimLane, “RacisminEastTexas,” People’sWeeklyWorld,28May2005.

81. USAToday,24March1998; LosAngeles Times,25January2000.

82.TimWise, “SorryfortheInconvenience,” ZNetCommentary,18February2009.

83.KristianWilliams, OurEnemiesinBlue: PoliceandPowerinAmerica (SouthEnd Press,2007).

84.Quotedin Parade,22August1976.However,eveninthebestofsocialcircumstances thereareruthlesslyselfinterestedpeople whoresorttoviolentandunlawfulmeans togetwhattheywant.Notallcrimeisa reactiontodeprivationandclassinequity.

CHAPTER d 10 POLITICALREPRESSION ANDNATIONALINSECURITY

1.DavidBurnham, ALawUntoItself:The IRSandtheAbuseofPower (Vintage, 1989),255–290.

2.Forrecentinstances,seeRobertHurwitt’s review, SanFranciscoChronicle,3July 2007;andBenjaminDangle, “IntheName oftheWaronTerror,” TowardFreedom, 28February2006.

3. LosAngelesTimes,7December2004.

4.KimberlyChase, “Speakingin ‘Approved’ Tongues,” ChristianScienceMonitor, 11March2004.

5.EllenSchrecker, ManyAretheCrimes (PrincetonUniversityPress,1999);RichardCurry(ed.), FreedomatRisk (TempleUniversityPress,1988).

6. NewYorkTimes,11August1996;Philip Colangelo, “TheSecretFISACourt,” CovertActionQuarterly,Summer1995.

7.JamesDickerson, Dixie’sDirtySecret (M.E.Sharpe,1998);andKennethO’Reilly, RacialMatters,TheFBI’sSecretFile onBlackAmerica (FreePress,1989).

8.QuotedinFrankDonner, “TheTheory andPracticeofAmericanPoliticalIntelligence,” NewYorkReviewofBooks, 22April1971,28;seealsoFrankDonner, TheAgeofSurveillance (Knopf,1980).

9. NewYorkTimes,22December2005; FrankDonner, ProtectorsofPrivilege:

RedSquadsandPoliceRepressionin UrbanAmerica (UniversityofCalifornia Press,1991).

10.MumiaAbu-Jamal, WeWantFreedom (SouthEndPress,2004),156.

11. NewYorkTimes,24November1974; JamesKirkpatrickDavis, Assaultonthe Left (Praeger,1997);SusieDayandLaura Whitehorn, “HumanRightsintheUnited States:TheUnfinishedStoryofPolitical PrisonersandCOINTELPRO,” NewPoliticalScience,vol.23,2001.

12.M.WesleySwearingen, FBISecrets:An Agent’sExposé (SouthEndPress,1995), 105–106;BrianGlick, WaratHome (SouthEnd,1989).

13.AnthonySummers, OfficialandConfidential,TheSecretLifeofJ.EdgarHoover (G.P.Putnam’s,1993);AthanTheoharis andJohnStuartCox, TheBoss (TempleUniversityPress,1988);MichaelMilan, The Squad:TheGovernment’sSecretAlliance withOrganizedCrime (Shapolsky,1989).

14.RossGelbspan, Break-ins,DeathThreats, andtheFBI (SouthEndPress,1991).

15. NewYorkTimes,23and27November 2003,20December2005,and17March 2006; WashingtonPost,13December 2003.

16.http://www.indgmedia.org,18April2000; http://www.a16.org/a16_notebook.cfm, 25April2000.

17.Forarecentexampleofpolicesuppression ofantiwardemonstrators,seeMarjorie Cohn, “PreemptiveStrikesAgainstProtest atRNC,” ZNetCommentary,2September 2008.

18. NewYorkTimes,3May2006.

19.Cohn, “PreemptiveStrikesAgainstProtest atRNC.”

20.Foranoverview,seeGeoffreyStone, PerilousTimes:FreeSpeechinWartimefrom theSeditionActof1798totheWaron Terrorism (Norton,2005).

21.RobertJ.Goldstein, PoliticalRepressionin ModernAmerica, From1870tothePresent (Schenkman/Hall,1978);DavidCaute, TheGreatFear (Simon&Schuster,1978).

22.KennethHeineman, CampusWars (New YorkUniversityPress,1993).

23.TheodoreBeckerandVernonMurray (eds.), GovernmentLawlessnessinAmerica (OxfordUniversityPress,1971),153–157;ShufordDefenseCommitteeNewsletter,January1978; Guardian (N.Y.), 3August1988.

24.JohnWojcik, “EddieCarthanandthe StruggleforBlackEmpowermentinthe DeepSouth,” People’sWeeklyWorld, 21February2009.

25.OnWashington,Bell,Bottom,Conway, Woodfox,Wallace,andKing,seevarious updatedInternetentries;also Legacyof Torture:TheWarAgainsttheBlackLiberationMovement (DVD,n.d.),CommitteefortheDefenseofHumanRights, http://www.cdhrsupport.org.

26.JackOlsen, LastManStanding:TheTragedyandTriumphofGeronimoPratt (Anchor,2001).

27.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hampt on,_Jr.;http://www.providence.edu/afro/ students/panther/hamptonjr.html.

28. MumiaAbu-Jamal:ACaseforReasonable Doubt? JohnEdginton,directorandwriter (DVD,2008);also “TheCaseforaNew Trial,” EqualJusticeUSA,QuixoteCenter, n.d.;andhttp://www.iacenter.org/polpris oners/maj_beverly3.htm.

29. IncidentatOglala TheLeonardPeltier Story,producedbyRobertRedfordetal. (DVD,2004).

30.Forapartiallisting,see Can’tJailthe Spirit,PrisonResourceActivistCenter, 3April2004.

31.LawrenceWilkerson, “TheCubanFive” (2007),http://www.thehavananote.comand http://www.thecubanfive.org.

32.WilliamReubenandCarlosNorman, “TheWomenofLexingtonPrison,” Nation,27June1987.Afterservingalmost sixteenyears,EvansandSusanRosenberg hadtheirsentencescommutedbyPresident Clintonin2001.MarilynBuckwasstillin prisonasof2009.

33.ZeroGSound, “SilviaBaraldiniisFree!” 8October2006,http://zerogsound.blogspot. com/2006/10/silvia-baraldini-is-free.html.

34.http://www.freefreenow.org,February2005.

35. WashingtonPost,14July2005.

36.JackNelsonandJackBass, TheOrangeburg Massacre (World,1969);I.F.Stone, “FabricatedEvidenceintheKentStateKillings,” NewYorkReviewofBooks,3December 1970;TimSpofford, LynchStreet:The May1970SlayingsatJacksonStateCollege (KentStateUniversityPress,1988).

37.BudSchultzandRuthSchultz, ThePrice ofDissent (UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 2002).

38.ForafullaccountoftheReutherassassination,seemy “TheWonderfulLifeand

StrangeDeathofWalterReuther,” in MichaelParenti, DirtyTruths (CityLights, 1996),192–207.

39.See SilencedbyDeath:JournalistsKilledin theUnitedStates(1976–1993),Committee toProtectJournalists,NewYork,1993; NewYorkTimes,26October1993.

40.JeffStein, “InsideOmega7,” VillageVoice, 10March1980;PeterKatel, “ARashof MediaMurders,” Newsweek,5July1993.

41.SteveGrossman, “VietnameseDeath Squads:IsThistheEnd?” Indochina Newsletter,May/June1988.

42.SteveGrossman, “VietnameseDeath SquadsinAmerica?” AsiaInsights,Asia ResourceCenter,Summer1986.

43. DailyWorld,10June1983.

44.Ontheabovelistofcases,seeStephen Singular, TalkedtoDeath:TheLifeand MurderofAlanBerg (BeechTree,1987); http://www.azcentral.com/news/specials/ bolles/bollesindex.html;KateBronfenbrenner, TheKillingofKarenSilkwood, 2nded.(CornellUniversityPress,2000); DavidMacMichael, “TheMysterious DeathofDannyCasolaro,” VillageVoice, 15October1991;http://www.immigra tionshumancost.org/text/crimevictims.html; AceHayes, “Col.SabowMurderand Cover-up,” PortlandFreePress,July/October1996.

45.FélixJiménez, “TheKillingofFiliberto OjedaRíos,” 7October2005,http:// www.thenation.com; NewYorkTimes, 28September2005.

46.WardChurchillandJimVanderWall, AgentsofRepression (SouthEndPress, 1988);Donner, TheAgeofSurveillance, 444–445; NewYorkTimes,12May 1985and26May2006.

47.KenLawrence, “Klansmen,Nazis,and SkinHeads,” CovertActionInformation Bulletin,Winter1989.

48.JamesRidgeway, “LooneyTuneTerrorists,” VillageVoice,23July1985.

49.RobertCollier, “ChargesDroppedforCubanMilitant,” SanFranciscoChronicle,10 May2007;AliciaA.Caldwell, “CubanTerroristLuisPosadaCarrilesIndictedonNew Charges,” CubaJournal,8April2009.

50. Guardian (N.Y.),4February1981; New Age,July1979.

51. “WhoBombedJudiBari?” newsletterRedwoodSummerJusticeProject,April1997, andOctoberandNovember1997updates; SanFranciscoChronicle,23April2004.

52.Reportedon “DemocracyNow,” KPFAPacifica,9November2005.

53.JamesBamford, ThePuzzlePalace:AReportonAmerica’sMostSecretAgency (HoughtonMifflin,1982); Washington Post,9October1990.

54.DavidWise, “TheSpiesWhoLost$4Billion,” George,October1998; NewYork Times,27February1996.

55.JamesBamford, BodyofSecrets:Anatomy oftheUltra-SecretNationalSecurity Agency (Anchor,2002).

56.Seehttp://www.dni.gov/nic/NIC_home.html

57.AngusMackenzie, Secrets:TheCIA’sWar atHome (UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 1997);StuartLoory, “TheCIA’sUseof thePress,” ColumbiaJournalismReview, September/October1974;SigmundDiamond, CompromisedCampus,TheCollaborationofUniversitieswiththeIntelligence Community (OxfordUniversityPress, 1992).

58.WilliamPepper, OrderstoKill (Carroll& Graff,1995),9.

59.JohnMarks, TheSearchfortheManchurianCandidate (TimesBooks,1979).

60.JamesRisen, StateofWar:TheSecretHistoryoftheCIAandtheBushAdministration (FreePress,2006).

61.MemorandumquotedinDavidMcGowan, DerailingDemocracy (Common Courage,2000),80.

62.RalphMcGehee, DeadlyDeceits (Ocean Press,1999);WilliamBlum, RogueState (CommonCourage,2000);LisaHaugaard, “TextbookRepression:USTrainingManualsDeclassified,” CovertActionQuarterly, Summer1997.Seealsothediscussionin Chapter11on “GlobalBloodletting.”

63. “CIAAdvocatesAssassinations,” Guatemala,BulletinoftheGuatemalaHuman RightsCommission/USA,Spring/Summer 1997; “InterrogationInc.,” NewYork Times,12and13August2009and4 March2009.

64. UnitedStatesofAmerica RightsforAll, AmnestyInternational,October1998.

65.HowardBlum, Wanted:TheSearchfor NazisinAmerica (QuadrangleBooks, 1977);ChristopherSimpson, Blowback: America’sRecruitmentofNazisandIts EffectsontheColdWar (Weidenfeld& Nicolson,1988).

66.HalGold, Unit731Testimony (YenBooks, 1996),125–126,173;SheldonHarris, FactoriesofDeath (Routledge,1994).

67. WashingtonPost,16September1977; WilliamSchaap, “The1981CubaDengue Epidemic,” CovertActionInformation Bulletin,Summer1982;CentersforDiseaseControl,http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ dvbid/dengue.htm; “HistoryofCIABiologicalWarfareAgainstCuba,1962–1997,” GranmaInternational,23November 1997;Blum, RogueState,103–112.

68.SusanLucasin Peacework,March1995; HouseIntelligenceCommitteereportcited in Nation,20May1996.

69. WashingtonPost,4January1978;Alfred McCoy, “DrugFallout:TheCIA’sForty YearComplicityintheNarcoticsTrade,” Progressive,1August1997.

70.SenateCommitteeonForeignRelations, SubcommitteeonTerrorism,Narcotics, andInternationalOperations,report, “Drugs,LawEnforcementandForeign Policy” (U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice, 1989);AlfredMcCoy, ThePoliticsofHeroin (LawrenceHill,1991),61–62;Leslie Cockburn, OutofControl (Atlantic MonthlyPress,1987);PeterDaleScott andJonathanMarshall, CocainePolitics (UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1991); TimWeiner, “AntiDrugUnitofCIASent TonofCocainetoU.S.in1990,” New YorkTimes,20November1993;Walter Pincus’sreportin WashingtonPost, 4November1998.

71.DennisDayle,quotedinScottandMarshall, CocainePolitics,x–xi.

72.DennisBernsteinandLeslieKean, “People oftheOpiate:Burma’sDictatorshipof Drugs,” Nation,16December1996.

73.PeteBrewton, TheMafia,CIA&George Bush (Shapolsky,1992);JackColhoun, “BCCI:TheBankoftheCIA,” CovertActionQuarterly,Spring1993.

74.HereisasmallsamplingofthevastresearchontheJFKassassination:JimMarris, Crossfire (Carroll&Graf,1989);Sylvia Meagher, AccessoriesAftertheFact (Vintage,1992);JimGarrison, OntheTrailof Assassins (SheridanSquarePress,1988); MichaelKurtz, CrimeoftheCentury (UniversityofTennesseePress,1982);Mark Lane, RushtoJudgment (Holt,Rinehart &Winston,1966);MarkLane, Plausible Denial (Thunder’sMouthPress,1991); JamesDiEugenioandLisaPease(eds.), TheAssassinations (FeralHouse,2003).

75.SeeKeithW.Olson, Watergate (University PressofKansas,2003).

76.JonathanMarshall,PeterDaleScott,and JaneHunter, TheIranContraConnection (SouthEndPress,1988); Reportofthe CongressionalCommitteeInvestigating theIranContraAffair (U.S.Government PrintingOffice,1987).

77.LawrenceWalsh, Firewall:TheIran-Contra ConspiracyandCover-Up (Norton,1997).

78. WashingtonPost,10and14April2004; PaulThompson, “TheyTriedtoWarn Us,” CenterforCooperativeResearch, 1January2003,http://www.complete911ti meline.org/;RichardClarke, AgainstAllEnemies (FreePress,2004); NewYorkTimes, 17Augustand14September2005.

79.RobertParry, “StillNoHabeasRightsfor You,” Consortium,3February2007.

80.EmileSchepers, “Over100CitiesChallenge PatriotAct,” People’sWeeklyWorld, 24May2003;AlexJones, “SecretPatriotAct II,” Rense.com,http://www.infowars.com.

81. WashingtonPost,15February2008; New YorkTimes,2March2008and3September2009.

82. NewYorkTimes,2March2008and 9Apriland13August2009.

83. NewYorkTimes,4March2009.

84.TheTSAsurveyquotedin SanFrancisco Chronicle,7December2003.

85.StephenFlynn, AmericatheVulnerable (HarperCollins,2004); “HomelandUnsecured,” PublicCitizenNews,November/ December2004; NewYorkTimes, 6December2005and27March2006; USAToday,15March2006.

86.SeeBobHerbert,column, NewYork Times,23June2009; NewYorkTimes, 25Augustand23September2009.

CHAPTER d 11 THEU.S.GLOBAL MILITARYEMPIRE

1.TomGervasi, TheMythofSovietMilitary Supremacy (Harper&Row,1986);Fred Kaplan, DubiousSpecter:ASkeptical LookattheSovietNuclearThreat (InstituteforPolicyStudies,1980).

2. DefenseMonitor,newsletteroftheCenter forDefenseInformation,Washington, D.C.,September/October2000.

3.Seevariousissuesof TheDefenseMonitor, newsletteroftheCenterforDefenseInformation,vol.39.

4.GeorgeMonbiot, “CongressConfrontsIts Contradictions,” ZNet.com,30September 2008.

5. NewYorkTimes,20June2000; “U.S. MissileDefenseProjectMaySpurChina NukeBuildup,” OaklandTribune,10August2000.

6.QuotedinKarlGrossman, “U.S.Violates WorldLawtoMilitarizeSpace,” EarthIslandJournal,Winter/Spring1999.

7.U.S.SpaceCommand, Visionfor2020, quotedinMcGowan, DerailingDemocracy,196(italicsadded).

8.GarSmithandClareZichuhr, “Project HAARP:TheMilitary’sPlantoAltertheIonosphere,” EarthIslandJournal,Fall1994.

9.ForRumsfeldandShanahanquotes,see respectively “TheWaronWaste,” CBS NewsReport,29January2002,and DefenseMonitor,May2000;seealsoDonald BarlettandJamesSteele, “Billionsover Baghdad,” VanityFair,October2007.

10. “AnArmsRacewithOurselves,” Business LeadersforSensiblePriorities,NewYork, n.d.,http://www.businessleaders.org; New YorkTimes,24March2005and22July 2009;MichaelSherer, “BuyFirst,FlyLater,” MotherJones,January/February2005; San FranciscoChronicle,24May2009.

11. NewYorkTimes,29December2005and 25January2006.

12.Reps.HenryWaxmanandJohnDingell, “WhistleblowersSoundtheAlarmonHalliburtoninIraq,” MultinationalMonitor, March2004;Armycontractingofficer quotedinAssociatedPressreport, 31October2004.

13.TomCondit, “HalliburtonHasan $80,000Lifeguard,” ThePartisan,May/ June2005.

14.ReportbyRusselMokhiber, Multinational Monitor,October2004; ThePentagon Follies,CouncilforaLivableWorldand TaxpayersforCommonSense(Washington,D.C.,1996).

15.See ThePentagonFollies;NewYorkTimes, 6August1990,1April1996,and8October1999; LosAngelesTimes,18February 2005.

16. NewYorkTimes,9March2009.

17.MichaelSniffen, “NoOpenBiddingfor MostPentagonContracts,” Associated Pressreport,30September2004;foran overviewseeJeffreySt.Clair, GrandTheft Pentagon (CommonCourage,2005).

18.P.W.Singer, CorporateWarriors (Cornell UniversityPress,2003);NelsonSchwartz, “ThePentagon’sPrivateArmy,” Fortune, 3March2003.

19. “TheU.S.EmploymentEffectsofMilitary andDomesticSpendingPriorities,” DepartmentofEconomicsandPoliticalEconomyResearchInstitute,Universityof Massachusetts,Amherst,October2007.

20.RobertScheer, “OurRained-Out Bomber,” Nation,22September1997.

21. TheU.S.NuclearWeaponsCostStudyProject,BrookingsInstitution,Washington, D.C.,2000.

22.BobFeldman, “WarontheEarth,” DollarsandSense,March/April2003.

23. WashingtonPost ,9June1980; New YorkTimes,29November1988,and2 September1998;andTyroneSavage, “ThePentagonAssaultstheEnvironment,” NonviolentActivist,July/August 2000.

24.SethShulman, TheThreatatHome:ConfrontingtheToxicLegacyoftheU.S.Military (BeaconPress,1992); NewYork Times,29January2000.

25.Forallthesevariouscases,seeDepartment ofDefense, WorldwideU.S.MilitaryActiveDutyMilitaryPersonnelCasualties, DirectorateforInformationOperations andReportsM07,n.d.; SanFrancisco Chronicle,12June1991;MichaelUhl andTodEnsign, G.I.GuineaPigs (Putnam,1980);SamSmith, “Researchand ExperimentsontheHomeFront,” Justice Xpress,Summer2002;CitizenSoldier newsletter,January2003.

26.PhilMaggitti, “PrisonersofWar:The AbuseofAnimalsinMilitaryResearch,” AnimalAgenda vol.14,no.3,1994.

27.ChristopherD.Cook, DietforaDead Planet (NewPress,2004),229–238.

28.TerryCollingsworth, “ChildLaborinthe GlobalEconomy,” policybrief,InterhemisphericResourceCenterandInstitutefor PolicyStudies,Washington,D.C.,1997; FingerstotheBone,reportbyChildren’s RightsDivisionofHumanRightsWatch, June2000,http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/ crp/farmchild/index.htm.

29. NewYorkTimes,16March1996.

30.Forinstance,WilliamHartungandBridget Moix, “DeadlyLegacy:U.S.ArmstoAfrica andtheCongoWar”:http://www.worldpo licy.org/projects/arms/reports/congo.htm.

31.GrahamHancock, LordsofPoverty:The Power,Prestige,andCorruptionoftheInternationalAidBusiness (AtlanticMonthly Press,1989);Cook, DietforaDead Planet,229–238.

32.Monbiot, “CongressConfrontsItsContradictions.”

33.JacobG.Hornberger, “ButForeignAidIs Bribery!AndBlackmail,Extortion,and TheftToo!” FutureofFreedomFoundation,26September2003;onNicaragua, seeCouncilonHemisphericAffairspress release,24July2009.

34.SusanGeorgeandFabrizioSabelli, Faithand Credit:TheWorldBank’sSecularEmpire (WestviewPress,1994);WilliamGreider, “TimetoReininGlobalFinance,” Nation, 24April2000.

35.WilliamBlum, RogueState (Common CouragePress,2000),125–167.

36.ReedBrody, ContraTerrorinNicaragua (SouthEndPress,1985);HollySklar, Washington’sWaronNicaragua (SouthEnd Press,1985);UnitedChurchofChrist CommissionforRacialJustice, “WhyIs theU.S.ProlongingWarinAngola?” WashingtonPost,5October1989;Augustus RichardNorton, “TheRenamoMenace: HungerandCarnageinMozambique,” NewLeader,16November1987.

37.OnGrenadaandPanama,seeMichael Parenti, InventingReality:ThePoliticsof NewsMedia,2nded.(St.Martin’sPress, 1993),148–151,159–163.

38. LondonTimes,3March1991;Ramsey Clarketal., ChallengetoGenocide (InternationalActionCenter,2000); Washington Post,23June2000.

39.Forafullertreatment,seeMichaelParenti, ToKillaNation:TheAttackonYugoslavia (Verso,2000).

40. NewYorkTimes,5Augustand30December1996and26February1999;DanaPriest, “ArmyInstructedLatinsonExecutions,Torture,” WashingtonPost,21September1996; DavidKirsh, “DeathSquadsinElSalvador: APatternofU.S.Complicity,” CovertAction Quarterly,Summer1990.

41. NewYorkTimes,11March1999.

42.BenKiernan(ed.), GenocideandDemocracyinCambodia,YaleUniversity/SoutheastAsiaStudentsmonographseries,no. 41,1993;JohnPilger, “PolPot:theMonster WeCreated,” GuardianWeekly (UK),26 April1998.

43. “Mozambique:PrivatizationCostsJobs,” PeoplesWeeklyWorld,16November 2002;MichaelParenti, Blackshirtsand Reds (CityLights,1997),87–120.

44.JavierGiraldo,S.J., Colombia: TheGenocidalDemocracy (CommonCourage,

1996);JeffreySt.Clair, “Blueprints fortheColombianWar,” CounterPunch, 1July2001.

45.ArvindGanesan, “CorporationCrackdowns,BusinessBacksBrutality,” Dollars andSense,May/June1999; NewYork Times,27November2002.

46.MichaelParenti, AgainstEmpire (City Lights,1995);Blum, RogueState,92ff; GeorgeLardnerJr., “BookDocuments U.S.-BackedKillings,” WashingtonPost, 28July2001.

47.JohnRice,AssociatedPressreport, 28November2001.

48.Parenti, AgainstEmpire,125–129; New YorkTimes,8March1997.

49.SeeDavidRayGriffin, TheNewPearl Harbor (OliveBranchPress,2004).

50. LosAngelesTimes,11April2002; New YorkTimes,5May2002.

51. “MortalityBeforeandAfterthe2003InvasionofIraq:ClusterSampleSurvey,” TheLancet 364,2004;CharlesLevinson, “OrdinaryIraqisFeelPinchofFreeMarketReforms,” SanFranciscoChronicle,23January2006.

CHAPTER d 12 WHOGOVERNS? ELITES,LABOR,ANDGLOBALIZATION

1.PhilipBurchJr., ElitesinAmericanHistory, vols.1–3(HolmesandMeier,1980,1981); DavidRothkopf, Superclass:TheGlobal PowerEliteandtheWorldTheyAreMaking (Farrar,Straus&Giroux,2008).

2.EdwardPressen, TheSocialBackground ofthePresidents (YaleUniversityPress, 1984).

3.PeterPhillips, “InsideBohemianGrove,” 14August2003,http://www.counter punch.org/phillips08142003.html;seealso MikeHanson, BohemianGrove:Cultof Conspiracy (iUniverse,2004).

4.LaurenceShoup, “Bush,Kerry,andthe CouncilonForeignRelations,” ZMagazine,October2004.

5.LaurenceShoupandWilliamMinter, ImperialBrainTrust:TheCouncilonForeign RelationsandUnitedStatesForeignPolicy (MonthlyReviewPress,1977);Laurence Shoup, “TheCouncilonForeignRelations andtheU.S.InvasionofIraq.”

6.StephenGill, AmericanHegemonyandthe TrilateralCommission (CambridgeUniversityPress,1991);LeslieSklair, The TransnationalCapitalistClass (Blackwell

2001); PublicCitizenNews,November/ December2004.

7. NewYorkTimes,16February1999.

8.ChuckFogel, “SpyingontheUnion,” Solidarity,March1988.

9.DonMonkcrud, “USIncomeInequality ContinuestoGrow,” CapitalTimes, 18July2009.

10.JohnJ.Sweeney, “CanWeBeaDemocracyifDemocracyEndsattheWorkplace Door?” NewPoliticalScience,vol.26, March2004; NewYorkTimes,9January 2006;AlNorman, TheCaseAgainstWalMart (RaphelMarketing,2004).

11. NewYorkTimes,24October2000and 16April2006;RobertMichaelSmith, FromBlackjackstoBriefcases:AHistory ofCommercializedStrikebreakingandUnionbustingintheUnitedStates (OhioUniversityPress,2003).

12.Forawell-documentedreportonweakenforcementandanti-unionbiasinU.S.labor laws,see UnfairAdvantage,HumanRights Watch:http://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/ uslabor;MartinJayLevitt, Confessionsof aUnionBuster (Crown,2003).

13.DickMeister, “Bush’sAnti-LaborRelationsBoard,” ZNetCommentary, 25November2005.

14.JosephCarroll, “SixtyPercentofAmericansApproveofLaborUnions,” http:// www.gallup.com/poll/28570/Sixty-PercentAmericans-Approve-Labor-Unions.aspx.

15.AccordingtothenonpartisanCenterfor ResponsivePolitics;see SanFrancisco Chronicle,11October2005.

16.ZeitlinreferencedinJamesPetras, “Four NewYorkIntellectuals,” ZMagazine, September1998.

17. NewYorkTimes,9January2005;Nathan Newman, “HowtheCorporateRightLies aboutUnionCorruption,” People’sWeekly World,25March2006.

18.MichaelYates, WhyUnionsMatter (MonthlyReviewPress,1998).

19.RichardFreemanandJamesMedoff, WhatDoUnionsDo? (BasicBooks, 1984); “TheRealUnionFacts,” Solidarity, May/June2006.

20.LaurieJoHughes, “AIFLD:AmericanInterventionAgainstFreeLaborDevelopment,” NicaraguaMonitor (Nicaragua NetworkEducationFund,Washington, D.C.),December1991/January1992.

21.Quotedin NewYorkTimes,21May1989.

22.SeeLoriWallachandMichelleSforza, The WTO (SevenStoriesPress,2000);and JohnR.MacArthur, TheSellingofFree Trade (HillandWang,2000).

23. NewYorkTimes,9May1997and6February2006; Rachel’sEnvironmentand HealthWeekly,18November1999; WashingtonPost,13October1998.

24.Quotedin People’sWeeklyWorld, 7December1996.

25.MaudeBarlow, BlueGold (IFG,2001); HidayatGreenfield, “Disneyland,Doha andtheWTOinHongKong,” ZMagazine,January2006.

26.InternationalForumonGlobalization, IFGBulletin,Summer2001.

27.ElizabethMalkin, “Nafta’sPromise,Unfulfilled,” NewYorkTimes,24March2009.

28. TheStateofFoodInsecurityintheWorld, reportbyU.N.FoodandAgricultureOrganization,2003;VandanaShiva, “Open Markets,ClosedMinds,” TowardFreedom,Winter2003.

29.StevenShrybman, ACitizen’sGuidetothe WorldTradeOrganization (Canadian CenterforPolicyAlternativesandJames Lorimer&Co.,1999).

CHAPTER d 13 MASSMEDIA: FORTHEMANY,BYTHEFEW

1.Onmediaconcentration,seeBenBagdikian, TheNewMediaMonopoly (Beacon Press,2004).

2.CommissiononFreedomofthePress, quotedinRobertCirino, Don’tBlame thePeople (Vintage,1972),47.

3. SanFranciscoChronicle,12Julyand 14October2004; NewYorkTimes, 31March2003and4May2004.

4.AssociatedPressreport,23November 2005; NewYorkTimes,6September 2005;andsee Outfoxed:RupertMurdoch’ s WaronJournalism,documentarybyRobert Greenwald,2004.

5.QuotedinEricBarnouw, TheSponsor (OxfordUniversityPress,1978),57.

6.JonathanKwitney,conversationwithme, March1992.

7. “Where’sthePower:NewsroomorBoardroom?” Extra!,July/August1998.

8.KarlGrossman, “PublisherHasMeltdown,” Extra!,November/December1991;Lynn Ludlow, “It’saFreeCountry(You’reFired),” SanFranciscoChronicle,7October2001.

9. “Workers’ PoliticalRightsUnderAttack,” AmericanWriter,Summer2003;ZNet CommentarybyD.Schecter,8April2006.

10.MarkDowie, “ATeflonCorrespondent,” Nation,7January2002.

11.ReportbyMediaMatters,http://mediamat ters.org,15February2006.

12.ReportbyMediaMatters,18January 2006;BenSmith, “Beck,FoxSourceDisputeVacation,” Politico,20August2009, http://www.politico.c om/blogs/bensmith/ 0809/Fox_caves.html.

13.Asquotedin SanFranciscoChronicle, 8January2006.

14.RobertGreenwaldandAlexanderKitty, Outfoxed:RupertMurdoch’sWaronJournalism (DisinformationCompany,2005).

15.DavidCroteau, “Challengingthe ‘Liberal Media’ Claim,” Extra!,July/August1998; NormanSolomon, “The ‘LiberalMedia’— aPhantomThatWillNotDie,” Creators Syndicate,20April2002.

16.RoryO’ConnorandAaronCutler, Shock Jocks:HateSpeechandTalkRadio (AlterNetBooks,2008).

17.ToddPurdumin NewYorkTimes, 13January1999.

18.LarryBeinhart, “NewYorkTimes PerpetuatestheMythThatGeorgeBushWon the2000Election,” inPeterPhillipsand AndrewRoth(eds.), Censored2009 (SevenStoriesPress,2008),125–129.

19.AccordingtoVincentSchiraldi,directorof JusticePolicyInstitute,citedinDavid McGowan, DerailingDemocracy (CommonCourage,2000),60.

20.RobertEntman, “TheColorGame:How MediaPlaytheRaceCard,” Newswatch, Summer1999.

21.QuotedinGordonLaxer, “StopRejecting Sovereignty,” CanadianDimension, 13February2003.

22.NormanSolomon, “NewMediaHeights foraRemarkablePundit,” CreatorsSyndicate,22February2002.

23.LukeBaker, “IraqConflictHasKilleda Million,SaysSurvey,” 7January2008; MattTaibbi, “TheGreatAmericanSwindle,” RollingStone,23August2007.

24.HelenThomas, “LapDogsofthePress,” Nation,27March2006.

25.See,forinstance,EvaGolinger, BushversusChavez (MonthlyReviewPress,2007).

26.SeethediscussionandcitationsinChapter7; alsoMichaelParenti, InventingReality,

2nded.(Wadsworth[St.Martin’s],1993), passim;andHowardFrielandRichard Falk, TheRecordofthePaper:Howthe NewYorkTimes MisrepresentsU.S.Foreign Policy (Verso,2004).

27.GaryWebb, DarkAlliance (SevenStories, 1998); LAWeekly,16December2004.

28. “Tailwind,” posted22July1998:http:// www.freedomforum.org/fpfp/specialprogr ams/tailwind1.asp;alsoAprilOliverand PeterArnet, “DidtheU.S.DropNerve Gas?” Time,15June1998.

29. “JournalistsatWork:Who’sWatchingthe Watchdogs?,” AlternativePressReview, Spring/Summer1998.

30.DanielBrandt, “JournalismandtheCIA,” AlternativePressReview,Spring/Summer 1998;CarlBernstein, “TheCIAandthe Media,” RollingStone,20October1977.

31. NewYorkTimes,8July1998.

32.GovernmentAccountabilityOfficereport, AssociatedPress,29January2005; New YorkTimes,1October2005and6April 2006.

33. NewYorkTimes,27November1988, italicsadded.

34.MichaelParenti, Make-BelieveMedia:The PoliticsofEntertainment (Wadsworth [St.Martin’s],1992).

35.DavidRobb, OperationHollywood:How thePentagonShapesandCensorstheMovies (PrometheusBooks,2004).

36.Parenti, Make-BelieveMedia,chapter7and passim;alsoLyricWallworkWinik, “The TollofViolence,” Parade,11July2004.

37.Parenti, Make-BelieveMedia,chapter5.

38. PBSandtheAmericanWorker,CommitteeforCulturalStudies,CityUniversityof NewYork,June1990.

39.SarahPosner, “Right-wingRadio,” AlterNet,5April2005,http://www.alternet. org/story/21639.

40.FederalCommunicationsCommission, “ApplicabilityoftheFairnessDoctrinein theHandlingofControversialIssuesof PublicImportance,” FederalRegister 29, 25July1964,10415ff.

41.RobertMcChesney, Telecommunications, MassMediaandDemocracy:TheBattle fortheControlofU.S.Broadcasting1928–1935 (OxfordUniversityPress,1993).

42.ArthurStamoulis, “SlammingShutOpen Access,” Dollars&Sense,September/ October2002;http://civic.moveon.org/ save_the_internet.

CHAPTER d 14 VOTERS,PARTIES,

ANDSTOLENELECTIONS

1.Onvoters’ abilitytoperceivedifferencesin candidates,seesurveyin NewYorkTimes, 25July2000.

2.PrincetonSurvey/PewResearchCenter, 25April2006.

3.RichardWinger, “HowManyParties OughttoBeontheBallot?” ElectionLaw Journal,vol.5,no.2,2006;BallotAccess News,variousmonthlyissues1999to 2009,http://www.ballot-access.org/2009.

4. Munrov.SocialistWorkersParty (1986).

5.Foracriticalanalysisofthewinnertake-allsystem,seeStevenHill, Fixing Elections (Routledge,2003).

6.DouglasAmy, RealChoices,NewVoices: HowProportionalRepresentationElectionsCouldRevitalizeAmericanDemocracy,2nded.(ColumbiaUniversityPress, 2002).

7.AlongwiththeUnitedStates,winnertake-allisusedinpartsofAustralia,and inBritainandCanada(whereitiscalled “first-past-the-post”).

8.KathleenBarber, ProportionalRepresentationandElectionReforminOhio (Ohio StateUniversityPress,1996);MartinGottlieb, “The ‘GoldenAge’ oftheCityCouncil,” NewYorkTimes,11August1991.

9. BallotAccessNews,8December1998; StevenHill, “LessonsontheMechanics ofDemocracy,” LosAngelesTimes, 15February1996.

10.NamedafterGovernorElbridgeGerryof Massachusetts,whoemployeditin1812, and “salamander,” fromtheoddshapeof someofthedistrictsheconcocted.

11.BarryYeoman, “VirtualDisenfranchisement,” Nation,7September1998.

12.EdwardWalsh, “TexasRedistricting UnprecedentedChallengetoDemocracy,” WashingtonPost,2November2003; SupremeCourtcitationsinchapter18, note67.

13. NewYorkTimes,24June1998and 27August1999.

14.FredrekaShouten’sreportin USAToday, 23October2008.

15.SeeSamPizzigati, “BoredbyPolitics?A PrimaryReason,” TooMuch,Winter 2000.Only739contributorsprovided two-thirdsoftheGOP’s$137millionof softmoney:EllenGoodmanin Boston Globe,7August2000.

16.AssociatedPressreport,21August2000.

17. USAToday,28July2000.

18.FederalElectionCommission,January 2009,http://www.fec.gov/pages/brochures/ fecfeca.shtml#Contribution_Limits.

19.ReportbytheCenterforResponsivePolitics,Washington,D.C.,in AndersonValleyAdvertiser,27November1996;also NewYorkTimes,19April1992.

20. CapitalEye,CenterforResponsivePolitics, Summer2000,http://www.opensecrets.org; “SoftMoney,BigStakes,” Newsweek, 28October1996.

21.CampaignFinanceInstitute,http://www. cfinst.org/congress/.

22. NewYorkTimes,7November1996; San FranciscoChronicle,19May1998.

23.SharonBasco, “TheColorofMoney,” Nation,1February1999;DeidreDavidson, “As MaineGoes …” ProgressivePopulist,15December1999;seehttp://www.progressive party.org/; USAToday,15November2002.

24. NewYorkTimes,25November1997.On nonvotingseeVanishingVoterProject, WashingtonPost.comhighlights,http:// www.msnbc.com/news,4November2000.

25.Foratypicalexampleofthisview,seeSeymourLipset, PoliticalMan (Doubleday, 1960),215–219.

26. Smithv.Allwright (1944).

27.See Harperv.VirginiaStateBoardofElections (1966)onpolltaxes,and Dunnv. Blumstein (1972)onresidencyrequirements.

28. “TheRightWaytoRegisterVoters,” New YorkTimes editorial,24July2009.

29. NewYorkTimes,12May2008and16 April2009;ShasaAbramsky, “10Ways toStealanElection,” MotherJones, November/December2008;FrancesFox PivenandRichardCloward, WhyAmericansDon’tVote (Pantheon,1988).

30.DeborahHastings,AssociatedPressreport,16June2008; LosAngelesTimes, 6November2005;JeffreyToobin, “Fraud Alert,” NewYorker,14January2008.

31.CynthiaTucker,columnin SanFrancisco Chronicle,26March2007.

32.Thesefiguresarebasedonacomprehensivestudybythecalfcooperatives’ CongressionalElectionSurvey;seeIan Urbina, “HurdlestoVotingPersistedin 2008,” NewYorkTimes,11March2009.

33.AnthonyThompson, “DemocracyBehind Bars,” NewYorkTimes,Op-Ed,6August 2009.

34.Forthesevariousirregularities,see New YorkTimes,30November2000and

15July2001;and BostonGlobe, 30November2000and10March2001. Arelevantdocumentaryis Unprecedented: The2000PresidentialElection,L.A.IndependentMediaCenterFilm,2004.

35. NewYorkTimes,15September2002;the investigatorswerefromtheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyandMassachusetts InstituteofTechnology.

36.MarkCrispinMiller, FooledAgain:How theRightStolethe2004ElectionandWhy They’llStealtheNextOneToo (Basic Books,2005),7–31,262,andpassim.

37.Miller, FooledAgain,134–135.

38.Allthevariousinstanceslistedaboveare fromMiller, FooledAgain,passim;Bob FitrakisandHarveyWasserman, How theGOPStoleAmerica’s2004Election andIsRigging2008 (CICJBooks/www. Freepress.org,2005);AnitaMiller(ed.), WhatWentWronginOhio:TheConyers Reportonthe2004PresidentialElection (AcademyChicagoPublishers,2005); AndyDunn, “Hook&Crook,” ZMagazine,March2005;GregPalast, “Kerry Won:HereAretheFacts,” Observer, 5November2004;RobertKennedyJr., “Wasthe2004ElectionStolen?” Rolling Stone,1June2006,http://www.rolling stone.com/news/story/10432334/

39.JonathanSimonandRonBaiman, “The 2004PresidentialElection:WhoWon thePopularVote?AnExaminationofthe ComparativeValidityofExitPollsand VoteCountData,” Freepress.org,2January 2004;StevenFreeman, “TheUnexplained ExitPollDiscrepancy,” 29December2004, stfreeman@sas.upenn.edu.;Fitrakisand Wasserman, HowtheGOPStoleAmerica’ s 2004Election,48–51,55–57.

40.StevenLevy, “WillYourVoteCountin 2006?” Newsweek,29May2006; New YorkTimes,12May2006; SanFrancisco Chronicle,26April2004.

41.BevHarris, BlackBoxVotingBook:BallotTamperinginthe21stCentury (Talion Publishing,2004),chapter2,availableat http://www.BlackBoxVoting.org;Steve Moore, “E-Democracy,” GlobalOutlook, Summer2004;AssociatedPressreport, 12February2005;CatherineKomp’sarticle in AshvilleGlobalReport,17November 2005.

42.FitrakisandWasserman, HowtheGOP StoleAmerica’s2004Election,58; San FranciscoChronicle,19November2004.

43.BruceSchneier, “WhyIsItSoHardtoRun anHonestElection?” SanFrancisco Chronicle,31October2004.

44. NewYorkTimes editorial,22June2009.

CHAPTER d 15 CONGRESS: THEPOCKETINGOFPOWER

1. IndependentPoliticsNews,Winter2003; LaborPartyPress,July1998.

2.SenatorDanielPatrickMoynihan(D-N.Y.) quotedin NewYorkTimes,25November 1984.

3.MarkGreenquotedinStevenRoberts, “TheRichGetRicherandElected,” New YorkTimes,24September1985.

4. People’sWeeklyWorld,20April2002.

5.CenterforPublicIntegritycitedin USA Today,24March1998;studybyCampaignforTobacco-FreeKidsreportedin AssociatedPressreport,2September 1997;http://truesecurity.usaction.org/,July 2009.

6.GeorgeMonbiot, “CongressConfrontsIts Contradictions,” Guardian (UK),30September2008;KevinPhillips, Wealthand Democracy (Broadway,2003),326.

7.PhilipStern, TheBestCongressMoney CanBuy (Pantheon,1988),84–85.

8.MoveOnnewsletter,29July2008.

9.SenatorJamesAbourezk, “ClearOutPACs, CleanUpCongressionalCampaigns,” releasebyInstituteforPolicyStudies, 18March1986.

10.Quotedin “BusinessBattlesBack,” EnvironmentalAction,2December1978.

11. NewYorkTimes editorial,19January 2006;EmadMekay, “LobbyistsSpend TwiceThatofCampaigns,” GlobalReport (Ashville,N.C.),14April2005.

12.NPRspecialreportsonlobbying,5and 8December2005.

13.MatthewContinetti’sOp-edin NewYork Times,1October2005.

14.QuotedinD.Gilbarg, “UnitedStatesImperialism,” inBillSlate(ed.), Powertothe People (Tower,1970),67.

15. NewYorkTimes,29April1992.

16.RobertWinter-Berger, TheWashington Pay-Off (Dell,1972),14andpassimfor someastonishingeyewitnesstestimony.

17. USAToday,10November1997.

18.LesterMilbrath, TheWashingtonLobbyists (RandMcNally,1963),345.

19.EnvironmentalWorkingGroupReport, http://www.ewg.org/reports/Wet_PAC;

WallStreetJournal ,1March2004; NewYorkTimes ,23December2005.

20.NicholasKristof,column, NewYork Times,27June2009.

21. NewYorkTimes editorial,13June2006.

22.Foranoverallcritique,seeMarkGreen, SellingOut:HowBigCorporateMoneyBuys Elections,RamsThroughLegislation,and BetraysOurDemocracy (Harper,2004).

23. NewYorkTimes,13Marchand 15December2005.

24. WashingtonPost,4March2006.

25.RussBaker, “TheHouseFlunksEthics,” Nation,15February1999.AnotherleadingexampleofmoralturpitudewasRep. HenryHyde(R-Ill.),seeDennisBernstein andLeslieKean, HenryHyde’sMoralUniverse (CommonCourage,1999).

26. WashingtonPost,28and29August2007.

27.GAOinvestigationreportedin WashingtonPost,10October1981.

28.OncorruptionintheReaganadministration,see WashingtonPost,5Februaryand 24September1988,and17January1989; NewYorkTimes,27July1988and1May 1990.

29.Forinstance,PeterdeLeon, ThinkingAbout PoliticalCorruption (M.E.Sharpe,1993).

30. NewYorkTimes,9April2003,and 9Februaryand25May2006.

31.SeeJohnC.Berg, UnequalStruggle:Class, Gender,RaceandPowerintheU.S.Congress (WestviewPress,1994),foranoverviewandcritique.

32.JeremyWeirAlderson, “SpooksandBrass WorktheHill,” CovertActionQuarterly, Summer1997.

33.MarkGreenetal., WhoRunsCongress?, 2nded.(BantamBooks,1972),56.

34. “ProtectingWarProfiteers,” MultinationalMonitor,November2003.

35. NewYorkTimes,9August1987and 8April1993; WashingtonPost,17June 1987and31August1991.

36.DavidE.RePass, “MakeMyFilibuster,” NewYorkTimes,2March2009.

37.NateSilverandAndrewGelman, “No CountryforCloseCalls,” NewYorkTimes, 19April2009.

38.RobertSalladay’sreport, SanFrancisco Examiner,26July1998;alsoB.DrummondAyres’sreport, NewYorkTimes, 28April1997.

39.BothquotedinMarkMartin, “TermLimits ContributedtoStateAssembly’sDisarray,” SanFranciscoChronicle,25July2003.

40. “LegislativeTermLimits:AnOverview,” NationalConferenceofStateLegislatures, http://www.ncsl. org/default.aspx?tabid= 14849.

41. U.S.TermLimitsv.Thornton (1995).

42.Quotedin St.LouisPost-Dispatch,11 December2003.

43.NormanOrnsteinandThomasE.Mann, Op-Edin NewYorkTimes,19January 2006; WashingtonPost,9July2004and 8October2005.

CHAPTER d 16 THEPRESIDENT: GUARDIANOFTHESYSTEM

1.Reaganquotedin SeattleTimes,15January1989;ClintonspeakingonPBSNews Hour,27October1992.

2.WilliamShannon, NewYorkTimes, 22July1975.

3. WashingtonPost,1April1984; Common CauseMagazine,April/May/June1992; CoxNewsServicereport,31October2003; NewYorkTimes,27March2006.

4. “TopContributors,” http://www.opense crets.org/pres08/contrib.php?cycle=2008&cid=N00009638.

5.WarrenLenhart, AmbassadorialAppointments,CongressionalResearchService, Report91-385F,Washington,D.C., 1May1991;AssociatedPressreport, 1November1997;PublicCitizennewsletter,January2004.

6.QuotedbyDavidEisenhowerin People’ s WeeklyWorld,4December2004.

7.Irefertothepresidentas “he” onlybecause everypresidentthusfarhasbeenamale.

8. NewYorkTimes,21,22,and25June 1973,and4April1974.

9.MaureenDowdin NewYorkTimes, 11July2002.AsadirectorofHarken, Bushsold212,000companysharesfora largeprofitjustbeforeHarkenannounced $22millioninlossesandcrashedinvalue. HisfailuretoreportthesaletotheSEC wasaviolationofthelaw.Butthechair oftheSEC,aBushSr.appointee,tookno actionagainsthim.

10.Onhowpresidentshavelied,seeDavid Model, LyingforEmpire (CommonCouragePress,2005);alsoFrankBrowning, “JimmyCarter’sAstoundingLies,” Inquiry,5May1980.

11.JamesNathanMiller, “RonaldReagan andtheTechniquesofDeception,” AtlanticMonthly,February1984; Washington

Post,17and19June1984,13July1984, and27September1986; NewYorkTimes, 27December1985.

12. NewYorkTimes,20Februaryand30June 1990.

13. NewYorkTimes,27June1997and 16March1998.

14. SanFranciscoChronicle,26April2000.

15.JustinLewisetal., “PollingClinton’sAppeal,” Nation,9March1998.Foroneinsider’sdisillusionment,seeRobertReich, LockedintheCabinet (Knopf,1997).

16.Bushradioaddress,March3,2001; New YorkTimes,6February2002; “BushLet VetsDown,” Solidarity,November–December2004;PaulKrugmanin New YorkTimes,14April2006.

17. “FiveFailures,” PublicCitizenNews, November/December2004;OshaGray Davidson, “DirtySecrets,” MotherJones, September/October2003.

18.LucindaMarshall’sZNetCommentary, 30March2006;MollySecours’sZNet Commentary,16October2005.

19.MollyIvinsin SanFranciscoChronicle, 2May2001and5February2003;http:// www.misleader.org,March2003.

20. “WMD:WhoSaidWhat?” Independent PoliticsNews,Summer2003; LosAngeles Times,1July2004;NicholsKristofin NewYorkTimes,6May2003.

21.RonDaniels, “WhenWillObamaStand andFight,” ZspacePage,13July2009.

22. Washington Post,24and25June2009; NewYorkTimes,25August2009.

23.Respectively NewYorkTimes,23December2003and1March2006;Associated Pressreport,18February2005; Public CitizenNews,November/December2003.

24.TheTwenty-thirdAmendmentgavethe DistrictofColumbiaanumberofelectors equivalenttotheleastpopulousstate(3), whichinadditiontothenumberofsenators(100)andrepresentatives(435)brings theElectoralCollegeto538.TheConstitutionprohibitsanymemberofCongress oranyothergovernmentofficialfrom servingasanelector.

25.SeeGeorgeC.EdwardsIII, WhytheElectoralCollegeIsBadforAmerica (Yale UniversityPress,2005);alsoTheodore ArringtonandSaulBrenner, “Shouldthe ElectoralCollegebeReplacedbytheDirectElectionofthePresident?ADebate,” PS,Spring1984.

26. UnitedStatesv.Nixon (1974);RaoulBerger, ExecutivePrivilege,AConstitutional Myth (HarvardUniversityPress,1974).

27. WashingtonPost,2November2001.

28. NewYorkTimes,4August2009.

29. NewYorkTimes,25Augustand23September2009.

30. WashingtonPost,9September2005; “DeclarationofNationalEmergency byReasonofCertainTerroristAttacks” by thePresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/ 2001/09/20010914-4.html.

31.Theaboveexamplesarerespectivelyfrom NewYorkTimes,25March1986; Los AngelesTimes,4November1984;GeneralAccountingOfficereportB-213137, Washington,D.C.,22June1984; New YorkTimes editorial,3December2002; WashingtonPost,28December2001;the quoteisfromMatthewDaley,Associated Pressreport,19April2003.

32. NewYorkTimes,5May,28June,and 24July2006.

33.ElizabethKolbert, “MidnightHour,” New Yorker,24November2008.

34.Reaganin WashingtonPost,29December 1986;Nixoninterview,DavidFrostshow, 19May1977.

35. WashingtonPost,19November2002.

36. NewYorkTimes,13June2006.

37. NewYorkTimes,editorial,6March 2006;MollyIvinsin SanFranciscoChronicle,10June2004.

38.Foranoverallcritique,seeCharlieSavage, Takeover:TheReturnoftheImperial PresidencyandtheSubversionofAmericanDemocracy (Little,Brown,2007).

39.SeeDavidSwanson, Daybreak:Undoing theImperialPresidencyandForminga MorePerfectUnion (SevenStories,2009).

40. WashingtonPost,7February1988.

CHAPTER d 17 THEPOLITICAL ECONOMYOFBUREAUCRACY

1.SeeMaxWeber’sclassicstatement, “Bureaucracy,” inHansGerthandC.Wright Mills(eds.), FromMaxWeber:Essaysin Sociology (OxfordUniversityPress,1958), 196–244.

2.DuaneLockard, ThePervertedPrioritiesof AmericanPolitics (Macmillan,1971),282.

3.SeeCharlesGoodsell, TheCaseforBureaucracy,4thed.(CQPress,2003).

4. “HealthCareCrisisIsWorse,” Solidarity, April/May1997.

5. SanFranciscoBayGuardian,10October 2001and7August2002.

6.Forthesevariousexamples,see NewYork Times,7Octoberand7November1990, and9November1995;Goodsell, The CaseforBureaucracy,passim.

7.See PublicCitizenNews,November/ December,2003;andMargeryTurner, RentControlandtheAvailabilityofAffordableHousingintheDistrictofColumbia (UrbanInstitute,1988).

8.ChristineTrianoandNancyWatzman, VoodooAccounting,PublicCitizenandOMB Watchreport,Washington,D.C.,1992; SanFranciscoChronicle,8September2005.

9.MollyIvinsin FortWorthStar-Telegram, 12August2000;seealsoMarilynShowalter, “ElectricityPriceTrends,Deregulated vs.RegulatedStates,” PowerinthePublic Interest report,12February2008.

10. NewYorkTimes,9March1997.

11.DanielSchulmanandJamesRidgeway, “TheHighwayman,” MotherJones, February2007.

12. NewYorkTimes,19July2006.

13. WashingtonPost,5December2004.

14.JohnHanrahan, GovernmentbyContract (Norton,1983); JeremyScahill,Blackwater:TheRiseoftheWorld’sMostPowerful MercenaryArmy (NationBooks,2007).

15.MichaelParenti, BlackshirtsandReds: RationalFascismandtheOverthrowof Communism (CityLightsBooks,1997), 87–120.

16.SusanFainsteinandNormanFainstein, “ThePoliticalEconomyofAmericanBureaucracy,” inCarolWeissandAllenBarton,eds., MakingBureaucracyWork (Sage, 1980),286.

17.JayM.GouldandBenjaminA.Goldman, withKateMillpointer, DeadlyDeceit (FourWallsEightWindows,1998); New YorkTimes,1and5January1994,and 30October1996;ShielaKaplan, “Great Lakes:DangerZones?” CenterforPublic Integrity,March2008.

18.RebeccaCarr,CoxNewsServicereport, 23November2005.

19. NewYorkTimes,21February2006.

20.Forthesevariousinstances,see Boston Globe editorial,20February2004; WashingtonPost,13March2004; New YorkTimes,7July2004,8June2005,

and21April2006;http://www.bushgreen watch.org,February2004; LosAngeles Times,18June2005.

21. WashingtonPost,18October2001; BostonGlobe,22August2002.

22. NewYorkTimes,14October2002; USA Today,24September2008.

23. NewYorkTimes,23April1986,and WashingtonPost,27March1987, respectively.

24.Forthesevariousinstances,seeMyron PeretzGlazerandPeninaMigdalGlazer, TheWhistleblowers (BasicBooks,1991); SanFranciscoExaminer,July25,2000; NewYorkTimes,24May2000;ErikLarsen, “SailorCourtMartialed,” OnGuard (CitizenSoldier,NewYork),no.14,1993; Nation,19May1997.

25. SanFranciscoExaminer,3August1998.

26. WashingtonPost,13Marchand24November2004; NewYorkTimes,9November2003,29October2004,27September 2005,and17Februaryand22April2006; AssociatedPress,31July2002and27 November2004; PublicCitizenNews, September/October2004.

27.SiobhanMcDonough,AssociatedPressreport,27November2004.

28. NewYorkTimes,5May2006.

29.BruceBarcott, “ChangingtheRules,” NewYorkTimesMagazine,4April2004.

30. LosAngelesTimes,28February2002;see thereportbyRep.JohnConyers, The ConstitutioninCrisis (HuffingtonPost, 2006),whichpointstothelawsand regulationsviolatedbytheBushJr.administration,http://www.house.gov/judiciary_ democrats/iraqrept2.html.

31. NewYorkTimes,27November2004.

32.HannaConnor,correspondence, New YorkTimes,24September2009; San FranciscoChronicle,10December2008.

33. NewYorkTimes,25March2009.

34.EdwinSutherland, WhiteCollarCrime (Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1949),232.

35.MichaelPertshuk, RevoltAgainstRegulation (UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1982); WashingtonPost,2February1989.

36.SuzanneGoldenberg, “WhiteHouseActionPutsonHoldDozensofMountaintop MiningProjects,” Guardian (UK),11September2009.

37.ShreemaMehta, “FDAComplicitinPushingPrescriptionDrugs,AdCriticsSay,” New Standard,20April2007.

38.RonNixon, “TheCorporateAssaultonthe FDA,” CovertActionQuarterly,Winter 1995/96.

39. “VoteforSaferFood,” NewYorkTimes editorial,30July2009.

40.GailEisnitz, Slaughterhouse:TheShocking StoryofGreed,Neglect,andInhumane TreatmentInsidetheU.S.MeatIndustry (PrometheusPress,2006).

41. “AsFoodQualityDrops,theUSDAJust Shrugs” and “NationalOrganicRulesrevisedbytheUSDA,” bothin Organic Gardening,May/June2000.

42. “SomethingtoChewOn,” statementby EnvironmentalWorkingGroup, NewYork Times,23February1999;alsohttp://www. foodnews.org.

43.ChildLaborCoalition,http://www.stop childlabor.org/USchildlabor/#child%20lab or%20laws%20and%20enforcement.

44.RobertaWood’sreportin People’sWeekly World,8March2003.

45.ChristopherCooperandRobertBlock, Disaster:HurricaneKatrinaandtheFailure ofHomelandSecurity (Holt2007);Jed Horne, BreachofFaith:HurricaneKatrina andtheNearDeathofaGreatAmerican City (RandomHouse,2008).

46. SanFranciscoChronicle,20September 2004; NewYorkTimes,8Mayand 19August2001.

47.GrantMcConnell, PrivatePowerand AmericanDemocracy (Knopf,1966),210.

48.FrankWallaceandStephenClark, Truth AboutMoney:TheWorstFraud/Scandal/ SwindleCrimeinAmericanHistory:TheFederalReserveBankingAct (BookSurge,2008).

49. NewYorkTimes,26March1996.

50.JerryKnightin WashingtonPost, 26September1983.

CHAPTER d 18 THESUPREMELY POLITICALCOURT

1.MaxFarrand, TheFramingoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates (YaleUniversity Press,1913),156–157;ChiefJusticeJohn Marshall’sargumentforjudicialreviewin thelandmarkcase, Marburyv.Madison (1803).

2.QuotedinFelixFrankfurter, Mr.Justice HolmesandtheSupremeCourt (Atheneum,1965),54.

3.RussellGalloway, TheRichandthePoor inSupremeCourtHistory,1790–1982 (ParadigmPress,1982),163and180–181.

4.SeethestudybyCommunityRightsCounsel,reportedin NewYorkTimes,18May 2006.

5. WashingtonPost,5August2004.

6. Capertonv.A.T.MasseyCoalCompany.

7.DexterPerkins, CharlesEvansHughes (Little,Brown,1956),16.

8.LeeEpsteinandJeffreyA.Segal, Advice andConsent:ThePoliticsofJudicial Appointments (OxfordUniversityPress, 2007).

9.SheldonGoldman, “ReorganizingtheJudiciary,” Judicature 68,April/May1985.

10.StudybyRobertCarp,DonaldSonger, andRonaldStidhamreportedin New YorkTimes,1August1996.

11.Seehttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/ 04/19/jay-bybee-nyt-calls-for-i_n_188680. html.

12.EpsteinandSegal, AdviceandConsent: ThePoliticsofJudicialAppointments; ChristopherEisgruber, TheNextJustice: RepairingtheSupremeCourtAppointmentProcess (PrincetonUniversityPress, 2009).

13. Gonzalesv.Oregon (2006).

14.JeffreyToobin, “NoMoreMr.NiceGuy,” NewYorker,25May2009.

15.Onthisandthesanctityofcontract,see Allegeyerv.Louisiana (1897), Lochnerv. NewYork (1905),and Adairv.United States (1908).

16. SantaClaraCountyv.SouthernPacific Railroad (1886).

17.See Hammerv.Dagenhart (1918), Carterv. CarterCoalCo.(1936),and Moreheadv. NewYork (1936).

18.In Bradwellv.State (1872),theCourtdeclaredthatwomenalsohadnorightto practicelaw.

19.CharlesGoodell, PoliticalPrisonersin America (RandomHouse,1973).

20. Schenckv.UnitedStates (1919).Holmes madeasimilarargumentin Debsv.United States (1919).Insubsequentcaseshe placedhimselfagainsttheCourt’smajority andonthesideoftheFirstAmendment: Abramsv.UnitedStates (1919)and Gitlowv.NewYork (1925).

21. Yatesetal.v.UnitedStates (1957).

22. LorillardTobaccov.Reilly (2001).

23. FirstNationalBankv.Bellotti (1978)and Buckleyv.Valeo (1976).

24.See Nearv.Minnesota (1931), Dejongev. Oregon (1937),and McCollumv.Board ofEducation (1948).

25. Lairdv.Tatum (1972)and Greerv.Spock (1976).

26. UnitedStatesv.Caldwell (1972)and Zurcherv.StanfordDaily (1978).

27. MembersoftheCityCouncilofLosAngelesetal.v.TaxpayersforVincentetal. (1984)and Clarkv.CommunityforCreativeNon-Violence (1984).

28. Saucierv.Katz (2001)and Humboldt Countyv.HeadwatersForestDefense (2001).

29. HazelwoodSchoolDistrictv.Kuhlmeir (1988); LosAngelesTimes,6October 1998.

30. HustlerMagazinev.Falwell (1988).

31. Willv.MichiganDepartmentofStatePolice (1989).OntheCourt’scollusionwith staterepression,seeAlexanderCharns, CloakandGavel:FBIWiretaps,Bugs,Informers,andtheSupremeCourt (UniversityofIllinoisPress,1992).

32. J.RoderickMcArthurFundv.FBI (1996).

33. FederalCommunicationsCommissionv. FoxTelevisionStations (2009).

34.Forsamplesofthisthinking,seetheVinsonandJacksonopinionsin Dennisetal. v.UnitedStates.

35.Oncivilliberties: Gideonv.Wainwright (1963), Escobedov.Illinois (1964),and Mirandav.Arizona (1966);onreapportionment: Bakerv.Carr (1962), Reynoldsv. Sims (1964),and Wesberryv.Sanders (1964);ontheeconomicrightsofthepoor: Kingv.Smith (1968), Sniadichv.FamilyFinanceCorporation (1969), Shapirov. Thompson (1969),and Hunterv.Erickson (1969);seealsoGalloway, TheRichandthe PoorinSupremeCourtHistory,163.

36. Lovingv.Virginia (1967).

37.Forgeneralcritiques,seeTinsleyYarbrough, TheRehnquistCourtandtheConstitution (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 2000);HermanSchwartz, TheRehnquist Court:JudicialActivismontheRight (Hill&Wang,2003);JamesMacGregor Burns, PackingtheCourt:TheRiseofJudicialPowerandtheComingCrisisoftheSupremeCourt (PenguinPress,2009).

38.Seerespectively, MentorSavingsBank,FSB v.Vinson (1986), Franklinv.Gwinnett CountyPublicSchools (1992),and Davisv. MonroeCountryBoardofEducation (1999).

39.See,respectively, PlannedParenthoodv. Casey (1992)and Hodgsonv.Minnesota (1990).

40. AWoman’sChoice-EastSideWomen’ s Clinicv.Newman (2003).

41. Lorancev.AT&TTechnologies (1989), CityofRichmondv.J.A.CrossonCo (1989), Martinv.Wilks (1989),and AdarandConstructorsv.Pena (1995).

42. Ward’sCovePackingCo.v.Atonio (1989).

43. Missouriv.Jenkins (1995), Montgomery County,Md.,PublicSchoolsv.Eisenberg (2000), Renov.BossierParishSchoolDistrict (2000),and Texasv.Hopwood (2001).

44. DesertPalaceInc.v.Costa (2003)and BurlingtonNorthern&SantaFeRailway Co.v.White (2006).

45. Rummelv.Estelle (1980).TheCourtreverseditselftemporarilyin Solemv.Helm (1983).

46. Harmelinv.Michigan (1991)and Lockyer v.Andrade (2003).

47. UnitedStatesv.Watts (1997).

48. Johnsonv.California (2005)and MillerEl v.Dretke (2005).

49. Cockrellv.Burdine (2002).

50. Ingrahamv.Wright (1977)and DeShaney v.WinnebagoCountyDepartmentofSocialServices (1989).

51. Marylandv.Blue (1990), Floridav. Bostick (1991),and CountyofRiverside v.McLaughlin (1991).

52.Ontherighttoappeal: McCleskeyv.Zant (1991)and Keeneyv.Tamayo-Reyes (1992);oninhumaneconditions: Wilson v.Seiter (1991).

53. Gonzalesv.Raich (2005)and U.S.v.OaklandCannabisBuyersCooperative (2001).

54. SanAntonioIndependentSchoolDistrict v.Rodriguez (1973).

55.EricNadler, “SupremeCourtBacksAgribusiness,” Guardian,July2,1980.

56. Nordlingerv.Hahn (1992).

57. Mahanv.Howell (1973)and Davisv. Bandemer (1986).

58. FirstNationalBankofBostonv.Bellotti (1978), CitizensAgainstRentControletal. v.CityofBerkeleyetal.(1981), Buckleyv. Valeo (1976),and ColoradoRepublican Committeev.FederalElectionCommission (1996).

59. Nixonv.ShrinkMissouriGovernment PAC (2000).

60. FECv.ColoradoRepublicanFederal Campaign (2001)and McConnellv.FEC (2004).

61. NewYorkTimes editorial,11September 2009,referringto CitizensUnitedv.FederalElectionCommission.

62. U.S.TermLimitsv.Thornton (1995).

63. Timmonsv.TwinCitiesAreaNewParty (1997).

64. Alexanderv.Mineta (2000).

65. Crawfordv.MarionCountyElection Board (2008).

66. NewYorkTimes,18September2009.

67. TravisCountyv.Perry (2006)andother consolidatedcases;seealsothesimilar Pennsylvaniacase, Viethv.Jubelirer (2004).

68. ExxonShippingv.Baker (2008).

69. CoeurAlaskaInc.v.SoutheastAlaska ConservationCouncil (2009).

70. Crosbyv.NationalForeignTradeCouncil (2000).

71.Quotedin LosAngelesTimes,28April 2004.

72.Respectively, GatewayCoalCo.v.United MineWorkers (1974), FirstNational MaintenanceCorp.v.NLRB (1981), CommunicationsWorkersofAmericav. Beck (1988),and TransWorldAirlinesv. IndependentFederationofFlightAttendants (1989).

73. HoffmanPlasticCompoundsv.NLRB (2003).

74.Respectively, StateFarmMutualAutomobileInsurancev.Campbelletal.(2003) and Fordv.Romo (2003).

75. Murrayv.Curlett (1963), Lemonv.Kurtzman (1971),and Walzv.TaxCommission (1970).

76. Bowenv.Kendrick (1988), Muellerv. Allen (1983), Rosenbergerv.University ofVirginia (1995),and Mitchellv.Helms (2000).

77.Oncreationism: Edwardsv.Aguillard (1987);onsubsidies: Lockev.Davey (2004).

78.Inre Moore (2003)and Moorev.Glassroth (2003).

79.Foracriticaloverviewofconservativetactics ontheCourt,seeLucasA.PoweJr., The SupremeCourtandtheAmericanElite, 1789–2008 (HarvardUniversityPress, 2009).

80.GarrettEpps, “BlackRobeActivism,” The Nation,5May1997.

81.PaulGewirtzandChadGolder, “SoWho AretheActivists?” NewYorkTimes Op-Ed,6July2005.

82.SeeVincentBugliosi, TheBetrayalof America:HowtheSupremeCourtUnderminedtheConstitutionandChoseOur President (Thunder’sMouthPress,2001).

CHAPTER d 19 DEMOCRACY FORTHEFEW

1.Forclassicpluraliststatements,seeEarl Latham, TheGroupBasisofPolitics (CornellUniversityPress,1952);andRobert Dahl, WhoGoverns? (YaleUniversity Press,1961).

2.MaxLerner, AmericaasaCivilization (Simon&Schuster,1957),398.

3. WashingtonPost,9March1980.

4.FrankKofsky, HarryS.Trumanandthe WarScareof1948 (St.Martin’sPress, 1993),190.

5.BrandeisquotedinDavidMcGowan, DerailingDemocracy (CommonCourage, 2000),42;alsoH.H.GerthandC.Wright Mills(eds.), FromMaxWeber:Essaysin Sociology (OxfordUniversityPress,1958).

6.PaulHawken, “DreamsofaLivableFuture,” Utne,May/June2003.

7. “ReasonstoBeHopeful,” Independent PoliticsNews,Winter2005.

8.KateSimsetal., “TheNewsIsGood!StoriesofHopeandChangefrom2007and 2008,” Censored2009 (SevenStories, 2008),175–186;alsoDavidModel, Halfa Clue:UnderstandingandChallengingCorporateRule (BlackRoseBooks,2002), chapter10.

9.NicoleWinfield,AssociatedPressreport, 6May2007.

10.Seetherevealingdocumentaryfilm, Who KilledtheElectricCar (2006).

11.MarkHosenball, “FalseStartsforStar Wars,” Newsweek,16March2009.

12.FelixRohatyn, BoldEndeavors:HowOur GovernmentBuiltAmerica,andWhyIt MustRebuildNow (Simon&Schuster, 2009).

13.Fordemocraticeconomicalternatives,see GarAlperovitz, AmericaBeyondCapitalism:ReclaimingOurWealth,OurLiberty, andOurDemocracy (Wiley,2006).

14. NewYorkTimes,3June1987.

15.JeremyRifkin, TheEuropeanDream: HowEurope’sVisionoftheFutureIsQuietlyEclipsingtheAmericanDream (Tarcher,2005);RobertG.Kaiser, “Why Can’tWeBeMoreLikeFinland?” Seattle

Times,25September2005(originallypublishedinthe WashingtonPost).

16.See,forinstance,TorWennerberg, “UnderminingtheWelfareStateinSweden,” ZMagazine,June1995.

17.SeeMichaelParenti, BlackshirtsandReds: RationalFascismandtheOverthrowof

Communism (CityLightsBooks,1997), chapters6and7;andParenti, ToKilla Nation:TheAttackonYugoslavia (Verso, 2000),chapters18and19.

Index

9/11,134,149

Abortion,258–259. See Legalsystem,and sexism Abraham,Spencer,245 Abramoff,Jack,204 Advisorycommittees,245 Affirmativeactionandcivilrights, 259–260

Agribusiness,35–37,61–62 Agriculture,changesneeded,278–279 AIG,52 Aldrich,Nelson,246 Alito,Samuel,164,252 American CleanEnergyandSecurityActof 2009,94 IndianMovement,124 Amtrak,89 Arnold,MichaelWilliam,117 ArticlesofConfederation,6 Ashcroft,John,134 Atkinsv.Virginia,261

Bailouts,2008–2009recession,64–65 Banfield,Ashleigh,165 Bank ofAmerica(BOA),65 bailout. See Bailouts,2008–2009recession ofNewYorkMellon,64,102 Bazev.Rees,261–262 Beard,Charles,12 Beck,Glenn,166 Bennett,William,166 Berg,Alan,127 Berkman,Craig,103 BillofRights,15

BinLaden,Osama,149 Black

Hugo,23,105–106,255 Panthers,123–124,125–126 Blackmun,Harry,259 Boeing,100 Bolles,Don,127 Bosch,Orlando,128 Brady,Nicholas,33–34 Brandeis,Louis,276 Brennan,WilliamJ.,256 Breyer,Stephen,266 Brown,Sherrod,213 Brownv.BoardofEducation,258 Buchanan,Pat,171 Budget discretionaryspending,138 federaldeficits,71–73 mandatoryspending,138 Buffett,Warren,66 Burdish,Dan,193 Bureaucracy,232–248 advisorycommittees,245 deregulation,235 andinefficiency,232–235 andpolitics,240–242 privatecontrolof,245–247 privatization,236–238 andregulationbygovernment,247–248 andregulations,240–242 regulatoryagencies,242–245 andsecrecy,238–240 Burroughs,Richard,243 Burton,Dan,107,204 Bush GeorgeH.W.,86,153,201,212,217,219, 226,227,228,251

Bush(continued) GeorgeW.,68,75,83,85,86,94,97,103, 134,139,149,153,172,184,191, 192–194,217,218,219–220,223,224, 226,227,228–229,229,238,240,241, 244,245,251,252,266 Jeb,107,192

Bushv.Gore,266–267 Buyingpower,37 Bybee,Jay,251–252 Byrd,Harry,223

Cantu,Ruben,110 Capitalgains,66 Capitalism,27–46 andlabor,27–29 andprofits,33–34 Cargill,51 Carter,Jimmy,2,153,218 Carthran,Eddie,122–123 Casolaro,Danny,127 Caveatemptordoctrine,20 Census,30,42,184

Central AmericanFreeTradeAgreement(CAFTA), 160 IntelligenceAgency(CIA),131–133,135,172 Cerra,Frances,164–165 Chandlerv.Siegelman,265 Changesneededforourdemocratic society,277–283 agricultureandecology,278–279 economicreform,279 electoralsystem,279–280 employmentconditions,280–281 fiscalpolicy,281 gender,racial,andcriminaljustice,281 healthcareandsafety,281 laborlaw,281 militaryspending,282 nationalsecuritystate,282 newsmedia,282 SocialSecurityandtaxation,282–283 transportationandinfrastructure,283 Chavez,Hugo,149 Cheney,Dick,54,226,250,270 Cheneyv.UnitedStates,264 Cherney,BariandDarryl,128 Childrenandabuse. See Legalsystem,and victimizationofchildren Cigna,80 Citigroup,65 CitizensUnitedv.FederalElection Commission,262 Clarke,Richard,134

Class employee,27 inequality,29–33 andlegalsystem,105–108 power,earlyAmerica,5–7 CleanAirAct,96 Climatechange. See Globalwarming

Clinton,Bill,70,109,147,152,153–154,167, 171,204,215,216,219,226,251 Coca-Cola,51 Cokerv.Georgia,261 Colombia,148 Columbia/HCA,103 Conferencecommittee,208–209 Congress,197–214 andcorruption,203–205 demographics,197–198 incumbents,210–211 ofIndustrialOrganizations(CIO),23 andlegislativeprocess,208–210 andlobbyists,200–203 reformof,211–214 specialinterestsandsecrecy,206–208 termlimits,210–211 andwealth,197–200 Conservativepoliticalideology,52–54 Constitution,1,5–16. Seealso Constitutional Convention BillofRights,15 conservativedesign,13 Eighthamendment,260 ElectoralCollege,222–224 FifteenthAmendment,188 FifthAmendment,254 FirstAmendment,255–257,264–265 FourteenthAmendment,254,262,266–267 FourthAmendment,261 fragmentofpower,10–12 framers’ interests,12–14 andfreetrade,161 NineteenthAmendment,188 andpresidentialpower,225 progressivefeatures,14–16 andpropertylessmajority,5–16 ratificationof,14 Sixteenthamendment,253 andslavery,10 andSupremeCourt,249 TenthAmendment,254 Twenty-secondAmendment,225 Twenty-sixthAmendment,188 Twenty-thirdAmendment,188 andthewealthy,9 writingof,7–10 ConstitutionalConvention,6,216 Consumerdebt,75 Contractlabor,33 Cooperman,Edward,126 Corporate ownershipofAmerica,31–33 owningclass,27 welfare,60 CouncilonForeignRelations(CFR),152–153 Craig,Larry,204 Crilles,LuisPosada,128 Crime. See Legalsystem Criminalizationofpoverty,106–108 Culturalinstitutions,47 Cunningham,Randy,204

Dean,John,134 Deathpenalty. See SupremeCourt,anddeath penalty Debs,Eugene,122

Deficitsinfederalbudget,71–73 Deficitspending,70–71 DeLay,Tom,204,205 Dellums,Ron,206–207 Democracy andcapitalism,58 changesneeded,277–283 criticismof,59 definition,57–59 earlyfearsabout,7–10 formandcontent,57–59 Democrats,177–180 Dennisetalv.UnitedStates,255 Department ofAgriculture(USDA),243–244 ofDefense. See Military,globalempire ofHousingandUrbanDevelopment (HUD),86 Dialli,Amadou,117 DiGrazia,Robert,117 Discrimination. See Legalsystem,andsexism Dissent,repressionof,119–122 Dividends,66 Dole,Robert,199 Douglas,WilliamO.,255 Downgrading,33 Downsizing,33 DredScottv.Sandford,253 Dreier,Marc,104 DuPont,100

Earmarks,207

Ecology,changesneeded,278–279 Economic imperialism,143–146 reformneeded,279 Economics,3 Education,85–86. Seealso Universitiesand plutocracy Eisenhower,DwightD.,60 Elections. Seealso Politicalsystem ElectoralCollege,222–224,266 Electoralsystem. See SupremeCourt,and electoralsystem Electoralsystem,changesneeded,279–280 Eminentdomain,20 Employeeclass,27 Employment conditions,changesneeded,280–281 rates,39–42 EndangeredSpeciesAct,96 Environment,90–99 alternativeenergy,98–99 globalwarming,93–94 governmentresponseandcomplicityin eco-problems,96–98 mining,95 nuclearpower,96–97

orgnaics,98 pollution,94–96 solutionstoproblems,98–99 andSupremeCourt,263 toxins,90–93,95 EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),97 Ewingv.California,260 ExxonMobil,51,63,67 ExxonValdez,263

Farmingmonopolies,35–37 Federal BureauofInvestigation(FBI),120–122 ElectionCampaignAct,180 ElectionCommission,180 EmergencyManagementAgency (FEMA),244 Reserve(theFed),246–247 Filibuster,209 Firestone,102 Fiscalpolicy,changesneeded,281 Fluoridation,compulsory,92 Folkes,Lebert,117 FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA),83,243 Ford Gerald,133,216,218 Henry,23,100 Fordv.Wainwright,261 ForeignIntelligenceSurveillanceAct(FISA),120 FoxNews,164 France,Anatole,58 Franklin,Benjamin,15 Free-marketcapitalism,52 Freetrade,157–162 Friedman,Thomas,170

Garcettiv.Ceballos,257 Gates,Robert,140 Geithner,Timothy,154,245 Gender criminaljusticechangesneeded,281 andjustice,112–114 sexisminlegalsystem,112–14 General AgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT), 157,160 Electric,101,103 Motors,68,88,100 Gergen,David,171 Gerry,Elbridge,8 Gerrymander,182 Ginsberg,RuthBader,266 Globalization,157–162 Globalwarming,93–94 GoldmanSachs,52,65 Gore,Al,191,192,223,224,266 Government AccountabilityOffice(GAO),140 assistanceandjobcreation,62–63 assistancetocorporations,62–63 fundsandthewealthy,60–62 subsidies,60–62

Government,textbookversionof,1 GreatDepression,21 Greenspan,Alan,219 Grenada,146

Griffinv.Illinois,105–106 Grutterv.Bollinger,259–260 Guthrie,Dan,165

Gutting,Tom,165

Haliburton,102,140 Hamdanv.Rumsfeld,264 Hamilton,Alexander,3,4,9 Harris,Kathleen,191 HaymarketSquare,19 HeadStart,85

Healthandenvironment,90–93 Healthcare andbiomedicalresearch,83 costs,81 drugs,82–83 FoodandDrugAdministation(FDA), 83 –84 Medicaid,78–79 Medicare,78–79,80 occupationalsafety,84 OccupationalSafetyandHealth Administation(OSHA),84 orphandrugs,83 profits,79 andsafety,changesneeded,281 andsocialdemocracies,81–83 socialized,81–83 toxinsandhealth,91–92 VeteransHealthAdministation(VHA),82 Henry,Patrick,13–14 Herrera,LeonTorres,111 Hiddenemployment,40 Hill,Joe,122 Hobbes,Thomas,3 Holder,Eric,136,226 Holmes,OliverWendell,255 Homelandsecurity,134–136 Homelessness,87 Honeywell,101 Hoover Herbert,24 J.Edgar,121 Hopev.Pelzer,261 HouseofRepresentatives formationof,9 andpropertylessmajority,11 Housing,86–97 low-income,86–87 public,87 section8,87 Hughes CharlesEvan,251 Harold,200 Hulin,Rodney,108 Humanservices,74–89 declinein,74–75 education,85–86

healthcare,77–79 healthinsurance,79–81 housing,86–87 privatizationof,76–77 SocialSecurity,76–77 state,75 transportation,87–89 Humphrey,Hubert,200 Hunger,44,74 Hussein,Sadam,149,167

Ideologicalorthodoxy,49–51 Ideologies,political,52–56 ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement (ICE),119 Incometax. See Taxation Individualism,50 Inflation,34–35 Infrastructure,changesneeded,283 InternalRevenueService(IRS),119, 236–237 InternationalMonetaryFund(IMF), 145–146 Interventionbygovernement,international, 146–147 Iran-Contra,133–134 Iraq,146–147,149 ITT,100

Jackson,Andrew,17 Jay,John,4 JazzAge,22 Jefferson,Thomas,15,17,286 Joblessrecovery,40 JohnsManvilleCorporation,101 Johnson,Lyndon,80,152 JPMorganChase,64 Junketing,203

Kennedy Anthony,251 JohnF.,132–133,223,246 Kennedyv.Louisiana,261 Kerry,John,192–194 King,MartinLuther,Jr.,121 Kuhl,Carolyn,251 KuKluxKlan,127–128

Labor changesneededtolaws,281 contract,33 corporateconflictswith,17–19 governmentactionagainst,19–21 andrulebythewealthy,154–155 andSupremeCourt,264 LaGuardia,Fiorella,22 Lansing,Robert,22 Ledbetterv.Goodyear,259 Legalsystem,100–118 andclass,105–108

crime,street,100 crime,white-collar,100–103 deathpenalty. See SupremeCourt,anddeath penalty falliblenatureof,110–11 gender,racial,andcriminaljusticechanges needed,281 andprisons,108–10,113–14 andracism,115–18 andsexism,112–14 SupremeCourt. See SupremeCourt victimizationofchildren,114–15 whitecollarcrimepenalties,103–105 Legislation,bicameral,9 Letelier,Orlando,128 Lewis,Anthony,167 Liberalpoliticalideologies,54–55 Libertarianpoliticalideology,55–56 Lifeexpectancyrate,43 Limbaugh,Rush,167 Lincoln,Abraham,29 LloydCorporationv.Tanner, 120 Lobbying,200–203 grassroots,202–203 Lockard,Duane,232 Locke,John,3 Lockout,155 Lozano,Rudy,126–127 LudlowMassacre,19 Luers,Jeff,125 Lynd,Staughton,12

Madison,James,3,7,10–11,11,13,15,229 Madoff,Bernard,103–104 Majorityrule,1 MakingHomeAffordable(MHA)Program,87 Marketdemand,37–39 Marshall John,252–253 Thurgood,251,256 Marx,Karl,3,28,250,286 Mason,George,13 Masseyv.Washington,260 McCain,John,200 McCain-FeingoldActof2002,185 McHenry,James,16 McNallyv.UnitedStates,261 Media,mass,163–176 andaffirmativeaction,169 alternatives,174–176 andbias,167–170 andcorporatewealth,163–167 andcrime,169 andeconomy,168 andelections,168–169 andentertainment,173–174 andglobalempireandwar,170 andgovernmentinfluence,170–172 ideology,167–168 andlabor,169 news,changesneeded,282 andpoliticalprotestsandglobalization,169

Medicaid,78–79 Medicare,75,78–79,233 Meese,Edwin,205 Mercer,John,11 Merck,52

Military,globalempire,137–150 harmcausedby,142–143 killcapacity,137–139 nuclearbombs,142–143 Pentagonspending,139–142 warsofattrition,147–150 Militaryspending,changesneeded,282 Milken,Michael,103 Minh,LamVan,126 Minorv.Happersett,254 Mitchell,David,165 Moderatepoliticalideologies,54 Moffit,Ronnie,128 Mohamad,Mahathir,159 Molecularscavenger,93 Moneyprimary,184 Monsanto,83,92,95,243 Moore,Michael,80,164 Morris,Gouverneur,6,11 Mountaintopremoval,95 Murdoch,Rupert,164

Nadel,David,127 Nader,Ralph,48,192 Nationaldebt explanationsfor,71 remediesfor,73 NationalLaborRelationsBoard(NLRB),25, 137,154,155 Nationalsecurity,129–130 changesneeded,282 state,129–130 NewDeal,23–26 problemswith,23–24 successes,25 Nicaragua,146 Nixon,Richard,133,134,152,171,205,217, 218,228,229

NLRBv.KentuckyRiverCommunity,264 NoChildLeftBehind,85 NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement (NAFTA),157,160

Obama,Barack,65,66,71,87,89,94,104, 136,145,149,153,154,217,220–221, 226,229,241,245 Occupationalsafety,84 OccupationalSafetyandHealth Administration(OSHA),234 Oliver,April,171

O’Reilly,Bill,166 OwnershipofAmerica,29–33 Owningclass,27,28

Palmorev.Sidoti,259 Pappageorge,John,193 PatriotAct,134–135,210

Perzel,John,192

Pesticides. See Environment,toxins Petraeus,David,149

Pfizer,103

Pinckney,Charles,216

Pitt,Harvey,245

Plessyv.Ferguson,254

Plowshares,124–125

Pluralism,268–270

Plutocracy,47–49,151,198,269 andideologicalorthodoxy,49–51 andmaterialsuccess,50–51

Policyadvisorygroups,152

Politicalmurder,125–129 Politicalprisoners,122–125 Politicalsystem,2,177–196 Democratsvs.Republicans,177–179 andfunding,184–186 monopoly,two-party,179–180 andthepeople,196 representationsystem,181–182 andrigging,182–184 shadymethods,191–195 voterfraud,189–191 voterturnout,187–189

Politico-economicsystem,3–4

Politicsdefined,2

Porkbarrel,207

PotomacElectricCompany,101 Poverty,42–44 criminalizationof,106–108 effectsof,44–46 line,42–43

Powell,Lewis,256

Power,4

President,215–231 autonomouspower,228–229 Congressionalcollaboration,230–231 andElectoralcollege,222–224 executiveagreements,230 executiveorder,226–227 executivepowerandSupremeCourt, 263–264 executiveprivilege,225–226 andlies,218–221 midnightregulations,228 non-cooperationwithCongressandcourt rulings,227 powersof,225–231 roleof,215–218 signingstatements,227–228 andstates’ rights,222 warpowers,229–230 Press. See Media,mass Prisons. See Legalsystem,andprisons Privatization,232–233. See Humanservices, privatizationof Productivity,37–39 grossdomesticproduct(GDP),38 Profits,28–29 Progressive

Era,21–23 politicalideology,55 Propertylessmajority,10–11 Proportionalrepresentation,181–182,183 Public opinion,56–57 ownership,283–286 policy,2

Racialprofiling,116 Racismandlegalsystem,115–18 Rainforests,90 Reagan,Ronald,70,75,133,152,153,171, 189,205,212,218,219,222,225,226, 227,234,238,251 Reapportionment,183 Redscare,22 Reformingovernment,limitson,271–272 Rehnquist,William,260 Religion,264–265 Republicans,177–180 Right-to-worklaws,154 Ringv.Arizona,261 Rios,Ojeda,127 Roberts,John,252 Rockefeller David,62,169 John,143 JohnD.,20,29 JohnD.,Jr.,246 Rogers,Will,50,199 Roosevelt Franklin,23 Teddy,21 Roperv.Simmons,261 Rulingclass,151–154 Rumsfeld,Donald,139 Ryan,George,111 Ryder,Winona,107

Sabow,James,127 SafeDrinkingWaterAct,96 Savage,Michael,167 Scalia,Antonin,250,266 Scheidlerv.NationalOrganizationfor Women,259 Schenk,Charles,255 Shanahan,Jack,139 Shays,Daniel,7 Shays’sRebellion,7,10 Sherman,Roger,8 Shuford,Frank,122 Silkwood,Karen,127 Slavery,10,18 Smith Adam,3,5,28 Bradley,245 Jack,171 Nick,213 Socialism,283–286

SocialSecurity,72,76,77,233,234 Act,24 changesneeded,282–283 componentsof,77 solvencyof,76

Softmoney,185

Sostre,Martin,122

Speedups,33

Spencer,Herbert,250 StandardOil,88 Stanton,Frank,164

StarWars,139 States,rolesof,275–277 Statesecretsprivilege,226

Stenbergv.Carhart,259

Stenbergv.NationalOrganizationfor Women,259 Stevens,JohnPaul,261,262 Stewart,Cyril,157

Stognerv.California,260–261

Stossel,Jon,166

Strugglefordemocracy,273–275 Studentloans,85–86

Suffrage,20–21

Summers,Lawrence,245

SuppplementalSecurityIncome(SSI),75 SupremeCourt,249–267 abortionandgender,258–259 affirmativeactionandcivilrights, 259–260 bias,250–251 andConstitution,249 andcriminaljustice,260–261 anddeathpenalty,261–262 demographics,249–250 directionof,258–265 andeconomicinequality,262 andelectoralsystem,262–263 andenvironment,263 andexecutivepower,263–264 andFirstAmendment,255–257 judicialactivism,252–255,265–267 judicialinterpretation,249 judicialreview,249 andlaborandcorporateeconomy,264 andrevolutionaries,257–258 selectionofjustices,251–252 andseparationofchurchandstate, 264–265

Surplusvalue,28

Taft,Howard,21 Talent,Jim,198

Tamimi,AliAl,125 Tauzin,Billy,201

Taxation,66–68. Seealso InternalRevenue Service(IRS) changesneeded,282–283 andcorporations,66–68 estatetax,70

excisetax,69 inheritancetax,70 methods,69–70 nationalsalestax,69 andredistribution,66 reforms,70 regressive,69 salestax,69 valueaddedtax,69 andwealthy,66 TelecommunicationsActof1996,163 Thibodaux,Lousianamassacre,19 ThirdWorldinvestment,143–144,146 Thomas,Clarence,251,260,266 Thornburghv.Abbott,256–257 Townley,Michael,128 Trade,72 Transportation,87–89 changesneeded,283 mass,87–89 motorvehicles,88 TrusteesofDartmouthCollegev. Woodward,253 Turner,Ted,62

UBS,52,66 Underemployed,40 Unemployment,40 UnionCarbide,102 Unions,156–157 United AutoWorkers(UAW),126 StatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment (USAID),145 Universitiesandplutocracy,47–49 UniversityofCaliforniav.Bakke,259

Valueaddedinmanufacture,28 Vanderlip,Frank,23 VeteransHealthAdministration,82 Vietnam,147–148 Volcker,Paul,275

Wage minimum,84 theft,84–85 Wal-Mart,51,62,63 WaltDisneyCo.,164 Warondrugs,107 Warren,Earl,258 Washington,George,6,8 Watergate,133,225,270 Wealthandgoverning,151–154, 273,274 Webb,Gary,170–171 Weber,Max,276–277 Websterv.ReproductiveHealth Services,259 Weinberger,Caspar,134 Welch,Jack,32–33

Whistleblowers,239–240 White,Byron,256 Wilson,Woodrow,21,246 Windsor,QueenElizabeth,61–62 Workingclasshardships,39–42 WorksProgressAdministration(WPA),24 World Bank,145–146 TradeOrganization,157–158

WarI,impactonindustryand government,22 WarII,25–26

Yarris,Nicholas,110 Yugoslavia,147

Zeitlin,Maurice,156 Zelmanv.Simmons-Harris,265