CHRISTIANREVOLUTIONINLATINAMERICA: TheChangingFaceofLiberationTheology (PartOneinaThree-PartSeriesonLiberationTheology)
by RonRhodes
In1985,aleaderoftheconservativewingoftheRomanCatholicchurchinLatinAmerica,BishopHoyos, denouncedliberationtheologians,saying:"WhenIseeachurchwithamachinegun,Icannotseethecrucified Christinthatchurch....Wecanneverusehateasasystemofchange.Thecoreofbeingachurchislove."1
Theologicalcontroversiesareoftenconfinedtoseminaryclassroomsortheologicaljournals.Butthecontroversy provokedbyLatinAmericanliberationtheologyhasbeen public andithasbeen worldwide involvingthe Vatican,orthodoxandnot-so-orthodoxpriests,laypeople,sociologists,socialists,capitalists,economists, governmentleadersandtheirmilitary,andmuchmore.Liberationtheologyhascertainlynotbeenthepassingfad someanalyststhoughtitwouldbewhenitfirstemergedinthelate1960s.
Strictlyspeaking,liberationtheologyshouldbeunderstoodasa family oftheologies includingtheLatin American,Black,andfeministvarieties.Allthreerespondtosomeformofoppression:LatinAmericanliberation theologianssaytheirpoverty-strickenpeoplehavebeenoppressedandexploitedbyrich,capitalistnations.Black liberationtheologiansarguethattheirpeoplehavesufferedoppressionatthehandsofracistwhites.Feminist liberationtheologianslayheavyemphasisuponthestatusandliberationofwomeninamale-dominatedsociety.
Thisarticle,thefirstofathree-partseriesonliberationtheology,willfocusontheLatinAmericanvariety examiningitshistoricalroots,growth,doctrine,andpresentstatusintheworld.Primaryemphasis willbeonhow themovementhaschangedsinceitsemergenceinthelate1960s.InPartsTwoandThreerespectively,Iwill examinetheBlackandfeministvarieties.
Withafewnotableexceptions,LatinAmericanliberationtheologyhasbeenamovementidentifiedwiththeRoman Catholicchurch.Forthisreason,IshalldirectmostofmyattentiontotheviewsofRomanCatholicliberation theologians.First,however,wemustbecomeacquaintedwiththerootsofthiscontroversialtheology.
EUROPEANROOTS
SomeofthetheologicalrootsofLatinAmericanliberationtheologycanbetraceddirectlytothewritingsofcertain Europeantheologians.ThreeofthemorenotableoftheseareJurgenMoltmann,JohannesBaptistMetz,andDietrich Bonhoeffer.
Withoutgoing intodetail,Moltmannhassuggestedthatthecomingkingdomgivesthechurchasocietytransformingvisionofrealityasopposedtoamerelyprivatevisionofpersonalsalvation.Metzhasemphasizedthat thereisapoliticaldimensiontofaith,andthatthechurchmustbeaninstitutionofsocialcriticism.Bonhoefferhas issuedacalltoredefinereligioninasecularcontext.Histheologyemphasizeshumanresponsibilitytowardothers, andstressesthevalueofseeingtheworldwith"theviewfrombelow" theperspectiveofthepoorandoppressed.
Thoughliberationistshaveborrowedfromthesetheologians,theyneverthelesschargetheEuropeantheologieswith being"theoreticalabstractions,ideologicallyneutral,[and]neglectingthemiserable,unjustpresentforsome 'Christianityofthefuture.'"2 Thetheologicalmethodologydevelopedbyliberationtheologiansspecificallyaddresses theseperceiveddeficiencies.
MARXISTINFLUENCES
Marxismhasalsoexertedaprofoundinfluenceonliberationtheologians.Thisshouldnotbetakentomeanthatthey haveespousedMarxismasaholisticplanofpoliticalaction,fortheyhavenot.Theirinteresthasbeenlimitedto usingMarxistcategoriesfor socialanalysis.
AccordingtoMarx,manonceexistedinasimple,primitivestate.Atthattime,therewashappinessandtranquility. Thisprimitivestateofhappinesswasdisrupted,however,bytheriseofeconomicclasseswhereoneclasssoughtto oppressandexploitanotherforitsowneconomicadvantage.Marxbelievedallofman'sproblemsarethedirect resultofthisclassexploitation.Heportrayedcapitalismasthechiefculpritthatgaverisetothisundesirablestateof affairs.
Marxwasadamantthatmancanneverbetrulyhappyorfreeinacapitalisticsociety.Man,hesaid,hasbecomean alienatedbeinganddoesnotfeel"athome"inacapitalisticenvironment.However,thisalienationwillnotlast forever.Marxbelievedthathistoryisinexorablymovingtowardaclimacticdaywhentheoppressedworkersof the world,the proletariat,willriseupandoverthrowtheircapitalisticoppressors,the bourgeoisie.Intheplaceofthe oldbourgeoissocietywithitsclassesandclassantagonisms,therewillbeaharmonioussocietyinwhichthereis equityforall.
THETHEOLOGYOFLIBERATION
DrawingfromEuropeantheologiesandMarxism,LatinAmericantheologiansdevelopedtheirowntheologyby radicallyreinterpretingScripturewith"abiastowardthepoor."Letusnowbrieflysurveykeyaspectsofthe theologyof liberation.
Liberationtheologybeginswiththepremisethatalltheologyisbiased thatis,particulartheologiesreflectthe economicandsocialclassesofthosewhodevelopedthem.Accordingly,thetraditionaltheologypredominantin NorthAmericaandEuropeissaidto"perpetuatetheinterestsofwhite,NorthAmerican/European,capitalistmales." Thistheologyallegedly"supportsandlegitimatesapoliticalandeconomicsystem democraticcapitalism whichisresponsibleforexploitingandimpoverishingtheThirdWorld."3
LikeBonhoeffer,liberationtheologianssaytheologymuststartwitha"viewfrombelow" thatis,withthe sufferingsoftheoppressed.Withinthisbroadframework,differentliberationtheologianshavedevelopeddistinctive methodologiesfor"doing"theology.
GustavoGutierrez,authorof ATheologyofLiberation,providesuswitharepresentativemethodology.Likeother liberationists,Gutierrezrejectstheideathattheologyisasystematiccollectionoftimelessandculture-transcending truthsthatremainsstaticforallgenerations.Rather,theologyisinflux;itisadynamicandongoingexercise involvingcontemporaryinsightsintoknowledge,humanity,andhistory.
Gutierrezemphasizesthattheologyisnotjusttobe learned,itistobe done.Inhisthinking,"praxis"isthestarting pointfortheology.Praxis(fromtheGreek prasso:"towork")involvesrevolutionaryactiononbehalfofthepoor andoppressed andoutofthis,theologicalperceptionswillcontinuallyemerge.Thetheologianmustthereforebe immersedinthestrugglefortransformingsocietyandproclaimhismessage fromthatpoint
Inthetheologicalprocess,then, praxis mustalwaysbethefirststage; theology isthesecondstage.Theologiansare notto bemere theoreticians,but practitioners whoparticipateintheongoingstruggletoliberatetheoppressed.
Sin. UsingmethodologiessuchasGutierrez's,liberationistsinterpretsinnotprimarilyfromanindividual,private perspective,butfromasocial andeconomicperspective.Gutierrezexplainsthat"sinisnotconsideredasan
individual,private,ormerelyinteriorreality...Sinisregardedasasocial,historicalfact,theabsenceofbrotherhood andloveinrelationshipsamongmen."4
Liberationistsviewcapitalistnationsassinfulspecificallybecausetheyhaveoppressedandexploitedpoorer nations.Capitalistnationshavebecomeprosperous,theysay,attheexpenseofimpoverishednations.Thisisoften spokenofintermsof"dependencytheory" thatis,thedevelopmentofrichcountries depends onthe underdevelopmentofpoorcountries.
Thereisanothersidetosininliberationtheology.Thosewhoareoppressedcananddosinbyacquiescingtotheir bondage.Togoalongpassivelywithoppressionratherthanresistingandattemptingtooverthrowit byviolent meansifnecessary issin.5
Theuseofviolencehasbeenoneofthemostcontroversialaspectsofliberationtheology.Suchviolenceis not consideredsinfulifitisusedforresistingoppression.Indeed,certainliberationtheologians"willinsomecases regardaparticularaction(e.g.,killing)assinifitiscommittedbyanoppressor,butnotifitiscommittedbythe oppressedinthestruggletoremoveinequities.Theremovalof inequitiesisbelievedtoresultintheremovalofthe occasionofsin[i.e.,theoppressor]aswell."6
Salvation. Salvationisviewednotprimarilyintermsoflifeafterdeathfortheindividual,butintermsofbringing aboutthekingdomofGod:anew socialorderwheretherewillbeequalityforall.Thisisnottodenyeternallife per se,butitistoemphasizethatthe eternal andthe temporal "intersect"inliberationtheology."If,asthetraditional formulationhasit,historyandeternityaretwoparallel(i.e.,nonintersecting)realms,ourgoalwithinhistoryisto gainaccesstoeternity."7 Butifhistoryandeternityintersect,"ifsalvationismovingintoaneworder...thenwemust striveagainsteverythingwhichatpresentdeniesthatorder."8
God. LiberationistsarguethatthetraditionalChristiandoctrineofGodmanipulatesthedivinebeingsuchthatHe appearstofavorthecapitalisticsocialstructure.TheyclaimtheorthodoxviewofGodisrootedintheancient GreekswhosawGodasa staticbeing distantandremotefromhumanhistory.Thisdistortedviewofa transcendentdeityhas,theysay,yieldedatheologythatunderstandsGodas"outthere,"farremovedfromthe affairsofhumankind.Asaresult,manyLatinAmericanshaveadoptedapassivestanceinthefaceoftheir oppressionandexploitation.
LiberationtheologianshavethustriedtocommunicatetotheircompatriotsthatGodis not impassive.Rather,Heis dynamicallyinvolvedinbehalfofthepooranddowntrodden.AndbecauseGodstandsagainstoppressionand exploitation, thosewhofollowHimmustdolikewise.Indeed,Gutierrezsaysthat"toknowGodistodojustice."9
JesusChrist. WhileliberationtheologiansdonotoutrightdenyChrist'sdeity,thereisnoclear-cut, unambiguous confessionthatJesusisGod.The significance ofJesusChristliesinHisexampleofstrugglingforthepoorandthe outcast.TheIncarnationisreinterpretedtorepresentGod'stotalimmersionintoman'shistoryofconflictand oppression.By Hiswordsandactions,JesusshowedushowtobecometruesonsofGod thatis,bybringingin thekingdomofGodthroughactivelypursuingtheliberationoftheoppressed.
MostliberationistsseeJesus'deathonthecrossashavingnovicariousvalue; rather,JesusdiedbecauseHeupsetthe religious/politicalsituationofHistime.LeonardoBoffsaysJesus'followersfabricatedtheideathatJesus'deathhad atranscendent,salvificsignificance:"Thehistoricallytrueeventsarethecrucifixion,thecondemnationbyPilate, andtheinscriptiononthecrossinthreelanguagesknownbytheJews.Therestoftheeventsaretheologizedorare puretheologydevelopedinlightoftheresurrectionandofthereflectionupontheOldTestament."10 Jesus'deathis uniquebecause"hehistoricizesinexemplaryfashionthesufferingexperiencedbyGodinallthecrossesofthe oppressed."11 LiberationistsacknowledgeJesus'resurrection,buttheyarenotclearonitssignificance.
TheChurch. Liberationtheologydoesnotaskwhatthechurch is,butratherwhatitmeans"tobe thechurchina contextofextremepoverty,socialinjusticeandrevolution....Inthecontextofliberationtheologythemissionofthe churchseemstobemoreimportantthanitsnature."12
Gutierrezandotherliberationtheologianssaythechurch'smissionisnolongeroneofa"quantitative"notionof savingnumbersofsouls.13 Rather,thechurch'smission"isatalltimestoprotestagainstinjustice,tochallengewhat isinhuman...tosidewiththepoorandtheoppressed."14
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Relatedtothedoctrineofthechurchhasbeentheformationandgrowthof"ecclesialbasecommunities,"sincethe 1970s.Theseare"small,grass-roots,laygroupsofthepoorortheordinarypeople,meetingtopray,conductBible studies,andwrestleconcretelywithsocialandpoliticalobligationsintheirsettings."15
Thesecommunitieshavebeeneffectiveinshowingworkersandpeasantshowtoorganizefortheirownsocial welfare.Gutierrezsaysthat"inmostLatinAmericancountries,thechurch'sbasecommunitiesaretheonlyformof socialactionavailabletothepoor."16 Indeed,theyhavebecome"themajorvehicleforthespreadofliberation themesbeyondacademiccircles.By1980therewereasmanyas100,000base communitiesmeetinginLatin America."17
ROMANCATHOLICOPENNESS
Sincetheemergenceofliberationtheologyanditsrapidgrowthviaecclesialbasecommunities,divisiveriftshave takenplacebetweenVaticanleadershipandRomanCatholictheologiansin LatinAmerica.Overthepastfew decades,however,theVaticanhasbecomeprogressivelyopentothe concept ofliberation.
Forexample,VaticanCouncilII heldinRomefrom1962to1965 decriedthewidedisparitybetweentherich andpoornationsof theworld.Churchleadersthereforeproclaimeda"preferentialoptionforthepoor."Threeyears later,theMedellinConferenceofLatinAmericanBishops(1968)denouncedtheextremeinequalityamongsocial classesaswellastheunjustuseofpowerandexploitation.18
PopeJohnPaulIIhasforyearsdevotedhimselftoestablishingabalancedpolicyonpoliticalactivismforRoman Catholicclergy.Hehasstaunchlyadvocatedsocialjustice,buthasalsoconsistentlywarnedtheclergyabout becomingtooinvolvedinsecularaffairsandaboutthedangersofMarxism.
TheSacredCongregationfortheDoctrineoftheFaith theVatican'swatchdogfordoctrinalorthodoxy issued twoimportantstatementsonliberationtheology.The InstructiononCertainAspectsofthe"TheologyofLiberation" (1984)warnedthatitisimpossibletoinvokeMarxistprinciplesandterminologywithoutultimatelyembracing Marxistmethodsandgoals.Marxismshouldthereforebeavoidedaltogether.
Twoyearslater(1986),the Instruction onChristianFreedomandLiberation affirmedthelegitimacyofthe oppressedtakingaction"throughmorallylicitmeans,inordertosecurestructuresandinstitutionsinwhichtheir rightswillbetrulyrespected."19 However,"whilethechurchseeksthe political,socialandeconomicliberationof thedowntrodden,itsprimarygoalisthespiritualoneofliberationfromevil."20 Thestatementacceptedarmed struggle"asalastresorttoputanendtoanobviousandprolongedtyrannywhichisgravelydamagingthecommon good."21
ThisrelativeopennessoftheRomanCatholicchurchwaslargelyresponsibleforliberationtheology'srapid expansion.Asweshallseeshortly,however,thechurch'sconcernsoverMarxismhaveprovenjustifiedinviewof recentworldevents.VaticanleadershiphasbreathedacollectivesighofreliefthatMarxistelementsinliberation theologynowseemtobewaning.
SHIFTINGSANDS:1990
Sincetheemergenceofliberationtheologyinthe1960s,someaspectsofthemovementhaveremainedconstant.In hisrecentbook, LiberationTheologyattheCrossroads (1990),PaulE.Sigmundobservesthatliberationtheology stillsseestheworldasmorecharacterized"byconflictthancompromise,inequalitythanequality,oppressionrather thanliberation....Italsostillretainsits...beliefinthespecialreligiouscharacterofthepoorbothastheobjectof God'sparticularloveandthesourceofreligiousinsights."22 Despitetheseconstants,however,liberationtheology hasalsoseensignificantchangesinrecentyears.
Webeginwiththeobservationthat1989sawalmostthewholeofEasternEuroperiseupinrevoltagainstMarxist ideology.ThemajorreformsoccurringintheSovietUnionandEastBlocnationsrepresentanadmissionthat Marxismhasfailed.
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MichaelNovak,whoholdstheGeorgeFrederickJewettChairattheAmericanEnterpriseInstituteinWashington, D.C.,raisedapenetratingquestioninviewofrecentEuropeanevents:"Whatwillbecomeoftheliberation theologiansofLatinAmericaandelsewherewhohavesolongpraisedtheidealsofMarxist-Leninism,butnowmust seehowhollowtheyare?"23
NovakarguesthataclosereadingoftheLatinAmericantheologianssuggeststhatthey"havebeguntoworrythat theyearlierinvestedtoomuchcredenceinthesocialsciencetheypickedupfromtheuniversities."24 Forthisreason, hesays,"liberationtheologiansinthelastfewyearshavebecomemuchlesshopefulaboutsocialstructures,and increasinglyconcernedwithissuesofspirituality.Theyseemtobeturninglesstopolitics,andmoretofaith."25 Sigmundagrees,notingthatnow"thegreateremphasis[is]onthespiritualsourcesandimplicationsoftheconcept ofliberation."26 (Weshalladdressthis"newspirituality"shortly.)
Theshiftinperspectivesonsocialismisoneofthemostimportantdevelopmentsinliberationtheology.Intherecent writingsofmanyliberationtheologians,wefindtheconcessionthat"theonce-favoredapproachofsubstituting socialismfordependencyorcapitalismsimplydoesn'twork,ashasbeenseeninEasternEurope."27 Without necessarilydesertingsocialism,liberationistshaveshownanincreasingambiguityaboutwhatsocialismreally means,aswellasanincreasingtoleranceofcompetingsystemsandanacceptanceofWestern-styledemocracyasa legitimateweaponagainstoppression.28 ArthurF.McGovern,aJesuit,commentsthat"thenewpoliticalcontextin manypartsofLatinAmericahasledliberationtheologianstotalkaboutbuildinga'participatorydemocracy'from withincivilsociety.Socialismnolongerremainsanunqualifiedparadigmforliberationaspirations."29
Anothersignificantdevelopmentinliberationtheologyisthatitstheologiansarespeakingmuchlessofdependency theory theideathatthedevelopmentofrichcountries depends ontheunderdevelopmentofpoorcountries.Tobe sure,liberationtheologiansarestillpredominantlyanticapitalist,butmanyhaverecognizedthatdependencytheory hasrightfullybeencriticizedfor someofitsfundamentalassertions.
ThefallacyofdependencytheoryhasbeendemonstratedbysociologistPeterBergerofBostonUniversity.Berger haspointedoutthat"thedevelopmentexperienceofJapanandthe'fourlittledragons'ofEastAsia Taiwan,South Korea,HongKongandSingapore represent'empiricalfalsification'ofthesocioeconomicassumptionsof dependencytheoryandliberationtheology."Ontheotherhand,Bergerstressed,"thereissimplynoevidenceof successfuldevelopmentbysocialistthirdworldnationsanywhereoratanytime."30
Moreover,theliberationist'ssolutiontothedependencyproblem asocialistbreakwiththecapitalistworld has lookedlessattractivetoliberationtheologiansbecause"themodelsofsocialismeitherseemedtobebankrupt,or wereresortingtomarketincentivesandprivateenterprise,eveninvitingmultinationalinvestment."31
Besidesshiftsinthinkingonsocialismanddependencytheory,manyhavehadsecondthoughtsaboutliberation theologybecauseofthebloodshedithasprovoked.A LosAngelesTimes articlefocusingonliberationtheologyin ElSalvadornotesthat"thedeathsofsomeofthosewhohavechallengedtheestablishmenthavebroughtsober secondthoughtsaboutboththebasisandthepracticeofliberationtheology."32 Thearticlealsoobservesthat"sucha violentcounterrevolutionhereandinotherLatinAmericannations alongwiththefailureofEasternEuropean MarxismandtheSandinistarevolutioninNicaraguatobringsocial, politicalandeconomicjustice haveledto callsforanewlookatliberationtheology."33 Indeed,"someofthebasicanalyticalassumptionsandpractical applicationsofliberationtheologyarebeingquestioned,notjustbytheconservativeelementsof the[Catholic] churchbutalsobysomeofthosethinkerswhofirstconceivedthephilosophy."34
Sigmundhasobservedthatinviewofthebloodshedassociatedwiththemovementinrecentyears,liberation theologiansarenolongerofferingtheeasyjustificationsofthenecessityof"counterviolence"againstthe "institutionalizedviolence"ofthepoliticalestablishment.35 Healsonotesthatthemostobviouschangeinliberation theology"isfromaninfatuationwithsocialistrevolutiontoarecognitionthatthepoorarenotgoingtobeliberated bycataclysmicpoliticaltransformations,butbyorganizationalandpersonalactivitiesinBaseCommunities."36
Wehavealreadynotedthatliberationtheologiansarefocusingmoreonissuesofspirituality.First andforemost,this meansthatliberationtheologiansarederivingmoreoftheirliberationistconceptsfromtheBibleasopposedto socialtheory.Earlybooksbyliberationtheologiansfocusedprimarilyonsocialanalysisandhadveryfewbiblical references.Nowthesituationispracticallyreversed:recentbooksbyliberationtheologianscontainmanybiblical referencesandverylittlesocialanalysis.Thereismuchmore"theology"inliberationtheologythesedays.Buttheir methodologicalapproachis still oneofapreferentialtreatmenttothepoor.
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BesidesgreaterrootednessintheBible,therealsoseemstobemoreinterestinspiritualdisciplines suchas prayer,devotions,exercisingfaith,andfellowshipingwithotherbelievers.Muchofthistakesplaceatagrassroots levelinecclesialbasecommunities.Biblestudieson"liberationpassages"(suchasMary'sMagnificat,Luke1:4655)arecommon.ThegoalistodiscoverhowScriptureappliestospecificproblemsinthelivesoftheoppressed.
WehavenotedthatliberationtheologyispredominantlyaRomanCatholicmovement.Animportantfactornow impactingthemovementinLatinAmericaistheexplosionofevangelicalProtestantismthere."LatinAmericaisno longertheRomanCatholicmonolithitoncewas.Sincethelate1960s,thenumberofProtestants...hassurgedfrom 15milliontoanestimated40million,about10percentofthepopulationofLatinAmerica."37 Brazilianbishop MonsignorBoaventuraKloppenburgsaysthat"LatinAmericaisturningProtestantevenfasterthanCentralEurope didinthesixteenthcentury."38 TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheseProtestantsarePentecostal.
Astowhysomanyarepresentlyturningtoevangelicalism,oneanalystsuggeststhat"therenowisawidespread recognitionthatliberationtheologyoverlookedtheemotional,personalmessagemostpeopleseekfromreligion...At thesimplestlevel,liberationtheologianspreachedsalvationthroughsocialchange meaning,ineffect,socialism inoneformoranother. Theevangelicalspreachindividualsalvationthroughindividualchange."39
DavidMartin,authorof TonguesofFire:TheExplosionofProtestantisminLatinAmerica (1990),suggeststhat economicadvancementisanotherunderlyingcauseoftheProtestantexplosion.Hearguesthat"evangelicalreligion andeconomicadvancement...oftengotogether...[they]supportandreinforceoneanother."40 CarmenGalilea,a sociologistinSantiago,saidthatthetypicalPentecostal"iswell-regarded.Heisresponsible.He doesn'tdrinkandis bettermotivatedandbetterpaid.Asaresult,heriseseconomically."41 Pentecostalpreaching"putsgreatemphasison thedemandtodevelopyourself,"thuscontributingtotheeconomicrise.42
Inarecentarticlein Insight magazine, DanielWattenbergsuggeststhatanotherfactorlinkingPentecostalismand upwardmobilityis"themutualmaterialsupportavailablewithinthePentecostalfaithcommunity(thechurches provideanetworkthatoftenfunctionsasajoborhousingreferralagency)."43 Moreover,volunteerworkinthe church"utilizespeoples'talentsandcreatesopportunitiestodevelopnewskillsthatmaygivethemasenseof usefulnessandfulfillmentforthefirsttimeintheirlives."44 Theskillslearnedinachurchcontextalsogiveanedge tochurchmembersinseekingwork outside thechurch.
BigchangesareoccurringinLatinAmerica,anditremainstobeseenwhereitwillalllead.Thelikelihoodisthat (1)Marxismwillcontinuetowane;(2)liberationtheologianswillcontinuetofocusmoreonissuesofspirituality; (3)theProtestantexplosionwillcontinue,withanemphasison personal transformation;and(4)allthiswill probablyhavesomepositiveeffectonsocialandeconomicconditionsintheregion.
THEBIBLEANDPOVERTY
CriticsofliberationtheologyattimescomeacrossasthoughtheyaredetachedandunsympathetictoLatin Americanpoverty.Nodoubtsomeofthesecriticsactuallydolackconcern.Beforeofferingcriticismsofthis controversialtheology, therefore,itisimportantthatwefirstaffirmthatthereisastrongscripturalbasisforhelping thepoor.
IntheOldTestament,GodgavethetheocracyofIsraelspecificguidelinesfortakingcareofthepoor.He commandedthatthecornersoffields werenottobereapedsothatsomethingwouldbeleftfortheneedytoeat (Lev.19:9-10).
Godalsopromisedaspecialblessingtoallwhogavetothepoor(Prov.19:17),andjudgmenttothosewho oppressedthepoor(Ps.140:12).Robbingandcheatingthe poorwerecondemned(Hosea12:7).Widowsand orphans whowereespeciallyvulnerabletooppression cameunderspecialprotectionfromthelaw(Exod. 22:22-23).
GodinthelawalsomadeprovisionsforpoorsojournerswhowerenotapartofIsrael'stheocracy.Gleaningsfrom theharvestweretobeleftforthem(Deut.24:19-21),andtheywererankedinthesamecategoryaswidowsand orphansasbeingdefenseless(Ps.94:6).
Jesusisveryclearaboutourresponsibilitytothepoorandoppressed.Christ's strongwarningthateternal condemnationawaitsthosewhodonotfeedthehungry,clothethenaked,andvisittheprisoners(Matt.25:31-46)
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showsthatthedisadvantagedarenotmerelyaperipheralconcernofHis.IntheparableoftheGoodSamaritan,Jesus taughtthat anybodyinneed isourneighbor(Luke10:29f.).
ThebiblicalviewofthepoorandoppressedissuchthatGod'speopleeverywhere should beappalledatthepoverty ofthepeopleinLatinAmerica.LiberationtheologiansandthepeopleofLatin Americahavealegitimategripe. Indeed,howcanthechurchinLatinAmerica not acttohelprelievethesufferingofitspeople?
Nevertheless,alegitimateandcommendableconcernforthepoorandoppressedmustneverbeusedtojustifya theologicalmethodologythatleadstoagrossdistortionofChristianity theonly true meansofliberation. EvangelicalsmaintainthatthisispreciselywhatLatinAmericanliberationistshavedone.
AFAULTYFOUNDATION
Inasmuchastheliberationist'sviewsonGod,JesusChrist,thechurch,sin,andsalvationareanoutgrowthofhisor hertheologicalmethodology,itfollowsthatthestartingpointforacritiqueofliberationtheologywouldbeits hermeneutic.Weshallthereforenarrowourfocustothisoneissue.
MethodiseverythingwheninterpretingScripture.Withanimpropermethodology,oneisboundtodistortthe author'sintendedmeaning theonly true meaning(see2Pet.3:16).
Theword method comesfromtheGreek methodos,whichliterallymeans"awayor pathoftransit."Methodologyin Biblestudyisthereforeconcernedwiththeproperpathtobetakeninordertoarriveatscripturaltruth.Latin Americantheologianshavechosena"path"intendedtoproduceliberation.Buthavetheydistortedtheauthor's intendedmeaningintheprocess?
TheProblemWithPraxis
Foundationally,theliberationhermeneutic(whichmakes praxis thefirststep,and theology thesecond)is completelywithoutanycontrollingexegeticalcriteria.VernonC.Groundsisrightwhen hesaysthat"thereisno exegeticalmagicbywhichnewmeaningscanwithoutlimitbeconjuredoutoftheBibleundertheilluminating creativityofnewsituations."45
Inliberationtheology,thebasicauthorityininterpretationceasestobeScripture;itisratherthemindofthe interpreterashe"reads"thecurrenthistoricalsituation.Itisoneofthecanonsofliterary(notjustscriptural) hermeneutics,however,thatwhatapassagemeansisfixedbythe author andisnotsubjecttoalterationbyreaders. "Meaningisdeterminedbytheauthor;itisdiscoveredbyreaders."46
Onlyafterthemeaninghasbeendiscoveredbythereadercanitbeappliedtothecurrentsituation.Certainlyweall agreethatChristiansmust practice theirfaithindailylife.ButfromaScripturalperspective,thewayaChristian conductshisorherlifeisbasedontheobjective,propositionalrevelationfoundinScripture.Christiansmustknow God'swillasrevealedinScripture before theycanactonit.WithoutapreeminenceofScriptureoverpraxis,the Christiancannotknowwhattobelieve orwhattodo.Evangelicalsthereforerejectanysuggestionthat"wemust do inorderto know,andhopethat orthodoxy willarisefrom orthopraxis [rightaction]."
Anexaminationof Jesus'useoftheOldTestamentshowsthatHeinterpreteditasobjective,propositionalrevelation (see Matt.22:23-33).Hishermeneuticknewnothingofmakingpraxisthefirststepfordiscoveringtheologicaltruth.
TruththatTranscendsCultureandTime
Evangelicalshavecriticizedtheinabilityofliberationtheology'shermeneutictodevelopaculture-transcending theologywithnormativeauthority.Liberationtheologianshaveshownlittleornorecognitionofthefactthatthere areteachingsandcommandsinScripturethat owingtotheirdivineinspiration(2Tim.3:16) transcendall culturalbarriersandarebindingonallpeopleeverywhere.KeyteachingsofScripture suchasman'ssin,his alienationfromGod,hisneedforapersonalRedeemer speakuniversallytothehumanconditionandcannever beboundtoparticularculturesorsituations.47
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Moreover,evangelicalscriticizetheliberationistideathattheologicaltruthisinaconstantstateofflux,changing alongwiththetemporalconditionsofsociety.Nunezhasnotedthat"therearechaptersofliberationtheologythat cannotbewrittenatthepresenttime,becausetheyhavetobetheresultofagivenpractice."48 Applications of Scripturecanchangeasthetemporalconditionsofsocietychange butthe Scripture-author'sintended meaning fromwhichthoseapplicationsaredrawnarefixedandcannotberelativized.
AlienPreunderstandings
A"preunderstanding"ofa preferentialoptionforthepoor istheveryheartofliberationhermeneutics.Liberationists arguethat"thereaderoftheBiblemustdeliberatelychoosehiseyeglasses before hebeginsreading,andthatthe 'preferentialoptionforthepoor'meansjustthat adeliberatebiasorperspective.Withoutthis,thetruemeaning cannotbeknown.WemustdiscardourNorthAtlanticlenses,wearetold,andputonThirdWorldones wemust layasidetheeyeglassesoftherichtousethoseofthepoor."49
Relevanttothisissueisasmallbookpublishedin1983bytheInternational CouncilonBiblicalInerrancy.Entitled ExplainingHermeneutics,ArticleXIXdeclares:"Weaffirmthatanypreunderstandingswhichtheinterpreterbrings toScriptureshouldbeinharmonywithscripturalteachingandsubjecttocorrectionbyit.WedenythatScripture shouldberequiredtofitalienpreunderstandings,inconsistentwithitself."50 Thepointofthisarticleistoavoid interpretingScripturethroughanaliengridorfilter(liberationism,forexample)whichobscuresornegatesitstrue message.Thisarticleacknowledgesthat"one'spreunderstandingwillaffecthisunderstandingofatext.Hence,to avoidmisinterpretingScriptureonemustbecarefultoexaminehisownpresuppositionsinthelightofScripture."51
Now,wemustfranklyadmitthatallinterpretersareinfluencedtosomedegreebypersonal,theological, ecclesiastical,andpoliticalprejudices.EvangelicalscholarEmilioNunezhasrightlyconcededthatnoneofus approachesScriptureina"chemicallypure"state.ThisiswhyArticleXIXaboveissoimportant:preunderstandings mustbe inharmonywith Scriptureand subjecttocorrectionbyit.Onlythosepreunderstandingsthatarecompatible withScripturearelegitimate.
GrahamN.Stanton,ProfessorofNewTestamentStudiesatthe UniversityofLondonKing'sCollege,elaborateson thecorrectivenatureofScripture:"Theinterpretermustallowhisownpresuppositionsandhisownpreunderstandingtobemodifiedorevencompletelyreshapedbythetextitself.Unlessthisisallowed tohappen,the interpreterwillbeunabletoavoidprojectinghisownideasontothetext.Exegesisguidedrigidlybypreunderstandingwillbeabletoestablishonlywhattheinterpreteralreadyknows.Theremustbeaconstantdialogue betweentheinterpreterandthetext."52 Ifthismethodologyisfollowed,"thetextmaywellshattertheinterpreter's existingpre-understandingandleadhimtoanunexpectedlynewvantagepointfromwhichhecontinueshisscrutiny ofthetext."53
Hadliberationtheologiansfollowedthisoneprocedure,the theology ofliberationwouldhaveturnedouttobea horseofadifferentcolor.Indeed,atheologianwhoapproachedScripturewitha"preferentialoptionforthepoor" wouldhavefound uponsubmittingthispreunderstandingtothecorrectionofScripture thathis preunderstandingwasunbiblical.For,fromascripturalperspective,boththepoor and therich,boththeoppressed and oppressors,areafflictedbysinandareinneedofsalvation.Romans3:23saysthat"all havesinnedandfall shortofthegloryofGod."OurLordpreachedthegospelofsalvationtothepoor(Luke7:22)but Hepreachedthe samemessagetotherich (Luke5:32;10:1-10).Godis"notwanting anyone toperish,but everyone tocometo repentance"(2Pet.3:9).
Now,evangelicalsconcedethatGodhasaspecialconcernforthepoor,andsalvationis byHisowndesign morereadily accepted bythelessfortunate(Matt.19:23).Nevertheless,fromGenesistoRevelationScripturehasa clear"preferentialoption"for thefallen
BysubmittinghispreunderstandingtoScripture,theliberationistwouldhavealsodiscoveredthatthegapbetween therichandthepoorisnotthe cause ofman'spredicament;itismerelyone symptom ofit(seeJer.5:26-29).Itwas notprimarilythe bourgeoisie thatneededtobeoverthrown;itwasman's sin hisselfishnessandgreed that neededconquering(1Pet.2:24).Itwasnotfundamentallyapoliticalrevolutionthatwasneeded,butarevolutionin thehumanheart somethingfoundonlyinJesusChrist(2Cor.5:17),whocamenottobeamodelpolitical revolutionarybuttodieonthecrossforman'ssinsastheLambofGod(Matt.26:26-28).
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Werepeat,then,thatifwearetounderstandtheauthor's intended meaninginScripture(theonly true meaning),itis imperativethatpreunderstandingsbe inharmonywith Scriptureand subjecttocorrectionbyit.Onlythenwillitbe possibletodevelopatrulybiblicaltheologyofliberation atheologythatatonceemphasizesthefundamental needforliberationfromsin,butatthesametimestressesthebiblicalinjunctiontoreachoutincompassiontothe poor.
ACHALLENGETOEVANGELICALS
Areevangelicalsasconcernedastheyshouldbeabouttheplightofthepoorandoppressedinourworld?Andif theyarenot,isthisbecausethereisadefectintheirtheologythatignoresthebiblicalemphasisoncaringforthe poorandtheneedy?IfliberationistshaveapproachedScripturewithapreunderstandingthat"opts"forthe poor,isit possiblethatsomeevangelicalshaveunwittinglyapproachedScripturewithapreunderstandingthat filtersout sufficientconcernforthepoorandoppressed?
Thesearedifficultquestions,anditisincumbentuponeveryChristiantoexaminehisorherheartonthisissue. Certainly,evangelicalshavelittlerighttocriticizethetheologyofliberationiftheyarenotpreparedtocriticize possibledeficienciesintheirowntheologyinregardtocaringforthepoorandoppressedofourworld.
ScriptureisclearthatwehaveaGod-appointedresponsibilitytotakewhateverstepswecantohelpthepoor.Yet,at thesametime,weasevangelicalsmustinsistthatultimatelythetransformationofanysociety depends ontheprior transformationoftheindividualsthatmakeupthatsociety.ThisistheChristiancounterpartto"dependencytheory." Therevolutionsoearnestlysoughtinsocietywillbestbeaccomplishedasgreaternumbersofpeopleinthatsociety experiencetherevolutionofnewbirth andtheongoingrenewaloflifeinChrist.
NOTES
1"AnAttackonLiberationTheology," OrangeCountyRegister,1Dec.1985,A10.
2 HarvieM.Conn,"LiberationTheology,"in NewDictionaryofTheology,ed.SinclairB.FergusonandDavidF.Wright (Downers Grove:InterVarsityPress,1988),388.
3 DeanC.Curry, AWorldWithoutTyranny (Westchester,IL:CrosswayBooks,1990),68.
4 GustavoGutierrez, ATheologyofLiberation (Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1971),175.
5 JustoL.GonzalezandCatherineG.Gonzalez, LiberationPreaching (Nashville:Abingdon,1980),23.
6 MillardJ.Erickson, ChristianTheology (GrandRapids:BakerBookHouse,1983),592.
7 Ibid.,895.
8 GonzalezandGonzalez,24.
9 JasonBerry,"ElSalvador'sResponsetoLiberationTheology," The WashingtonPost,4-10Dec.1989,25.
10 LeonardoBoff, Jesucristoylaliberaciondelhombre,292;citedbyEmilioNunez, LiberationTheology (Chicago:Moody Press,1985),232-33.
11 DouglasD.Webster,"LiberationTheology,"in EvangelicalDictionaryofTheology,ed.WalterA.Elwell(GrandRapids: BakerBookHouse,1984),637.
12 EmilioNunez,"TheChurchintheLiberationTheologyofGutierrez,"in BiblicalInterpretationandtheChurch,ed.D.A. Carson(Nashville:ThomasNelsonPublishers,1984),174.
13 Gutierrez,150.
14 MonikaHellwig,"LiberationTheology:AnEmergingSchool," ScottishJournalofTheology 30(1977):141.
15 Conn,389.
16 KennethL.Woodward,"AChurchforthePoor," Newsweek,26Feb.1979,20.
17 B.T.Adeney,"LiberationTheology,"in DictionaryofChristianityinAmerica,ed.DanielG.Reid(DownersGrove: InterVarsity,1990),649.
18 HarvieM.Conn,"TheologiesofLiberation:AnOverview,"in TensionsinContemporaryTheology,ed.StanleyN.Gundryand AlanF.Johnson(Chicago:MoodyPress,1979),344.
19 PaulE.Sigmund, LiberationTheologyattheCrossroads (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),11.
20 DonA.Schanche,"VaticanDocumentAcceptsSome'LiberationTheology,'" LosAngelesTimes,6April1986,5.
21 RichardN.Ostling,"ALessononLiberation," Time,14April1986,84.
22 Sigmund,181-82.
23 MichaelNovak,"TheRevolutionThatWasn't," ChristianityToday,23April1990,18.
24 Ibid.,20.
25 Ibid
26 Sigmund,181.
27 KennethFreed,"TheCrossandtheGun," LosAngelesTimes,9Oct.1990,H8.
28 Sigmund,196.
29 ArthurF.McGovern, LiberationTheologyandItsCritics (Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,1989),230.
30 DeanC.Curry,"LiberationTheologyin80s:IsThereSomethingNew?" Eternity,November 1985,13.
31 Sigmund,179.
32 Freed,H8.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 Sigmund,177.
36 Ibid.
37 DanielWattenberg,"ProtestantsCreateanAlteredState," Insight,16July1990,9.
38 DavidNeff,"God'sLatinoRevolution," ChristianityToday,14May1990,15.
39 JohnMarcomJr.,"TheFireDownSouth," Forbes,15Oct.1990,66-67.
40 DanielWattenberg,"GospelMessageofGettingAheadInchbyInch," Insight,16July1990,16.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 VernonC.Grounds,"ScriptureinLiberationTheology,"in ChallengestoInerrancy,ed.GordonR.LewisandBruceDemarest (Chicago:MoodyPress,1984),344.
46 NormanL.Geisler, ExplainingHermeneutics (Oakland,CA:InternationalCouncilonBiblicalInerrancy,1983),7.
47 Ibid.
48 Nunez,inCarson,173.
49 W.DaytonRoberts,"LiberationTheologies," ChristianityToday,17May1985,15.
50 Ibid.,14-15.
51 Geisler,15.
52 GrahamN.Stanton,"PresuppositionsinNewTestamentCriticism,"in NewTestamentInterpretation,ed.I.HowardMarshall (GrandRapids:WilliamB.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1977),68.
53 Ibid
GLOSSARY
exegesis:DerivedfromaGreekwordmeaning"todrawout."Referstothe obtainingofaScripturepassage'smeaningby drawingthemeaningoutfrom the textratherthanreadingit into thetext(whichis eisegesis).
hermeneutics:Referstothescienceofinterpretation.Itisthatbranchoftheology thatprescribesrulesandguidelinesbywhichtheBibleshouldbeinterpreted.
normativeauthority:Authoritythatisbindinguponusintermsofwhatweareto believeanddo.
praxis:FromtheGreek prasso (meaning"towork"),praxisinvolvesrevolutionary actiononbehalfofthepoorandoppressed andoutofthis,theological perceptionswill(liberationistsbelieve)continuallyemerge.Inotherwords,praxis referstothediscoveryandformationoftheological"truth"outofagivenhistorical situationthroughpersonalparticipationinthestrugglefortheliberationofthe oppressed.
propositionalrevelation:Theview thatGodintheBiblehascommunicatedfactual information(orpropositions)aboutHimself;theviewthatGod'sspecialrevelation inScripturehasbeengiveninpropositionalstatements.
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