The Anatomy of Power by demandside

TheAnatomyofPower

JohnKennethGalbraith

HoughtonMifflinCompanyBoston 1983

Foreword

Forsomefortyyears,moreyearsthanIliketothink,Ihavebeen involvedwiththesubjectofpowerwiththeideasand,insome degree,thepractice.DuringWorldWarII,asthepersonin chargeofpricecontrol,Iwasthoughttobeatthecenterof power,alocationthatconveyedanimpressionofgreater authoritytoothersthanitdidtome.Atothertimesinother positionsIhavebeenonthemargins,bettersituatedtoobserve thantohaveinfluence.Astowriting,myfirstbookwassubtitled The Concept of Countervailing Power;Itherearguedthatan opposingexerciseofpoweristheprincipalsolventofeconomic power,thebasicdefenseagainstitsexerciseineconomicaffairs. Ireturnedtopowerasthecentralthemeof The New Industrial State,which,notquitealone,Iconsidermyprincipaleffortin economicargument.MypresidentialaddressfortheAmerican EconomicAssociationadecadeagowason"Powerandthe UsefulEconomist";initIcontendedthateconomicsdivorced fromconsiderationoftheexerciseofpoweriswithoutmeaning andcertainlywithoutrelevance.Ihaverecurredtotheconcept lessformallyadozentimes,maybe

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more.Ihaverarelyencounteredanarticleortreatiseonthe subjectwithoutlookingtoseehowitwashandledif,inuseful result,atall.ThisbookIthoughtonceofcallingitanextended essayiswhatIhavelearnedfromexperience,reading,writing, andassociatedeffortatunderstanding.Myclaimisnottothe wholesubjectbuttowhatIhavelearnedaboutit.

Ihavebecomepersuadedovertheyearsofthecommonfactors thatliebehindtheusualreferencestoeconomic,political, military,andreligiouspowerandthatincludethepower attributedtothepress,television,andpublicopinion.These everydayreferences,sincetheydonotindicatetheunderlying constants,regularlyconcealasmuchasormorethantheyreveal. Ihavebeenconcernedtomakewhollyvisibletheseconstantsto identifythesourcesofpowerinpersonality,property,and organizationandtoseetheinstrumentsbywhichpoweris exercisedandenforced.Ihope,asoneresult,thatmyreaders willhenceforthhaveamoreexplicitsenseofwhatthatword embracesandwhatitimpliesintheparticulareconomic, political,orothermatterunderdiscussion.

AsIhavewrittenonpower,soIhavereadonit,andthatreading hasbecomeapartoftheinventoryonwhichIhaveheredrawn.I believethatsomeofmyindebtednessisreasonablyevidentto MaxWeber,toBertrandRussell,andtoAdolfA.Berle,Jr.,the diverselytalentedRooseveltbraintruster,diplomat,lawyer,and writeronsocial,political,andeconomicissues.ItwasBerle who,morethananyoneelse,encouragedmyinterestinthe subject.IalsoowemuchtoC.WrightMills'sclassic The Power Elite,toCharlesS.Lindblom's Politics and Markets,tothe variedeconomicwritingsofmyfriendWallaceC.Peterson,and tosuchinterestingrecentbooksasRichardSennett's Authority andDennisWrong's Power.Andtomore.Likeothers,Iam

notalwayssureofthesometimesdistantsourceofideasIhave accumulated;IamslightlymorecertainabouttheideasIdonot finduseful.Isuppose,forexample,thatIhavebeeninfluenced byMachiavelli,butIhavelongsuspectedwhatMaxLernerhas suggested,thatheismostfrequentlycitedbypeoplewhohave notreadhim.

Intellingofalifelonginterestinthesubjectofpower,Imustnot seemtosuggest,evenremotely,thatIhavereadallthathasbeen writtenonit.Nolifeisthatlong;therearesomebooksthat simplycannotberead;andthereismuch,Iamsure,thatIhave missed.Everyoneshouldbeverycautiousinhisclaimswhere theliteratureonpowerisconcerned.

Thereisatendencyonthepartofthosewhowriteonpower, includingquiteafewwhowriteoutofwide-rangingknowledge andintelligence,toallowthesubjecttodragthemintodense complexityanddeepsubjectivity.Onecanunderstandthe temptation:complexityandsubjectivityareaprotectionagainst criticswhocanbesaidtohavemissedthepoint;theyareeven moreserviceableasanalternativetothetoilandfrustrationof difficultclarification.Buttheyarealsoadisguisefortrutha substituteforaclear,starkviewofessentials.Ihavetriedfor suchaviewIhavesoughttokeepthesourcesandinstrumentsof powerconstantlybeforetheeyesofthereader.Partlyforthis reason,andpartlyforwantofcompetence,Ihavesidestepped someissues,mostnotably,asIlatertell,theroleofthecourtsin theregulationofpower.Also,Ihaven'thesitatedtorepeatwhat servesmyargumentorillustration.Iwouldbesorryweresuch reiterationthoughtinadvertentor,anyhow,alwaysso.Ihave wantedtobesurethat,thecoveringfleshhavingbeenstripped away,theanatomyofpowerstandsfullyrevealed.

I TheAnatomy:ofPowerAnOverview

The subject [is] not remote, philosophical, or esoteric

ADOLFA.BERLE,JR

Power

Fewwordsareusedsofrequentlywithsolittleseemingneedto reflectontheirmeaningaspower,andsoithasbeenforallthe agesofman.Inassociationwithkingshipandgloryitwas includedintheultimatescripturalaccoladetotheSupreme Being;millionsstillofferiteveryday.BertrandRussellwasled tothethoughtthatpower,alongwithglory,remainsthehighest aspirationandthegreatestrewardofhumankind.1

Notmanygetthroughaconversationwithoutareferenceto power.Presidentsorprimeministersaresaidtohaveitortolack itintherequisiteamount.Otherpoliticiansarethoughttobe gaininginpowerorlosingit.Corporationsandtradeunionsare saidtobepowerful,andmultinationalcorporationsdangerously so.Newspaperpublishers,theheadsofthebroadcasting networks,andthemorearticulate,uninhibited,intelligent,or notoriousoftheireditors,

1''Oftheinfinitedesiresofman,thechiefarethedesiresforpower andglory." Power: A New Social Analysis (NewYork:W.W. Norton,1938),p 11

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columnists,andcommentatorsarethepowersthatbe.The ReverendBillySundayisrememberedasapowerfulvoice;the ReverendBillyGrahamisnowsodescribed.SoistheReverend JerryFalwell,indeed,suchhasbeenhisseemingpowerasa moralleaderthathehasbeenthoughtbysometobegiving moralityabadname.

Thereferencescontinue.TheUnitedStatesisalargeand otherwiseimportantcountry;soistheSovietUnion.Butitis theirpowerthatevokesthecommonnotice;theyarethegreat powers,orthesuperpowers.Britain,oncealsoagreatpower,is nolongerpowerful.AllknowthatinrecenttimestheUnited StateshasbeenlosingsomeofitsindustrialpowertoGermany andJapan.Noneoftheseandthemyriadotherreferencesto poweriseverthoughttorequireexplanation.Howeverdiversely thewordisused,thereaderorlistenerisassumedtoknowwhat ismeant.

Anddoubtlessmostdotoapoint.MaxWeber,theGerman sociologistandpoliticalscientist(1864-1920),whiledeeply fascinatedbythecomplexityofthesubject,contentedhimself withadefinitionclosetoeverydayunderstanding:poweris"the possibilityofimposingone'swilluponthebehaviorofother persons."2 This,almostcertainly,isthecommonperception; someoneorsomegroupisimposingitswillandpurposeor purposesonothers,includingonthosewhoarereluctantor adverse.Thegreaterthecapacitysotoimposesuchwilland achievetherelatedpurpose,thegreaterthepower.Itisbecause powerhassuchacommonsensemeaningthatitisusedsooften withsolittleseemingneedfordefinition.

2Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society (Cambridge:Harvard UniversityPress,1954),p.323.SeeReinhardBendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait (GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1960),pp.

294-300.ElsewhereWebersaidofpowerthatitistheabilityofone ormorepersonsto"realizetheirownwillinacommunalactagainst thewillofotherswhoareparticipatinginthesameact."

Butlittlemoreaboutpowerissosimple.Unmentionedinnearly allreferencestoitisthehighlyinterestingquestionastohowthe willisimposed,howtheacquiescenceofothersisachieved.Isit thethreatofphysicalpunishment,thepromiseofpecuniary reward,theexerciseofpersuasion,orsomeother,deeperforce thatcausesthepersonorpersonssubjecttotheexerciseofpower toabandontheirownpreferencesandtoacceptthoseofothers? Inanymeaningfulreferencetopower,thisshouldbeknown. Andoneshouldalsoknowthesourcesofpowerwhatitisthat differentiatesthosewhoexerciseitfromthosewhoaresubjectto theauthorityofothers.Bywhatlicensedosomehavetheright, whetherinlargemattersorsmall,torule?Andwhatcauses otherstoberuled?Itisthesequestionshowpowerisenforced, whataccordsaccesstothemethodsofenforcementthatthis bookaddresses.

2

Theinstrumentsbywhichpowerisexercisedandthesourcesof therighttosuchexerciseareinterrelatedincomplexfashion. Someuseofpowerdependsonitsbeingconcealedontheir submissionnotbeingevidenttothosewhorenderit.Andin modemindustrialsocietyboththeinstrumentsforsubordinating somepeopletothewillofothersandthesourcesofthisability aresubjecttorapidchange.Muchofwhatisbelievedaboutthe exerciseofpower,derivingasitdoesfromwhatwastrueinthe past,isobsoleteorobsolescentinthepresent.

Nonetheless,asAdolfBerleobserved,thesubjectisnotaremote oresotericthing.Nooneshouldventureintoitwiththefeeling thatitisamysterythatonlytheprivilegedcanpenetrate.There isaformofscholarshipthatseeks

4 nottoextendknowledgebuttoexcludetheunknowing.One shouldnotsurrendertoitandcertainlynotonasubjectofsuch greatpracticalimportanceasthis.Allconclusionsonpowercan betestedagainstgenerallyacceptablehistoricalevidenceand mostofthemagainsteverydayobservationanduncomplicated commonsense.Itwillhelp,however,tohavethebasicfactsof powerinmindattheoutsetandthustoproceedwithaclearview ofitsessentialcharacteritsanatomy.

Poweryieldsstrongly,inasecularway,totheruleofthree. Therearethreeinstrumentsforwieldingorenforcingit.And therearethreeinstitutionsortraitsthataccordtherighttoitsuse.

Itisameasureofhowslightlythesubjectofpowerhasbeen analyzedthatthethreereasonablyobviousinstrumentsofits exercisedonothavegenerallyacceptednames.Thesemustbe provided:Ishallspeakofcondign,compensatory,and conditionedpower.

Condignpowerwinssubmissionbytheabilitytoimposean alternativetothepreferencesoftheindividualorgroupthatis sufficientlyunpleasantorpainfulsothatthesepreferencesare abandoned.Thereisanovertoneofpunishmentintheterm,and thisconveystheappropriateimpression.3 Itwastheundoubted preferenceofthegalleyslave

3Ihavetakensomelibertiesintheselectionanduseofthisterm. Accordingtostrictdictionaryusage, condign hasanadjectival relationshipto punishment.Acondignpunishmentis,broadly speaking,anappropriateorfittingone.Wereonescrupulously pedantic,thereferencehereandthroughoutwouldbeto condign punishment.Iomitthelatterwordwiththethought,firstarticulated byLewisCarroll,thatonecanhaveawordmeanwhatonechooses

ittomean

(Footnote continued on next page)

Page5 toavoidhistoil,buthisprospectivediscomfortfromthelashfor anymalingeringattheoarswassufficientlyunpleasanttoensure therequisite,ifalsopainful,effort.Atalessformidablelevel,the individualrefrainsfromspeakinghisorhermindandacceptsthe viewofanotherbecausetheexpectedrebukeisotherwisetoo harsh.

Condignpowerwinssubmissionbyinflictingorthreatening appropriatelyadverseconsequences.Compensatorypower,in contrast,winssubmissionbytheofferofaffirmativerewardby thegivingofsomethingofvaluetotheindividualsosubmitting. Inanearlierstageofeconomicdevelopment,asstillin elementaryruraleconomies,thecompensationtookvariedforms includingpaymentsinkindandtherighttoworkaplotofland ortoshareintheproductofthelandlord'sfields.Andaspersonal orpublicrebukeisaformofcondignpower,sopraiseisaform ofcompensatorypower.However,inthemoderneconomy,the mostimportantexpressionofcompensatorypoweris,ofcourse, pecuniaryrewardthepaymentofmoneyforservicesrendered, whichistosayforsubmissiontotheeconomicorpersonal purposesofothers.Onoccasion,wherereferencetopecuniary paymentconveysamoreexactmeaning,thistermwillbeused.

Itisacommonfeatureofbothcondignandcompensatorypower thattheindividualsubmittingisawareofhisorhersubmission intheonecasecompelledandintheotherforreward. Conditionedpower,incontrast,isexercisedbychangingbelief. Persuasion,education,orthe

(Footnote continued from previous page) "neithermorenorless."Atemptingalternativewouldhavebeen "coercive"powerasusedbyDennisH.Wrongin Power: Its Forms, Bases and Uses (NewYork:HarperColophonBooks,1980).His discussionofcoerciveauthority(pp.41-44)parallelsinageneral

waymyuseof condign power.However,itlessspecificallyimplies theinstrumenttowhichtheindividual(orgroup)surrenders,that whichbringsthesubmission.

socialcommitmenttowhatseemsnatural,proper,orrightcauses theindividualtosubmittothewillofanotherorofothers.The submissionreflectsthepreferredcourse;thefactofsubmissionis notrecognized.Conditionedpower,morethancondignor compensatorypower,iscentral,asweshallsee,tothe functioningofthemodemeconomyandpolity,andincapitalist andsocialistcountriesalike.

Behindthesethreeinstrumentsfortheexerciseofpowerliethe threesourcesofpowertheattributesorinstitutionsthat differentiatethosewhowieldpowerfromthosewhosubmittoit. Thesethreesourcesarepersonality,property(which,ofcourse, includesdisposableincome),andorganization.

Personalityleadershipinthecommonreferenceisthequalityof physique,mind,speech,moralcertainty,orotherpersonaltrait thatgivesaccesstooneormoreoftheinstrumentsofpower.In primitivesocietiesthisaccesswasthroughphysicalstrengthto condignpower;itisasourceofpowerstillretainedinsome householdsoryouthfulcommunitiesbythelarger,more muscularmale.However,personalityinmoderntimeshasits primaryassociationwithconditionedpowerwiththeabilityto persuadeorcreatebelief.

Propertyorwealthaccordsanaspectofauthority,acertaintyof purpose,andthiscaninviteconditionedsubmission.Butits principalassociation,quiteobviously,iswithcompensatory power.Propertyincomeprovidesthewherewithaltopurchase submission.

Organization,themostimportantsourceofpowerinmodern societies,hasitsforemostrelationshipwithcon-

ditionedpower.Itistakenforgrantedthatwhenanexerciseof powerissoughtorneeded,organizationisrequired.Fromthe organization,then,cometherequisitepersuasionandthe resultingsubmissiontothepurposesoftheorganization.But organization,asinthecaseofthestate,alsohasaccessto condignpowertodiverseformsofpunishment.Andorganized groupshavegreaterorlesseraccesstocompensatorypower throughthepropertyofwhichtheyarepossessed.

Thisbringsupafinalpoint.Asthereisaprimarybutnot exclusiveassociationbetweeneachofthethreeinstrumentsby whichpowerisexercisedandoneofthesources,sothereare alsonumerouscombinationsofthesourcesofpowerandthe relatedinstruments.Personality,property,andorganizationare combinedinvariousstrengths.Fromthiscomesavarying combinationofinstrumentsfortheenforcementofpower.The isolationordisentanglingofthesourcesandinstrumentsinany particularexerciseofpower,theassessmentoftheirrelative importance,andtheconsiderationofthechangesinrelative importanceovertimearethetaskofthisbook.

InearliestChristiandays,poweroriginatedwiththecompelling personalityoftheSavior.Almostimmediatelyanorganization, theApostles,cameintobeing,andintimetheChurchasan organizationbecamethemostinfluentialanddurableinallthe world.Nottheleastofitssourcesofpowerwasitspropertyand theincomethusdisposed.Fromthecombinationofpersonality (thoseoftheHeavenlyPresenceandalonglineofreligious leaders),theproperty,and,aboveall,theuniqueorganization cametheconditionedbelief,thebeneficesorcompensation,and thethreatofcondignpunishmenteitherinthisworldorthenext that,intheaggregate,constitutedthereligiouspower.Suchisthe complexoffactorsincorporatedinand,ingreat

8 measure,concealedbythatterm.Politicalpower,economic power,corporatepower,militarypower,andothersuch referencessimilarlyanddeeplyconcealanequallydiverse interrelationship.Whentheyarementioned,theirinnernatureis notpursued.4 Mypresentconcerniswithwhatissooftenkept hidden.

Wewilllookfirstattheinstrumentsbywhichpowerisexercised andthenatthesources.Thereafterweshallcometotheway powerhasdevelopedovertimeanditsrealityinourownday. Butbeforethat,itisnecessarytohaveawordonthepurposes forwhichpeopleseekpowerandalsoonthemoodinwhichone approachesthesubject.

Aswithmuchconcerningpower,thepurposesforwhichitis soughtarewidelysensedbutmorerarelyarticulated.Individuals andgroupsseekpowertoadvancetheirowninterests,including, notably,theirownpecuniaryinterest.Andtoextendtoothers theirpersonal,religious,orsocialvalues.Andtowinsupportfor theireconomicorothersocialperceptionofthepublicgood.The businessmanbuysthesubmissionofhisworkerstoservehis economicpurposestomakemoney.Thereligiousleader persuadeshiscongregationorhisradioortelevisionaudience becausehethinkshisbeliefsshouldbetheirs.Thepolitician seeksthesupport,whichistosaythesubmission,ofvotersso thathemayremaininoffice.Preferringcleantodirtyair,the

4Asothershaveheld."Perhapsnosubjectintheentirerangeofthe socialsciencesismoreimportant,andatthesametimesoseriously neglected,astheroleofpowerineconomiclife."MelvilleJ.Ulmer, "EconomicPowerandVestedInterests,"in Power in Economics, editedbyK.W.Rothschild(Harmondsworth,Eng.:PenguinBooks,

1971),p.245.

conservationistseekstoenforcerespectforhispreferenceon thosewhomakeautomobilesorownfactories.Thelatterseek submissiontotheirowndesireforlowercostsandless regulation.Conservativesseeksubmissiontotheirviewofthe economicandsocialorderandtheassociatedaction;liberalsor socialistsseeksimilarsubmissiontotheirs.Inallcases,aswill sufficientlybenotedinensuingchapters,organizationthe comingtogetherofthosewithsimilarinterests,values,or perceptionsmisintegraltothewinningofsuchsubmission,to thepursuitofpower.

Everydaylanguagecommentsregularlyonthereasonsforwhich powerisbeingpursued.Ifitisnarrowlyconfinedtotheinterest ofanindividualorgroup,onesaysitisbeingsoughtforselfish ends;ifitreflectstheinterestorperceptionofamuchlarger numberofpeople,thoseinvolvedarethoughtinspiredleadersor statesmen.

Itisalsorecognizedthatthepurposesforwhichpowerisbeing soughtwilloftenbeextensivelyandthoughtfullyhiddenby artfulmisstatement.Thepoliticianwhoseeksofficeonbehalfof thepecuniaryinterestsofaffluentsupporterswillbeespecially eloquentindescribinghimselfasapublicbenefactor,evena diligentanddevotedfriendofthepoor.Theadequatelyeducated businessmannolongeremploysworkerstoenhancehisprofit; hisdeeperpurposeistoprovideemployment,advance communitywell-being,andensurethesuccessofthefree enterprisesystem.Themoreferventevangelistisovertly concernedwiththesalvationofsinners,bringingtheunrighteous tograce;ancientlyhehasbeenknowntohavehiseyeonthe collectionplate.Adeeplyingrainedandexceedinglyvaluable cynicismistheappropriateandfrequentresponsetoallavowals ofthepurposesofpower;itisexpressedintheomnipresent

question,"Whatishereallyafter?"

Muchlessappreciatedistheextenttowhichthepurpose

Page10 ofpoweristheexerciseofpoweritself.5 Inallsocieties,from themostprimitivetotheostensiblymostcivilized,theexercise ofpowerisprofoundlyenjoyed.Elaborateritualsofobeisance admiringmultitudes,applaudedspeeches,precedenceatdinners andbanquets,aplaceinthemotorcade,accesstothecorporate jet,themilitarysalutecelebratethepossessionofpower.These ritualsaregreatlyrewarding;soarethepleasandintercessionsof thosewhoseektoinfluenceothersintheexerciseofpower;and so,ofcourse,aretheactsofexercisetheinstructionsto subordinates,themilitarycommands,theconveyingofcourt decisions,thestatementattheendofthemeetingwhenthe personinchargesays,"Well,thisiswhatwe'lldo."Asenseof self-actuatedworthderivesfromboththecontextandthe exerciseofpower.Onnootheraspectofhumanexistenceis vanitysomuchatrisk;inWilliamHazlitt'swords,"Theloveof poweristheloveofourselves."Itfollowsthatpowerispursued notonlyfortheserviceitrenderstopersonalinterests,values,or socialperceptionsbutalsoforitsownsake,fortheemotional andmaterialrewardsinherentinitspossessionandexercise.

However,thatpoweristhuswantedforitsownsakecannot,asa matterofbasicdecency,betooflagrantlyconceded.Itis acceptedthatanindividualcanseekpowertoimposehismoral valuesonothers,ortofurtheravisionofsocialvirtue,orto makemoney.And,asnoted,itispermissibletodisguiseone purposewithanotherself-

5"Thehealthyindividualwhogainspowerlovesit."Dr.Harvey Rich(aWashington,D.C.,psychoanalyst,quotedinthe New York Times,November9,1982.BertranddeJouvenelputsthematter morevividly:"Theleaderofanygroupofmen...feelstherebyan almostphysicalenlargementofhimself...Commandisamountain top.Theairbreathedthereisdifferent,andtheperspectivesseen therearedifferent,fromthoseofthevalleyofobedience."(On

Power: Its Nature and the History of Its Growth [NewYork:Viking Press,1949],p 116)

11 enrichmentcanbehiddenbehindgreatcommunityservice, sordidpoliticalintentbehindapassionateavowalofdevotionto thepublicgood.Butitisnotpermissibletoseekpowermerely fortheverygreatenjoymentthatitaccords.6

Yetwhilethepursuitofpowerforthesakeofpowercannotbe admitted,therealityis,asever,partofthepublicconsciousness. Politiciansarefrequentlydescribedas''power-hungry";the obviousimplicationisthattheyseekpowertosatisfyanappetite. Corporationstakeoverothercorporationsnotinpursuitof profitsbutinpursuitofthepowerthatgoeswiththedirectionof ayetlargerenterprise.This,too,isrecognized.American politicianssenators,congressmen,cabinetofficers,and Presidentsregularlysacrificewealth,leisure,andmuchelseto therigorsofpublicoffice.Thatthenonspecificexerciseof powerandtheaccesstoitsritualsarepartofthereasonisfairly evident.Perhapsonlyfromthosesorewardedarethepleasures ofpowerforitsownsakeextensivelyconcealed. 6

Areferencetopowerisrarelyneutral;therearefewwordsthat producesuchadmiringor,inthefrequentcase,indignant response.Apoliticiancanbeseenbysomeasapowerfuland thuseffectiveleader;seenbyothers,heisdangerouslyruthless. Bureaucraticpowerisbad,butpublicservantswithpowerto rendereffectivepublicserviceareverygood.Corporatepoweris dangerous;so,however,isaweaklyadministeredenterprise. Unionsintheirexerciseofpowerindispensablydefendtherights oftheworkers;

6JohnF.Kennedy,amanofsomecandorinpublicexpression, nearlydidso."IrunforPresident,"hesaid,"becausethatiswhere theactionis."By action hewasclosetomeaningpower.

Page12 otherwiseperceived,theyaredeeplyinconflictwiththeliberty oftheirmembersandthewell-beingofemployersandthepublic atlarge.

Muchobviouslydependsonthepointofviewonthedifferential responsesarisingfromwhosesubmissionisbeingsought,whose oxisbeinggored.Thepoliticianwhowinsataxreformofwhich oneapproveshasengagedinawiseexerciseofpower;tothose whomustpay,itisorcanbearbitrary,evenunconscionable.The admirationfortheexerciseofpowerthatwinsanewairportis notsharedbythepeoplewhosepropertyabutsthelandingstrip.

Theresponsetopowerisalso,insubstantialmeasure,alegacyof itspast.Untilnearlywithinlivingmemory,blackworkersinthe UnitedStatesandwhiteserfsinImperialRussiawereimpelled tothewilloftheoverseer,owner,orlandlordbyapplicationof thewhip.Powermeantcondignpowerofaparticularlypainful andsanguinarysort.Theworldhasalsohadthousandsofyears ofharshexperiencewithcondignenforcementbymilitary organization,anexperiencethatisnotyetatanend.Itisthis historyandmorethathasgivenpoweritschillingname.

Further,asweshallseelaterindetail,muchexerciseofpower dependsonasocialconditioningthatseekstoconcealit.The youngaretaughtthatinademocracyallpowerresidesinthe people.Andthatinafreeenterprisesystemallauthorityrests withthesovereignconsumeroperatingthroughtheimpersonal mechanismofthemarket.Thusishiddenthepublicpowerof organizationofthePentagon,theweaponsfirms,andother corporationsandlobbyists.Similarlyconcealedbythemystique ofthemarketandconsumersovereigntyisthepowerof corporationstosetorinfluencepricesandcosts,tosubornor subduepoliticians,andtomanipulateconsumerresponse.But

eventuallyitbecomesapparentthatorganizations do influence govern-

Page13 ment,benditandtherewiththepeopletotheirneedandwill. Andthatcorporationsarenotsubordinatetothemarket;instead themarketthatissupposedtoregulatethemis,insomemeasure, aninstrumentintheirhandsforsettingtheirpricesandincomes. Allthisbeinginconflictwithsocialconditioning,itevokes indignation.Powerthusconcealedbysocialconditioningand thenrevealedseemsdeeplyillegitimate. Yetpower,perse,isnotapropersubjectforindignation.The exerciseofpower,thesubmissionofsometothewillofothers, isinevitableinmodernsociety;nothingwhateveris accomplishedwithoutit.Itisasubjecttobeapproachedwitha skepticalmindbutnotwithonethathasafixationofevil.Power canbesociallymalign;itisalsosociallyessential.7 Judgment thereonmustberendered,butnogeneraljudgmentapplyingto allpowercanpossiblyserve.

7"Powerhastwoaspects...Itisasocialnecessity...Itisalsoa socialmenace."DeJouvenel, On Power,p.283.

II CondignandCompensatoryPower

Themostdistinctivefeatureofbothcondignandcompensatory poweristheirobjectivityorvisibility.Thoseacceptingthewill ofothersareconsciousofdoingso;theyareactingin consequenceofafairlydeliberatecalculationthatthisisthe bettercourseofaction.Ithasbecomesobecauseoftheofferof somespecificquidproquofortheirsubmission.Those exercisingthepowerarealsopurposefullyawareofwhatthey aredoing.

Thedifferencebetweencondignandcompensatorypoweristhe differencebetweennegativeandaffirmativereward.Condign powerthreatenstheindividualwithsomethingphysicallyor emotionallypainfulenoughsothatheforgoespursuitofhisown willorpreferenceinordertoavoidit.Compensatorypower offerstheindividualarewardorpaymentsufficiently advantageousoragreeablesothathe(orshe)forgoespursuitof hisownpreferencetoseektherewardinstead.Inlessabstract language,condignpowerwinssubmissionbythepromiseor realityofpunishment;compensatorypowerwinssubmissionby thepromiseorrealityofbenefit.

Condignpowerhasanancientandestablishedrelationshipto physicalpunishmenttodetentionundervariouslyuncomfortable conditionsortotheinflictingofpain,mutilation,other imaginativetorture,ordeath.Thisimpressionisnotinvalid;all societiesrecognizetheunpleasantcharacterofmuchcondign punishmentandtheeasewithwhichitvergesoncruelty,andall haveregulationscontrollingorpresumingtocontrolitsuse. Nothingsocondemnsacountryorasystemofgovernmentas promiscuousresorttoitsemployment.However,theterm condignpowerashereusedhasabroaderconnotation:itextends topowerthatisexercisedbyanyformofadverseactionorits threat,includingfines,otherpropertyexpropriation,verbal rebuke,andconspicuouscondemnationbyotherindividualsor thecommunity.

2

Condignandcompensatoryexercisesofpowerareboth graduatedtotheurgencyofthesubmissionbeingsoughtorthe extent,importance,ordifficultyofthatsubmission.Thusitis consideredimperativeinmostsocietiesthatmurder,rape,and otherkindsofphysicalassaultbeprevented,thatthewould-be murdererorrapistbebroughtfirmlyintosubmissiontothewill ofthecommunityonthesematters.Theseacts,accordingly,lie underathreatofheavierpunishmentthandominortheftor shoplifting,trafficviolations,orcasualbreachesofthepeace. Similarly,asregardscompensatorypower,itisassumedthatthe goodworkerortheonewhoworkslonghourswillhaveahigher pecuniaryrewardthanthelessreliableperformer."Ipayhim wellandIexpecthimtogivehisbesttothejob,"whichistosay afullsubmissiontothewillorpurposesofthespokesman. Thoseinvolvedinmentalasopposedtophysical

Page16 effortorwhocarrytheresponsibilitiesofmanagementare presumedtorequireahigherpaymentfortheirsubmissiontothe purposesoforganizationthanthosewhorenderonlyphysicalor manualservice,howeveradeptortalentedthatmaybe.1

Thepropergradationincondignpunishmentandcompensatory rewardisamongthemoredisputedquestionsinmodernsociety, thesourceofaverylargeamountofcommentandcontention.Is thepunishmentoftheaforementionedmurdererappropriateto theresultsought?Orthatofthoseguiltyoftreason?Isthe penaltysufficientforthosewhodonotsubmittothepublicwill ontheuseofmarijuana,cocaine,orheroin?Arethesalariesthat bendexecutivestothepurposesofthecorporationexcessive? Aretheyinkeepingwiththewagesthatwintheservicesofthose whoworkamidstthedirtandnoiseoftheproductionline?Are thosewhoservepublicorganizationwhosubmit

1Thisisbecausethereisaprofounddifferenceinthenatureand extentofthesubmissionthatismade.Thepersonontheshopfloor oritsequivalentgivesmoreorlessdiligentanddeftphysicaleffort foraspecifiednumberofhoursaday.Beyondthatnothingin principlenotthought,certainlynotconformityofspeechorbehavior isexpected.Ofthehighcorporateexecutiveamorecomplete submissiontothepurposesoftheorganizationisusuallyrequired. He(orshe)mustspeakandalsothinkwelloftheaimsofthe enterprise;hemayneverinpublicandnotwiselyinprivateraise doubtastothedepthandsincerityofhisowncommitment.Many factorsdeterminehislarge,oftenverylarge,compensation, includingtheneedtopayfortheyearsofpreparation,forthe considerableintelligencethatisrequired,fortheresponsibilitythat iscarried,andfortheallegedrisksofhighposition.Asapractical matter,hisrateofpayisalsoinfluencedbythesignificantand highlyconvenientroletheexecutiveplaysinestablishingit;much thataccruestotheseniorcorporateexecutiveisinresponsetohis owninspiredgenerosity.Butthereisalsopaymentforthe

comprehensivesubmissionofhisindividualpersonalitytothatofthe corporation Itisnoslightthingtogiveupone'sselfandselfexpressiontothecollectivepersonalityofone'semployer.Thusthe highrecompense.(Thus,also,theuniquedullnessofmuchcorporate expression.)ThisisamattertowhichIwillreturn.

tothepurposesofthestatepaidenoughortoomuchin comparisonwiththeircounterpartsinprivateenterprise?Whatof soldierswhosesubmissioniswonpartlybytheirpay,partlyby theprospectofcondignactioniftheyshowinsufficient enthusiasminthepresenceoftheenemy,partlybyapowerful socialconditioningyettobeconsidered?Thefascinationwith thesubjectofpowerliesinthenumberofwindowsitopenson everydaylife.Theconcerninallsocietiesforwhatisrightor appropriateastopunishmentorrewardisonewindowthrough whichweshallhavefrequentlateroccasiontolook.

3

Inallmodernsocialattitudesadefinitelineisdrawnbetween compensatoryandcondignpower.Compensatoryenforcementis thoughttobefarmorecivilized,greatlymoreconsistentwiththe libertyanddignityoftheindividual,thancondignenforcement. Thepositionofthefreelaborerwhoworksforpayisheldtobe ineverywaysuperiortothatoftheslavewhosesubmissionto thewillandpurposesofthemasterisencouragedbythe sanguinarythreatofphysicalpunishment.

Thedifferenceis,indeed,great,butitshouldbeattributedmore toeconomicdevelopmentthantosocialenlightenment.Inthe poorsocietythedifferencebetweencondignandcompensatory enforcementissmall;onlyintherichsocietydoesamajor differenceemerge.Whenpovertywasgeneral,freeworkers toiledinfearofthestarvationandotherprivationthatwerethe alternativetocompensation.Theslaveworkedoutoffearofthe lash.Thepreferenceforstarvationascomparedwithaflogging couldbeamatteroftaste.Thus,beforetheCivilWarinthe AmericanSouth,thefree

Page18 workerwassuperiorinsocialstationtotheblackfieldhand.But heworked,nonetheless,underathreatofeconomicdeprivation thatmaynothavebeengreatlylesscompelling,onoccasion, thanthefearsoftheslave.Somethingcouldevenbesaid,and, indeed,hasbeensaid,forthegreatersecurityoftenureofthe slave.Hecouldbebeaten,buthecouldnotbefired.Itwaswith economicdevelopmentthatthetwoformsofenforcement stronglydiverged.Thefreeworkerthenacquiredpersonal resourcesthatwouldsustainhimatleasttemporarilywerehe thrownoutofwork.Alternativeemploymentopportunities becamemorenumerous.Eventuallytherewereunions. Unemploymentcompensationinvolvedanotableshiftaway fromthepainfulalternativesthatunitedcompensatorywith condignenforcement.Soworkbecameevermoreforthe pecuniaryreward,everlessbecauseofthefearsassociatedwith lossofthejob.

ItmaybenotedintheAmericancasethatthisdivergence betweenthepositionofthebondsmanandthatofthefree worker,incombinationwiththeincreasingeaseof communicationbetweenthefreestatesandtheSouth,would eventuallyhavemadeslaveryeconomicallyimpractical,muchas itmightstillhavebeencherishedbytheplantationownerson moral,social,ortraditionalgrounds.2 Thefreeworker's advantagebeinggreatandvisibleandtransportationbeing availableonthefreighttrains,defectiontotheNorthwouldhave increasedandbecomeendemic.Recusant

2Thesearemattersofespeciallyenjoyeddebatebetweenhistorians. MyformerHarvardcolleagueRobertW.Fogelhasbeensharply criticizedforholdingthatthepositionoftheslaveworkerwasnot toogreatlyinferiortothatofthefreelaborerintheantebellumyears. (Time on the Cross WithStanleyL Engerman [Boston:Little, Brown,1974])Iamcontenttoconcedethatthereisaneconomicas

wellasamoraldifferencebetweenthosepositionsandargueonly thatthedifferenceincreases, pari passu,witheconomic developmentitself.

owners,pocketingtheirprinciples,wouldhaveofferedwage supplementstotheirslavesor,morelikely,ashareinthecropto stayfaithful.Submissionbytheslavetothewillofthemaster would,increasingly,havebeenbecauseofcompensatoryreward ratherthancondignpunishment.Suchistheeffectofeconomic developmentontheinstrumentsofpower.Onecouldargue, thoughnotwiselyinrespecttoaneventsogreatlycherishedin retrospect,thatgiventherateofeconomicgrowthinthelasthalf ofthelastcentury,theCivilWarwouldhavebeenunnecessary, haditbeendelayedacoupleofdecadesorso.

Wehaveausefulglimpsehereoftherelationshipbetween condignorcompensatorypowerandwhatiscalledthework ethic.Workhasalwaysbeenthoughtpeculiarlyethicalforless well-paidworkersintediousemployment;intheupperreaches ofthesocialorder,animaginativelyconceiveduseofleisure affirmsacivilizedtendencyinthosewhoindulgeit.Welfare payments,unemploymentcompensation,andotherformsof socialinsurancearethoughttobeespeciallydamagingtothe workethicandthustothepoor.Assuch,theyareasourceof graveconservativeindignation.

Theconservativeinstinctissound.Higherincomeandsocial welfarebenefitsdoimpaircompulsionasamotivatingforce.3 As thegapbetweencondignandcompensatorysubmissiongrows, so,accordingly,doesconcernforworkhabits.Complaints multiplyastothediligenceofworkers.Perhaps,somewill conclude,ameasureofdeprivationoritsthreat

3"Oneputsupwithemployerswhoareinept,fools,orunpleasantif onewantstoeat."RichardSennett, Authority (NewYork:Knopf, 1980),p.107.OnthisgeneralpointseeSennett'sextended

discussioninthesamebook,pp.104etseq.

Page20 isnecessarytosustaindisciplineandtheworkethic;thiswasan acceptedtenetofthepolicyoftheReaganadministrationinthe UnitedStateswhenitcametopowerin1981.Itis,however, necessarytoaskwhetherawideninggapbetweencondignand compensatoryexercisesofpowerineconomicaffairsistobe deplored.Aneconomicsysteminwhichpeopleworksubmitto thewillandpurposesofothersinresponsetoagenerally affirmativerewardratherthanoutofthenegativecompulsion causedbyfearofthesufferingfromnotdoingsohassomething, manywillthinkagreatdeal,tobesaidinitsfavor.

5

Theabolitionofslaverymeantthewithdrawaloftherightof condignpunishmenttoenforcetoil,thatis,towinsubmissionto thewilloftheslaveowner,andthesubstitution,howeversmall, ofcompensatoryreward.Ownersofmillsandminesoncehad therightofresorttophysicalviolenceoritsthreattobreak strikesorotherwisebendrecalcitrantworkerstotheirwill.This rightalsohasbeenlargelywithdrawn,anditsuse,whenitdoes occurnow,isthoughtregressive.InPolandinthelateautumnof 1981,thegovernmentresortedtomartiallawtopreventstrikes andtowinthesubmissionofworkersandstudentstothe purposesofthestateandtheCommunistparty.Condignpower, ineffect,replacedcompensatorypower,thelatterhavingbeen greatlyweakenedbyashortageofpossiblecompensationinthe formoffoodandothernecessities.Needlesstosay,this reversiontocondignpowerwasmuchdeplored.

Atamorecommonplacelevel,husbandsoriginallywonthe submissionorobedienceofwivesbythethreatorfrequentfact ofcondignassault.Thisisnolongerwell-

Page21 regarded;theprotectionofbatteredwiveshasbecomeacause. Thewilloftheschoolmasterwastraditionallyimposedby condignpunishment;nowtosparetherodisnolongertospoil thechild.Preachersancientlywonsubmissionoftheir congregationtothefaiththeyespousedbythepromisethat dissenterswouldfaceanexceptionallydisagreeablepunishment intheworldhereafter.Nowthehellfire-and-damnationpreacher isoftenconsideredseriouslyarchaic.

Alongwiththedecliningreputationofthecondignexerciseof powerhasgoneanefforttominimizeitsseveritywhereitdoes survive.Inearliertimessoldierswhodesertedinthefaceofthe enemyweresubjecttosummaryexecution.InWorldWarI, manyweresodispatched.ByWorldWarII,thiswasnolonger thoughtappropriate.OnlyoneloneAmericanwasexecutedin thatwarfordecliningtobraveenemyfire,andhiscasebecamea minorcausecélèbre.Thedeathpenaltyinmost,thoughnotquite all,modernsocietieshascometoberegardedwithdisapproval. Soalso,ofcourse,havetorture,starvation,andflogging.

Inhandwiththedeclineinthereputationofcondignpowerhas goneavigorousandextensiveefforttobroadentheeffectiveness ofcompensatorypower,especiallyforwhatareconsidered sociallydesirablepurposes,mostnotablymoreintenseeconomic effortandinvestment.Akeywordhereis incentive;anincentive issomethingthatmakesmoreefficientandcompellingthe compensatoryrewardforsociallydesirablesubmission.4 Few mattersaremorediscussedbymoderngovernments.Taxpolicy, monetarypolicy,farmpolicy,wageandlaborpolicies,areall directlyorindirectlyconcernedwiththeeffectofagivenaction onincentivesoncompensatorypower.Therelationofcorn-

4Ithasalsocometosuggestthatsomeoneisseekingmoreincome forhimselfandisusingsocialfunctionasacover.

Page22

pensationtoeffortisalsoapreoccupationofthelargebusiness enterprise,anditaccountsforamajorproportionofallformal economicdiscussion.Suchisthecurrentroleofcompensatory power.

Althoughthereputationanduseofcondignpowerhavegreatly declinedinmodernsocieties,andnotablysoinrelationto compensatorypower,itsancientaurasurvives.Forthosewho oncepossessedtherighttouseit,itremainsafactorinwinning submission.Thehusband,parent,schoolmaster,policeman, sheriff,NationalGuardsman,andbarroombouncerallhave authoritynowinconsequenceofapastassociationwithcondign power.

Weseehere,also,thebasisoftheconservativeyearningfor capitalpunishment,corporalpunishmentinschools,the dominanceofmenoverwomen,moresanguinarypowersfor-the police,enlargedrightsofsearchandseizure,therightto promiscuouspossessionand,asnecessary,useoflethal weapons.Itisheldthattheserelicsofagenerallymoreviolent timearerequiredforthedefenseoflawandorderorfor otherwisewinningacceptablesocialbehavior.Themore importantreasonisthatallaremanifestationsofcondignpower. Suchpowerwasconsiderablymoreimportantinthepastthanit isnow,andthenaturalbusinessofconservativesistoconserve orretrievefromthepast. 6

Centraltobothcondignandcompensatorypoweristhespecific relationshipbetweentherewardofferedorthepunishment threatenedandthesubmissionachieved.Theassembly-line workerwouldnotstaylongonthejobintheabsenceofpay.He wouldnotreadilysubmittoovertimeeffortintheabsenceof

overtimepay.Thewould-becriminal

Page23 isdeterredbythethreatofthepunishmenttowhichhewillbe subject.Themotoristobservesthespeedlimitbecauseofthefine towhichhecouldbeexposed.

Butinallofthesecasesandothers,anothermotivefor submissionispresent:itisthatsubmissionreflectsaproper, reputable,accepted,ordecentformofbehavior.Adultswork partlybecauseitisthethingtodo.Oneshouldnotwastelife, idleawaythetime.Intheinnersanctaoftheexecutivesuitemen (andtherarewoman)areexpectedtogivetheirtotalenergiesto thebusinessenterprise;exceptwhenthecaseisbeingmadefor morepayorlowertaxes,itwouldbeinsupportableforanyone theretosuggestthatexecutiveeffortisregulatedinaccordance withcompensation,thathighcorporateofficerslookingattheir salariesgivelessthantheirbest.Andthesameistrueinpublic affairs.Nopoliticianorimportantpublicofficialcanbethought tobeadjustinghisefforttoaccordwithhispay.Childrenobey theirparentssubmittotheirwillbecausethatiswhatchildrendo. Somewivessimilarlysubmittotheirhusbands.Andmostpeople yieldtopublicauthoritynotfromfearofcondignpunishmentor hopeofcompensatoryrewardbutbecausetheyarelaw-abiding citizens.

Theproblemofunderstandingpower,asalways,istheabsence ofpurecases.Inintimateadmixturewiththecondignor compensatoryenforcementofpoweristhesubmissionthat comesbecausetheindividualbelievesorhasbeenpersuadedthat thisissomehowforhimthebettercourse.Itisasubmissionthat derivesfrombelief.Andsuchsubmissionisnotonlyofgreatbut alsoofincreasingimportance.Foraseconomicandsocial developmenthavemovedthesocietyfromcondignphysical enforcementtocompensatorypecuniaryreward,sotheyarenow movingittowardanever-increasingrelianceontheuseof

conditionedpower.

III ConditionedPower

[T]he business of the world consisteth almost in nothing else but a perpetual contention for honour, riches, and authority . . . [T]hese are indeed great difficulties, but not impossibilities; for by education, and discipline, they may be, and are sometimes reconciled

THOMASHOBBES

Leviathan

Textbook content shall promote citizenship and the understanding of the free-enterprise system, emphasize patriotism and respect for recognized authority . . . Textbook content shall not encourage life-styles deviating from generally accepted standards of society.

Proclamation of the Texas State Board of Education, 1982

Whilecondignandcompensatorypowerarevisibleand objective,conditionedpower,incontrast,issubjective;neither thoseexercisingitnorthosesubjecttoitneedalwaysbeaware thatitisbeingexerted.Theacceptanceofauthority,the submissiontothewillofothers,becomesthehigherpreference ofthosesubmitting.Thispreferencecanbedeliberately cultivatedbypersuasionoreducation.Thisisexplicit conditioning.Oritcanbedictatedbythecultureitself;the submissionisconsideredtobenormal,proper,ortraditionally correct.Thisisimplicitconditioning.Nosharplinedividesone fromtheother;

Page25 explicitconditioningshadesbydegreesintoimplicit.1 Ingiving substancetotheseabstractions,Irecurtothemeansbywhich meninthepast,andconsiderablyalsointhepresent,have exertedpoweroverwomenandbentthemtotheirwill.

Somethingintheexerciseofmasculineauthoritymustbe attributedtothesuperioraccessofthemaletocondignpowerto thegreaterphysicalstrengthofahusbandanditsusetoenforce hiswillonaphysicallyweakerandinsufficientlyacquiescent spouse.Andnoonecandoubtthefrequentefficiencyof compensatorypower,ofrewardintheformofclothing,jewelry, equipage,housing,entertainment,andparticipationinsocial observances.Thesehavelongandadequatelydemonstratedtheir utilityinsecuringfemininecompliancewithmasculinewill.

However,itwillbeevidentonbriefthoughtthatmalepowerand femalesubmissionhavereliedmuchmorecompletelyonthe beliefsinceancienttimesthatsuchsubmissionisthenatural orderofthings.Menmightlove,honor,andcherish;itwasfor longacceptedthatwomenshouldlove,honor,and obey.Someof thiswastheproductofspecificeducationofinstructionathome, intheschools,andfromtheChurchastotheproperroleof womeninthesocialorderandinrelationtothefamily.Until recently,coursesinuniversitiesandcollegestaughtwomenbut notmenthehomelyartshomeeconomicsandhomemakingwith astrongimplicationthatthiswasrelevanttoanormal submissiontomalewill.Suchimplicationinthisformof instructionhasnotentirelydisappeared.

Butonlyapartofthesubordinationofwomenwas

1ForaperceptivetreatmentofwhatIherecallconditionedpower, seeCharlesE.Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World's Political-Economic Systems (NewYork:BasicBooks,1977),

especiallypp.52-62.

Page26 achievedbyexplicitinstructionexplicitconditioning.Muchand almostcertainlymorewas(andis)achievedbythesimple acceptanceofwhatthecommunityandculturehavelongthought rightandvirtuousor,inMaxWeber'sterm,whatisan establishedpatrimonialrelationshipbetweenrulerandruled. Thisisimplicitconditioning,apowerfulforce.

Overall,thisconditionedsubmissionofwomenproceededfrom belief,beliefthatmasculinewillwaspreferabletoundue assertionoftheirownandthecounterpartbeliefbymenthatthey wereentitledbytheirsexorassociatedphysicalandmental qualitiestodominate.Avastandgreatlyrepetitiveliterature celebratedboththissubmissionofwomenandtheoccasional remarkableoreccentricwomanwho,bypersonality,guile,or preciseorextravagantuseofsexualcompetence,managedto imposeherwilloncommunity,government,lovers,orhusbands.

Thereisproofofthispowerofbeliefinthenatureofthemodern effortatemancipationthewomen'smovement.Variousformsof condignmasculinepowerhavebeenattacked,includingtheright ofhusbandstoinflictphysicalormentalpunishment.Relieffrom thecompensatorypowerwieldedbymenhasbeensought throughthedevelopmentofemploymentopportunityforwomen outsidethehouseholdandbypublicizingtheemployment discriminationthatkeepswomeninsubordinatejobs.Buta majorpartoftheefforthasbeenthechallengetobeliefthebelief thatsubmissionandsubserviencearenormal,virtuous,and otherwiseappropriate.Thereiterationofsuchbeliefinsistence onwhatarecalledthetraditionalvaluesofhome,family,and religionhas,inturn,beencentraltotheeffortsandoutcryof those,womenperhapsmorethanmen,whohaveresistedthe moveforemancipation.

Aswiththeassertionofmaledominance,sowithother manifestationsofpower.ThepoweroftheChurch,asearlier noted,wasancientlysupportedbyitsaccesstocondign punishmentbothinthepresentandintheworldtocome.And nonewoulddoubtthecompensatoryattractionofthebenefices theChurchbestowed.Butoverwhelminglyitspowerdepended, asitstilldoes,onbelief.Itistotheinstillingandconsolidating ofbeliefthattheChurchhasalways,andwisely,devotedits majoremphasis.Socommonplaceisthiseffortthatthe affirmationsofbeliefhavecometobethoughtidenticalwith religionitself.

Thecaseisthesamewiththemilitary,asalsoalready mentioned.Soldiersareandmustbepaidfortheirservices.And acondignalternativeisalsofrequentlyrequiredforthosewho arereluctanttoserveortofacethepossiblymortalconsequences ofbattle.Butithaslongbeenacceptedthatgoodsoldiersare committedtothecauseforwhichtheyarefightingthat willingnesstoacceptdeathanddismembermentrequiresthehigh moralethatproceedsfrombelief.2 Mercenariesmotivatedonly bycompensatory

2BertrandRussell,inanotablepassage,supportsthispoint:''Itis easytomakeoutacasefortheviewthatopinionisomnipotent,and thatallotherformsofpowerarederivedfromit.Armiesareuseless unlessthesoldiersbelieveinthecauseforwhichtheyarefighting, or,inthecaseofmercenaries,haveconfidenceintheabilityoftheir commanderstoleadthemtovictory.Lawisimpotentunlessitis generallyrespected.Economicinstitutionsdependuponrespectfor thelaw;consider,forexample,whatwouldhappentobankingifthe averagecitizenhadnoobjectiontoforgery." Power: A New Social Analysis (NewYork:W.W.Norton,1938),p.136.Russellgoeson

tourgetheimportanceoflookingbacktothesourcesoftheopinion soemphasized

28 powerorrawconscriptsmotivatedonlybycondignpowerhave alwaysbeenthoughtsecond-ratewarriors.

Politicalleaders,toanunfortunateextentinmuchofthepresentdayworld,stillholdofficebecauseoftheiraccesstocondign powertheirabilitytothreatenconfinement,torture,orthe permanentdispatchofthosewhodonotaccepttheirwill. Considerableuseisstillmadebythemofcompensatorypower, theabilitytobuythesupport,thatis,thesubservience,of individualswhootherwisewouldnotsubmittoauthority. Forthrightpurchaseofvoteswascommonplaceinvariousparts oftheUnitedStatesuntilcomparativelyrecenttimes.Similarly inotherdemocracies.Andinvariousformspatronage, invitationstosocialobservances,theconferralofhonors,and notablytheawardofpubliccontractscompensatorypowerstill persists.Again,however,aswithreligionandthemilitary, conditionedpowerisfarmoreimportant.Modernpoliticians devotethemselvesoverwhelminglytothecultivationofbelief.In thedemocraciesinthetwentiethcenturypoliticalpowerconsists inthelargestmeasureofconditionedpower.Thisalsoisamatter towhichIwillreturn.

Conditionedpowerisofgreatsignificanceineconomiclifeas well.Theaverageworkerrespondstocompensatorypower;inits absencehewouldnotwork.Butinallbutthemosttediouslines ofendeavorhealsohasprideinhisjobandreflectsinits performancewhatThorsteinVeblencalledtheinstinctto workmanship.Thisinstinctbecomesincreasinglyimportantand increasinglyavowedasoneascendsinthecorporatehierarchy.It istheprideoftheseniorexecutive(orthelesseraspirant)thathe really believes inwhatheisdoing.Executivecompensationis stillmuchcherishedasamotivation;butthepurposesofthe businessenterprisearedeeplyincorporatedintobeliefandhave

anindependentforce.Theyaregoodandright,and

beliefinthemisahighlyeffectivemanifestationofconditioned power.3.4

Inallthefamiliarallusionstopower,familial,religious,military, political,economicreferences,itmustbenoted,thatconcealas muchastheyrevealtheroleofconditionedpowerislarge.And itgetslargerasanintimateaspectofallsocialdevelopment.

Conditionedpoweristheproductofacontinuumfromobjective, visiblepersuasiontowhattheindividualinthesocialcontexthas beenbroughttobelieveisinherentlycorrect.Aswehaveseen, suchpowercanbeexplicit,theresultofadirectandvisible attempttowinthebeliefthat,inturn,reflectsthepurposesofthe individualorgroupseekingorexercisingthepower.Orthe beliefcanbeimplicitinthesocialorculturalcondition; submissiontotheauthorityofothersreflectstheacceptedview ofwhattheindividualshoulddo.Asonemovesfromexplicitto implicitconditioning,onepassesfromobtrusive,ostentatious efforttowinbelieftoanimposedsubordinationthatisunnoticed takenforgranted.And,animportantpoint,thesocialacceptance ofconditionedpowerrisessteadilyasonemovesinthisdirection fromexplicittoimplicitconditioning.

Thusoneofthemostexplicitformsofconditionedpower

3Seep.59.

4Thereisaverypracticalpointhere.Regularlyitisarguedinafarfrom-disinterestedwaythatmoreafter-taxincomeisrequiredto stimulatemoreeffortandproducehigherproductivity.But,aswehere see,itisconditioning,notcompensation,thatprimarilyinducesthe executive'ssubordinationtocorporatepurpose.Giventhatthatisso, therewouldbelittleornoaddedeffortfromanyhighercompensation, andinpracticethereisn't.

Page30 inmodernindustrialsocietiesisexercisedthroughadvertising. Byartandreiterationpeoplearepersuadedto believe inthe peculiarconvivialityassociatedwithaparticularbrandofbeer, thespecifichealth-protectingqualitiesofagivenbrandof cigarettes,thehighsocialacceptabilitythatisassociatedwiththe whitenessofshirtcollars,theuniquemoraltoneofaparticular politician,thedesirabilityorunwisdomofaspecificpolitical initiative.Inallcasestheeffectisthesame;thebuyerisbrought toabeliefinthepurposesoftheseller.Heorshesurrendersto thewillofthepurveyorofthebeer,cigarettes,detergent,or politicalpurpose.Thatthisisnotalwaysperceivedasanexercise ofpowerdoesnotmakeitlessthecase.Thatthebeliefmaybe shallowandtheresultingsubordinationneitherdurablenor substantialdoesnotaltertheessentialcharacteroftheeffort. Therearefewmanifestationsofpowerinmoderntimesthat expendsuchcostlyandcommittedenergyasthecultivationof beliefandtheresultingexerciseofpowerthroughadvertising.

However,partlybecauseadvertisingisawhollyostentatious attempttocapturebelief,itisnotafullyreputablewayof winningit.Itregularlyinvitesitsownresistanceanddisapproval. Accordingly,whileacorporationseekingthesubordinationof consumerstothepurchaseofitsproductslaunchesanadvertising campaign,ifitwishestosubordinatecitizenstoitspolitical purposesanescapefromonerousregulationorallegedly unrighteoustaxationitlaunchesaneducationalcampaign.And solikewiseanyothergroupseekingsubmissiontoitspublicwill. Forwinningbelief,education,ascomparedwithadvertising,is sociallyfarmorereputable.

Thereareproblems,however,witheducation.Italsocan,on occasion,betooovert.Apoliticiancanspeakofinforminghis people;hecannot,withoutseemingtodemeantheir

Page31 intelligence,saytheyneededucation.APresidentcansayin privatethatthisorthatisamatteronwhichpeopleneed instruction.Whenhegoesontelevision,itistotellthemofwhat theyascitizensshould be aware.Press,television,andradio collectivelythemediaarethoughttohavealargeeducational function.Thistheydonotusuallyavow;theirmoretactful purposeissimplyto inform theirreaders,viewers,orlisteners. Thatpowerisinvolvedthatthesubmissionofsometothe purposesofothersisbeingsoughtissufficientlyindicatedbythe tensionthatsurroundsaccesstothemedia.AllrecentPresidents oftheUnitedStateshavebeenre-currentlyatoddswith television,press,andradio.Thatispartlybecausethemedia haveacertainmeasureofcontroloverthepresidentialaccessto conditionedpower.And,additionally,theconditioningtheyseek maybeinconflictwiththatsoughtbythePresident.Hencethe conflict.Hence,also,thecontinuingpresidentialefforts,byno meansunsuccessful,toseducethepresswithpersonalattention, seemingconfidences,fulsomelyarticulatedflattery,social entertainments,gravedeference,orotherdevices.Andhence, finally,themuchheraldedandnotunimportantbrakeimposed bythemediaonpresidentialpower.Oneconsequenceisa substantiallyexaggeratedviewofthepowerofthepress,radio, andtelevision,amattertowhichIwillreturninalaterchapter.

Nooneislikelytoquestiontheimportanceoftheexplicit conditioningofthemediaasaninstrumentforwinning submissionandexercisingpower.Thosesoengagedaregreatly andsolemnlyawareoftheirrole.Lesscelebratedis

32 theconditioningbyformaleducationbyfamily,schools, colleges,anduniversities.Allstronglycultivatethebeliefsthat allowoftheexerciseofpower.Childreninminimallycompetent schoolsaretoldfromtheirearliestdaysthattheauthorityof parentsandteachersmustberespected;thatlawsmustbe obeyed;thatthereisapresumptionofwisdominwhata democraticgovernmentdecides;thatthereisanacceptablecode asregardsproperty,dress,andpersonalhygiene;thatthe acceptanceofleadershipthecontentedsubmissiontothewillof othersisanormalandcommendablething.5 Partofthevalue thatalleducationalinstitutionsplaceonteamsportsliesinthe trainingtheyprovideinthelargelyautomaticsubstitutionof grouporteamgoalsforthoseoftheindividual,oftheauthority ofthecoachorcaptainfortheteammember'spersonal preferenceorthought.

Educationalconditioningalsowinstheacceptanceofvery specificformsofpower.Schoolsinallcountriesinculcatethe principlesofpatriotismbysuchtraditionalfolkritesasthe recitationofapledgeofallegianceinthepresenceoftheflag,by emphasisonheroicepisodesfromthepast,andbydirect instructioninthepresentvalueofmilitarypreparednessand achievement.This,inturn,isofhighimportanceforwinning acceptanceoftherelatedpurposesofthestate.Theconditioning thatrequiresalltorallyaroundtheflagisofparticular importanceinwinningsubordinationtomilitaryandforeign policy.Itseffectistoplacequestionsofnationalsecurityand nationaldefenseabovepartisanorotherparochialchallenge.

Educationalconditioningextendsalsototheeconomicandsocial system.ChildreninCommunistcountrieshear

5Foratypicallystrongstatementonthistendency,seeC.Wright Mills, The Power Elite (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1956),

pp.319-20.

relentlesslyofthevirtuesofsocialism,theneedforfull, enthusiasticsubmissiontoitspurposes.But,exceptindegree, thiseffortisnotpeculiartoCommunisteducation.Childrenin theUnitedStateshearinsimilarfashionofthevirtuesoffree enterprise;thereisacontinuingdemandfromcorporationsand businessorganizationsthatthesocialistexamplebeemulated andtherebemoresuchinstructioninschoolsanduniversitiesas wellasforthepublicatlarge.Totheextentthatsuchinstruction succeeds,thosesoeducatedareledtoacceptthepurposesofthe businessworldasvalidexpressionsofthepublicandtheirown personalgood.Theseriousnesswithwhichthisconditioningin schoolsistakenisattestedbythefurorthatcanstillariseif adolescentsarethoughttohaveaccessintheirlibrariestobooks criticalof,orotherwiseinconflictwith,sociallyacceptable viewsontheexistingeconomicorsocialorder.

Theimportanceofdirecteducationalconditioningisindicated alsobythecontinuingcontroversyoverreligiousinstructionin theAmericanpublicschools.Theavowedcentralpurposeofthis instructionistodevelopatanearlyagethebeliefthatleadsto acceptanceofreligiousauthority.Doubtsaboutthedesirability ofsuchconditioningandtheresultingexerciseofpower, combinedwithirreconcilabledifferencesofviewastothe religiousauthoritytobeaccepted,ledtotheoriginal constitutionalbarriertoallsuchinstruction.Thosewhoseekthe resultingpowerhaveneveracceptedthisban.Theycontinueto encouragetheimplicitconditioningthatcomesfromevensuch modestreligiousobservancesasvoluntaryandsilentprayer. These,inturn,areseenbythoseopposingthemasasourceof eventualreligiousbeliefwithitsassociatedsubmissionto religiousauthority.Othercontroversies,thatoversexeducation beingaprominentexample,reflecttheimportancethatis

attachedtosocialconditioningbytheschoolsandtheresulting submission(ornonsubmission)toauthoritythatfollows(oris believedtofollow)fromthebeliefsthataretherebyinstilled.The oftenvenomouscharacterofthedisputeoverreligiousorsex educationcanonlybeunderstoodwhenitisfullyappreciated thatpowerisinvolved.

Itistemptingtothinkofmostconditioningwithitscounterpart submissionandassociatedexerciseofpowerassomethingthatis wonbyovertmethods,asthroughtheeducationalsystemorthe media.Thereisastrongtendencytoattachprimaryimportance towhatcanbeseenorheard.However,allsocietieshaveayet morecomprehensiveformofsocialconditioning.Itis sufficientlysubtleandpervasivethatitisdeemedanaturaland integralpartoflifeitself;thereisnovisibleorspecificeffortthat winstherequisitebeliefandsubmission.Thusparentalauthority neednotinmostcasesbeasserted;itisseeminglynormaland whatallchildrenbynatureaccept.Andsimilarlytheauthorityof theschoolteacherandpriest.Andofcommunityleaders.Andof thenation'sdulyelectedofficialsandthosewhocollecttaxesand enforcethelaws.Partlybecauseitisthecommunaltendencyand instinct,onerendersservicetoanemployerandmanifeststhe scripturallyenjoinedbehaviorofthegoodandfaithfulservant. Specificinstructionisnotgenerallythoughtnecessaryagainst murder,rape,oreventheft.Suchimplicitconditioningbears comprehensivelybutsubjectivelyandinvisiblyuponthe individualfrombirth.Wecannotassessitsimportanceinrelation toovertconditioning,butneithercanwedoubtthatitis important.

Oncebeliefiswon,whetherbyexplicitorimplicitconditioning, theresultingsubordinationtothewillofothersisthoughttobe theproductoftheindividual'sownmoralorsocialsensehisor herfeelingastowhatisrightorgood.Inthepurecasethisis whollyseparatefromcompensatoryrewardorcondign punishment.Justaschildrenobeyparents,soadultsbathe,usea deodorant,gotochurch,orsurrendertotheviewsofapolitical leader;itistheproperorpersonallyrewardingthingtodo; punishmentorrewardisnotinvolved.However,inthecommon casethethreeinstrumentsofenforcementarecombined. Childrenyieldtoparentalauthorityasamatterofcourse.But presentalsomaybethepromiseofcompensatoryrewardfor submissionandthepossibilityofcondignpunishmentfor resistance.Asasimilarresultoffamilyandsocialconditioning manyindividualssubmittoreligiousauthority;some,however, stillcontemplatetheimaginativelyunpleasanttreatmentthat ultimatelyawaitsthosewhofailtodoso.Itissufficientformany adultsthattheyshouldbegoodcitizensandthussubmittotheir government.Butthereisalsotangiblecompensationintheform ofposition,employment,andsocialesteemforthepersonwho soyields.Andfortheindividualwhorejectstheconditioned viewofacceptablebehaviorthepunishmentbythecommunity ormoredirectlybyauthoritycanbesevere.Neverinthe considerationofpowercanweassumethatthereisonlyone sourceoroneinstrumentofpoweratwork.

Animportantdividendfromseparatingpowerintoitsanatomical componentsisthatweseethatwhatoftenaretakentobe differencesinkindare,infact,differencesindegree.6 Andthe constituentelementsareofdifferentforceineachinstance.Thus theexerciseofpowerbytotalitarianregimescombinesa peculiarlyintensive(andpreclusive)useofconditioned enforcementbyschools,press,television,radio,oratorywith largecompensatoryrewardforthosewhoconformandcondign punishment,oftenofapermanentsort,forthosewhodonot.In the1930sand1940s,themassivepropagandaofJosephPaul GoebbelsinGermanywasamuch-remarkedfeatureofNational Socialism,amajorresorttoovertconditionedpower.Itwas combined,however,withthepowerfulcompensatoryattraction ofjobsandwarcontracts.Andtherewasthecondign punishmentoftheconcentrationcampsforthosewhostill resistedsubordination.SimilarlyinStalinistRussia;there,too, compensatoryreward,condignpunishment,andovert conditioningwereallfullydeployed.Inothercasesthe admixturewasorismoreselective.TheLatinAmerican dictatorsRafaelTrujilloandAnastasioSomozahadspecial reputationsforcrueltybecause,havinglittleskillintheexercise ofconditionedpower(withlittleplausiblebeneficenceto proclaim)andfewresourcestocallonforcompensatorypower, theywereforcedtorelynearlytotallyoncondignpower.This hasledtoadistinctionbetweenauthoritarianpower,withits moreorlessexclusiverelianceoncondignenforcement,andthe morecomprehensiveuseofcondign,com-

6Althoughdifferencesindegree,weshouldalwaysbereminded, canberemarkablydifferent.

pensatory,andconditionedpowerthatischaracterizedas totalitarianpower.SouthAmerican,African,orAsiandictators areauthoritarian;theCommunistcountriesaretotalitarian.And ithasbeenfurtherheld7 thattheauthoritarianexerciseofpower, beinglimited,ismorallysuperiortothemorecomprehensive totalitarianexercise.Thisisnotadistinctionofparticularmerit forthosesubjecttotheauthoritarianregimes.Thelatter'sgreater needtorelyoncondignpowerandassociatedcrueltyanddeath caneasilybethemoreuncomfortableoroffensiveofthetwo.

Democraticgovernmentsdonoteschewcondign,compensatory, orconditionedpower;alltheseareexercised.Thedifference againisinthecombinationinvolved,theconstraintstowhichthe instrumentsaresubject,and,animportantpoint,theextentto whichthestatereservestoitselftheexclusiveuseofconditioned power.

Alwaysinconsideringtheexerciseofpower,wemustbe sensitivetothedifferingcombinationsofthecomponentparts. Thesevariedcombinationsandtheirpermutationswill extensivelyconcernusinthepagestocome.Andweshallsee therealitythatislargelyconcealedinreferencestoeconomic, political,religious,andotherpower.Noneofthemcanbe understood,however,exceptasweseetheelementsofwhich theyarecomposed,sofirstwemustlookatthesourcesofpower.

7NotablybytheadministrationofPresidentReaganandparticularly byhisAmbassadortotheUnitedNations,Mrs.JeaneKirkpatrick.

IV

TheSourcesofPower:Personality

The Prime Minister out of office is seen, too often, to have been but a pompous rhetorician, and the General without an army is but the tame hero of a market town.

W SOMERSETMAUGHAM

The Moon and Sixpence

Wecomenowtowhatliesbehindtheinstrumentsforthe enforcementofpoweradumbratedinthelastchapters,what allowsoftheexerciseofcondign,compensatory,and conditionedpowerintheirvariousformsandmixtures.

Threethingsprovidesuchaccess:personality,property,and organization.Asinthecaseoftheinstrumentsofenforcement, these,theultimatesourcesofpower,appearnearlyalwaysin combination.Personalityismuchenhancedbypropertyandvice versa;itusuallyhastheaddedstrengththatcomesfrom organization.Propertyalwaysexistsinassociationwith organizationand,notinfrequently,withadominantpersonality. Organization,inturn,isaugmentedandsupportedbyboth propertyandpersonality.

Eachofthethreesourcesofpowerhasastrong,thoughnever exclusive,relationshipwithaspecificinstrumentofenforcement. Organizationisassociatedwithconditionedpower;property, needlesstosay,withcompensatorypower.

Personalityhasanoriginalandlong-standingassociationwith condignpower;ancientlyindividualsachievedsubmissionby superiorphysicalprowess,whichistosaytheabilitytoinflict punishmentofaphysicalnatureonthe recalcitrant or nonconformist.This traditional association stillhasacertain resonanceinthemodernworld.Itremainsparticularlyimportant amongchildren;thereisanaturaldeferenceinanygroupof youngsterstothephysicallystrongestboyor,onoccasion,girl. Onewhomakesundulypromiscuousorconspicuoususeofthis sourceofcondignenforcementiscelebratedandcondemnedasa bully.Itistakenforgrantedthataschildrenmatureandbecome presumptivelymorecivilized,theywillresorttosuchcondign powerlessandlessanditssourceinpersonalitywillrecedein importance.

Theconnectionbetweenthetwowill,however,continueto influenceattitudes.Mythicallyorhistoricallyimportantleaders Hercules,PetertheGreat,CharlesdeGaulleareassumedtohave owedsomeoftheirpowertotheirphysicalstrengthorsize.They arespokenofas commanding figures.Napoleonwasremarkable partly because hewassosmall.Thereremainsinallmodern societiesatendencytodefer,thatis,inaminorwaytosubmit,to thetallorotherwisephysicallyimpressivefigure.Abiasinfavor oftallmen,andagainstveryshortones,isstilloneofthefew acceptableformsofdiscriminationinthemoderncommunity. Onespeaksofadisagreeable,offensive,ornasty little man, addingthefinaladjectiveastheultimateinsult;noequally adverseconnotationisattachedto big.

However,itisacommonplacethatthosemostcelebratedin historyfortheirpersonalpowerMoses,Confucius,Aristotle, Plato,Jesus,theProphet,Marx,Gandhiowedlittleornothingto theirphysicalstrengthortheirpersonalresorttocondignpower.

Lessevidentqualitiesaccorded

40 themtheabilitytobendmillionsorhundredsofmillionsdurably totheirwill.Soon,ofcourse,morethanjustpersonalitywas required;associatedlawgivers,temples,schools,apostles, churches,mosques,theFirstInternational,ortheCongressparty werebroughttotheirsupport.Organizationandanot insignificantamountofpropertythuscametosustainand enhancetheoriginatingpersonalityassourcesofpower.But nonecandoubttheinitialimportanceofpersonalityinwinning belief,anditwasthisbeliefconditionedpowerthatgavestrength, impetus,andcredenceinalloftheseinstances.

2

Inthemoderncommunitythemostimportantassociationof personalityhasnowbecomethisconnectionwithconditioned power.Theeffectivepersonalitywinssubmissionbypersuasion bycultivatingbelief,by''exercisingleadership."Whichspecific aspectsofpersonalitygiveaccesstoconditionedpowerare amongthemostdiscussedquestionsofourtimeand,indeed,of alltime.1 Ofgreatpastandsomepresentimportanceisthe convictionoftheindividualeffectivelyconveyedtoothersthat heorsheisincommunicationwithasupernaturalforceand guidancenotavailabletopeopleatlarge.Thusthefollowingof countlessreligiousleaders,asalsoofJoanofArc,PhilipII,and GeneralDouglasMacArthur.Atamorecommonplacelevel, mentalresource,precision,andacuity,charm,seeminghonesty, humor,solemnity,andmuchmorecanbeimportant.Soalsothe abilitytoexpressthoughtincogent,eloquent,repetitive,or otherwisecompellingterms.

1See,forexample,MaxWeberandhisconceptofcharismatic leadership.ReinhardBendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait (GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1960),pp.301etseq.

Thereareotherpersonalqualitiesgivingaccesstoconditioned powerthathavenocloserelationshipeithertointelligenceor expression.Asupremecertaintyintheindividual'sownbelief andassertionisofprimeimportanceforwinningbeliefand submissioninothers,andthispersonaltraitisnotnecessarily relatedtointelligence.Itcan,indeed,bethereverse.Itisabasic characteristicofeconomic,foreign,andmilitarypolicy,and muchbusinesspolicy,thattheconnectionbetweenanyparticular actionanditsresultisuncertainatbestandquitefrequently unknown.Noonecansayforsurewhattheultimate consequenceofaparticularincreaseininterestrates,aproposed gestureofpoliticalsupporttosomerecidivistgovernment,an elaboratelyplannedmilitaryorwarinitiative,willbe.Orwhat thereturnwillbefromsomebusinessendeavor.Powerinthese casessubmissiontowillregularlypassestothosewhoareableto asserttheunknownwiththegreatestconviction.Poweraccrues nottotheindividualwhoknows;itgoestotheonewho,often outofobtuseness,believesthatheknowsandwhocanpersuade otherstothatbelief.

3

Animportanttendencyinallmodernpoliticalcommentisto exaggeratetheroleofpersonalityintheexerciseofpower.A greatnumberoffactorscoalescetocausethiserror;thefirstis thehistoricaleminenceofthegreatleader.Manysuchfigures, fromMosestoMarx,toHitler,toStalin,toWinstonChurchill andFranklinD.Roosevelt,hadanunquestionedabilityto convertorsubdueotherstotheirpurposes.Theirpersonalities gavethemvariedaccesstocondign,compensatory,and conditionedpower.Suchmenand,asa

formofecho,manyfarmorecommonplacefiguresinhigh positionaremuchcelebratedandadmired.Whatrightlyshould beattributedtothepropertyororganizationsurroundingthemis thusaccordedtotheirpersonality.

Vanityalsocontributestotheexaggerationoftheroleof personality.Nothingsorejoicesthecorporateexecutive, televisionanchorman,orpoliticianastobelievethatheis uniquelyendowedwiththequalitiesofleadershipthatderive fromintelligence,charm,orsustainedrhetoricalcapacitythathe hasapersonalrighttocommand.Andwhenhebelievesit,sodo others.

Whatmaybecalledthesycophanticeffectisanothercauseofthe enhancementofpersonalityasasourceofpower.Theindividual whohasaccesstotheinstrumentsofpowerhasanatural attractionforthosewhowishtosharehisinfluence,liveinhis shadow.Itwouldnotbeseemlytotellhimhisaccesstopower camefromhismoney;itdoesnotservethepurposesofflattery tosayitreallybelongstotheorganizationofwhichheisapart. Soitissaidandheistoldthatitishispersonality,hisqualities asaleader,thataccordhimhispower.This,again,bothheand otherscometobelieve.

Thenthereisthemodernphenomenonofthesynthetic,or created,personality,somethingofnoslightimportance. Personality,asnoted,reflectsanearlierandmoreprimitivestage intheexerciseofpower;thusitappealstothearchaicinstinct thatcontrolsmuchofthecommentonthesematters.Itisalso moreinterestingthanorganization.Andfarmorereadilythan organization,itappealstothereporters,televisioncommentators, andotherswhodealwiththeexerciseofpowerandwho associateitwithwhatspeaks,walks,andisseen.Asahighly

practicalmatter,peoplecangiveinterviewsandappearon television;organizationscannot.

Theconsequenceisthatpersonalitytraitsareattributedtoheads oforganizationsthatseemappropriatetothepowerexercised, andthisimageryisassiduouslyandprofessionallycultivated.It istheprincipalpurposeofmuchpublicrelationseffort.Cabinet members,otherpublicofficials,andpresidentsofcorporations areexamplesoftheextensivelysynthesizedpersonality; journalistsandcommentatorsofthemorevulnerablesortare persuadedoftheiruniquepersonalqualities,asarethesubjects themselves.Thereisproofofthisphenomenoninwhathappens toaheadofGeneralMotorsorasecretaryofdefenseontheday heretiresorleavesoffice.Divorcedfromorganization,the syntheticpersonalitydissolves,andtheindividualbehindit disappearsintotheinnocuousobscurityforwhichhisreal personalityintendedhim.2

Itisthenatureofcommonsocialobservancestodramatizethe roleofpersonalityaswell.Inthemoderncapital,Washington beingnodoubttheextremecase,averylargepartofallsocial andotherintercourseisconcernedwithwhoisexercisingpower whoisimposinghisorherpurposesonothers.Andmostsocial effortconsistsinseekingassociationwiththosewhoaredeemed tobepowerful.Thisattentionismuchcherishedbythosewho receiveit,and,inconsequence,politicians,publicofficials, journalists,andotherscultivateapublicaspectthatsuggests power.Indress,manner,andgeneralbehaviortheypresenta well-

2Whileagreaterappreciationofthesyntheticpersonalitywouldadd substantiallytoourunderstandingofthesourcesofpower,its existenceisalreadyinnoslightmeasureperceived.Aspecific referencetothesyntheticpersonalityisnotunknown.Ortothe plasticpersonality,whichhasthesameconnotation.Thefrequent statementthattheheadofacorporationorgovernmentagencyis "reallyjustanorganizationman"recognizesthattheindividual's

personalityisaderivativeofthegrouptowhichhebelongs.

studiedappearanceofleadershipandcommand.Their conversationturnsfrequentlyandoftenostentatiouslyonhow thespeaker'swillisbeingimposedonothers.Theresultisoften quiteconvincing.

Theritualsofpoliticsmeetings,audiences,andapplauselead alsotoamisapprehensionofpersonalityasasourceofpower. Thisiswhatmaybecalledthehistrioniceffect.Thepolitical oratorspeaksregularlytoaudiencesthatarealreadyfully conditionedintheirbelief.Andheadjustshisthoughtand expression,oftenautomatically,towhatheknowstobethat belief.Theensuingapplauseisthentakentobeameasureof his influence, his power.Hisformidablepersonaltraitshis personalityarebelievedtobethesourceofthispower.Intruth, heisshowingonlyhisaptitudeforidentifyingwiththe conditionedbeliefofhisconstituency.Hispoweristhatofthe preacherwho,correctlyjudgingtherainclouds,proceedstopray forrain.

Manyinstancesofthiserrorcouldbecited.Oneofthemost interestingexamplesfromtheAmericanscenewasWilliam JenningsBryan,consideredbymanythemostinfluentialorator ofhisage;hishugeandresponsiveaudienceswerethoughttobe bentstronglytohiswill.Histalent,whichwasfarfrom negligible,consistedinattractingthealready-conditionedtohis meetingsandintellingthemwhattheywantedtohear.The applauseandtheamenscamenotfromthenewlypersuadedbut fromthosewhowereconfirmedbyhimintheirownearlier instinctorbelief.

Theword leader,ascommonlyused,isambiguousandshould besoregarded.Theleadermaybeaccomplishedin

45 gainingthesubmissionofotherstohispurposes.Butinthe everydayreferenceheisasoftenmerelyadeptatidentifying himselfwiththeconditionedwillofthecrowdandidentifying forthecrowditsownpurposes.

5

Therelationshipofthecompulsiveoratortohisapplauding audience,thepoliticalcandidatetohisapprovingvoters,the evangelisttohisreceptivethrong,isnot,then,apureexerciseof power.Asoften,itisasubmissionbythepresumedleadertothe willtheconditionedbeliefsofhisconstituency.Thisalsois recognized;here,aselsewhere,thereisapopularsenseofthe deepertruth.Thepoliticianwhoseprincipalskillisinidentifying himselfwiththepeopleasdistinctfromtheonewhohasthe abilitytopersuadeandcommandisconsideredademagogue. Hisperformanceisdescribedas"playingtothecrowd."These derogatoryreferencescorrectlyanalyzehisrelationshipto power:hispersonalityhastheappearancebutnottherealityofa sourceofpower.

Nevertheless,theindividualwhoaccommodateshisviewstothe beliefsandaspirationsofthecrowdcannotbewhollydismissed. Norcanpersonalityasasourceofpower.Involvedinthe commoncaseisacontract.Awould-beleaderpossessingthe requisitepersonaltraitsandqualitiesrecognizesthewillofthe relevantconstituencyandidentifieshimselfwithit.Butbecause hedoesso,hisconstituencyagrees,onsomematters,toaccept his will.Hetellshisfollowers,astheyarecalled,whattheirown conditioninghastoldthemtheyshouldbelieveoritisintheir interesttobelieve.They,inturn,accepthisexpressionoftheir beliefandfollowhimonvariations,notablyonthemeansfor

givingitpracticaleffect.Apersonoftruepowerisonewho,as partofthisbargain,isabletowinacceptanceforsubstantial viewsofhisown.Apersonofslightpowerconformsfullyand exclusivelytothebeliefsofthecrowd.MartinLutherKing,Jr., knewandvoicedwhathisconstituencywanted,butheguidedit extensivelyontheactionthatrealizedthoseaims.Sodid FranklinD.Roosevelt.Andothers.Howtrulypowerfulaleader iscanbejudgedbyhowwellhecanpersuadehisfollowersto accepthissolutionstotheirproblems,hispathtotheirgoals.

Inevitably,aspersonalitycomesintocloseassociationwithits constituency,astructuredevelops.Thepoliticiancomestohave whatiscalledanorganizationor,ifthestructureseemsnotably firm,amachine.Theeffectivelaborleaderachievesastrong union,thecapablebusinessmanawell-managedenterprise,the religiousleaderachurchandcongregation.Personality uniformlyseeksthereinforcementoforganization. italsoenhancesitspowerbybuyingsubmission,athingnot unknowntothepolitician,historicallyimportantintheroleof religiousleadership,andcentraltothepowerofthebusiness executive.Accordingly,wewillnowconsidertheroleof property,thesourceofthatpayment.Thereafterwewillcometo organization,thethirdand,inthemodernworld,the transcendentsourceofpower.

V TheSourcesofPower:Property

I would say exploitation was the crunch issue For exploitation read property and you have the whole bit. First the exploiter hits the wageslave over the head with his superior wealth; then he brainwashes him into believing that the pursuit of property is a valid motive for breaking him at the grindstone. That way he has him hooked twice over.

JOHNLECARRÉ, The Little Drummer Girl

OFTHETHREE sourcesofpower,propertyisseeminglythemost forthright.Itspossessiongivesaccesstothemostcommonplace exerciseofpower,whichisthebendingofthewillofoneperson toanotherbystraightforwardpurchase.Theemployerthusbends workerstohispurpose,themanofwealthhischauffeur,the special-interestgroupitskeptpoliticians,thelecherhismistress. Theassociationbetweenpropertyandcompensatorypowerisso simpleanddirectthatinthepastithasbeenconsidered comprehensive.Forsocialistspropertywasandinsomemeasure remainsnotonlythedecisivebutthesolesourceofpower,the integumentthatheldandholdsthecapitalistsystemtogether.As longasitremainsinprivatehands,nootherscanpossesspower. "ThetheoryoftheCommunistsmaybe

Page48

summedupinthesinglephrase:Abolitionofprivateproperty."1 AdolfBerle,whooveralonglifeconcernedhimselfmoredeeply thananyotherAmericanwriterwiththenatureofpower,dwelt atlengthandwithperceptiononthewayinwhichinthemodern largecorporationthemanagementratherthantheownersofthe property,thatis,theshareholders,emergesasthedecisiveholder ofpower.Thisherightlyconsideredtobeinsharpcontrastwith acceptedbelief.Oneofhisseveralbooksonthesubjecthecalled Power Without Property.2 Anysearchfortheimproperuseof powerturnsautomaticallytothemisuseofmoney,whichisto saypropertytothebriberyoflegislatorsorpublicofficialsorby contractorsorofforeigngovernments.

Especiallyontheleftinpolitics,buttosomeextentontheright, itisstillamanifestationofadirectandmuscularintelligenceto concedeandemphasizethedecisivepowerthataccruesto property.Whatelseinunvarnishedjudgmentcanbeso important?Andonoccasionnothingis.IntheUnitedStatesin 1980,acongressmanarrestedintheso-calledAbscamraidsfor acceptingabribewasheardtosummarizeacommonviewof compensatoryrewardderivedfrompropertyasopposedto persuasionderivedfrompersonalityorsocialconditioning: "Moneytalks,"hesaid,"butbullshitwalks."

Infact,aswehaveseen,propertyisbutoneofthreesourcesof power,andinrecenttimesitsimportancehasbeendecliningin relationtoorganization.Thepowerinthebusinessfirmandthe statethatonceemanatedfrompropertyfromfinancialresources nowcomesfromthestructuredassociationofindividuals,from bureaucracy.Theaccessofpropertytotheinstrumentsofpower hasalso

1KarlMarxandFriedrichEngels, The Communist Manifesto.

2Subtitlingit A New Development in American Political Economy. (NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,1959.)

Page49 beendiminishing.Onceithadcondignpowerforwinning submission;privatelyownedpropertyaccordedtherightto punishslaves,servants,orserfsandallowedofresorttopublic authoritytosubdueworkerdissent.Thisisnolongerapprovedor sanctioned.Inpoliticallifethedirectpurchaseofsubmissionis alsoindecline.Itsmodernimportanceinpublicaffairs,whichis notnegligible,derivesfromtheaccesspecuniaryresourcesgive topersuasiontoconditionedpower.Themodernmanofwealth nolongeruseshismoneytopurchasevotes;hecontributesitto thepurchaseoftelevisioncommercialsandbythismeanshopes towinconditionedsubmissiontohispoliticalwill.

2

Propertyhas,intruth,alwaysaccordedameasureofaccessto conditionedbelief.Inpasttimes,notablyinthelatteryearsofthe lastcentury,sogreatwastheprestigeofpropertythat,quite withouttheneedforanyactualcompensation,itaccordedpower toitspossessor.Whatthemanofwealthsaidorbelieved attractedthebeliefofothersasamatterofcourse.Suchwasthe goodfameoftherich,inThorsteinVeblen'sphrase,thatthey hadautomaticaccesstobothcompensatory and conditioned power.

ThusthesocialthoughtoftheelderJohnD.Rockefellerwasnot, infact,moreperceptivethanthatofacollegesophomoreof modestattainments.Comingasitdid,however,fromreputedly therichestmanintheUnitedStates,itattractedmajorattention. Inconsequence,hisviewswereinfluentialonthebenignityof wealth,onthrift,andontheimprovementoftheracebySocial Darwinismandthesocialeuthanasiaofthepoor(andtherefore weak).SoitwasalsowiththeelderJ.P.Morgan.Hiscase beforeacongres-

sionalcommitteethat,inlendingmoney,characterisofmore concernthanassetswaswidelyreported,long-remembered,and, itseemslikely,somewhatbelieved.Legislatorsandothers approvedthepurposesofRockefellerandMorganoftenwithout immediatethoughtofcompensation.Whattherichwanted, supportedasitwasbytheirproperty,wasright.

Thereremainstothisdaythefeelingonthepartofmenofmeans thattheirviewsonpolitics,economics,andpersonalbehavioror decorumaremeant,becauseoftheirwealthandassociated precedence,tobetakenseriously.Fewpeoplearesopained whentheyareignoredormadesubjecttotheindecentlyasserted opinionsofsomeonewhoserighttospeechisnotbackedbythe requisiteassets.

However,wealthpersenolongergivesautomaticaccessto conditionedpower.Therichmanwhonowseekssuchinfluence hiresapublicrelationsfirmtowinotherstohisbeliefs.3 Orhe contributestoapoliticianorapoliticalactioncommitteethat reflectshisviews.Orhegoesintopoliticshimselfanduseshis propertynottopurchasevotesbuttopersuadevoters.Social conditioningsopurchasedisthemostvisiblecurrent manifestationofthepowerderivingfromproperty. 3

Itwasnotsointhepast.Intheearlyindustrialcommunities,the Americancompanytownbeingtheclassiccase,submissionto thepurposesoftheemployerwaspurchasedundercircumstances wherealternativestosuchsubmission

3TheelderRockefellereventuallysuccumbedtothisneedandhired thepioneerpublicistIvyLeetoaddexplicitsocialconditioningto thatimplicitlyassociatedwithhisproperty.

51 wereeithernonexistentorextremelyunpleasant.Norwas compensatorypowertheonlyinstrumentofenforcement.In combinationwiththesanguinarypersonalityoftheowner, propertygaveaccesstocondignpowerthroughthelocal governmentandthepolice.Andthroughlocalnewspapers, churches,andotherpublicexpression,itgaveaccessto conditionedpoweraswell. Suchpowernolongerderivesfromproperty.Morecivilized attitudescurbingtheaccesstocondignpowerreceivesomeof thecredit.Asdoestheriseofthetradeunion.4 Theforthright paymentofpoliticianscameintoconflictwiththeimproving ethicsoftheagethetoo-obviously-purchasedcongressmanor governordeclinedinpublicesteem.

Moreimportantweretheincreaseinaffluenceanditsexpression inthemodernwelfarestate.Compensatorypoweratitsgreatest requiredthattherebefewornosourcesofincomeotherthanthat ofthepropertyowner;withaffluencecamewidened employmentopportunities.Incomerisingabovethelevelofmere subsistenceisalsoaliberatingforce.Workisnolonger compelled,orsocompelled,bystarkneed.And,asearliernoted, unemploymentcompensation,welfarebenefits,medicalcare, andretirementfundslead,insimilarfashion,toalooseningof theconstraintsofcompensatorypowerandthustoalessened importanceofitssourceinproperty.Itisoneofthecuriositiesof muchsocialcommentthatsuchwelfaremeasuresareregularly seenaslimitationsonfreedomthefreedompresumptively inherentinthefreeenterprisesystem.Lessmentionismadeof theescapetheyaccordfromthecompensatorypoweronce associatedincompellingformwithproperty. Butthedeclineinthepowerderivingfromproperty,as

4Thedialecticofpoweritstendencytoprovokeanoppositeand countervailingexerciseofpowerisdiscussedinchaptersVIIIand IX.

alsointhatderivingfrompersonality,is,mostofall,tobe attributedtotheriseoforganization.Thisistrueinthestate; thereboththepowerthatcomesfromwealthandthepowerthat comesfrompersonalityhaveextensivelysurrenderedtothat derivingfromorganization.5 Itisinkeepingwiththedialecticof powerthatthis,inturn,hasgivenrisetotheresistance, antipathy,andangerembodiedinthecommonreferencesto governmentalbureaucracy.Andorganizationthevast administrativeapparatushasalsonowreplacedproperty(and personality)astheultimatelocusofpowerinthemodernlarge businessenterprise.

TheRockefellerfamilyisametaphorofthischange.Ofthefour Rockefellergrandsonswhosurvivedtothelatter1970s,two JohnD.,III,andLaurancewerenotedprincipallyfortheirwealth andphilanthropy.TwoNelsonandDavidwereinvolvedwith massivepublicandprivateorganizationstheStateofNewYork, thegovernmentoftheUnitedStates,andtheChaseManhattan Bank.Thebrotherswhoseassociationwaswithpropertywere littleknown,personalacolytesandtheprofessionalNewYork philanthropoidcommunityapart.Thetwowhowereassociated withorganizationwerewidelyheardandindubitablyinfluential, thatis, powerful.Whenhewasunderexaminationbythe CongressforthepostofVicePresident,NelsonRockefellerhad todefendatsomelengthhispracticeofusinghiswealthto rewardandthustoensuretheloyalty,meaningsubmissiontohis purposes,ofvariouspolitical

5In1917,VladimirIlyichLenincametothepositionofsupreme authorityinwhathadbeenImperialRussia.Centraltohisassertion ofpowerwasthesuppressionofprivatelyownedpropertyasa source.Bythetimeofhisdeathsevenyearslater,hehadseenand stronglystressedtheexistenceandfurtheremergenceofanother sourceofpower,thatofthehugebureaucracythesocialiststate

required.Privatepropertyasasourceofpowerhadgivenwayto organizationasasourceofpower

subordinates.Inthelastcenturysuchpurchaseofacolyteswould havebeenthoughtroutineinAmericanpolitics,butbythetime Rockefellerappearedbeforethecongressionalcommittee,ithad becomeanabuseofpower,albeitoneofminoreffect.

Nonetheless,asenseofperspectivemustbemaintained.Property isnotnowall-importantasasourceofpower,butthatisfarfrom sayingthatitisunimportant.Throughcompensatorypowerit winsthedailysubmissionoftheworklivesofmillions.Andit helpswintheeffort,aswellasthebelief,ofthosewhoguidethe greateconomicenterprises.Itsobviousconnectionwiththe purchaseofconditionedpowerhasalreadybeenstressed.Inboth thedirectsubmissionitpurchasesfromciviliansandsoldiersand themassivesupportitwinsfromtheweaponsindustry,itplaysa largeroleinthemostawe-inspiringofthemodernmanifestations ofpower,thatofthemilitaryestablishment.Letnoonesuppose thatproperty,havingyieldedtoorganizationastheprincipal sourceofpower,isnowinanymeasuretobeignored.

VI

TheSourcesofPower:OrganizationI

Organization,thethirdofthesourcesofpower,normallyexists inassociationwithpropertyand,ingreaterorlessmeasure,with personality.Itis,however,moreimportantthaneither,andin moderntimesincreasinglyso.''Nocollectivecategory,noclass, nogroupofanykindinandofitselfwieldspowerorcanuseit.

Anotherfactormustbepresent:thatoforganization."1 Some scholars,amongthemCharlesE.Lindblom,holdthat organization,includingthatmanifestedingovernment,isthe ultimatesourceof all power.2 Thereisacasehere;propertyand personalityhaveeffectonlywiththesupportoforganization. However,theyareingreatlyvaryingcombinationwithit, universalthoughorganizationmaybe.Oneunderstandsthe

1AdolfA.Berle,Jr., Power (NewYork:Harcourt,Braceand World,1969),p.63.

2"Somepeoplebelievethatwealthorpropertyistheunderlyingsource ofpower.Butpropertyisitselfaformofauthoritycreatedby government."CharlesE.Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World's Political-Economic Systems(NewYork:BasicBooks,1977),P.26.

55 effectofthecombinationofthesourcesofpoweronlyasone firstseestheconstituentelements.

2

Thedictionarydefinitionoforganization"anumberofpersons orgroups...unitedforsomepurposeorwork"expressesits essentialcharacter.Theparticipants,inonedegreeoranother, havesubmittedtothepurposesoforganizationinpursuitof somecommonpurpose,whichthennormallyinvolvesthe winningofthesubmissionofpeopleorgroupsexternaltothe organization.However,theword,asused,coversastriking diversityinassociationandinthedegreeofrelevantinternaland externalsubmission.Thusanarmyisanorganization;ithasa stronginternalstructurethataccordseachmanhisappropriate placeandauthority;itexactsahighlevelofobedienceof submissionfromitsmembers.Andexternallyfromthosewhom itimpresses,frightens,orconquersandsubdues.

AnAmericanpoliticalpartyisalsoanorganization.Here internalstructureislargelyabsent;soisanyappreciable submissionbyitsmemberstothepurposesoftheorganization. Theindividualwhoadjustshisbelieforexpressiontowhathe believestobethewillofthepartymay,indeed,becelebratedas apartyloyalist,butequallyhemaybecalledapartyhack.The externalsubmissionwhichthepartywinsasanorganizationis erraticandoftenslight.

Acorporationisanorganization.Itexactsahighlevelofinternal submissionbut,ascomparedwithapoliticalparty,overa narrowerrangeofmattersinthemain,thoughbynomeans exclusively,activitiesconcernedwiththeproductionandsaleof goodsandservices.Itseeksexternalsubmissionintheformof purchaseanduseofthosegoods

Page56 andservicesbyitscustomers.Anditseekssubmissiontoits purposesbythestate.

Governmentisanorganization.Itenforcesinternalsubmission onitsmembersinahighlydiversefashionforgreatlydiverse externalpurposes.Onmilitarymatterstheinternalsubmissionof membersoftheorganizationiscomprehensive;indisciplineis notcountenanced.Asjustnoted,externalsubmissionwhen soughtwhenmilitaryforceisappliedislikewisecomprehensive. Inotherareasofgovernmenttheinternalsubmissiontothe purposesoftheorganizationismuchless;acertainamiableselfexpressionisassumed.Andtheexternalsubmissionobedienceto trafficlaws,lawsagainstshopliftingorthelitteringofstreetsis relativelyslight.

Sodiversearetheparticipants,thepurposes,andthedegreeof submissioncoveredbytheword organization thatone'sfirst reactionistowonderwhatsensecanbemadeofthesubject.In fact,theideaoforganizationyieldstosurprisingly comprehensiveandconsistentrules.Organizationcanhave accesstocondignpower;initsnormalassociationwithproperty ithasaccesstocompensatorypower;overwhelmingly,and especiallyinitsmodernform,organizationhasaccessto conditionedpower.Infact,itisfortheexerciseofconditioned powerthatmostorganizationisbroughtintoexistence.

Therearethreefurthercharacteristicsoforganizationasasource ofpower.Thefirstisitsbimodalsymmetry:itwinssubmission toitspurposesoutsidetheorganizationonlyasitwins submissionwithin.Thestrengthandreliabilityofitsexternal powerdependonthedepthandcertaintyoftheinternal submission.

Thepowerofanorganizationisdependentalso,notsurprisingly,

onitsassociationwiththeothersourcesofpowerapointto whichIwillreturnandonitsaccess

totheinstrumentsofenforcement.Anorganizationisstrong whenithaseffectiveaccesstoallthreeofthelattercondign punishment,compensation,andconditioningandweakasthat accessislesseffectiveormissing.

Finally,thereisanassociationbetweenthepowerofan organizationandthenumberanddiversityofthepurposesfor whichsubmissionissought.Withthenotableexceptionofthe state,themorediversethepurposesonwhichanorganization seekstoenforceitspower,theweakeritwillbeingaining submissiontoanyoneofthem.

Totheseclarifyingprinciplesandtheirapplication,Inowturnin thisandthefollowingchapter.

3

Thebimodalsymmetryoforganizationisitsmostobvious,most important,and,curiouslyenough,oneofitsmostfrequently overlookedfeatures.Asnoted,theindividualsubmitstothe commonpurposesoftheorganization,andfromthisinternal exerciseofpowercomestheabilityoftheorganizationtoimpose itswillexternally.Ontheonedependstheother.Thisisthe invariablefeatureofallexerciseoforganizedpower.

Thetradeunionillustratesthepoint.Itsmembers,whatevertheir individualpreferencesorpersonalplans,acceptitsgoals regardingwages,workingconditions,andotherbenefits.And regardlessoftheirneedsordesires,theyforgoworkandpayin theeventofastrike.Onthisinternalsubmissiondependsthe externalpoweroftheunionitsabilitytowinthesubmissionof theemployeror,onoccasion,thegovernment.Ifunion solidarity,thesynonymforeffectiveinternaldisciplineor submission,ishigh,thenthechanceofwinninguniondemands

orofsuccessfulstrike

58 actionisgood.Poweriseffectivelyexercised.Ifscabs,stooges, stoolies,ormenofotherwisereluctantorrecalcitranttendency aboundintheranks,thechanceofsuccessisless.Thusdoes externalpowerderivefrominternalpower.Theunflattering termsbywhichtherecalcitrantsarecharacterizedsuggestthe importancethatisattachedtointernaldiscipline.

Aswiththeunion,sowithallorganization.Asternlydisciplined armyonewithstronginternalsubmissionhasexternalpowerand iseffectiveagainstitsenemy.Onewithoutsuchdisciplinehas andisnot.Intheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesthe minusculeBritisharmyandtheBritish-ledIndianarmywon victoryaftervictoryastheBritishmovednorthandwestfrom MadrasandCalcutta,invariablyagainstforcesgreatlysuperiorin infantrynumbersandsometimessuperiorinartilleryaswell. Thoughthereweresetbacks,therewasneverafinaldefeat.The Britishforceshadastronginternalorganizationfromwhich cametheirexternalpower.Thesubmissionoftheindividual soldiertothepurposesofthearmyextendedtoafullacceptance oftheideaofdeath,wereitrequired.Thesoldiersofthe opposingIndianprincesmadenosimilarsubmissionandtooka farmorethoughtfulviewofpersonaldanger.Internalpower beinglessrigorouslyexercised,externalpowerwas appropriatelyless.

Therearemanyotherexamples.Themodemcorporation dependsforitseffectivenessinproducingandsellingitsproduct thatis,itsabilitytowinexternalsubmissiononthequalityofits internalorganization,whichistosaytheextentanddepthofthe submissionofitsemployees.Thisisnotcomprehensivelyurgent inthebottomranksoftheenterprise;thereasufficient submissioncanbehadbytheroutineexerciseofcompensatory power.(Somepointmay,indeed,bemadeaswellofthe

importanceofhighmorale,

Page59 thatis,conditionedpower,intheworkforce;inrecenttimesthis, forexample,hasbeenmuchemphasizedinexplainingJapanese industrialsuccess.)Thepositionchangesmarkedlyasone proceedstotheupperexecutiveranks.Therefullsubordination tothepurposesofthefirmisessential.Expressionoractionin conflictwithcorporatepurposeisunthinkable.Nosenior executivewouldpresumetosuggestthatthecigaretteshis companymanufacturescausecancer,thatitsautomobilesare unsafe,thatitspharmaceuticalsaremedicallysuspect.Orthat somepoliticalinitiativesoughtbythecompanyimprovementof depreciationallowancesorthereductionofforeigncompetition isinconflictwiththepublicinterest.Itisonsuchinternal discipline,nolessthanwiththeBritisharmyinIndia,that externalpowerdepends.Highsalariesarecollectedforsuch submission,butitwouldbewrongtosuggestthatthesearethe decisivefactor.Beliefinthepurposesofthecorporation conditionedpowerisalmostcertainlymoreimportant.

Becausethisisconditionedpower,itfollowsthatitdoesnot hurt,isoftennotevennoticedby,theindividualsubjecttoit. Therearefewpeoplewhosowillinglyandcompletelysubmitto thepoweroftheorganizationwithsolittleconsciousnessof submissionasthemoderncorporateexecutive.Notbeinga consciousact,itisnotderogatoryorpainful.Likethesubmission ofTolstoy'ssoldiertotheruleoftheregiment,itcanbea welcomerelieffromtherigorsofpersonalthoughtanddecision. Thecorporatebeliefandneedaretheretobeaccepted.3

3Althoughthisisnotentirelywithoutconflictforthoseinvolved. Onthis,seetherevealingchapter"TheExecutiveEgo"inWilliam H.Whyte,Jr.'sclassicstudy The Organization Man (NewYork: SimonandSchuster,1956),pp.150-56.Whytequotesanexecutive assaying,"Ahelp-wantedadweranrecentlyaskedforengineers whowould'conformtoourworkpatterns.'Someoneslippedupon

that (Footnote continued on next page)

Therelationbetweentheinternalandexternalexpressionsof powerwithinorganizationcanbeseeninthepublicbureaucracy, professionalassociations,organizedsport,andorganizedcrime. Nothingsoweakenstheexternalpowerofapublicagencyinthe UnitedStatesthePentagonortheDepartmentofState,for exampleastheundisciplinedexpressionofdissentingviews fromwithin.Thustheconstantstruggletosuppresssuchdissent. Nothingsounderminesthepowerofphysiciansovertheir patientsastheintemperatecriticismofthecompetenceofone doctorbyanother.Thustheprofessionalcodethatavoidssuch criticism.Againweseetheinternalrulesofconductthatprotect theexternalexerciseofpower.Teamwork,afullyconditioned submissiontothepoweroftheorganization,istheessenceof successinorganizedsport.4 Andthecaseisthe

(Footnote continued from previous page) one Heactuallycameoutandsaidwhat'sreallywantedinour organization."Anotherexecutiveputitmoresuccinctly:"'The furtherupyougo,thelessyoucanaffordtostickoutinanyone place.'"Whyte,p.155.

4Aninterestingandalsorevealingmetaphoronthesourcesand instrumentsofpoweristheathleticteamtheAmericanprofessional footballteam,forexample.Itisimplicitinthediscussionofthesport thatallsources and instrumentsofpoweraretheredeployed,anditis acceptedthatsuccessdependsontheeffectivenessoftheiruse.The sourcesarepersonality(thoseofthecoachesandthemorespectacular oreffectiveplayers);property(ittakestheresourcesofmorethana villagetosupportamajorteam);and,mostofall,thehighly sophisticatedorganizationcomprisingtheplayersandcoaches.The instrumentsofenforcementarethethreatofcondignrebukefrom teammates,coach,andcommunity;thepayorcompensatorypower,a matteronwhichplayersarefarfromnegligent;and,aboveall,the

highlydevelopedtrainingorconditioningmanifestintheteam'swillto win Theteammoststronglycombiningalloftheseelementsofpower willwin;itwillgainthesubmissionoftheopposingteam.Asinsport, soinlife.

61 samewithorganizedcrime.Nocriminalgangcantoleratethe openorcovertcooperationwiththepoliceofanyofitsmembers. Predictably,anysuchfailureininternaldisciplineinacceptance ofthepurposesoftheorganizationinvitesastrong,usuallylethal, condignresponse.Whenperceived,theprinciplesgoverning organizedpowerareseentobepervasive. Andthesameprinciplesgoverntheexerciseofpoliticalpower. TheexternalpowerofanAmericanpoliticalparty,itsabilityto winsubmissionbeyonditsranks,isnegligiblebecauseinternal disciplineorsubmissionisnonexistent.Theprincipleextends furthertotheexerciseofpowerbygovernments.Inthelast centuryandcontinuingtothefirsthalfofthepresentone,the Prussian-become-the-Germanstatehadformidableexternal power.ThatwasbecausethePrussianidearequireda comprehensiveinternalsubmissionbytheindividualtothe purposesofthestate,includingtoitsmilitaryenterprises.The externalpoweroftheUnitedStatesinWorldWarIIitsabilityto imposeitspurposesonitsalliesandtheGermansandJapanese wasthecounterpartofastronginternalsubmissiontonational purpose.Therewasfarlesssuchpoweragainstaninfinitely weakerenemyinVietnambecausetherewasinthatconflictone maysayfortunatelynosimilarsubmission.Internalpowercould notbedevelopedinthecontextofwhatwaswidelyperceivedto beanunwiseorrecklessexerciseofexternalpower,andvice versa.

5 Ascompensatoryrewardhasanaturalassociationwithproperty asasourceofpower,sosocialconditioninghasaprimary associationwithorganization.Theassociationisso

takenforgrantedthatitprovokeslittlementionoreven recognition.Anindividualorgroupseekingpowerorganizesand thenresortsautomaticallytopersuasion.Firstameetingiscalled, theunstatedpurposeofwhichistoconsolidatebeliefwithinthe organizationtogetamaximumunityofinternalpower.This accomplished,anexternaladvertisingoreducationalprogram.is launched.

Thesymmetryinorganizationbetweeninternalandexternal exercisesofpowerextendstotheinstrumentsofenforcement. Whenexternalpowerreliesprincipallyonconditioning,sodoes internalpower.Andviceversa.Thecaseisthesameforcondign andcompensatorypower;whentheseareusedexternally,they willbeusedinternally.Andagainviceversa.

Indealingwithconditionedpower,itistakenforgrantedthat membersofapolitical,religious,orothergroupmustbestrongly anduniformlypersuadedofitspurposesiftheyaretobe effectivepropagandistsforthosepurposesexternally.That, again,iswhythehistoryofthehighlyorganizedexpressionsof powerthoseoftheChurch,theCommunistparty,eventhecity politicalmachineissoextensivelyachronicleofeffortstostamp outheresy.Thenonsubmittingoutsidermaybereviled,butinthe frequentcasehearouseslessantipathyandangerandinvitesless variouslypersuasiveattentionthandoesthedissidentwithin.

Itfollowsthatstrongorganizationsrequirethecarefulinternal conditioningoftheirmembersformaximumexternaleffect.The newrecruitofthearmedservicesortheCentralIntelligence Agencyisdeeplyandcarefullydrilledonthepurposesofhis organization.Thisiscalledindoctrination,atermthatattests openlytothepurposeofwinningbelief.Onlywhenthisbeliefis assuredistheindividualdeemedqualifiedtopursuetheexternal

63 organization.Inthemostcommonplaceofreferences,itissaid thatthe effective or good officialorofficeristheonewho believesinwhatheisdoingbelievesinhisorganizationoroutfit. Thediscomfortingtreatmentofthedissidentwhobreakswiththe conditionedviewAthePentagonwhistleblower,theunduly independentStateDepartmentofficer,therecidivistoftheCIA affirmsthepoint.

Initsnormalassociationwithproperty,organizationhasaccess tocompensatoryaswellas,onoccasion,condignpower.The businessenterprisewinsagoodpartofitsexternalpowerby compensatorymeansbyofferingthepublicsomethingthatis worththesurrenderofmoney.Thatmoney,inturn,buysthe effortandincreasesthecompensatorypoweroverthosewho servetheenterprise.Italsoadvertisesandmerchandisesthe organization'sproducts.Thatistosay,theorganizationalsouses conditionedpower;itcultivatesbeliefinthemeritsofits productsorservicesapartfromtheirpriceapartfromthe compensatoryadvantageintheirpurchase.Itisconsideredan excellentthingthatthoseengagedinadvertisingandsellinga productbelieveinitthemselves.Againthesymmetry,althoughit isnotuniversal;itiscommonlysaidwithsomesurprisethatan individual"believeshisownadvertising."

Thesymmetryextendsfinallytocondignpower.Asearlier noted,amilitaryforceimposesitswillontheenemybycondign means,bythethreatorrealityofpunishmentofanotably sanguinaryandpainfulsort.Itwinsinternalsubmissionby conditioningbyimplantingbeliefinthepurposesofthearmed forceandinthenecessityforitsmembers'absoluteobedienceto command.Andthisconditioningissupplementedbypayby compensatorypower.Butsymmetricallywiththeexternal exerciseofcondignpoweralsogoesavarietyofcompelling

condignpunishmentsintheeventofsoldierlydefault.All militaryorganiza-

tionacceptsthisneed.Allcourts-martialortheirequivalenthave accesstocondignpunishmentsthatareharsherthanthose allowedbyordinarycivilianprocesses.Thusthewillingnessof thesoldierincombattoacceptriskininflictingcondign punishmentonhisenemyisreinforcedbytheknowledgethathe himselfwillbesubjecttosimilarpunishmentofgreaterorless severityifhefailstodoso.

Thesymmetrybetweeninternalandexternalpowerisvisiblein othercases.Theunionthatresortedtoviolenceonthepicketline againstarecalcitrantemployerinpasttimeswaslikelytousethe realityorthreatofthesameagainstinsufficientlycommittedor backslidingmembers.TheMafiaandothercriminal organizationsgainexternalpowerbythethreatorrealityof condignpower.Andthisisalsousedinternallytoensurethe submissionoftheirownmembers.Indealingwithpower,there arefewabsolutes.Butthesymmetrybetweeninternaland externalmeansfortheenforcementofpowerissufficiently evidentthatitcanbeexpectedandevenassumed.

VII

TheSourcesofPower:OrganizationII

Thebimodalsymmetrybetweenitsinternalandexternalpower isthefirstofthecircumstancesthatbearontheabilityofan organizationtowinsubmissiontoitspurposes;Iturnnowtothe othertwo.Theseare,asI'veearlierindicated,first,theextentof itsassociationwiththetwoothersourcesofpowerandofits accesstothethreeinstrumentsofenforcementand,second,the diversityorconcentrationofitspurposes.

Anorganizationthathasaccesstopropertyandtopersonalityin theformofleadershipobviouslygainspowerfromthis association.Andifithasliberalaccesstothefullrangeof condignandcompensatoryaswellasconditionedpower,this addsfurthertoitsstrength.Theclearestexampleofsucha combinationofthesourcesofpowerandinstrumentsof enforcementisthetotalitariangovernment.Thereallinstruments andsourcesarebroughttobearbothinternallyinthegovernment andexternallyandsymmetricallyonthepublicatlarge.

Internally,intheapparatusofthegovernmentofNational SocialistGermanywerethepersonalityofHitler,thefinan-

cial,thatis,property,resourcesoftheThirdReich,andthe highlyeffectivebureaucracywithitsrootsinthetraditionsofthe Prussianstate.Proceedingfromthesesourcesofpowerwasthe condignpunishmentmetedouttointernaldissidentssuchas ErnstRoehm,whothreatenedHitler'scontrolofthepartyinthe earlydaysofNazirule,andthoseinvolvedintheofficers'revolt ofJuly20,1944.Therewerealsothecompensatorypowerthat sustainedthebureaucracy,theS.S.,andtheWehrmacht;the implicitconditioningfromthetraditionofdisciplinedserviceto thestate;andtheexplicitconditioningofthepropagandaof Hitler,Goebbels,andtheparty.Suchwastheinternalpowerof theNationalSocialistgovernment.

Externally,enforcingthesubmissionofthepopulaceasawhole, theinstrumentsofpowerwerethesame.Therewerethecondign actionmadeevidentbytheconcentrationcampsandthe compensatorypowerflowingfrompublicworksthe Autobahnen andlaterthevastgovernmentcontractsavailabletoarms manufacturers.Andtherewastheimplicitconditioningarising fromthehabitofobediencetothestatereinforcedbytheexplicit conditioningofthepropagandaincombinationwiththe monopolyornear-monopolyofaccesstothepublicmind,thatis, toconditionedpower.Therehaslongbeenatendencyto associatepowersuchasthatexercisedinNaziGermanywitha singlesourceorasingleinstrumentofenforcementinthe GermancasewiththepersonalityofHitlerorwiththefearofthe S.S.orwiththepeculiarpersuasivenessoftheconcentration campsorwiththepropagandaofGoebbels.Oneseeshow importantitistoconsiderthewholediversestructureonwhich suchpowerrests.

TheresponsetoHitlerbythegovernmentsoftheUnitedStates andBritaininWorldWarIIinvoked,itmaybenoted,thesame

sourcesofpowerandthesameinstrumentsof

67 enforcementaswereusedbytheGermans.Themythisofatotal contrast;thefactisofdifferentadmixturesindifferentstrengths. ThepersonalitiesofRooseveltandChurchillwereofwellrecognizedimportance.Economicresourcespropertyfromhighly developedindustrialsystemswereavitalsourceofpower, especiallysointhecaseoftheUnitedStates.Andtherewas massiveorganizationinbothAlliedcountries.Proceedingfrom thesamesourcesofpowerwerethesameinstrumentsofits enforcement.Condignpunishmentwasavailableforthefewwho gaveostentatioussupporttotheenemy.Therewerejobsand othercompensatoryrewards.Theforceofsocialconditioning patriotismwasverygreat.

Thedifference,torepeat,wasinthestrengthoftheinstruments andintheiradmixturebothinternallyandexternally.Condign punishmentwasofsmallimportanceforwinningsubmissionin theUnitedStatesandBritain;so,onthewhole,wasexplicit conditioningorpropaganda,althoughitwasnotignored. Compensatorypowerwas,ofcourse,important.Buttheyetmore powerfulinstrumentwasimplicitconditioning,thewillingand moreorlessautomaticacceptanceofthenationalpurpose.On thisthecommonandself-congratulatorystatementexpresseda certaintruth:theforcesoffreedomwere,indeed,strongerthan thoseofdictatorship.Thiswastosaythattheimplicit conditioningleadingtotheself-motivatedacceptanceofthe publicpurposewasmoreeffectivethantheexplicitconditioning wonbyovertpropagandaorthethreatofcondignpunishmenton which,inmuchgreatermeasure,theNazisrelied.

Sinceithasassociationwithbothpropertyandpersonalityand accesstoalltheinstrumentsofenforcement,agovernmentisan especiallystrongorganization,oneofexceptionalpower.For thisreasonitspowerisinevitablyviewedwith

aweandfrequentlywithfear,andinallcivilizedsocietiesitis agreedthatthereshouldbelimitsontheexercisethereof. Especiallyitisthoughtthatthereshouldbelimitsonthe government'suseofcondignpower.Butthereisalsoastrong feeling,openlyexpressed,againsttheundueuseofexplicit conditioningintheformofpropaganda.Therecanevenbe criticismofimplicitconditioningasasourceofpublicpower;as earliernoted,thepoliticianwhoappealstooblatantlytopatriotic orotherconditionedbeliefisdismissedasademagogue.

2

Aswithgovernment,sowithallotherorganization.Itsabilityto gainsubmissiondependsontheothersourcesofpower personalityandpropertywithwhichitisassociated,andonthe instrumentsofpowerimplicitandexplicitconditioning, compensatoryandcondignpowerthatitdeploys.However,the thirdandfinalfactorinfluencingthepoweroforganization entershere:thenumberanddiversityofitspurposes.Ifthe purposesofanorganizationaremanyandvaried,boththe sourcesandinstrumentsofenforcementwillhavetobegreater foragiveneffectthanifthepurposesarefewandspecific.An Americanpoliticalparty,asalreadynoted,isanorganizationof slightpower.Thisisnotonlybecauseofthelimitedsourcesof poweronwhichitdependsorthelimitedinstrumentsitdeploys. Itlackspower,thatis,theabilitytowinsubmission,becauseof themultitudeofpurposesitpursues.Tohaveexternalpowerit musthaveinternalagreementontheissuesofeconomicpolicy, foreignpolicy,militarypolicy,civilrights,welfarepolicy, health,education,socialissues,andahostofother

69 matters.Suchagreementbeingimpossible,ithasnoexternal expressionoreffectofanyconsequence.

Incontrastwiththeweakpoliticalpartiesofmoderntimesare thestrongsingle-issueinterestgroupstheorganizationsopposing (orsupporting)abortion,women'srights,guncontrol,andschool busingandthosefavoring(orseekingtoprevent)religious exercisesinschools.Theseareeffectivebecausetheirmembers canuniteonthesingleissueastheycouldnotonmorenumerous matters.Internalsubmissionisthusstronglyintheserviceof externalpower.1

Noneofthisistosaythatsingle-issuepoliticsisuniquely powerfulacommonerrorofthetime.Onanissuesuchas abortion,theneedforprayersinpublicschools,orthe desirabilityofreadilyavailablefirearms,aconstituencycanbe unitedfirmlyinitsbelief,andfromthiswillproceedtheexternal effect.Buttheseissuesarestillsmallinthegreatrangeofpublic concerns.Inconsequence,beyondacertainpoint,the constituencycannotbeenlarged,andtheexternaleffectthushas limits.Alsothenarrownessoftheissuemakespossibleand effectiveacounteringconditioningandbelief,thesubjectofthe nextchapter.

3

Inspeakingoforganizationasasourceofpower,awarningisin orderonethathastodowiththeillusionofpower,amatterof muchimportance.

1Thosepursuingsingle-issuepoliticshaveeffectiveorganizationas theprincipalsourceoftheirpower Andorganizationisin associationwithpropertyand,onfrequentoccasion,witheffective personality.PhyllisSchlafly,theReverendJerryFalwell,the ReverendOralRoberts,andothersdemonstratetheroleof

personality;themoneytheycollectreflectstheimportantroleof property

Theprimaryassociationoforganization,aswehaveseen,iswith conditionedpower,aninstrumentofenforcementhighly subjectiveincharacter.Theindividualwhosubmitsthrough conditionedbeliefisnotawareofhissubmission;proceedingas itdoesfrombelief,itseemsnormalandright.Andthereisno objectiveindicationofthatsubmissionvisibletotheone exercisingtheconditionedpower.Individualsmaybebelievedto havesubmittedtopersuasionwhentheywouldhavesubmitted anyway.Ortheactofpersuasionmaybemistakenfortheresult. Itfollowsthatpeoplecanimaginethattheyareexercising conditionedpowerwhen,infact,theyarenot.Otherscan supposeitwhereitdoesnotexist.Thisisanexceedingly commonillusioninourtime.Awriterinthepresenceofaction ofwhichhedisapproveswritesabookinsupportofthepurposes heseeks.Thoughhemaynotattractmanyreaders,heis persuadedthathehasexercisedpower.Similarlythepolitician whomakesaspeech.Andthejournalistwhowritesaneditorial, acolumn,orathoughtfullyslanteddispatch.Somewhereout there,therehasbeensubmission.Vanityusefullyand influentiallyreinforcesthisimpression.Muchofwhatiscalled politicalpoweris,inpractice,theillusionofpower.Soalsothe powerofthepress,amatterforlaterdiscussion.

Thereisadefiniteassociationbetweenpersonalityandthe illusionofpower.Individualsarenotablysusceptibletobeliefin theirownpersuasiveabilities.So,perhapsespecially,isthe syntheticpersonalityalreadymentioned.Butthescopefor illusionisgreatlyenhancedwhenorganizationistheprimary sourceofthepower.Thoseseekingtoexercisepowercangive themselvestheimpressionofitsexercisebycallingameeting, assemblingacommittee,forminganorganization,attendingthe ensuinggatherings,andreadingtheresultingpressreleasesand

manifestos.Thewillto

exertpower,towinsubmission,issatisfiednotbytheresultbut bytheform.Insuchcasestheorganizationthatisthesourceof powerservesasasubstitutefortheexerciseofthepoweritself.

Foranunderstandingofconditionedpowerandoforganization asitssource,thedifferencebetweentherealityofpowerandthe illusionofpowermustbefirmlyinmind.Aslaterwecometo examinetherealityofthepowerofthemilitaryasopposedto thatofpeacegroups,ofcorporationsasopposedtoconsumer alliancesandcivicorganizationsvariouslyinpursuitofpublic reform,thiswillbeadistinctionoffirstimportance. 4

Power,especiallywhenitssourceisinorganization,isnota simple,forthrightthing.Weseehowmuchisconcealedinthe familiarreferencetoastrongorpowerfulorganization.Norare allthelimitsonorganizedpoweryetinview.For,asindividuals andorganizationsseektoextendtheirpowertowinthe submissionofotherstotheirindividualorcollectivewillso othersseektoresistthatsubmission.Andaspersonality, property,andorganizationandtheassociatedinstrumentsof enforcementarebroughttobearinextendingpower,sotheyare broughttobearinresistingsubmission.Itisthisresistance,not anyinternallimitsonthesourcesofpowerortheinstrumentsof itsenforcement,thatprovidestheprimaryrestrictiononthe exerciseofpower.

VIII

TheDialecticofPowerI

Sofarourconcernhasbeenwithhowpowerisexercisedand extended,butwemustalsounderstandhowitisresisted,forthis resistanceisasintegralapartofthephenomenonofpowerasits exerciseitself.Wereitotherwise,powercouldbeextended indefinitely;allwouldbesubjecttothewillofthosebest equippedinitsuse.

Infact,modernsocietyisinequilibrium,moreorless,between thosewhoexercisepowerandthosewhocounterit.Wecome nowtothenatureofthisequilibriumthewaypowercreatesits ownresistanceandactstolimititsowneffectiveness.

2

One'sfirstthoughtonbeingconfrontedwithanunwelcome exerciseofpowerisnotalways,andperhapsnotnormally,to seekmeanstoresistit.Rather,itishowtoachieveitsdissolution tosaythattheexerciseisimproper,illegitimate,unconstitutional, oppressive,orevilandthatitshould

becurbedorprevented.Governmentistoopowerful; accordingly,itshouldsomehowbemadelessbig,lessintrusive, lesscomprehensivesomethingshouldbedonetoreduceits power.Corporationsaretoopowerful;accordingly,theyshould besplitupbytheantitrustlaws.Tradeunionsaretoopowerful; accordingly,theyshouldbeabolishedormadesubjecttothe right-to-worklawsthatgivetheindividualworkerthefreedomto belongornotashechooses.Mendominatewomen;accordingly, theyshouldbepersuadedorrequiredtostanddownandtreat womenasequals.

Thiswouldseemtobethelogicalfirstresponsetopower;one seekstolimitorpreventitsexercise.However,itisnotthe responsetowhich,inactualpractice,peoplegenerallyresort. Norisittheresponsethatthoseresistingsubmissionfindmost practical.Theusualandmosteffectiveresponsetoan unwelcomeexerciseofpoweristobuildacounteringpositionof power.Theresponsetoanarbitraryexerciseofthepowertotax wasanorganizationtodumptheteasotaxedinthewater;tothe draft,anorganizationofdraftresisters;toaninvasionofcivil liberties,anorganizationtoprotectthoseliberties;tomale chauvinismordominance,anorganizationtoassertwomen's rights.

Soitisonallmatters,largeandsmall.Theanswertothepower oftheemployeristheunion.Andtheanswertotheunion,a right-to-worklaw.Theanswertotheunwelcomeexerciseof religiousauthorityisacounteringchurchordoctrine.Iftheseller isovercharging,thebuyercomestogetherwithotherbuyersto boycottortobargain.Ifteachersareundulyliberalintheirideas onsexeducation,parentscometogethertoaffirmthevaluesof adolescentinnocenceandchastity.Assooftenhappensinthe exerciseofpower,theresorttocountervailingpower1 is

1ThisisatermandconceptthatIfirstusedinanarrowereconomic contextin American Capitalism: The Concept of Countervail(Footnote continued on next page)

Thisrespondingexerciseofpowerisoftwokinds,directand indirect.Directlyitseekspersonality,property,andorganization that,inturn,allowitaccesstocondign,compensatory,or conditionedinstrumentsofpower.Theseinstrumentsarethen exercisedinoppositiontotheoriginalpower.Ortheresponding powerisexercisedindirectlythroughresorttothepowerofthe state.Ifacorporationorunionhasunwelcomepower, governmentregulationtorestrictitsexerciseissought.Or, alternatively,regulationshavingbeenimposedagainstan industry,thecorporationsinvolvedseektobringabouttheir relaxation.Averylargepartofallmodernpoliticalactivity consistsineffortstocapturethepowerofthestateinsupportof, orinresistanceto,someexerciseofpower.

3

Wemaylayitdownasarulethatalmostanymanifestationof powerwillinduceanopposite,thoughnotnecessarilyequal, manifestationofpower.Anyefforttobendpeopletothewillof otherswillencounterinsomeformanefforttoresistthat submission.Ontherelativeeffectivenessoftheseopposing forcesdependtheextentandeffectivenessoftheexerciseofthe originalpower.

Wemayalso,asotherwiseinthesematters,discernasubstantial symmetrybetweenthemannerinwhichpowerisextendedand thatbywhichitisresisted.Thissymmetryextendstoboththe sourcesofpowerandtheinstruments

(Footnote continued from previous page) Sing Power (Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1952,1956;M.E.Sharpe, 1980).Thenotionthateconomicpowerisnormallycounteredbyan opposingpositionofpowerisonetowhich,obviously,Istilladhere, and,intheyearssinceIfirstmadethecase,ithaswon,Ibelieve,a

measureofacceptance.However,inthatbookItookanunduly sanguineviewoftheresultingequilibrium

75 ofenforcement.Thepoweroriginatinginpersonalityis ordinarilyansweredbyastrongpersonality;thatoriginatingin propertyismetbyproperty;thathavingitsoriginsin organizationisnormallycounteredbyorganization.And similarlyastotheinstrumentsofenforcement.Condign punishmentismetbycondignpunishment,compensatoryreward bycompensatoryreward.Iftheinstrumentofenforcementis socialconditioning,explicitorimplicit,thiswillalsobethe principaldesignforresistance.Thereare,ofcourse,exceptions; somespectacularexercisesofpowerhavecomefromstepping outsidethissymmetricalframework,asIshallpresentlynote. Butsymmetryinthedialecticofpoweristhebroadrule.The classicstrugglebetweenemployerandemployee,capitaland labor,againillustratesthepoint.

Whenworkersfirstsoughttoresistsubmissiontothepowerof employersonwagesandworkingconditions,personalityand counteringpersonalitywerecentraltotheexerciseofpowerand toitsresistance.Andinkeepingwiththeroleofpersonalitywent condignmeasuresofenforcement,includingresorttothepower ofthestate.InthegreatstrikeagainsttheCarnegieHomestead WorksinwesternPennsylvaniain1892,thestrikers,ledby HughO'Donnell,actedinresponsetothepowerfulpersonalityof HenryClayFrick.Condignactionbytheworkerswasmetbya symmetricalresponse,firstfromaflotillaofPinkertonstrikebreakersattemptingariver-bornelandingattheplantand subsequently(whenthestrikewascrushed)fromsomeseven thousandtroopsdispatchedbyGovernorRobertE.Pattisonof Pennsylvania.2

Thegreatlaborconflictsofthe1930sintheUnitedStates centeredsimilarlyonpersonality.Theindependentsteel

2PhilipTaft, Organized Labor in American History (NewYork:

HarperandRow,1964),pp.136-42.

76 baronsErnestWeirandTomGirdler,menofformidable personality,wereopposedbytheequallystrongpersonalitiesof theunionleadersJohnL.LewisandPhilipMurray.InDetroit thefirstHenryFord,supportedbyHarryBennett,theheadof FordService,acondignenforcementinstrumentemployinga substantialrepresentationoflocalgoons,gangsters,and unaffiliatedruffians,aswellasmoreprosaictalent,was counteredbytheReutherbrothersandtheotherdetermined pioneersoftheUnitedAutomobileWorkers.Inpredictable associationwithpersonalitywentcondignactionandcondign response.OnMay26,1937,thefamousbattleoftheoverpass occurred;theNationalLaborRelationsBoardsaidofthe principalFordplantatthetime:'' ...RiverRouge...hastaken onmanyaspectsofacommunityinwhichmartiallawhasbeen declared,andinwhichahugemilitaryorganization...hasbeen superimposedupontheregularcivilauthorities."3

Eventually,however,organization(alongwithproperty) replacedpersonalleadershipasthesourceofemployerpower. Therewithwentashiftintheinstrumentsofenforcementand therewithalsoachangeintheansweringpoweroftheworkers. Inthe1930sithadbeenthecompanyleaders,menofstrong personalitysuchasFord,Weir,andGirdler,alongwithSewell AveryofMontgomeryWard,whohadledtheopenandviolent fightagainsttheunions.TheorganizationmenofGeneral MotorsandtheUnitedStatesSteelCorporationdidnotresortto asimilarcondignresponse.Property,ofcourse,remaineda sourceofpower.Buttheorganizationinstinctwasfor negotiation.Andpersonalvanity(aswellaspersonalownership oftheproperty)waslessinvolved.Therewasmoreconcernfor publicopinion.Intimeandsymmetrically,theunionscame

3AllanNevinsandFrankErnestHill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth,

1933-1962 (NewYork:Scribner's,1963),p.150.

Page77 torespondwiththesamesourcesandinstrumentsofpower. Withsomeimportantexceptions,personalleadershipceasedto beacentralfactor;violencediminishedordisappeared.Atfirst, property,intheformofthestrikefund,becameanimportant sourceofunionpower,bringingwithittheabilityontheunion sidetoextendandlastoutastrike.Thenasolidorganization becameevenmoreimportant,andfromthiscameananswering skillinnegotiationandanansweringcapacitytocarrythe unions'casetothepublic.Anamelessvicepresidentforlabor relationsnowsatdowntonegotiateonthecompanyside;an almostequallyanonymousexecutivejoinedhimfortheunion. Thestrikethecomparativetestofpropertyresourcesbecamea symboloffailure.Overwhelmingly,thesourceofpoweronboth sideswasorganization.And,asmightbeexpected,the instrumentformakingthisorganizedpowereffectivewas persuasionpersuasionbyeachsideoftheotherandbybothofthe communityatlarge.Conditionedpoweralmostwhollyreplaced condignandcompensatorypower.

Thesymmetrybetweenthesourcesofpowerandthe countervailingresponsehasacertainclassicclarityinthefieldof laborrelations.Butitisalsoevidentinmanyotherareas.In WorldWarII,asnoted,theperverse,malign,butunquestionably powerfulpersonalityofAdolfHitlerwasansweredbythoseof Churchill,Roosevelt,Stalin,anddeGaulleanatural,even inevitable,oppositionofpersonalitytopersonality.Infact, Churchillcametopowerinlargemeasurebecausein1940it becameimperativethatBritainhaveafigurewhocouldmatch theFuehrerinstrength.Thus,aswellasforotherreasons,the replace-

meritofNevilleChamberlain,theagingorganizationman,bya primeministerofmoreforcefulandforthrightpersonality.4

Inmodemtimesthereistheawfulcondignpowerimplicitin nuclearweapons;andtheirdevelopmentanddeploymentbyone superpowerisansweredwithsimilaractionbytheother,an ominoussymmetryofwhichmuchmoremustlaterbesaid.The businessenterpriseseekstoextenditsinfluenceoverconsumers byitsadvertisingbyconditionedpower.Thoseatwhomthe advertisingisdirectedwhosesubmissionisthussoughtresortto organizationscommittedtodiscoveringthetruthaboutproducts ordemandingtruthinadvertising.Thecorporationattemptinga corporatetakeoverappealstothecompensatoryinterestofthe stockholdersinvolved.Toresistthis,thecorporationunder attackurgesthegreaterrewardfromthestatusquo.Orit arrangescounteringoffersfromamoreacceptablesource. Advocatesofadepositonbottlestoensuretheirreturntothe dispenserorganizeandraisemoneytowinsupportfortheir purpose.Thoseresistingthatpurposeorganizeandraisemoney topersuadethepublicoftheresultingcosts.Thepolitician's organizationbegetsanansweringorganization;hisappealsfor moneyarematchedbythoseofhisopponent;ifheispersonable, anopposingpersonalitymustbeimaginedorsynthesized;his commercialsbringansweringcommercials.Symmetryextends throughboththesourcesandtheinstrumentsofpower.

4OfthethreesourcesofpowerdeployedinWorldWar IIpersonality,property,andorganizationthepersonalityofthe opposingwarleadersreceivedbyfarthegreatestshareofattention. Thisdoesnotmeanthat,ascomparedwithpropertyororganization, itwasthemostimportanttotheoutcomeofthehostilities.Itsimply hadtheeasiestaccesstopopularattitudes.Propertyandespecially organizationwerelessvisible,lessdramatic,butcertainlymore important.

Whilesymmetryinenforcingpowerandinansweringitmust generallybeassumed,itisnotinevitable.Therehavebeen strikingexamplesinhistoryofcounteringorcountervailing powerthathavedependedfortheireffectivenessontheir asymmetry.

Suchasymmetrywillbenoticedintheconflictbetweenreligious andsecularpowerdiscussedinchapterX.Thesecularpowerin theearlyChristianerareliedonpersonalityandresortedreadily tocondignactioninenforcement.Thereligiouspowerit frequentlyconfrontedhaditssourcenotinsignificantlyin personalityandpropertybutoverwhelminglyinorganization. Fromthisorganizationcamethebelief,thesocialconditioning, thatwasalwaysaneffectiveinstrumentforenforcingitswill.

Morerecently,themostnotablecasesofasymmetryinthe exerciseofcountervailingpowerwerethoseofMohandasK. (Mahatma)GandhiincontendingwithBritishauthorityinIndia, andofhisdiscipleMartinLutherKing,Jr.,inopposingracial discriminationintheUnitedStates.ThepoweroftheBritishin Indiaderivedfromthecarefullycultivatedpersonalimagesof theViceroyandtheKingEmperororQueenEmpress,the similarlycultivatedrevenue(thatis,property)resourcesofthe Raj,andthesuperborganizationoftheIndiancivilandmilitary administration.Thecompensatoryrewardforthosewhowerein powerorwhoacceptedthesocialconditioningthaturgedthe benignityofBritishrulewasnotunimportant.Buttheinstrument ofprimeimportancewasthethreatorrealityofcondign enforcementfromthemilitaryandthepolice.

AgainsttheforegoingelementsofBritishruleGandhiofferedhis powerfulpersonalityandasubstantialorganiza-

80 tion,andfrombothofthesecamesocialconditioningonthe rightoftheIndianstorulethemselves.Buthedidnotproceed,as wouldhavebeenexpected,tobuildanarmedforceinopposition tothatoftheBritishtobringcondignpowertobearoncondign power.Insteadheresortedtonon-violencepassiveresistance5 to theexerciseofBritishrule,includingatvarioustimesresistance tothecollectionoftaxesorthefunctioningofthecourts,refusal toobeypoliceorders,andotherspecificactsofcivil disobedience.Thisdeparturefromtheaccepteddesignwasa sourceofinfinitewonder,sodeeplyissymmetryassumed. Nonetheless,theRajwouldhavedealtinamatterofhourswith anyarmyGandhimighthaveassembled,whileindealingwith thisasymmetricalresistance,itwasrecurrentlyatalossand,in theend,defeated.TherewasageneralparallelinMartinLuther King,Jr.'seffortsintheAmericanSouth.Hadtheparticipantsin thefamousSelmamarchfoughtthelocalpolice,theywould havebeeneasilyovercome.Inchoosing,asymmetrically,to refuseallinvitationstoansweringviolence,theytoousedafar lessobviousbutmoreformidabletactic."Nonviolentresistance paralyzedandconfusedthepowerstructuresagainstwhichitwas directed."6

Nevertheless,symmetryinboththesourcesofpowerandthe instrumentsofenforcementremainstherule.Thisisaffirmedin adozenaphorisms:onefightsfirewithfire;forcebegetsforce; thosewholivebytheswordshalldiebythesword.Mahatma GandhiandMartinLutherKing,Jr.,owesomeoftheirfameto theirsuccess;theyoweevenmoretotheirbreakwiththe acceptedandaccustomeddialecticofpower.

5MorepreciselySatyagraha,whichhedistinguishedfrommere passiveresistanceanddefinedas"forcewhichisbornoftruthand loveornonviolence."

6MartinLutherKing,Jr., Why We Can't Wait (NewYork:Harperand Row,1964),p.30.

TheDialecticofPowerII:TheRegulationofPower

THEBASICDIALECTIC Ofpower,itsopposingandgenerallysymmetrical exercise,isaprocessthatintimatelyinvolvesthemodernstate.A grouporindividualseeksthesupportofthestateinwinningthe submissionofothersorforresistingtheexerciseofpowerby others.Thiseffortthenextendstosecondaryandtertiary manifestationsattemptstohavethestatedirectlysuppress unwelcomeexerciseofpowerortohaveitresistsuch suppression.Thus,inthelastcentury,torecurtotheexamplein theprecedingchapter,employerssuccessfullysoughtthe interventionofthestatetosuppresstradeunionorganization,the organizationthatwasthesourceoftheworkers'power.Andin thiscenturytradeunionshavesuccessfullysoughtthe suppressionbythestateoftheinstrumentsofpowerbywhich employerscounteredunionorganizationtheyhavewon protectionagainstthepromiscuoususeofthecondignpowerof hepolice,ofcompensatorypowerintheformofpaymentsto strikebreakers,andofconditionedpowerin

variousformsofon-the-jobpersuasion.Employers,inturn,have cometogethertowinpassageofright-to-worklaws.Thesehave astheirpurposepreventingtheunionsfrom(asitisseen) enforcingtheunduesubmissionoftheirmembersorofpotential workerswhohavenotyetbeenunionized.

Thedialecticofpowerisnotuncomplicated,noristheprocess bywhichitisregulatedandcontrolled.Itmustfirstbenotedthat thestateintervenesinaverydifferentwayasbetweenthethree instrumentsofpowerevenwhileitaccordsasimilarbutbyno meansidenticalprotectiontothesourcesofpower.

Specifically,theregulatoryhandofthemoderndemocraticstate restsheavilyontheexerciseofcondignpower,butmuchlessso ontheexerciseofcompensatorypower.Andgenerally,ifsubject tomuchdispute,itprotectsmostoftheexerciseofconditioned power.Goingbacktothesourcesofpower,thestateis,onthe whole,tolerantofpersonality,protectiveofproperty,andin somewhatqualifieddefenseoforganization.Thesetendencies,in turn,arecontrollinginfluencesontheassociateddialecticof powerandonthosewhoseekthesupportofthestateforthe exerciseofpoweroritssuppression.Whatisfittingand legitimateasregardstheroleofthestateinthesemattersisthe breadandbutterofmuchifnotmostpoliticalandotherpublic debate.

Allcivilizedcommunities,withoutexception,regulatethe exerciseofcondignpower.InmodernWesternsocietiesitsuseis confinedbypublicopinionandpubliclawtothegovernment, withsomeresidualuseonwivesandchildren.Inturn,theuseof condignpowerbythestateisclosely

regulated;someformscruelandunusualpunishmentsin Americanconstitutionalparlanceareprohibited,andthe proprietyandutilityofthedeathpenaltyorofmandatoryjail sentencesforcertainpopularlyodiouscrimesaresubjecttoavid andmuch-enjoyeddiscussion.Punishmentsaredulyspelledout inlawsoastomakethemreasonablyconsonantwiththe submissionbeingsought.Thosespecifiedformurderare appropriatelymoreseverethanthoseforshopliftingorviolation ofthemotorvehiclelaws.Thereisthenthemassiveapparatusof thecourts,withtheirreponsibilityfordecidingguiltorinnocence aswellasthemoreprecisepenaltycalledforintheparticular case.1

Becausethestatehasageneralmonopolyovertheexerciseof condignpower,thoseseekingitsuseontheirownbehalfforthe submissiontheyseekmustappealtothestate;suchappealsfor stronger(orsometimeslessstrong)condignactionagainst abortion,sexcrimes,druguse,streetviolence,andmuchelse constituteaconsiderablepartofmodernpoliticalagitation.

Theprecisionandeffectivenessoftheregulationoftheuseof condignpowerare,perhaps,theclearestindexofthelevelof civilizationinacommunity,andtheyareextensivelysoregarded inpractice.Anarchy,suchasthatinmodernUgandaorin Lebanonintheearly1980s,isprincipallymarkedbythe unrestrainedexerciseofcondignpowerbothinsideandoutside theformalstructureofgovernment.Whatarecalledruthless dictatorshipsthose,forexample,ofTrujillo,Somoza,and DuvalierinCentralAmericaandthe

1Thisisnot,ofcourse,theonlyfunctionofthecourts.Theyarealso anoriginalsourceofpowerastheydecideconstitutionaland legislativeintent,with,attimes,noslightrangeofdiscretion.Ihave deliberately,althoughnotwithoutsomeregret,by-passedtheroleof

thecourtsintheregulationofpower.Itispartlyaquestionof qualificationandpartlythatIhaveverylittletosayonthesubject andless,alas,thatisnew.

Caribbean,StalininRussia,andHitlerinGermanyarelargely celebratedandrememberedfortheirconspicuoususeofcondign power. 3

Compensatorypowerissimilarlysubjecttoregulationbythe state,butunlikecondignpower,itsuseisalsogreatlyprotected inlawandcustom.Thesubmissiontothepurposesofothersthat iswonbycompensationis,ofcourse,centraltothefunctioning ofcapitalism;compensatoryrewardasaninducementtotoilis lessnoticedbutnotmuchlessimportantinsocialistsocieties. Nonetheless,numerousformsofcompensatorypowerare regardedwithdisapprovalorarespecificallyoutlawed. Ostentatiouspaymentstovotersfortheirvotes;bribestopublic officialstoinfluencelegislation;theuseofmoneyinprocuring customersandcontracts,normallycalledkickbacks;andmany otherexpressionsofcompensatorypowerarepreventedbylaw orbannedbypublicopinion.

Herealsothereissharpconflictoverthelinedividingthe approveduseofpowerfromthedisapproved;thedialecticof powerisagaininvolvedwithwhatthestateallowsorforbids. ThusinrecenttimesAmericancorporationshavebeensubjectto ageneralprohibitionagainstbribingforeigngovernment officialsandotherstobuytheirproducts,thatis,tosubmitto theircommercialpurposes.Thisregulationofcompensatory powerhas,inturn,beenstronglyopposedbythosewhofinditan impairmentofaneededmeansformeetingforeigncompetition. Asanotherexample,anexceptionallytenuouslinedividesthe forthrightpaymentofcompensationtoalegislatorforhis favorablevote,apaymentdeeplydisapprovedinlawandsocial mores,and

85 asimilarpaymentintohiscampaignfundorforalecture appearancetobuyasimilarsubmission.Thequestionofwhether thestateshouldforbidtheselattermanifestationsof compensatorypowerisardentlydebated.

Conditionedpowerisremarkablenotbecauseitisregulatedby lawbutbecauseitisexplicitlyprotectedbylawinthefree countriesoftheworld.Ascondignpowerisprohibitedtothe privatecitizen,hisfreedomsofspeechandexpression,thebases ofconditionedpower,arespecificallyguaranteed.This protection,however,isbynomeanscompleteandagainisa matterofmuchcontroversy.Personalvilificationorslanderand appealstosanguinaryviolence,whichistosaythethreatof condignenforcement,arenot,eitherinprincipleorinpractice, defendedandinthefrequentcasetheyareforbidden.Whatis deemedtobeCommunistoronoccasionsocialistpropagandais thoughtbymanytobeoutsidetheprotectionoflaw;atvarious times,includingduringtheso-calledMcCarthyera,therewas strongagitationcallingforthesuppressionofsuchexerciseof conditionedpowerandsomeeffectivegovernmentactiontothat end.Therecontinuestobediscussionoverwhichformsof conditioningshouldbeprotectedandwhichshouldbe consideredbeyondthepaleandhenceregulatedorsuppressed.

IntheUnitedStatestheFirstAmendmenttotheConstitution guaranteesthefreeexerciseofconditionedpower.Inprinciple, thisprotectionisgreatlycherished,butinpractice,whenit defendsdisapprovedsubmissiontounwelcomeorhostileideas, itisgravelydeplored,andthereareingeniouslycontrivedefforts atexceptionorevasion.Indeed,theconstitutionalguaranteeof therightoffreespeech

owesmuchtotheaccidentoftime.Itwasenactedbeforetheuse ofconditionedpowerbecamecommonplaceandcentraltothe exerciseofpoweratatimewhensuchusewastheprivilegeofa smallminorityinthepolity.WeretheFirstAmendmentbeing consideredtoday,therewouldbeferventdebate,anditwouldbe passedonlyafternotableexceptionssubversivepolitical propaganda,pornography,encouragementofhomosexualityand abortionwerecarefullyexcludedfromitsprotection.Orsuch wouldbetheeffort.

Turningnowtothesourcesofpower,thereis,ingeneral,no attemptbythestateortopersuadethestatetorestrictorregulate personality.SocialistandCommunistcountrieshave,inthepast, deploredandcondemnedcultsofpersonality;suchwasthe response,afterthefact,toJosephStalinandMaoTse-tung.In democraticcountries,personalityisacceptedevenif,on occasion,regrettedasasourceofpower.Thepersonalitiesof FranklinD.Roosevelt,JohnL.Lewis,GeorgeWallace,Martin LutherKing,Jr.,andtheKennedybrotherswereregardedby substantialnumbersofpeopleasinimical.Condignactioninthe formofassassinationhasbeenasadlyfrequentresponse.Butthe supportofthestateinthesuppressionofadversepersonalityis notpartofanycommonornormalpoliticaleffort.2

Thecaseofpropertyismorecomplex.Traditionalsocialist doctrineheldittobeaprimaryandevenall-

2Exceptionscan,ofcourse,befound.ThejailingofGandhibythe BritishRajandthelong-timeeffortintheUnitedStatestodeportthe Australian-bornlaborleaderHarryBridgesareexamplesofa forthrightattempttocounterorsuppresspersonalityasasourceof power.

embracingsourceofpower.Accordingly,itcouldnotbeallowed toprivateindividualsinmorethanminoramounts;forsafetyit hadtobekeptinpublichandsinthemoreorlessexclusive possessionofthestate.Thisprincipleisstillrespectedinthe Communistworld.Innonsocialistdoctrine,bycontrast,property issoimportantasasourceofpowerthatitcannotwiselybe concentratedinthehandsofthegovernment. Accordingly,privatepropertyenjoysthegeneralprotectionof thestateinthenonsocialistworldintheUnitedStatesthrough theconstitutionalguaranteeofdueprocessoflaw.Butthere remainsthequestionofhowextensivelythestateshould intervenetogetawiderdistributionofproperty(andassociated income)andthusofthepoweremanatingtherefrom.This sustains,inturn,oneofthemajorpoliticaldebatesinthe nonsocialistworld,thatoverthedistributionofwealth.Andit leadsontosuchpracticalquestionsasthevigorofthe enforcementoftheantitrustlaws,theappropriateprogressivity ofincometaxes,andtheincidenceanddistributionaleffectof othertaxation.Muchpoliticaladvocacyalsotraces,inoneway oranother,totherestraintornonrestraintofpropertyinits relationshiptopower.3

Aspropertyasasourceofpowerisbothprotectedandregulated bythestate,soalsoisorganization.Therightsoffreeassembly andassociationarestronglydefendedin

3Onoccasionbringingaconvergencebetweentheconservative defenseofpropertyasapersonalrightandtheliberal(orleft) assertionofitsimportanceasasourceofpower.Calledsomeyears agobeforeadeeplyconservative committee oftheTexaslegislature toexplainanddefendhisideas,thelateRobertMontgomeryofthe UniversityofTexas,abrilliantscholarofseriouslysuspectviews, wasaskedsternlyifhebelievedinprivateproperty.Hereplied,''I

do,sir,andIbelieveinitsostronglythatIwant everyone in Texas tohavesome"IamindebtedtoformerSecretaryofLaborRay Marshallforthisaccount.

democraticsocieties.Andagaintheresultingexerciseofpower isfrequentlyviewedwithgravealarm.Thecaseofthetrade unionhasalreadybeencited.IntheUnitedStatestherightofthe Communistpartyanditsassociatedorganizationstoexisthas beenrepeatedlychallenged.4 AshasthatoftheKuKluxKlan. Andtheirrightshave,ofcourse,alsobeendefended.The corporationisacreatureofthestateintheUnitedStatesofthe individualstateincorporationlaws.Assuch,itenjoysfull governmentalprotection.Itspower,includingthatofthe internationalormultinationalenterprise,isalsoasourceof worriedcommentandconcern.

Thedialecticofpowerasitisinvolvedwiththenon-socialist stateis,indeed,pervasivelyconcernedwithorganizations.5 They areprotected;theyarealsosubjecttoregulationandrestraint. Thevigorofthedialecticreflectstheimportanceoforganization asasourceofpower.Asubversiveindividualisalarmingand shouldbecurbed;asubversivegroupismuchworse. Governmentsareexpectedtosuppresscrime;itisespecially importantthattheyactagainst organized crime.Onbalance, however,organizationasasourceofpowerisfarmoreprotected thanregulated.This,aswewillsee,hasprofoundimplications forthemodernexerciseofpower,includingbothits concentrationinafewgreatorganizationsanditsdiffusionto manylesserones.Butfirstthedevelopmentanddynamicsof powermustbelookedatinalargerperspective.

4NotablyintheSmithActof1940.

5ItisapervasiveissuealsointheCommunistworld.Therethe dissidentpersonalityisasourceofconcern,butfarmoreseriousisthe dissidentorganization.LechWalesawas(andperhapsremains)a probleminPoland,butfarmoredisturbingasadialecticalthreattothe powerofthestatewasSolidarity,theorganizationheheaded.

TheLargerDynamicsofPower:ThePrecapitalist World

Historyisordinarilywrittenaroundtheexerciseofpowerthatby emperorsandkings,theChurch,dictatorsanddemocracies, generalsandarmies,capitalistsandcorporations.Itcouldequally wellbewrittenaroundthesourcesofpowerandtheinstruments thatenforceit.Historicalchangewouldthenbethechangeinthe relativerolesofpersonality,property,andorganizationandof condignpunishment,compensatoryreward,andtheexplicitand implicitmanifestationsofconditionedpower.Historysowritten wouldnotbewithoutcomplexity.Buttherearebroadcontours evidentintheriseofmodernindustrialsocietyandinits antecedentsthatdisplaytheelementsjustmentioned.Itisnot withthehistorybutwiththesecontoursthatthisandthe followingfourchaptersdeal.

2

PowerinEuropeinprecapitalisttimesaconvenientdate1 might bethebeginningofthesixteenthcentury,immedi-

1Theword convenient shouldbestressed Merchantcapitalism,or whatissodesignated,didnotcomesuddenlyorataspecifictimeto (Footnote continued on next page)

atelyfollowingthefirstvoyagesofdiscoverytoAmericaand justpriortothepreachingsofMartinLutherwasdividedbroadly betweentheChurchandthefeudalbaronage,withsuchauthority asthelattermightconcedetotheemergingcentralstate.Asto thesourcesofpower,thatoftheChurchderivedfromasuperb organizationsustained,inturn,byspaciousandrichproperties andbytheconscientiouslypicturedandperpetuatedpersonalities ofChristandtheSupremeBeing.Thiswas,inthemain,a conditionedexerciseofpower;peoplebenttheirwilltothatof theChurchoutofbelief.Theobediencesoobtainedcovered bothreligiousobservancesandrequirementsandsecularaction andbehavior.Theconditioningwasbothexplicitandimplicit. ThattheChurchshouldbeobeyed,itstenetsaccepted,wasa convictionlodgeddeepinthecultureoftheage.Itwaswhat childrenacceptedfromtheirparents,whatallinthecommunity heldtobebothnaturalandproper.ButtheChurchdidnot neglectmoreexplicitconditioning;thiswasamajorpurposeof itslargeandremarkablysophisticatedorganization.Tocelebrate Massandpreachthegospelwastoaffirmandstrengthen conditionedpower,theinstrumentonwhich,morethanany other,thepoweroftheChurchdepended.

Socialconditioningwasnot,however,theonlyinstrumentby whichreligiousauthoritywasenforced.Highlyimportantwas theincomegeneratedbythepropertiesoftheChurchorreceived fromandalsodemandedofitscommunicants.Thissupported priests,churches,andmonas-

(Footnote continued from previous page) Italy,Spain,andnorthwesternEurope.Itwasagradual development,withrootsdeepintheMiddleAgesandevenbefore.

91 teries;2 suchcompensatorypowerwasaneffectiveand,indeed, indispensablebuttresstotheorganizationfromwhichflowedthe explicitconditioning.

Externally,thewealthoftheChurchalso,ifindirectly,sustained itsinfluence.Churchesandcathedralswerephysical manifestationsofitspresenceandauthority.Then,asnow,tobe inacathedralwastofeelthepresenceofapowerthatitwould seemwisetorespect.

Compensatorypower,assufficientlynoted,isgenerally associatedwithproperty.Buthere,aselsewhere,thiswasnot exclusivelyso;perhapsthegreatestsinglesourceofthepowerof theChurchwasitsconditionedpromisetotheobedientof compensatoryrewardintheworldtocome.Andthiswasnotably specific,extendingontothequalityandavailabilityofthe housingandurbanamenitiesintheHeavenlyCityandthepeace andabundantleisureofitsinhabitants.

Withsocialconditioninganditsresultingbeliefandthe associatedcompensatorypowerwentastronglypersuasiveuse ofcondignpowerorthethreatofitsexercise.Thisembraced intenselypainfulanddefinitivepunishmentinthisworldand muchworseinthehereafter.Thephysicalchastisementand,as necessary,thesummarydispatchofhereticsweretheapproved designsforenforcement.Onoccasion,asinthecaseofthe Inquisition,theseachievedahighlevelofproceduraldignity. Moreoften,asinthepogromsintheRhinelandcitiesinthe MiddleAges,theyweremerelytheenthusiasticexpressionof faithofahighlyconditionedpopulace.Intheratherearliercase oftheCatharstheAlbigensianheresywhothreatenedsubstantial areasofthesouthofFranceinthetwelfthandthirteenth centuries,thesecularforcesofthefaithfulnobles

2Therecurrentandseriousproblemofsimonyisanindicationofthe waycompensatorypowersupplementedconditionedobedience.

Page92 werecommandedbyPopeInnocentIIItotheaidoftheChurch inthecondigntask.Thiswascarriedthroughwithenergyand success.In1245,whenMontséur,ahereticalcenter,wasseized, sometwohundredhereticswereputtothestake,andafewyears latercondignchastisementwasmadepolicyforthosestill resistingchurchlywillinthepapalbullof1252,notablyentitled Ad extirpanda.3

Asameansofenforcingreligiousauthority,theburningof dissentersandlikemanifestationsofcondignpoweragainstthe livingaremuchcelebratedinreligioushistory.(Theyarealso onlywithsomedifficultyreconciledwiththeprominentrole attributedtomercyinreligiousconditioning.)Withoutquestion, suchenforcementwasbothunpleasantfortherecipientsandan impressivewarningtopotentialrecusants.Itwas,however, alwaysmuchlessimportantthanthefarmoresophisticated promiseofcondignpunishmentorcompensatoryrewardinthe worldtocome.Andwhileacertainmoralstigmawasalways associatedwiththecondignpunishmentofthelivingandwith thecrueltyinvolved,nocomparableillreputeattachedtothefar moredrasticandenduringpunishmentofthephysicallydead.In anagewhenlifewasalmostalwaysshortandfrequently unpleasant,thepromisethatsomethingbetterandmorelasting mightfollowwashighlypersuasive,aswasthefearthatthings mightbeconsiderablyworse.Thegeneralpromiseofeternal punishmentorreward,the

3Theessenceoftheheresywasadualisticdoctrineinwhich goodnessexistsonlyinaspiritualworld,thematerialworldbeing inherentlyevil.Amongthemorerigorouselementsoflayobedience exactedbytheCathars,thoughnotwithcompletesuccess,wasthe prohibitionofsexualintercourse.Theheresywasespecially objectionable,foritproceededtoorganizeitsownpriestlystructure andchurch.Itssuppressionisthoughttohaveservedasaprecedent

fortheInquisition.

earthlyactsofexcommunicationorbestowalofsacraments,were thuspowerfulcondignorcompensatorymeasuresinsupportof conditionedobedience.Althoughinmoderntimestheuseof suchpunishmenthasdeclinedsubstantiallyasasupportto religiouspower,nooneshouldbeled,forthatreason,todoubt itseffectivenessinanearlieranddevout,whichistosaymore effectivelyconditioned,society.

TheexternalpoweroftheChurchthatoveritscommunicants was,asever,thecounterpartofitsinternaldisciplineandits internalexerciseofpower.Nothing,inconsequence,wasmore importantthanadisciplinedandobedientpriesthood.Thegreat crisesinthepoweroftheChurchtheAvignonpapacyandthe GreatSchism,theReformationcameaboutbecauseofinternal divisionorindiscipline.Thebreakdownofinternalpowerhada symmetricalexternaleffect.

Thebasisoftemporalpowerinprecapitalisttimesdoesnotlend itselfasreadilytocharacterizationasdoesthemuchmore sophisticatedpoweroftheChurch,withwhich,onfrequent occasion,itwasincompetitionorinconflict.4 Thesecularpower wassharedbetweenthebaronagethefeudallordsandthe emerging(andalsocompetitive)nation-states.Asbetween personality,property,andor-

4Therehavebeentimeswhenthetwowerecombinedinthesame person:onemanunitedpriestlyandkinglyauthority.Thishasbeen notablytrueoutsidetheChristiantraditioninthecasesoftheCaliph, theMakita,andAugustsasPontifexMaximus.However,"atmost timesandplaces,thedistinctionbetweenpriestandkinghasbeen obviousanddefinite."BertrandRussell, Power: A New Social Analysis (NewYork:W.W.Norton,1938),pp.50-51.

ganization,personalitythebold,sanguinary,andotherwise compellingleaderisthemostcelebratedintheconventional recordingofhistory.Itsimportanceisnotindoubt,buttherewas agraveweaknessinvolved':suchpersonalitiesappeared,exerted influence,andthendiedorwerekilled;thusthetemporalpower basedthereonroseandfell.Thiswasinweakcontrastwiththe continuingandimmortalpersonalityfromwhichchurchlypower derived.

Property,ontheotherhand,wasadurablesourceoftemporal powerinfeudaltimes.5 Thatpossessedbytherulinglord allowedhimtoextendaliving,morepreciselytherighttohavea living,toabodyofresidentsorretainers.Thelargerandmore bountifultheproperty,thelargerthenumberofsuchacolytes. Thelivingsoprovidedwastheprimitivecounterpartofmodern compensatoryreward.Itseemscertainthatonallfeudal demesnestherewasalivelyinstinctthatanyfailuretoacceptthe willofthefeudallordwouldhave,alongwithitscondign effects,someadverseeconomicconsequences.

Finally,therewasorganization.This,itcansafelybeassumed, wasarelativelyslightsourceoffeudalpower.Itwascreatedad hocformilitaryenterprises;littleornothingexistedthatcouldbe consideredacontinuingadministration.InIndia,wherethe feudalsystemsurvivedintomoderntimes,suchorganizationas existedwasthedelegatedresponsibilityofanoftenhereditary dewan.Itwasthepersistentweakness,incompetence,and exactionsofthissystemthatmadetheBritishgovernment frequently,indeedcommonly,anattractivealternative.

5"Thereasonfortheking'sinabilitytogovernwithoutthebarons wasthatthewealthandenergyofthecountryweretheirprivate property."BertranddeJouvenel, On Power: Its Nature and the History of Its Growth (NewYork:VikingPress,1949),p.181,

speakingofmedievalFrance.

Thefeudalinstrumentsofenforcementincludedthe compensatorypoweralreadyindicatedand,withoutdoubt,a gooddealofexplicitandimplicitconditioning.Thewordofthe feudallordwasmeanttobeaccepted.Soithadalwaysbeen;the obligationwasovertlyemphasizeddaybyday.Conditioned powerwasalsoborrowedfromtheChurch:thusthedivineright ofkingsandbyextensionofthosewhoweresubjectsorrivals fortheirpower.Butpre-eminently,onemustsuppose,the principalinstrumentofenforcementinthefeudalsocietywas condignpower.Thiswasabundantlyavailableforthe punishmentofthosewhoinhabitedthefeudallands. Symmetrically,itwastheinstrumentbywhichexternalpower wasexerted.Itwasnotbypersuasionorpurchaseorevenby marriagebutbycondignmilitaryactionthatthefeudallord soughttoimposehiswillonthosebeyondhisimmediate territory.

Theexternalpowerofthebaronagedependedextensivelyonthe numberofthefeudallord'sinternalsubordinates,andtheir numberwasindirectproportiontotheextentandqualityofhis landedproperty.Forthisreasonvirtuallyallfeudalconflict, unlessatreligiousbehest,wasoverland.6 Togetlandormore landwastheimmediateandobviouswayofgettingmore feudatories,andwiththemmoresoldiersandthusmoreinternal andexternalpower.TheresultinEuropewasnearlycontinuous territorialconflictbetween

6Religiouspurposeandpursuitofthepowerderivingfromlandand feudatorieswereancientlycombined.PreachingtheFirstCrusadein 1095,UrbanIIwasatpainstoobservethatmuchgoodlanded propertywouldalsobeavailableforthetakingintheredeemedHoly Land.

96 contendersforfeudalpower.Peacewasanunstableequilibrium. Thosemostsuccessfulintheterritorialstrugglegradually establishedthelargersuzeraintythatbecamethenation-state. Theterritorialstrugglewithinthebaronagethentransformed itselfintoastrugglebetweenstates.Intramuralconflictover territorybecameinternationalconflict.

Theassociationbetweenlandedproperty,people,andpowerhad astrongeffectonpoliticalthoughtthatendurestothisday,even thoughtheassociationitselfhaslongsincedissolved.Industrial propertyhasreplacedagriculturalpropertyasasourceof revenueinsupportofinternalpower;crudemanpowerhas ceasedtobeimportantasaninstrumentofexternalpower.Land canbeoccupiedandeconomiclifewillcontinue,butamodern industrialeconomycannotbecapturedandstillkeptinworking condition.Nonetheless,thenotionthatnationalpoweris enhancedbyterritorialacquisitioncontinuestohaveapowerful holdonstrategicandmilitarythought.Themodernmilitary strategistlooksatthemapandassumesthatanygivenlandarea isvulnerabletosomeadjacentpower-aspiringaggressor.Soit musthavemilitarydefense.Becausepowerwasintimately associatedinthenow-distantpastwithproductiveacreageand thepeoplewhoinhabitedit,suchacreagewasaninvitationto thoseseekingpower.Thusitstillappearstothosewhoview thingsinaseeminglyforthrightandsimpleway.

Thefeudalsourcesandinstrumentsofpowerpersonalityand landedpropertyasthechiefsources,condignenforcementasthe majorinstrumentdonotbelongtoanancientandforgotten world.Thisexpressionofpowersurvivedintomoderntimesin India,aswehaveseen,andalsoinJapan,China,andImperial Russia.RemnantspersisttodayinCentralandSouthAmerica, andthecondigninstrumentsthatareinvokedbothinitsdefense

andinopposition

arethebasisofmuchpoliticalturmoilinthatpartoftheworld. Butinthemodernindustrialsocietythefeudalsourcesand instrumentsofpowerearlysurrenderedprimaryplacetoanew combination,thatassociatedwithmerchantandindustrial capitalism.Notallthatwasbeforedisappeared,butmuchthat wasnewwasadded.

XI

TheEmergenceofCapitalism

InWesternEuropeinthetwohundredandfiftyyearsbetween theturnofthesixteenthcenturyandthebeginningofthe IndustrialRevolutioninthesecondhalfoftheeighteenth century,therewas,notablyinEnglandandFrance,aprogressive strengtheningofthenation-state.Thiswasinclosedescentfrom thetraditionalfeudalexerciseofpower,withitssourceinlanded propertyandpersonalityanditsrelianceoncondignpoweras wellasonthecompensatoryresourcesderivingfromthe propertyandontheconditionedresponsetothesovereignwith hisfrequentclaimtodivineright.Buttheseyearsalsosawthe emergence,invaryingimportance,ofasignificantmerchant classtherisefromyetearlieroriginsofmerchantcapitalism,asit hascometobeknown.1

Thistoocanbeseen,andisadvantageouslysoseen,asashiftin thesourcesofpowerandintheinstrumentsofits

1Adevelopmentthatwasgreatlydiversebothastothetypesof merchantsinvolvedandinthecountriesandcitieswhereitoccurred. OnthisIwouldcommendtheprodigiousstudiesoftheFrench historianFernandBraudel,inparticular The Wheels of Commerce (NewYork:HarperandRow,1983).

99 enforcement.Merchantcapitalismhaditsprimarysourceof powerinproperty,althoughthiswasnolongerlandbutcapital, notablygoodsforsaleandthesilverandgoldforprocuring them.Meanwhile,personalitydiminishedinimportance; organizationbecamemoreevident.Compensatorypower increasedgreatly;condignenforcementdeclinedinuse,although itwasstillavailable,andtherewasalimitedbutinteresting exerciseofconditionedpowerwithportentforthefuture.Itis oneofthelegitimateclaimsofcapitalismthatitsubstitutesmore civilizedcompensatoryrewardforcondignpunishment;thiswas certainlytrueofmerchantcapitalism,atleastascomparedwith thefeudalexerciseofpower.

2

Thenamesofthefeudallords,princes,andkingsweremuch celebratedintheirday;somestillare.FrenchandEnglishhistory isarecitaloftheirpersonaltraits,eccentricities,andexcesses andofthemilitarycampaignsbywhichtheyenlargedor defendedthelandedpropertythatwastheprimarysourceoftheir power.Themerchants,incontrast,werelargelyanonymous;they werenotindividualsbutaclass.Whereonedidemergeto popularrecognition,hewas,significantly,calledamerchant prince.2 Hehadacquiredsomeofthefeudalemphasison personality.Certainpersonalqualificationsfinancialand commercialacumen,willingnesstotakerisk,abilityinassessing it,facilityinrecognizingopportunity,geographicalandmaritime knowledgewereimportantforsuccess.Buttheywerenot adventitiousandunique;theycouldbeacquiredandwere.And theydidnotstronglysuggestacapacityforleadershipand command.

2Bankers,suchasJakobFugger(1459-1525),wereaccordedsimilar

Thepropertythatwastheprimesourceofmerchantpower consistedofworkingcapitalgoodsbeingtransportedorheldfor saleaswellastheshipsthatbroughtittothemerchantsandthe placesofbusinessinwhichitwassold.3

Themerchants'capitalalso,andmostsignificantly,included specieandinlatertimesbankdeposits.Theseweretheirclaim ongoodsintrade.Theaggregateofallthepropertyofthe merchantclasswasthesourceofitscompensatorypower.This wonthesubmissionofsuppliersandservantsandalso,on occasion,ofthefeudallordswhotendedtobenotoriouslyin needofreadycash.4 Propertyalsoaccordedthemerchants prestigeinthecommunity,which,inturn,wontheconditioned submissionthatgoestowealth.

Theprimaryexerciseofpowerbythemerchantcapitalistwas overtheworkers,artisans,andcraftsmenwhencecamethe goods,andoverthequalityandpriceofthegoodsthathesold, themostimportantbeingcloth,5 andthusovertheconsumers whoneededandpurchasedthem.This,onfirstglance,wasa relativelymildandbenignexerciseofpower,foritlefttoboth suppliersandconsumersthealternative

3InthevicinityofVenice,Paris,andothercities,themerchantsalso cameintopossessionofsubstantiallandedestates.Thesewere,it seemsfairlycertain,subsidiarytotheirmainbusinessproperty.

4ThediscoveryofAmericawiththeresultinglargeflowofprecious metalstoEuropesilver,inthemain,andnotgoldascommonly assumedhasfrequentlybeenthoughtadecisivenewsourceofcapital andafactorintheriseofmerchantcapitalism.Itwasnotunimportant, butitreflectsacommonmisunderstandingofthenatureofcapital.The inflowofmetalprovidedanabundantmeansofexchange.Itsetin motionanenduringinflation,whichmaywellhavebeenencouraging totrade.Fortheindividualmerchantitwasaclaimonthecapitalof

others.Itdidnot,however,directlyenlargethetotalstockofgoodsin processofmanufactureorbeingheldforsaleorthetoolsand equipmentformanufactureorthefacilitiesfortransportorsale.These, thenasnow,weretherealcapital.

5Withfoodandshelter,oneofthethreeuniversallyneeded consumptiongoodsoftheage.

Page101 ofnotproducingorbuyingorofseekingoutothersellersor buyers.However,needforamarketandalivelihoodandfora productcanbecompelling,anditwasaprimefeatureof merchantcapitalismthatitprovidedcarefulsafeguardsagainsta promiscuousresorttoalternativebuyersorsourcesofsupply. Thepowerofanymerchantcouldbesadlyreducedwereanother tooffermoreforaproductofgivenqualityoroffertosellone forless.Competitionwasseriouslyadversetomerchantsuccess. Toensureagainstit,organizationbecamesignificantasasource ofpower.

Thegreatmerchantslivedinrelativelycloseurbanassociation.It wasasimpleandobvioussteptoenhancetheircompensatory powerbyacloseregulationofqualityandpricesbothwhen buyingandselling.Inearliertimesthishadbeentheserviceof themerchantguilds,butbythistimetheyweresomewhatin declineinWesternEurope.Craftguildscontrollingtheprices andqualityofgoodsbyandforsellershadinvadedand challengedtheirpower.Againthesymmetricalresponse.Butthe merchantshadanothermajorsourceofsupportandamajor defenseagainstcompetition.Thiswastheemergingstate,which protectedthemagainstcompetition,especiallyfromforeign sources,andundertooktheregulationoftradeingeneral. Organization,thatofthestate,thusbecameasourceofpower alongsideproperty;anditsservicetomerchantcapitalismwas deemedanactofpublicvirtue.Thissocialconditioningwasthe serviceofthemercantilistphilosophers,onwhich,presently,I willalsohaveaword.Unrestrictedcompetitiondidnotachieve itsreputationasamajorpublicgooduntilthedifferent circumstancesofmanufacturersfollowingtheIndustrial Revolutionmadefreedomfromcraft-guildandgovernment restraintapreferablealternative.Then,asever,theideasthe

socialconditioningwerebroughtabreastoftheneed.

InthegreatmerchantcitiesVenice,Bruges,Amsterdamin considerablemeasure,andothersthemerchantinterestandthat ofthegovernmentofthecitywerecoterminous.Therecouldbe noserioustensionbetweenthemerchantsandthestate; essentiallytheywerethesame.Elsewherethemerchantswerein frequentlyuneasyassociationwiththefeudalrulingclasses, whichistosaymerchantpropertyasasourceofpowerwasin competitionwiththatderivingextensivelyfromlandedproperty. Thecompensatorypowerofthemerchantswasincontinuing competitionwiththeconditionedpowerthatassociated governmentasamatterofcoursewiththelandedpropertyofthe feudalclasses.Thislatterexpressionofconditionedpowerwas exceedinglydurable.InEnglanduntilcomparativelyrecent times,thelandedaristocracywasreferredto,automatically,as therulingclass;theirswastheconditionedrighttopower. Merchants,incontrast,sufferedthederogatoryandoccasionally derisoryreferenceofbeing''intrade."Therewas,aswell,an uneasyassociationbetweenthemerchantsandtheChurch.Even inCatholiccitiesthemerchantswere,onoccasion,casualabout thesocialconditioningoftheChurchandonsomematters,such asthetakingofinterest,openlyadverse.Alsothemerchantcities andcitieswithlargemerchantenclavessuchasLondonand Amsterdamwere,partlybecauseofthelenientattitudetoward religiousconditioning,extensivelyahavenforJews,Huguenots, anddiverserecusants.6

6Therewas,aswell,aprogressivereductioninthescopeofreligious exercise.OnthisR.H.Tawneyhasanotablecomment:" ...sideby sidewiththeexpansionoftradeandtheriseofnew (Footnote continued on next page)

Thelatesixteenth,seventeenth,andearlyeighteenthcenturies were,nonetheless,atimeofsteadilygrowingpowerforthe merchantsascomparedwiththeirrivalclaimants.Capitalasa formofpropertywasalessvisiblebutamoremobileand adaptablesourceofpowerthanland.Andfromitandthe associatedorganizationcameanewandeffectiveexerciseof conditionedpower.

Thiswasthecontributionofthemercantilistphilosophersearlier mentioned.ThomasMun,himselfaLondonmerchant,inhis posthumous Discourse on England's Treasure by Forraign Trade (1664),SirJamesSteuart,thelastofthegreatBritish mercantilists,JeanBaptisteColbert(1619-1683)atthemore practicallevelinFrance,andothersallstronglyidentifiedthe merchant'sinterestinincreasinghisownstockofprecious metalswiththatofthenation-state;whatservedthemerchant's interestservedthewealthandpowerofthestate.Nothingelse wassoimportant.Fromthisbelief,inturn,cameapolicyof encouragingexports,taxing,restricting,orotherwise discouragingimportsandtherewithforeigncompetition7 and (notablyinthecaseofColbert)providingdetailedregulationof otheraspectsoftrade.Inthisfashiontheneedsofthemerchants werereflectedthroughsocialconditioningintheapproved policiesofthestate.Itisnottobesupposedthatmanyreador knewofthemercantilistdoctrineatthetime.

(Footnote continued from previous page) classestopoliticalpower...wasthecontractionoftheterritory withinwhichthewritofreligionwasconceivedtorun.Thecriticism whichdismissestheconcernofChurcheswitheconomicrelations andsocialorganizationasamoderninnovationfindslittlesupportin pasthistory.Whatrequiresexplanationisnottheviewthatthese mattersarepartoftheprovinceofreligion,buttheviewthattheyare not." Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (Harmondsworth,Eng.:

PenguinBooks,1972),p.272.

7Othermercantilists,especiallySirWilliamPetty(1623-1687)andSir DudleyNorth(1641-1691),relentedonprotectionandarguedthe possibilitiesandadvantagesofuninhibitedtrade.

Anditwasundoubtedlyaslightthingwhencomparedwiththe socialconditioningthatcametothesupportofindustrial capitalisminlateryears.Butitwashighlyinfluentialwiththose whoseactionsregulationofforeigntradeandofimportsin particular,grantsofexclusivetradingareas,maintenanceofports andharborsservedthemerchants'powerandinterest.

Forconductofbusinessinacityoralimitedtradingarea,the merchant'senterprisewas,ingreaterorlessdegreeof organization,sufficient.Foroverseasoperationstheprocurement andsaleofgoodsatagreatdistanceinprimitiveorculturally differentlandssomethingmoreformidablewasrequired. Accordingly,atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturythere cameintobeingthegreatestorganizationalachievementof merchantcapitalism,thecharteredcompanies.Originally temporarygroupingsofmerchantsforaparticularvoyageor expedition,thesecompaniessoondevelopedasolidand sophisticatedstructure.Inaccordancewithmercantilistdoctrine, theyweregrantedamonopolyofthetradeintheregionsinto whichtheyentered.Theywerealsoendowedwithsomething approachingimmortality.TheEastIndiaCompanytheGovernor andCompanyofMerchantsofLondon,tradingintotheEast IndieswascharteredbyElizabethIonthelastdayoftheyear 1600andsurvivedforthenext274years;theHudson'sBay Company,moreimaginativelystyledtheGovernorand CompanyofAdventurersofEngland,tradingintoHudson'sBay, receiveditscharterfromCharlesIIin1670and,ofcourse,still exists.Itisoneoftheweaknessesofpersonalityasasourceof powerthatitissubjecttothelimitationsof

thehumanlifespan.ThistheChurchhadovercomethrough organization.Nowthecharteredcompany,andlaterthe corporation,overcamethisconsiderabledefectbythesame means.Althoughinthehistoryofthegreatcharteredcompanies thenamesofafewpersonsemergeJohnSmithoftheLondon CompanyandtheVirginiasettlement,RobertCliveandWarren HastingsoftheEastIndiaCompanythiswasthebeginningofa movement,longtobecontinuedundercapitalism,awayfrom personalityasasourceofpower.Thefinalmanifestationwould beinthemodemcorporation,thelinealdescendantofthe charteredcompany.

Charteredcompaniesappearedbecausestrongerorganization wasnecessaryasasourceofcontinuingpower.Themerchants alsoneededaccesstocondignmeasuresinordertoprotect shipping,topacifyandotherwiseoccupythetradingareasinto whichtheymoved(and,ofcourse,toresisttheintrusionof competingcompanies).Thusendowedwithaccesstocondign power,includingtherighttohire,deploy,andusesoldiery,the charteredcompanieshadtheprincipalattributesofanation-state. AndthisinIndia,theDutchEastIndies,andthevastreachesof northernNorthAmericatheybecame.

Itwastheirsingularadvantagethat,almosteverywhere,they movedintowhatratherpreciselycouldbecalledapower vacuum.Theterm,thoughrarelyifeverdefinedinmodern usage,aptlydescribesacommunityorterritorywhereallthe sourcesofpowereffectivepersonality,property,and organizationarefeebleorabsent,asalso,inconsequence,areall theinstrumentsofitsenforcement.Thisaccuratelydescribesthe EastIndiesandthesubarcticreachesofNorthAmericaasthey wereinvadedbythetradingcompanies.InnorthernAmerica therewas,intheseterms,nearlynothing;intheEastIndiesthere

wereoccasionalpersonalities,someproperty,andsomeslight organi-

Page106 zation.Butthese,andespeciallytheorganization,wereweak comparedwiththosepossessedbytheEuropeans,andsowere theresultinginstrumentsofenforcement.

Intime,andmorespecificallyinthelastcentury,thetrading companiesgaveway,intheiroverseasoperations,toformal extensionsoftheoriginatingstate.Companyoperationsbecame colonies;powernowtracedtothecolonialgovernmentandits revenueresourcesand,onoccasion,asinthelaterexampleof CecilRhodesinAfrica,toaparticularlyexpressivepersonality. Or,asintheimportantcaseofChina,nominalindependencewas subjecttothepowerderivingfromthepropertyandorganization ofthemerchantswhohadaccess,asintheOpiumWars,tothe condignpoweroftheircountryoforigin.Withthesechangesthe merchantpowerwasalsodiluted.Imperialpowerwaspursued, inpart,foritsownsake.Therewaslandtobetakenup,notably intheAmericas,withtheincomeandthecompensatorypower thatwentwithitspossession.Andthereweresoulstoberescued andaddedtothosealreadywithinthefoldofwhatisrightly calledorganizedreligion.Inmanyofthecoloniallands, especiallyinLatinAmerica,thepowerproceedingfromlanded property(includingthatoftheCatholicChurchasalarge proprietor)muchexceededthatofthemerchants.InMexico whentherevoltcame,itwasnotagainstthemerchantsbut againstthegreatlandowners,includingtheChurch.

InEurope,theeighteenthcenturymaybemarkedasthehightide ofmerchantcapitalism.Bytheturnofthenextcentury,sogreat wereitsprestigeandtheimpressionofpoweritconveyedthat Napoleon'sBerlinandMilanDecrees,

107

England'sansweringOrdersinCouncil,andtheresulting restrictionsontradewereconsideredmajorstrategicmovesin theNapoleonicstrugglesandeversincehaveenjoyeda reputationwhichisnotdeserved.8 Already,however,agreat changewasinprogress,involvingasizableinvasionofmerchant power.ThiswastheIndustrialRevolutionandthedevelopment ofindustrialcapitalism.

Fewmattershavebeenmoredebatedbyhistoriansthanthe natureandsourcesoftheIndustrialRevolution.Wasitbrought aboutinthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcenturybythemoreor lessaccidentalappearanceofaparticularlyimaginativeand inventivegroupofentrepreneursthetwoAbrahamDarbys,John Kay,JamesHargreaves,RichardArkwright,andJamesWatt?Or wasittheproductofalargelyindependentprocessof technologicaladvancethatbroughtwithitthemakingofpigiron withcoal,steampowerfromthesamefuel,and,aboveall,the applicationofpowertothemechanicalspinningandweavingof textiles?HaditnotbeenArkwright,Hargreaves,andtherest, woulditnothavebeensomeoneelse?Wasitnotahistorically scheduledstepinthegeneralmarchoftechnologyandof capitalism?

WhatisnotindoubtisthattheIndustrialRevolutioninvolveda large,evenspectacular,shiftinthesourcesofpowerand,in lessermeasure,intheinstrumentsofitsenforcement.Property remainedcentralasasourceofpower;therewas,however, anotherdramaticchangeinitscharacter.Itwasnolongerthe stock-in-tradeandotherworkingcapitalofthemerchantbutthe fixedassetsmills,fac-

8Thesewerepioneerexercisesintheimpositionofsanctions.Inthe officialmindsanctionsremainaninstrumentofgreateffect;only aftertheyareimposedisitlearnedthattheyarerathereasily

sufferedandwithslighteffortevaded.Substitutesandsubstitute sourcesofsupplyabound Thislessonisthereaftersoonforgotten

Page108 tories,machineryoftheindustrialcapitalist.Withthechangein thenatureofthepropertyinvolvedwentanotherinthenatureof theorganization.Themerchanthadobtainedhisproductfrom independentorself-employedcraftsmen,artisans,andother workersinarelativelyloosecompensatoryarrangement.The workerswerenowbroughtdirectlyintothemilltownsandthe factories,whichallowedofafarstrongerexerciseof compensatorypoweroverthosewhomadetheproduct.

Conventionalhistoriographyalsoaccordsamuch-enhancedrole topersonality.WiththeIndustrialRevolutiontheentrepreneur independent,innovative,imaginative,resourceful,sometimes ruthless,alwaysintelligentbecameakeyfigureontheeconomic scene.Perhapsso.But,asalways,theremustbeawordof caution.Personalityasasourceofpoweriswonderfully attractivetothemoresusceptiblehistorianas,inmoderntimes, tothemoreimpressionablejournalist.Industrialcapitalismowed itsstrength,infact,toitsaccesstoallthreesourcesofpowerto propertyinmill,machinery,andworkingcapital;toagreatly advancedformoforganizationbindingworkerstotheindustrial firm;and,ofcourse,totheentrepreneurialpersonality.

Astotheinstrumentsofenforcement,condignpowercontinued indecline.Itwasavailablebypurchaseorgiftfromthestateand usedasnecessaryagainsttroublemakers,thosewhomighttryto organizeworkingmen'sassociationsorunionsorwhowere otherwisedisposedtoundulyexpresseddiscontent.Mostly, however,submissionwaswonbycompensatorypower.Alongpersistingmythheldthattheworkerswhowerenowgathered intotownandfactoryfromthevillagesandfromthecottage industriesbywhichtheyandtheirparentshadbeensustained weresubjecttoanespeciallyoppressivepowerbythenew industrialcapital-

Page109 ists.Theforceofthatpowerthedegreeofsubmissiondemanded cannotbedoubted;werecallagainthatattheminimumlevelsof compensatorypower,withstarvationasthealternative,the differencefromcondignpowerisnotgreat.Butthecottage industriespursuedonbehalfofthemerchantsthespinningand weavingfromearlymorninguntillateatnightandalwaysunder thethreatofpainfuldeprivationhadalsobeenharshintheir discipline.Employerscanexploitworkers,butworkersunder pressureofstarkandpainfulneedcanexploitthemselves.9 Men andwomenhadcometothefactoriesfromthefeudalestatesas well.There,too,thelaborer'sexistencewasnarrow,a submissioninresponsetosmallcompensatoryreward,the traditionalconditionedpowerofthelandlordandatleastthe memoryofhisabilitytoinflictcondignpunishment.The predominantlycompensatorypowerofearlyindustrialcapitalism wasnotapleasantthingforthosesubjecttoit;itisnotclearthat itwasmoresternanddemandingthanwhathadgonebefore.

9"[E]xploitationismoreshamelessintheso-calleddomestic industrythaninmanufactures,andthatbecausethepowerof resistanceinthelabourersdecreaseswiththeirdissemination, becauseawholeseriesofplunderingparasitesinsinuatethemselves betweentheemployerandtheworkman... "KarlMarx, Capital (NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1967),p.462.

XII

ThePowerofHighCapitalism

WiththeIndustrialRevolutionandthegreatmovementinthe sourcesofpowerfromtheworkingcapitalofthemerchantsto thehardindustrialcapitaloftheindustrialistscameamarked advanceinorganization.Atightlyorganizedlaborforceheld togetherbywagesreplacedthenearanddistantsuppliersof goodsheldtogetheronlybytheactofpurchase.Therewas movementfromthe(possibly)moreanonymousmerchanttothe moreclearlyrecognizablepersonalityoftheindustrial entrepreneur.Aswiththemerchants,compensatorypowerwas thedominantinstrumentforwinningsubmission.Buttherewas alsonowanewandimportantdeploymentofconditionedpower, whichradicallyalteredthebeliefsthatgovernedeconomicaction bythestate.Reflectingthesebeliefs,thestategrewgreatly sympathetictotheneedsanddesiresoftheindustrialists;it became,insubstantialmeasure,anextensionoftheirarm.In time,thisconditioningalsoalteredthewaypeopleledtheirlives andpursuedtheirhappiness.Theapprovedmodeoflifebecame subordinatetothepurposesofindustry;itcametoserve industrialpower.Thecondi-

Page111

tionedpowerofindustrialcapitalismasitdevelopedandgrew effectiveinthenineteenthcenturywouldremainaninfluential instrumentofpowerforgenerationstocome.Aswouldthe massivecountervailingresponsethatitoccasioned.

TheprimaryauthorofthissocialconditioningwasAdamSmith; rarelyinhistoryhastherebeensuchcompleteagreementonthe intellectualroleofasinglefigure.Otherswouldcontribute much;Smith'snamewouldremainpre-eminent.Leadingthe oppositionasthearchitectofthecounteringbeliefthreequarters ofacenturylaterwastheequallycompellingfigureofKarl Marx.

ThecontributionofAdamSmithtothesocialconditioningof industrialcapitalismcamein The Wealth of Nations,1 published intheyearofthedeclarationofAmericanindependence,1776. Thatthetwoeventsoccurredatthesametimewasnotentirely coincidence;thebookandtheRevolutionwereinsimilar reactiontotheconstraintsofmerchantcapitalism.2

Smith'scontributionwasbothnegativeandaffirmative,anattack ontheideologicalsourcesofmerchantpowerandanaffirmation ofwhatservedtheemergentindustrialists.Theindustrialists, thoughstillinaprimitivestateofde-

1Morespecifically, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

2TheAmericanmerchantswho"whentheirinterestswerejeopardized ...enteredpoliticswithavim,andmightbeexpectedtocarrythings theirownway"hadtradinginterestsinconflictwithEnglishregulation andprotection.Theywerenot,however,unambiguouslyinopposition toBritishrule SeeArthurMeierSchlesinger(Sr), The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution,1763-1776(NewYork:

FrederickUngar,1966).Quotationonpage29.

Page112

velopmentwhenSmithwrote,werealreadyenjoyinglargecost advantagesascomparedwithhouseholdindustry.ThisSmith saw,althoughheattributeditlesstothenewmachinerythanto thebreakingupoftheindustrialtasksinthefactoryandthe applicationofspecializedskillandefforttoeachoftheparts. Thegainsfromthisdivisionoflaborledtoregionalandnational specializationinproductionandbecamethecaseforfreedomof internalandinternationaltrade.Standinginthewayandinneed ofbeingdismantledwastheprotectiveandregulatoryapparatus ofmerchantcapitalism.Theremovalofregulationsandrestraints ontradereflectedtheinterestoftheindustrialist;withhislower costshehadeverythingtogainfromthefreedomtoundersellthe localmerchants.WereheanEnglishorScottishmanufacturer, hewaswellaheadinindustrialdevelopmentandsohadlittleto fearfromthecompetitionoflikeproducersinothercountries andeverythingtogainfromaprinciplethatdefendedhisaccess totheirmarkets.3

Onayetbroaderplane,Smithidentifiedthepursuitofall economicself-interestwiththepublicgood.Thebusinessmanso motivated''intendsonlyhisowngain,andheisinthis,asin manyothercases,ledbyaninvisiblehandtopromoteanend whichwasnopartofhisintention."4 Itwouldbehardtoimagine anideamoreserviceabletoindustrialpower,andnone,indeed, hasservedsolong.Theindustrialisthadnoneedtopresent himselfasapublicbenefactor;thiswouldhavebeensadly unconvincinginany

3Smithwentontoprescribecloselimitsonotheractivitiesofthe state,andnotablythosethatwouldbeatcostintaxationtothe industrialist.

4AdamSmith, The Wealth of Nations (Chicago:UniversityofChicago Press,1976),BookI,p.477.Theinvisiblehandisametaphor.Smith,a

manoftheEnlightenment,didnotascribesupernaturalsupporttothe pursuitofbusinessgain Notallofhisfollowershavebeenso restrained.

Page113 case.5 Virtuewasgiventohisactionsbyanoverridinglawto whichhe,howeverselfishorsordidhispurposesormotivations, waswhollysubject.

Smithwasnotcompletelyattheserviceofindustrialcapitalism andcertainlynotdurablyso.Inkeepingwithhisantimercantilist position,hehadgravedoubtsaboutthegreatchartered companiesand,byimplication,thecorporationsindescent therefrom.Moderncorporateexecutivespayanobeisanceto Smiththathewouldnotreturn.Troublesomealsowashis oppositiontomonopoly,thatoftheindividualfirmorofa conspiracybetweenfirms.Competitionwasaneededbrakeon industrialpower,butinSmith'sviewitexistedinunstable equilibrium.Nooneaccepteditifitcouldbeconstrainedor avoided.6 Oncecompetitionwaslost,theinvisiblehandwas withdrawn.Thisqualificationwouldbeasourceofconsiderable inconvenienceinthenexttwohundredyears,especiallyinthe UnitedStates.Greatcorporations,shelteringbehindtheinvisible hand,wouldhavetoassert,infaceofgrievouslyadverse evidence,thattherequisitecompetitionstillprevailed.

MuchofthestrengthofSmith'ssocialconditioningistobe attributedtohisstubbornunwillingnesstomakeconcessionsto thosewhosepowerhesustainedandenlarged.Hewasmanifestly anindependentman;andnoonecouldsupposehewasthe creatureofthosewhoseinterestsheserved,whoseconditioning heprovided.7 Thecondition-

5Smithhimselfmadethepoint:"Ihaveneverknownmuchgood donebythosewhoaffectedtotradeforthepublicgood."Smith, Wealth of Nations,BookI,p.478.

6Thiswasthethrustofhismostfrequentlyquotedsentence:"Peopleof thesametradeseldommeettogether,evenformerriementand diversion,buttheconversationendsinaconspiracyagainstthepublic,

orinsomecontrivancetoraiseprices."Smith, Wealth of Nations,Book I,p 144

7ReactiontoSmith'spersuasionwasprompt.Ayearandahalfafter Smith'sdeathin1790,WilliamPitttheyounger,inintroducing (Footnote continued on next page)

ingthatservedtheindustrialpowerwasnotnecessarilyeither contrivedorvisiblysycophantic.Butitsservicetoeconomic interestwas,nonetheless,thetestofitsacceptability.

114

Inthehundredyearsandmorefollowingthepublicationof The Wealth of Nations thesourcesandinstrumentsofcapitalist powerweremuchstrengthened.IntheUnitedStates,spectacular andhighlymotivatedpersonalitiesVanderbilt,Gould, Rockefeller,Harriman,Carnegie,Frick,Morgan,andothers movedontothescene,andtheirsomewhatlessconspicuous counterpartsappearedinBritain,France,andGermany.An increasinglycloseassociationdevelopedbetweenthosewho foundedandranthegreatindustrialenterprises,nowincluding therailroads,andthose(likeMorgan)whosuppliedthemwith moneycapitalforthecreationor,moreoften,theacquisitionand combinationofthoseenterprises.

Supportingthepersonalitiesofthegreatentrepreneurswasthe massiveaggregationofpropertytheycommanded.This,too,was ahighlyimportant,highlyvisiblesourceofpower.Andasthe nineteenthcenturywasending,industrialorganizationbecame increasinglyimportant.Alreadyinthelasthalfofthatcentury,as AlfredD.Chandler,Jr.,has

(Footnote continued from previous page) hisbudget,saidofhimthathis"extensiveknowledgeofdetailand depthofphilosophicalresearchwill,Ibelieve,furnishthebest solutionofeveryquestionconnectedwiththehistoryofcommerce andwiththesystemofpoliticaleconomy."Addressbeforethe HouseofCommonsonFebruary17,1792,quotedinJohnRae, Life of Adam Smith (NewYork:AugustsM.Kelley,1965),pp.290-91. Thisisanotabletributetotheexerciseofconditionedpower.

pointedout,8 thecorporationwasceasingtobetheextendedarm ofthebossatthetop.Itwascomingtobegovernedbythe administrativestructureembracingvariedspecialistsand techniciansthatwaseventuallytobecalled the management. Organizationwasemergingasasourceofpowerinindustrial capitalism;eventuallyitwouldreplacepropertyasthedominant sourceofsuchpower.

Withthechangesinthesourcesofpowerwentchangesinthe instrumentsofenforcement.Condignpowerdidnotdisappear;it remainedavailablefromthestateorfromcompanypolice.Butit wasofsmallimportanceascomparedwiththemassive deploymentofcompensatorypower.Thiswasmostevidentinall theindustrialcountries,wheremillionsofworkerswere mobilizedintheserviceoftheindustrialsystem.Anditwasalso apparentinthelessastringentpowerofproducersover consumers,asubmissionthatearlier,asinthecasesof RockefellerovertheusersofkeroseneandofVanderbiltandthe railroadsovershippersofproducts,hadbeensevere. Compensatorypowerextendedtothepurchaseoflegislatorsand otherpublicofficialsandthustowinningthesupportofthe instrumentsofthepowerofthestate.Inthelatteryearsofthe lastcenturytheUnitedStatesSenatewascommonlyreferredto asarichman'sclub;thisisanotherwayofsayingthatitwasthe well-paidinstrumentofthecapitalistage.

However,themostinterestingand,quitepossibly,themost importantachievementofhighcapitalismwasitscontinuing resorttoconditionedpoweritscontinuingaccommodationof economicideastocurrentneedandreality.Muchofthis conditioningwasstillofBritishorigin;itwasaserviceinwhich, untilmoderntimes,Britainwaspre-eminent.Itattractedthe effortsofanotablesuccession

8The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),pp.81-121.

Page116 ofscholarswhorefinedandenlargedtheearlierSmithian principles.All,inonewayoranother,producedideasthatwere insupportofthesubmissionthatservedthepowerofthe industrialists.

Thus,intheearlyindustrialestablishments,thewagesofthe workerswereminuteascomparedwiththeemployers'return.No onecoulddoubtthatthesystemtreateddifferentparticipantsin radicallydifferentways,andthecontrastwasheightenedbythe circumstancethattheindustrialcapitalist,rathermorethanhis merchantpredecessor,livedinfairlyclosejuxtapositiontohis workers.Inequality,thedifferenceinlivingstandardasitwould nowbecalled,wasdramaticallyvisible.Therequisitesocial conditioningtomakethisacceptablecameinanextraordinarily tellingwayinthewritingsoftwohighlyinfluentialfigures, DavidRicardo(1772-1823)andThomasRobertMalthus(17661834),contemporariesandfriends,whounitedinattributingthe lowwagesandtheresultinginequalitytotheprodigiousand devastatingfertilityoftheworkingclasses;itwastheir uninhibitedbreedingthatwasthecauseoftheirpoverty.This keptwagesatsubsistencelevelstheequilibriumtowhich,from theforceofnumbers,theytended.Ricardocalledthistheiron lawofwages.Nottheiniquitousindustrialcapitalist,notthe system,buttheworkerhimselfwasthearchitectofhisown misery.9

TotheconditioningofRicardoandMalthuswereaddedthe viewsoftheutilitarians,whosemostarticulateandcompelling voicewasthatofJeremyBentham(1748-1832).

9ForRicardotheworkeralsosufferedfromthestill-surviving landedinterest."Theinterestofthelandlordisalwaysopposedto thatoftheconsumerandmanufacturer." Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London:EverymanEdition,1926),p.225.

AsquotedinEricRoll, A History of Economic Thought,rev.ed. (NewYork:Prentice-Hall,1942),p 198

Page117

Benthamandhisfollowersurgedthetestingofallpublicaction bytherule"Thegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber."The policythatbestservedthisendwasoneoflaissez-faire.The freedomoftheindustrialisttofollowhisowninterestthus becameamatterofhighsocialprinciple.Theresultmightnotbe perfect,butitwasthebestpossible.Implicitand,insome measure,explicitwastheideathatnotallcouldprosper;some mustfallbythewaysideinorderthatthegreatestnumberbe served.Sufferinganddeprivationwereinevitableeveninthis bestofallpossibleworlds.

Therewasmoreyettocome,anditcameinthelatterhalfofthe centuryinEnglandwithHerbertSpencer(1820-1903),whose wordsechoedstronglyacrosstheAtlantic.Inworksof impressivescholarship,Spencermadetheultimatecasefor industrialcapitalism:itwasthemanifestationofDarwininthe socialorder;itsgoverningprinciplewasthesurvivalofthe fittest.Thegreatindustrialcapitalists,astheynowwere,were greatbecausetheywerebiologicallysuperior;thepoorwere poorbecausetheywereinferior.Wealthwastherewardofthose whowereinherentlybetter;theefforttoattainitbothrevealed anddevelopedthatsuperiority.Thepovertyofthepoorwasnow seentobesociallygood;itcontributedtotheeuthanasiaofthe weakestelementsofthesociety.WilliamGrahamSumner(18401910)ofYale,themostresonantAmericaneconomicvoiceof thetime,extendedSpencer'sinfluenceintheUnitedStates.So,if lessformally,didHenryWardBeecher(1813-1887)"God intendedthegreattobegreatandthelittletobelittle."

Therewasalsotheimportantserviceoftheeconomichedonists andtheassociatedmarginalists.Thehedonists,bestrepresented inthewritingsofWilliamStanleyJevons

Page118 (1835-1882),heldthattheenduringandcomprehensiveaimof manwasalwaystomaximizepleasure,minimizepain.Tothis endtheserviceofgoods,theirutility,wascentral.So, accordingly,wasthatoftheindustrialistwhoprovidedthem. Jevonsalsosuppliedtherationalefortheprincipalcalculation relatingtohumanwelfare,theadjustmentofpurchasessothat eachwasextendedtothepointwherepleasureor,inanycase, satisfactionwasthesamewasequalizedatthemargin.The precisionofthisexercise,itfollowed,andnotthepricesor performanceoftheindustrialist,waswhatwasimportantto humanwell-being.

Further,andenduring,conditioningcamefromthegreatItalian sociologistandeconomistVilfredoPareto(1848-1923),who dealtexplicitlywiththeinequalityinthedistributionofincome underhighcapitalism.Thisunequaldistribution,hedetermined, wasaconstantindifferentindustrialcountriesatdifferenttimes. Andhewentontoconcludethatthis"constancyofinequalityin thedistributionofincomereflectsinequalityofhumanability, whichisanaturalanduniversalcategory."10

Giventhestarklyvisibleinequalityunderhighcapitalism,the serviceabilityofthisconclusionwillalsobeevident.Tracesof Pareto's"law"enduredformanydecadesineconomic instruction.11

10AsquotedinRoll, History of Economic Thought,p.453.

11Notalloftheconditioninginsupportofhighcapitalismserved.Thus anengaginglineofargumentjustifiedthereturntocapitaland thereforetothecapitalistastherewardforabstinenceforrefraining fromconsumption.Theabstinencetheoriesofcapitalenjoyedanot whollyinsignificantplaceineconomicthoughtinthenineteenth centuryandearlyinthetwentieth.Theywere,alas,ratherobtrusively inconsistentwiththestyleoflivingofthegreatcapitalists,astylethat

madeithardtosuggestthattheirself-denialhadbeensopainfulasto requirereward

Withalloftheforegoingwentthecontinuingcelebrationofthe market.Notonlydiditsuninhibitedoperationaccordthegreatest goodtothegreatestnumber,butitwasalsoaneffectivesolvent andconcealmentofthepowerofindustrialcapitalism.Prices weresetbythemarket.Wagesweresetbythemarket.Sowere thepricesofalltheotherrequisitesofproduction.Production decisionswereinresponsetothemarket.Onnoneofthese mattersdidtheindustrialisthavepower;hencetherecouldbeno legitimateconcernastoitsexercise.Onlythoseinsufficiently instructedinthenatureofthemarketcouldbelievehispowerto exist.Herewasthesupremeconditioningachievementofwhat hascometobecalledclassicaleconomics.Itguidedthepowerof theindustrialist,howeveragainsthisintention,togoodsocial ends;italsodeniedtheexistenceofsuchpower.Andittaught thistoallwhosoughttounderstandtheworkingsofthe system.12 Thisinstruction,needlesstosay,still

12Thesocialconditioningofhighcapitalism,itshouldbenoticed, wasadjustedtonationalneed.England,includingsouthernScotland, hadalargeheadstartinindustrialdevelopment.Freeentryof manufacturesintoothermarketswasmuchtobedesired;protection, particularlyonfoodgrains,raisedthecostoflivingandthusthecost ofhomelabor.American,German,andFrenchindustrialists,coming lateronthescene,neededprotectionfromtheBritishimports. Accordingly,intheUnitedStates,Germany,andFrance,the classicalideasontradewereamendedtoembraceaneeded componentoftariffprotection.HenryCharlesCarey(1793-1879), themostinfluentialAmericaneconomistofthelastcentury,and FriedrichList(1789-1846),hiscounterpartinGermany,wrote eloquentlyandeffectivelyonthedesirabilityofprotectivetariffs; freetradewasanimpracticalanddamagingpolicy.IntheUnited StatesandGermanytheideasofCareyandListwerethoughthighly

reputableandgreatlyapproved.

Page120

persists.Nothingissoimportantinthedefenseofthemodern corporationastheargumentthatitspowerdoesnotexistthatall powerissurrenderedtotheimpersonalplayofthemarket,all decisionisinresponsetotheinstructionofthemarket.And nothingismoreserviceablethantheresultingconditioningofthe youngtothatbelief.

XIII

TheResponse

Wehaveseenthatanyexerciseofpowerproducesagenerally similarandoppositeexercise.Sowiththepowerofhigh capitalism.Theresponseitinducedbeganinthemiddleofthe lastcentury,althoughithadearliermanifestations.Itcentered notonthecomparativelymildsubmissionofconsumersofthe productsofindustrialcapitalism(although,asrailroadusers,oil buyers,andothers,theywereheardfrom)butonthemuchmore comprehensive,muchmoreoneroussubmissionrequiredofits workers.Itssourceswereinpersonalityandorganization.The personalitywasthatofKarlMarx,aided,abetted,andfinanced byhislifelongfriendFriedrichEngels.Theorganizationlayin theWorkingmen'sAssociationof1864,usuallycalledtheFirst International,theparentofagreatnumberoflesserandlater groups.

AstotheinstrumentsofenforcementoftheMarxistrevolt:there wasnoappreciablecontinuingemphasisoncondignpower,but itwould,ofcourse,berequiredfortheoverthrowofcapitalism initslastattenuateddays.Norwasanycompensatorypower immediatelyinvolved;thatwould,

Page122 instead,betherewardofthebettertimesaftertherevolution. Overwhelmingly,theMarxistinstrumentwasconditionedpower tothenearexclusionofbothoftheothermeansofenforcement. ItwastothisthatMarxdevotedhimselfoveralifetime,asdid hisfollowers.Hiswritings Capital, The Communist Manifesto, andnumerouslessertractswerethetextevenastheBibleand theQuranwereforthereligiouslycommitted.Fromtheseworks, inthousandsofspeeches,meetings,studygroups,andunion halls,cametheinstructionbyhisacolytes.Asanexerciseof power,itparalleledand,inmanyrespects,rivaledthatofthe Churchitself.Attackingpropertyasasourceofpower,Marx showed,asnosecularfigurehadbefore,howsocialconditioning couldbeaninstrumentforexercisingpower.1

2

Marx'suseofconditionedpowercametobearsymmetricallyon theclassicaleconomistswhowerethesourceoftheconditioned powerofindustrialcapitalismandalsoapointofmajorMarxist emphasisonthefinancialintegumentbywhichcapitalistpurpose wasunited.HeacceptedabasictenetearlierpostulatedbySmith andRicardo:goodshavevalueinproportiontothelabor incorporatedthereinthelabortheoryofvalue.ButitwasMarx's casethatonlyafractionofthisvaluewasreturnedtotheworker inhiswages;surplusvalueintheformofinterest,profits,and rentswasappropriatedbythecapitalist.Wageswerekeptlowby thepressureofunemploymentbytheomnipresentindustrial reservearmyinurgentneedofwork.Should

1OfthisMarxhimselfwascertain.''Ineveryepoch,therulingideas havebeentheideasoftherulingclass."KarlMarxandFriedrich Engels,TheCommunistManifesto.

123

wagesrisebecauseofanunnaturalscarcityofworkers,this wouldprovokeacrisis,inmodernlanguageadepression.Such crises,occurringwithever-increasingseverity,wouldultimately bringanendtocapitalistpower.Alsoinducingtothedemise wouldbethegreatprocessofcapitalistconcentration:large capitalistswouldgobbleupthesmallerbusinessmenorforce themintotheproletariat.Notthecompetitionoftheclassical economistsbutthemonopolytheydeploredwasonthewaveof thefuture.Alongwiththecrises,attenuationandweaknessfrom theconcentrationwouldcontributetothefinalcollapse.While thesystemwouldfalllargelyofitsownincompetentweight, Marxdidnotexcludesomeexerciseofcondignpower revolutionaryactionwhenthedaycame.

Seeingthecontemporarystateastheinstrumentofcapitalist power"anexecutivecommitteeformanagingtheaffairsofthe governingclassasawhole"Marxnaturallysawthe postrevolutionarygovernmentastheinstrumentofthenowtriumphantworkers,theworkers'state.Inthatstate,needlessto say,workerswouldenjoythefullfruitsoftheirlabor.The organizationthatwouldmakethispossibleremained,perhaps conveniently,obscure.Hadthebureaucraticstructurethatwould berequiredbeenfullyenvisaged,itwouldhavecostsomething inapproval.2

Alloftheabove,andofcoursemuchmore,passedfromthepen ofMarxintotheconditionedbeliefthatsustainedhis 2ApointonwhichJosephSchumpeterwasprescient."Iforone cannotvisualize,intheconditionsofmodernsociety,asocialist organizationinanyformotherthanthatofahugeandall-embracing bureaucraticapparatus."Capitalism,Socialism,andDemocracy,2nd

ed.(NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1947),P.206.

Page124

power.Itwasandremainsanextraordinaryachievement.Fora centuryandmoreafteritwaswritten,itwouldcapturetheminds andthusthesubmissionofmillions.Andtherewouldbe testamenttoitseffectivenessfromthosewhodissapprovedof andfearedit.MarxistpropagandasocialconditioningbyMarx andhisfollowersmbecamesynonymouswithmassiveevil. MarxistteachingincollegesanduniversitiesandMarxistbooks inlibrariesinviteddeepconcernasinstrumentsofhispower. Thosewhovoicedhisideaswerekeptonthesocialfringe;they werenottobetrustedwithgravepublicorprivateresponsibility. AsMarxrightlysensedtheforceoftheconditionedpowerhe challenged,soequallythosewhoresistedhimsensedhispower.

4

Greatasitwasandgreataswasthefearthatitaroused,Marxist powerfailedeverywhereintheindustrializedcountriesinfaceof thenormalmanifestationofindustrialcapitalistpower.The latter,combiningpropertyandorganizationassourcesofpower withastrongdeploymentofcompensatoryanditsown conditionedpower,wastoostrong.TheMarxistsuccesscamein thelargelyorwhollypreindustrialcommunitiesofRussiaand China,3 whereitwasaidedbythebreakdownofthepreindustrial stateastheresultofwarandinternalconflict.Inbothcases Marxistorganizationandsocialconditioningmovedintoapower vacuumacontextinwhichpersonality,property,and organizationhaddissolvedassourcesofpowerandcondign, compensatory,andconditionedinstrumentsofitsenforcement hadbecomenugatoryorlargelyso.

ThoughMarxdidnotsucceedinanypracticalwayin 3As,inverymarginalfashion,inAfricaandalsoinCuba.

125

WesternEuropeorJapan,hissocialconditioningwasdeepand enduringthere.HewasnotasinfluentialinBritain,wherealess strenuousparliamentarysocialismcapturedtheanticapitalist response.AndhehadbutslighteffectamongAmericanworkers. Onceagainthereasonsareevidentwhenthecorpusofpoweris dissected.Marx,asapersonality,wasdistantfromtheUnited States,farfrombeingevocativetotheAmericanworker.The Marxistorganizationdidnotextendeffectivelyacrossthe Atlantic.Mostofall,thesocialconditioning,whichwassuperbly relevanttoEurope,wasmuchlesssointheUnitedStates,where propertywasmorewidelypossessedandwageswerehigher. Also,theAmericanworkerdidnotseehisownsubmissiontohis employerasinevitable;hecouldescapetoanotherjobor,on occasion,tothefrontier.Hisgovernment,howeversubjecttothe needsofindustrialcapitalism,alsoconveyedagreater impressionofaccessibilitytotheindividualthandidthe governmentsofEurope.Itisatleastpossible,aswell,that Americanworkerswereintellectuallymoreimmunetothesocial conditioningofeconomicandpoliticalthoughtthanweretheir Europeancounterparts.Itwasnotpartoftheireveryday discussionorprominentintheirreadingoreducation.

Noneofthisistosaythatthepowerofindustrialcapitalismin theUnitedStatesfailedtoproduceacountervailingeffort.Asthe nineteenthcenturypassed,thesmallerpropertyowners, particularlythefarmers,foundthemselvesinincreasing oppositiontotheindustrialistsandmoreespeciallytheirfinancial allies,whowerethoughttobeexercisingtheirpowertokeep farmpriceslowandcosts,includingthecostofmoney,high. Thisproducedthesocialconditioningthecounteringagitation, particularlyagainstthefinancialintereststhatextendedfrom AndrewJacksontoWilliamJenningsBryan.Fortheworking

classesthe

KnightsofLaborandtheIWW(IndustrialWorkersofthe World)alsogavebriefbutvigorousexpressiontoworker dissent.However,neithertheagrariannortheproletarian responsesucceededinfaceofthevastlysuperiordeploymentof thevariouselementsofindustrialandfinancialpower.

Attheendofthecentury,ThorsteinVeblenridiculedthesocial observancesandfolkritesoftheindustrialrichwithsuperbskill. Intheyearsfollowing,themuckrakerscelebratedtheavarice, cupidity,and,needlesstosay,theabuseofpowerbythe capitalists.This,too,achievedacertainconditionedbeliefbut wasneveraseriousthreat.

Amorearticulateanddurablereactiontoindustrialpowerinthe UnitedStatescamenotfromMarxbutfromwithinthebodyof classicaleconomicsitself.Accordingtoitsdoctrine,capitalist powerwastobecounteredbytheoperationofcompetitionand themarket;itwastobefirmlyintheserviceofthepublic, whatevertheintentionofitspossessormightbe.Thedissenting responsetoindustrialpowerintheUnitedStatesacceptedthatall thiswasso;itwasonlythatmonopolies,highlyvisibleinsteel, oil,tobacco,andtherailroads,wereinpalpableconflictwiththe competitiveideal.Theanswertothepowersoassertedwasto restorecompetitioninthoseindustriesor,werethatimpossible, toprovidesuitableregulation.Thustheresponsetoindustrial capitalistpowertooktheformofproposalsforbreakingupthe greattrusts,forthepassageoflegislationtothiseffect,andfor regulationoftherailroads.Itwasnotwithoutresult.Itbrought thepassageoftheInterstateCommerceActin1887,the ShermanAntitrustActthreeyearslater,andtheClayton AntitrustandFederalTradeCommissionactsinthe administrationofWoodrowWilson.Inalloftheseactionsthose reactingtoindustrialpoweracceptedthebasicpremisesof

industrialcapitalistconditioning.Thebenefi-

cenceofthemarketwasnotindoubt;itwasonlynecessarythat policyrecognizeandactwherethepremisesdidnothold.

Itwasalso,asregardsthepowerofindustrialcapitalism,a largelyharmlessresponse.Enforcementoftheantitrustlaws involvedmuchcherishedemploymentandrevenueforlawyers andsomeinconvenienceandcosttothosewhosepowerwasso challenged.Ithad,however,anegligibleeffectonindustrial development,includingcompetition,andthusontherelevant sourceofindustrialpower.(Therewasnoperceptibledifference intheindustrialdevelopmentandre-suitingconcentrationinthe UnitedStates,whereitwaspolicytopromotecompetition,and inEurope,wherenosucheffortwasmade.)Atthesametime, theemotionandeffortofthosewhoreactedtoindustrialpower werechanneledharmlesslyintodemandsandhopesthatthe antitrustlawsmightbeenforcedahopethat,transcendingall experience,isnotyetquitedead.Andeventhosemostopposed toindustrialpowercouldcontinuetoinstructtheyounginthe desirabilityofmarketcompetitionandintheprospectthatone dayitwouldbeachieved.Hadindustrialcapitalismdesignedthe conditionedresponsetoitsownpower,itcouldscarcelyhave donebetter.

Afinalwordisnecessaryontheroleandpowerofthestatein theageofhighcapitalism.Marx'sdeathlessobservationthatthe stateistheexecutivecommitteeofthegoverningclassesowes moretoitsbrilliantlyarticulatedcoreoftruththantoitsprecise descriptionofthereality.Thepowerofthestateitslawsand theircondignenforcement,itscompensatorypower,as,for example,inthelandgrantsto

theAmericanandCanadianrailroads,anditsgeneralsocial conditioningthrougheducationandthereiterationofthe conventionalwisdomonthevaluesofwork,obedience,selfhelp,decentfrugality,andmuchmorewasexercisedonbehalfof theindustrialpowerandveryoftenatitsbehest.Thestatewasan extensionoftheinstrumentsofenforcementofindustrial capitalism;itdidforindustrialcapitalismwhatindustrial capitalismcouldnotdoforitself.ThattheUnitedStates governmentorthatofBritainmightberegardedasanenemyof business,acommonplaceconceptiontoday,wouldnothave enteredanyone'smindinthemiddleofthelastcentury.

Buttoassignthenineteenth-centurystateexclusivelytothe serviceofhighindustrialcapitalismwouldalsobewrong. Individualcitizenswiththeirprivilegeofthefranchisehada similarclaimonthepowersofthegovernment.Thestate protectedpersonsaswellasproperty;and,inaprimitiveway,it couldbecalledontoprotectpersonsfromthedepredationsof thepossessorsofproperty.Andotherinterestsfarmers,small businessmen,religiousgroups,insomeindustrialcountriesthe oldlandedclasseshadacertainaccesstogovernmentpower.

Norwasallstatepowerexercisedonbehalfoforatthebehestof others.Reachingbacktoitsownsourcesitsevocative personalities(Presidents,primeministers,otherpoliticians),its property,anditsdevelopingorganizationgovernmentalso deployedcondign,compensatory,andconditionedpowerforits ownpurposes.TendenciesWerepresent,notablyinorganization, that,inthetwentiethcentury,wouldmakegovernmentan independentforceintheexerciseofpower.Theywould,aswe shallsee,maketheword bureaucracy asynonymforsuch independentexerciseandforitspresumedabuse.

Noonelookingattheroleofideasindefenseofcapitalisminthe lastcenturyandextendingintothisoneoratthoseinconflict withitcandoubttheirserviceeitherinsupportofthepowerof thecapitalistsystemorinopposition.Ideasmadetheindustrial capitalistseemthepowerlessandbenigninstrumentofthe market;inresponse,countervailingideasmadehimseemthe primeforceinsubduingandexploitingtheworker.Thusthe strengthofsocialconditioningbothonbehalfofthepowerof highcapitalismandinsymmetricalreply.Aquestiontouched uponinthelastchapterremains:towhatextentwasthissocial conditioningdeliberatelyandartfullycontrived?Towhatextent wasittheproductofmenSmith,Ricardo,Malthus,Bentham, Spencer,Marx,Engelswhotrulybelievedtheyweredealing withthereality?

Overwhelmingly,itwasthelatter.Noone,indeed,should supposethateffectivesocialconditioningisalwaysconfinedto thosewhobelievewhattheysay.Inmoderntimesthevastand costlypublicrelationsandadvertisingindustryavowspersonal, business,andpoliticalvirtueandpursueslegislativeandmarket needsinaspiritofforthrightcontrivance.Thoselucratively involvedwouldnotdreamofbelievingwhattheyinventor avow.Contrivanceisabusinessonwhichtruthdoesnot impinge.Inmoresubtlefashion,scholarsandpublicistswho dealinsocialinterpretationanddescriptiontakeaccountoftheir audience,andassessthequalityoftheirownideas,bytheextent andvolumeofthereputableapplause.

Itwasnotsoofthegreatexponentsofcapitalistconditioning.Or ofMarx.Itcannotbeimaginedthattheclassi-

caldefendersofhighcapitalismwhollyignoredtheapproval theyevoked.Marx,amanofnotablyindependentinstinct, behavior,andthought,wascertainlynotindifferenttothe responseofworkersoraboveadjustinghiswritingandspeechto enhancethatresponse.Butthestrongestdefenseofcapitalism themostpowerfulsocialconditioningcamefromthosewho believeddeeplyintheanalysis,description,andprescriptionthey offered.Itwasthesamewiththosewholedtheattack.Social conditioningdidnotoriginatewiththoseskilledincontrivance. Itcame,initially,fromthosewhothoughtthemselvesdeeplyin harmonywiththetruth.

XIV

TheAgeofOrganization

Thesocialconditioningofhighcapitalismwasbroadanddeep. Sowasthecounteringresponseitengendered.Andboth continueinfluentialtothisday.Themarketremainstomanythe solventofindustrialpower;themoderncorporationisstill thoughttobeledasbyaninvisiblehandtowhatissociallythe best.TheMarxistideasarestillaspecterofevilorhope.And hereinliesoneoftheproblemsofsocialconditioningasan instrumentofpower:itisacceptedastherealitybythosewho employit,butthen,asunderlyingcircumstanceschange,the conditioningdoesnot.Sinceitisconsidered the reality,it concealsthenewreality.Soitisinthemostrecentgreat movementinthedynamicsofpowertheriseoforganizationasa sourceofpowerandtheconcurrentlesseninginthecomparative rolesofpersonalityandproperty.Theoldervisionofthe economicorderisStillavowed,andforitpolicyisstill prescribed.Meanwhileaneworderhasarrivedandhasthe modernrelevance.Overthistheoldersocialconditioning spreadsadeepdisguise.

Theriseoforganizationinmodemtimesis,forthose

Page132 whoarewillingtoseeit,clearlyvisible.Itsinfluenceisfeltin theeconomy,inthepolity,andinthespecialandsombercaseof themilitarypower;itmanifestsitselfinahundredformsof citizenand(asitiscalled)special-interestefforttowinthe submissionofothers,eitherdirectlyorbywayofthestate.The management-controlledcorporation,thetradeunion,themodern bureaucraticstate,groupsoffarmersandoilproducersworking inclosealliancewithgovernments,tradeassociations,and lobbiesallaremanifestationsoftheageoforganization.Allattest toarelativedeclineintheimportanceofbothpersonalityand, thoughinlessermeasure,propertyassourcesofpower.Andall signifyahugelyincreasedrelianceonsocialconditioningasan instrumentfortheenforcementofpower.Property,asearlier observed,hasmuchofitsremainingimportanceasasourceof powernotinthesubmissionitpurchasesdirectlybutinthe specialconditioningbywayofthemediatelevision commercials,radiocommercials,newspaperadvertising,andthe artistryofadvertisingagenciesandpublicrelationsfirmsfor whichitcanpay.

2

Theshiftinthesourcesofpowerinthemodernbusiness enterpriseisofthemoststrikingclarity.Thedominant personalitiesofhighcapitalismhavedisappeared.Duringthelast centuryandintothepresentone,thenamesofthegreat entrepreneursweresynonymouswiththeAmericanindustrial scene.Andthecasewasthesame,iflessdramaticallyso,inthe otherindustrialcountries.Now,outsidetheparticularindustry andnotalwaystherein,nooneknowsthenameoftheheadof GeneralMotors,Ford,Exxon,DuPont,ortheotherlarge corporations.Thepower-

Page133 fulpersonalityhasbeenreplacedbythemanagementteam;the entrepreneurhasyieldedtothefacelessorganizationman.Thus thedeclineofpersonalityasasourceofpower.

Theroleofpropertyhassimilarlydeclined.Intheageofhigh capitalismnonecoulddoubtthepoweroriginatinginthe ownershipofcapital.Itwasthispropertythataccordedtheright torunthebusiness,anditwasthisthatgaveaccesstoinfluence inlegislatures,overPresidentsandprimeministers,andwiththe publicatlarge.Propertyasasourceofindustrialpowerisnot negligiblenowaseverinthesematterstherearenoperfectcases butithas,nonetheless,sufferedamajorrelativedecline.The thousandlargestindustrialenterprisesintheUnitedStates,all vastorganizations,currentlycontributeabouttwothirdsofall privateproductionofgoodsandservices,andtheconcentration ofeconomicactivityhasfollowedasimilarcourseintheother industrialcountries.Infewofthesecorporationsandinnoneof thebiggestdoesownershipbytheindividualstockholdergive accesstoauthoritywithinthefirm.Thishaslongbeenso;itis fiftyyearssincethepioneeringscholarsAdolfA.Berle,Jr.,and GardinerC.Meansconcludedthatinthemajorityofthelargest twohundredcorporationsintheUnitedStatescontrolhadpassed tothemanagement,whichistosaythemanagerselectedthe boardofdirectors,whichthen,inanincestuousway,selectedthe managementthathadselectedthem.1

1TheModernCorporationandPrivateProperty(NewYork: Macmillan,1933).Theshiftinpowerwasfurtheraffirmedbythe studiesofR.A.Gordon,amongthem Business Leadership in the Large Corporation (Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,1945), andinthemoregeneralwritingsofJamesBurnham.SeeThe Managerial Revolution (NewYork:JohnDay,1941).The bureaucratizationofmodemeconomicenterprisewasstrongly emphasizedbyJosephA.Schumpeter''itisaninevitable

complementtomodemeconomicdevelopment"in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy,ended (NewYork:Harperand Brothers,x947),P.2o6.Itisobviousthat (Footnote continued on next page)

Thecontinuingtransferofpowerfromownerstomanagersfrom propertytoorganizationhasbeenapervasivelycharacteristic featureofindustrialdevelopmenteversince.

Twofactorscontributedtothedeclineofpropertyinrelationto management.Withthepassageoftime,ownershipholdingsin theenterpriseweredispersedbyinheritance,including, inevitably,tosomeheirseminentlydisqualifiedbydispositionor intelligencetoexercisethepowerthatpropertyconferred.And, atthesametime,theindustrialtasksbecameincreasingly complex.Corporatesize,sophisticatedtechnology,andtheneed forspecializedmanagementandmarketingskillsunitedto excludefromdecisionmakingthosewhoseprincipal qualificationwastheownershipoftheproperty.Powerpassed beyondtheintellectualreachofthenonparticipantandthus beyondhisorhercapacitytointerveneeffectively.And increasinglywithintheenterprise,decisionsemergednotfrom thesinglecompetenceofanyoneindividualbutfromtheseveral contributionsofspecialistsmeetingincommitteeorclosedaily association.2

Thedeclineofpropertyinrelationtoorganizationasasourceof powerhasnotbeenacceptedeasily.Acertainlegitimacyisstill thoughttobeattachedtoproperty.Itsimportanceisaffirmedby quasi-religiousobservances;theyoungarestilltoldthat ultimate powerinthemoderncorporationrestswiththestockholder. "When,forexample,

(Footnote continued from previous page) theshiftfrompropertytoorganizationastheprimesourceofpower intheindustrialenterpriseisnotadiscoveryofrecentdate.Fora comprehensivecontemporarytreatmentofthissubjectseeEdward S.Herman, Corporate Control, Corporate Power (ATwentieth CenturyFundStudy)(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,

1981).

2ThesearematterswithwhichIhavedealtin The New Industrial State,3rd.ed.(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1978).C.WrightMillsmade thepointsometwenty-fiveyearsago:"Decision-making...atthetop [ofthecorporation]isslowlybeingreplacedbytheworried-over effortsofcommittees,whojudgeideastossedbeforethem,usually frombelowthetoplevels."(The Power Elite [NewYork:Oxford UniversityPress,1956],p.134.)

Page135

JohnpurchasedanewissueofstockfromtheKeimCorporation lastyear...[itgave]himavoiceinthedecisionof'his'firm's managementwhenhemeetswithotherstockholdersatannual meetings."3 Universityfacultiesandstudentslaborunderthe beliefthat,bytheexerciseofitsvoteinstockholders'meetings, theirinstitutioncansubstantiallyaffectcorporatedecisions.At suchyearlymeetingsarepetitivelydevoutobeisanceisaccorded topropertyownership;theobligatoryreference,asindicatedby theDepartmentofCommercepamphletquotedabove,isto"your company."Noimportantmanagementdecisionsareeveraltered byanyoftheseobservances.4

3

Withtheshiftinthesourcesofpowerfrompersonalityand propertytoorganizationwentamarkeddiminutionintherelative effectivenessofcompensatorypowerand,asmightbeexpected, averygreatincreaseintheexerciseofconditionedpower.This wasevident,amongotherplaces,intherelationshipofthe industrialfirmtotheunion,ofwhichearliermentionhasbeen made.Thetradeunion,asacountervailingexerciseofpowerin thepurchaseoflabor,hademergedbeforetheageof organization.Wehaveseenthatitmetwithafarmoreadamant oppositionfromtheearlyentrepreneursintheUnitedStatesfrom HenryClay

3From"DoYouKnowYourEconomicABC's?Profitsinthe AmericanEconomy,"aninstructionalpamphletoneconomics (Washington,D.C.:UnitedStatesDepartmentofCommerce,x965), pp.17-18.

4"[S]tockholders,thoughstillpolitelycalled'owners,'arepassive. Theyhavetherighttoreceiveonly.Theconditionoftheirbeingisthat theydonotinterfereinmanagement.Neitherinlawnor,asarule,in factdotheyhavethatcapacity."AdolfA.Berle,Jr., Power Without

Property: A New Development in American Political Economy (New York:Harcourt,Brace,1959),P 74

136

Frick,HenryFord,andSewellAvery5 thanfromthe organizationmen.Theproperty-owningindustrialistwas frequentlyinterestedinpowerforitsownsake,insubduingthe workersasanactofpersonalwillandpurpose;avicepresident inchargeoflaborrelations,ontheotherhand,ismeasuredin partbyhisabilitytokeepthepeace.Andanotinsignificantpoint heisnotdefendinghisownpersonalpropertyfromthe aggressionsoftheworkers.Theageoforganization6.hasthus broughtamajoreasingofthecompensatorypoweronce exercisedoverthelaborforce.

Whenitcametotheexerciseofthesamekindofpowerover consumersorcustomers,thechangewiththeriseoforganization wasrathermoresubtleand,insomerespects,contradictoryin practicaleffect.Here,aswiththeemploymentofworkers,power consistsatitsgreatestingettingthemostsubmissionfortheleast cost.Muchcanbehadforlittleifthebuyer'sneedisgreatandif alternativesarenotavailable;theconsumerisexploited,asisthe workerintheparallelcaseofsubmission.Theclassicexampleof suchexerciseofpoweristhemonopolyofsomeessentialor much-desiredproductforwhichthereisnoclearsubstitute;there beingnoalternativeseller,theneedandpowerarelarge. Competitionentersastheremedy;henceitsreputationasthe basicsolventofpower.

Organizationandassociatedindustrialdevelopmenthavehada marked,evenprofound,effectonbothcompetitionand monopoly.Amajorpurposeofthegreatindustrialenterprise,the laborunion,thefarmorganization,theorganizationof petroleum-exportingstates,ortheprofessional

5OfCarnegiebecomeUnitedStatesSteel,theFordMotor Company,andMontgomeryWard,respectively.

6Along,ofcourse,withtheeffectofhigherwages,unemployment compensation,andSocialSecurity,allofwhichhavewidenedthegap betweencondignandcompensatorypowerandloweredthelevelof compulsionassociatedwiththelatter.

137 ortradeassociation,istorestrainoreliminatepricecompetition toensure,sofarasmaybepossible,thatthereisnoalternativeat alowerprice.Inthecaseofmodernindustrialenterprises,this doesnotrequireformalcommunication;itissufficientthatthere beacommonunderstandingthatpricecompetition,ifallowedto getoutofhand,willbeatcosttothepowerofall.Eventhe classicaltraditionineconomicshascomegenerallytoconcede thecommitmenttosuchimplicitrestrainttowhatiscalled oligopolypricing.Thusaprimarypurposeoforganizationhas beentoescapethepower-limitingtendencies,otherwisecalled thediscipline,ofthemarket,andthishasbeenwidelysuccessful.

Butopposinginfluenceshavealsobeenatwork.Theaffluence associatedwithmodernindustrialdevelopmenthasgreatly diminishedthepressureofanygivenconsumerneed;the expansioninthenumberandvarietyofproductsandserviceshas directlyincreasedthealternativesavailabletotheconsumer.The choiceamongconsumerproductsisinfinitelygreaterthaninthe lastcenturyandtherewiththesourcesofenjoymentand ostentation.Consequently,monopolyhasceasedtobetheogre thatitwasintheearlierdaysofcompensatorypower.Thosewho mightbesubjecttoitsforcehavethepossibilitynowofbuying somethingelseornotbuyingatall.Alittle-noticedbuthighly significantresultisthatmonopolyasasocialillhasceased,in recenttimes,tobeanimportantsubjectofagitationinthe industriallands.

Theconsequenceofthisdevelopmenthasbeenamajorshift fromcompensatorytoconditionedpower.Oneanswertothe excessiveavailabilityofalternativesistopersuadepeoplethat theyarenot real alternativestocultivatethebeliefthatthe productorserviceinquestionhasqualitiesthatareunique.From thiscomesthemassivemoderncom-

mitmenttocommercialadvertising.Advertisingisnot,assome wouldsuggest,anewandvitalformofmarketcompetition. Rather,itseeksthroughconditionedpowertoretainsomeofthe authorityoverthebuyerthatwasearlierassociatedwith compensatorypower.

Thechangehereisevidentinthesymmetricalresponseof consumerstothepowerofsellersofgoodsandservices.When theyweresubjecttocompensatorypowertothepowerthat requiredofthemmuchforlittletheyestablishedcooperativesor buyingassociationstoexerciseacompensatorypoweroftheir owninreturn.Thesegroupssoughttobuymoreforless, developedalternativesourcesofsupply,orappealedtothe governmenttoregulatepricesorotherwisedissolvethemarket poweroftheseller.Thepriceoftheproduct,theindexofrelative compensatorypower,wasthecentralconcern.Thisissono longer.Thepreoccupationofthemodernconsumerisnowall butexclusivelywiththeadvertisingoftheproduct,with counteringtheexerciseofconditionedpowerinordertolearn whatistrueorwhatisdeemedtobetrue.Thisisalsomanifestin theactionsofgovernmentagenciesonbehalfoftheconsumer.

Pricesarebestanafterthought;centraltoallconcernisthe validityofadvertisingclaims,whatpassesfortruthin advertising.Thisisthemodernpurposeoftheconsumer movement;itisthepredictableresponsetothepassagefromthe exerciseofcompensatorypowertotheexerciseofconditioned power.

Whenthemodernindustrialenterpriseseekssupportforits purposesfromthestate,conditionedpowerisagainthe instrumentthatitinvokesorthatisultimatelyinvolved.

Theforthrightpurchaseoflegislatorsandotherpublicofficialsis notunknown;however,itisnowregardedasoffendingthefiner ethicalsense,and,toaconsiderableextent,ithasalsobeen suppressedbylaw.Themajorexerciseofpowerbythe corporationoverthelegislatororpublicofficialisbycultivating beliefinitsneedsorpurposeseitherdirectlyorinthe constituencytowhichheisbeholden.Whatiscalledapowerful lobbyisoneskilledinsuchdirectconditioningoronethatcan appealeffectivelytosizableresponsivegroupsandassociations andthroughthemtotheirpoliticalrepresentatives.7 Noonecan supposethatpecuniaryresourcespropertyareunimportantinthis connection.However,theyhavetheirimportancenotindirect compensatoryactionbut,asearliernoted,inthelargersocial conditioningtheycanbuy,includingthatwhichmaybeusedon behalfofapliableorsupportivelegislatororagainstonewhois adverselyinclined.

Theexerciseofconditionedpowerinthemodernstatethe persuasionoflegislators,publicofficials,ortheirconstituencies isnoslightthing.Itassailstheeyesandearsandisasubjectof majorpoliticalcommentandconcern.However,itisprobably notasefficientasthedirectpurchase,orcompensatorypower, thatwascommonplaceintheeraofhighcapitalism.Also,aswe havealreadyseen,compensatorypowerhaditsinescapable nexuswithproperty,andproperty,inturn,waspossessedin largestamountbytheindustrialcapitalists.Conditionedpower alsorequirespecuniaryresourcestopayforthediverseformsof persuasiontelevision,radio,andnewspaperadvertising, speeches,personalblandishmentonwhichitrelies.Buteven grantingthisneed,itismoregenerallyavailablethanthecom-

7ThusintheUnitedStatesthepowerfortheirownpurposesofwar veterans,peoplelivingonSocialSecurity,andmembersofthe

NationalRifleAssociation.

140

pensatorypoweritreplaces.Resourcescanbefound;moneycan beraised.Insomemeasure,ifoftenveryslight,conditioned powerisavailabletoallwhocanformanorganization.

5

Notonlyisconditionedpowermorewidelyavailableintheage oforganization,butthatavailabletothemodernlarge corporationis,insomerespectsatleast,weakerthanthe conditionedpowerassociatedwiththepre-eminenceofcapitalor propertyinthelastcentury.

Asmassiveorganizationmanifestedinthegreatindustrial enterprisehasbecomethebasicfactofmodernindustriallife,the socialconditioningonwhichitspowerextensivelydependshas not,asalreadynoted,keptpace.Instead,ithasremained basicallyunchangedfromtheageofclassicalcapitalism.Power isstillheldtobedissolvedbythemarketandbycompetition. Anditisassumedthatpower,whateveritsintention,isalways guidedtosociallydesirableendsbythemiracleofthemarket andthecompetitivestruggletherein.Inconsequence,thesocial conditioningofthelastcenturyisperpetuatedincircumstances ofincreasingimplausibilityintheworldofgreatorganizations.

Thecontinuinguseoftheearlierconditioningisvividlyevident ineconomicinstruction.Therealworldisoneofgreat interactingorganizationsgcorporations,unions,andthestate. Theinteractionbetweenunionwageclaimsandcorporateprices hasbecometheprincipalmodemcauseofinflation.Buta textbookthattookasitspointofdeparturetherealityofsuch interactionwouldnotbeacceptableforcollegeoruniversityuse, and,significantly,itwouldnotlenditselftothegeometricaland othermathematicalre-

Page141 finementsthatarecompatiblewiththeassumptionofmarket competitionandwithoutwhichtheteachingofeconomicsisnot consideredwhollyreputable.

Thesocialconditioningthatissustainedbythisinstructiondoes havea.certaineffect.Hundredsofthousandsofotherwise intelligentyoungpeoplehavetheirthoughtsguidedinnocuously awayfromtheexerciseofindustrialpower.Wehaveseenthat powerisservedinmanywaysandthatnoserviceismoreuseful thanthecultivationofthebeliefthatitdoesnotexist."To recognizethatmicroeconomicsmustnowdealwithaworldof pervasiveoligopoly...wouldthreatensomebasicideological defencesofthe laissez-faire system."8

Butsocialconditioning,howeverdeepandpervasive,cannot collidetooobviouslywithreality.Thepresenceandpowerofthe moderngreatcorporationsExxon,GeneralMotors,Shell,Philips arehiddenonlywithincreasingdifficultybehindthemarket facade.Inconsequence,areferencetoneoclassicaleconomics, theconditioningmediumofinstruction,hascometohavea vaguelypejorativesound;somethingnolongerquiterealis implied.Onceeconomicinstructionisperceivednotasthe realitybutastheguidanceawayfromthereality,itsconditioning valueis,notsurprisingly,impaired.

Theconflictwithrealitybecomesgreaterwhentheclassical socialconditioningpassesoutofthefieldofeducationinto everydayexecutiveexpressionandthepublicrelationsand advertisingeffortof.thelargeindustrialfirm.Then qualificationsdisappear;thepower-dissolvingroleofthemarket becomesanabsolute;Exxonisheldtobeindistinguishablefrom thecornergroceryorthevillagepharmacyinitsexerciseof power.Asaconsequence,thepersuasive

8ThomasBalogh, The Irrelevance of Conventional Economics (London:WeidenfeldandNicolson,1982),p.60.

142 effectisconfinedtotheundulysusceptible,thosecapableof believinganythingtoday,who,accordingly,willbelieve somethingelsetomorrow.Foryetothersanimportanteffectof thesocialconditioningofcorporatepropaganda,assignificantly itisoftencalled,istocultivatedisbelief.Theremustbesome misuseofpowerwhenthosewhosoobviouslypossessitareso atpainstodenyhavingit.Intheindustrialcountriesitisnowa minormarkofsophisticationthatonedoesnotbelievewhatone readsorhearsinthepublic-interestadvertisingofthegreat corporation.Theconditionedandcompensatorypowerofthe modernbusinessenterpriseremainsconsiderable,butitcannot besupposedthatitrivalstheforthrightcompensatorypowerof thegreatcapitalistfirmintheageofhighcapitalism.

Thereisafurtherindicationofthisdeclineintherelationofthe moderncorporationtothestate.Inthelastcentury,whenthe statewasanally,anadversaryrelationshipbetweengovernment andbusinesswouldhavebeenunthinkable.Nowgovernment andbusinessarewidelyregardedasmutualenemies.Thesocial conditioningofthemodemcorporateenterpriseisextensively concernedwiththeintrusive,limiting,andotherwisemalign tendenciesofthestate.(Onlyintheareaofmilitarypoweris therefullharmonybetweengovernmentanditsdependent corporateenterprises.)Inimportantmeasure,thereasonliesin theshiftfromcompensatorytoconditionedpower. Compensatorypowerwastheclearmonopolyofthebusiness firm.Thelegislatorsandpublicofficialsitpurchasedwerenot likelytoshowhostilitytotheirpaymasters.Conditionedpower allowsmanymoreinterestsaccesstothestate;someoftheseare hostiletothebusinesspowerandthuscontributetotheadversary relationship,seemingorreal,betweencorporateenterpriseand moderngovernment.

Butthestatealsohaschanged;incontrastwithitsrole

143 inthelastcentury,itismuchlesstheinstrumentofthosewho seekitspower,muchmoreapowerinitsownright. Organizationandconditionedpowerareagaintheoperative forces.Themodernstateencompassesalargeorganization bureaucracywhich,inturn,hasmadethestateextensivelythe instrumentofitsownpurposes.

XV OrganizationandtheState

Inthenineteenthcenturyandcontinuingsomedecadesintothe twentieth,themodernstatewaswidelyseenastheinstrumentof industrialcapitalistpower.OnthisMarxintheEuropean revolutionarytraditionandThorsteinVeblenandLincoln SteffensintheAmericancriticaltraditionwhollyagreed.Itwas, asnoted,anexaggeration;thestatealsoreflectedandservedthe diversepurposesofitscitizensandofthosewhomadeupits structure.Butallemphasiswasonitsservicetoindustrial(and financial)interest.1 Notuntilwellintothiscenturywouldanyone havethoughtofaconflictbetweengovernmentandindustry,a commonplaceexpectationinourownday.Therewasalsointhe lastcenturyacertainexclusivityintheexerciseofindustrial power;bothdirectlyandthroughthestateitwas the power. Nothingrivaledthepersonality,

1''Despiteitscontinuingpreeminenceandpower,andits considerableinfluenceovergovernment,businesshassuffereda relativedecline from its pre-1930s position of almost exclusive domination of government policy "EdwardS.Herman, Corporate Control, Corporate Power (ATwentiethCenturyFundStudy) (Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981),p.185.Italics added.

Page145 property,andorganizationoftheindustrialistinwinning submission.Thisalsoisnolongertrue.Astrikingfeatureofthe ageoforganizationisthehugenumberoforganizedgroupstrade unions,tradeassociations,politicalactioncommittees,farm organizationsthatseektoappropriatetheinstrumentsofpower ofthestatefortheirownpurposes.Andalsothegreaternumber oforganizationswithinthestructureofthestateitself departments,agencies,authorities,publiccorporations,the armedservicesthathavebecomeoriginalsourcesofpower. Thesetwodevelopmentsnowmeritattention.

2

Themodernstateuniteswithinitsstructureallthreesourcesof powerthepoliticalpersonality,propertyintheformofthe resourcesitcommandsanddispenses,andorganization.Ithas manifestaccesstoallthreeinstrumentsofenforcement:it remains,assuggested,thenearlysolepossessorofcondign power;itdeployslargecompensatorypower;anditmakes massiveandgrowinguseofconditionedpower.Allthese sourcesandinstrumentsofpowerwereavailableinsome measureinthelastcenturyandbefore.Whathaschangedistheir absoluteandrelativeimportancewithintheformalstructureof governmentandtheextentanddiversityoftheiruseby organizationsoutsidetheformalstructureofgovernment organizationsthatseektoinvoketheinstrumentsofpowerofthe stateontheirownbehalf.

Inconsideringtheexerciseofpowerthroughandbythemodern state,itisuseful,evennecessary,todistinguishbetweenthe outerandinnerorientationsofthegovernmentandthemediating forcesbetweenthem.Theouterorientationisthelegislature,the voters,andthegreatmassof

Page146 organizationsthatbearonthemanddirectlyonthelegislature itself.Ishallrefertoalltheseastheexteriorprocessesof government.Thereisalsotheinnerorientationthecontinuing structureofgovernment,inmoderntimesaverylargecomplex oforganizations.TheseIshallrefertoastheautonomous processesofgovernment.Theyarebroadly,althoughbyno meanswholly,coterminouswithwhatiscalledthebureaucracy.2 Thepejorativeconnotationcommonlyattachingtothatword expressesthefeelingsofmany,includingcertainrecent PresidentsoftheUnitedStates,3 whoaresubjecttoorinconflict withitspower.Thismustnot,however,betakentomeanthat theautonomousorbureaucraticexerciseofpowerissocially inimical.Onthecontrary,itservesthehighestofcivilized purposesprotectionofthepeoplefromhardship,exploitation, andabuse,thatis,regulationoftheexerciseofcondignpower; supportfortheirlivelihood;supportforindustrialachievement andeducation;advancementofknowledge;encouragementof thearts;preservationofnationalresources;andhundredsof otherfunctions.Inspeakingofautonomousorbureaucratic power,Idonotpassjudgmentonitssocialmerits.4

Standingbetweentheautonomousandtheexteriorprocessesof governmentis,inmanyinstances,anintermediaryprocessinthe UnitedStates,thePresident,hisacolytesandstaff,thecabinet officersandtheirappointedsubordinates.Theseexercisepower andwinsubmissiontotheir

2Thearmedservicesareverymuchapartoftheautonomous processesofgovernment,buttheyarenotusuallyembracedbythe conceptofthebureaucracy.Ireturntotheminthenextchapter.

3PresidentsCarterandReaganbotheloquentlyassailedthelarge, mentallyintractableandotherwise"horrible"federalbureaucracy. WhenJohnF.Kennedywasconfrontedwithsuggestionsastoa

seeminglywisecourseofaction,hewassometimesdisposedtoreply, "Iagree,butIdon'tthinkwecangetthegovernmenttoagree"

4Or,indeed,onitslegitimacy,acentralphilosophicalconcernofmany whowriteonpower.

Page147

ownpurposes.Butmuchofwhatappears,superficially,tobean exerciseoftheirpoweris,inpractice,amediationbetween autonomousandexteriorclaimantsonpower.5

Iturnfirsttotheexteriorprocessesofgovernment. 3

Itwasextremelyusefultotheexerciseoftheindustrialpowerto havethepublicbelievethatalleffectivepowerwasdissolvedby thesubordinationoftheindustrialfirmtothemarket.Wehave seenthattheefforttoinstillthisbeliefsurvivesstronglyin economicinstruction.Asimilardesignoperatesregardingthe powerofthegovernment.Nothingbetterconcealstheexerciseof powerinandthroughthestatethanthepoliticallitany, undertakenvirtuallyasaformofreligiousoffice,thatallmen andwomencomeequallyintheirsovereigntytothepolling placeandaresubjecttotheresultinaccordancewiththewillof themajority.Thistheyoungaretold;thisthetrulygoodcitizen accepts.Andthisthedailypracticeopenly,visibly, comprehensivelydenies.Inthelastcenturythedemocratic liturgyconcealed,thoughfarfromeffectively,thepurchaseof voters,thepurchaseofthoseforwhomthepeoplevoted,andthe compensatorypowerovervotingexplicitintheuseofpatronage. Byallsuchmeansthevotesofthemanyweregatheredtothe purposesofthefew.Inthepresentcenturytheliturgyconcealsa moreimaginativesubversionofthedemocraticelectoralprocess. Thevoterisstillheldtobesovereign;the'sovereigntyofthe majorityisstillconvertedtothepurposesofthefew.The differencein

5Thereisamoreformaldepictionofthesepowerrelationshipsin DennisH.Wrong, Power: Its Forms, Bases and Uses (NewYork: HarperColophonBooks,1980),pp.158etseq.

theageoforganizationisthatthereareagreatnumberofhighly competitiveorganizationsengagedintheefforttosubordinate thevoterandhisorherelectedrepresentativestotheirpurposes, andthedominantinstrumentisnowconditionedpower. Corporations,theweaponsindustry,businessenterprises generally,tradeunions,farmorganizations,religiousinstitutions, consumergroups,andanearinfinityoforganizationswithother morespecializedpurposesnowparticipateroutinelyinthe exteriorprocessesofgovernmentandseektowinthesubmission ofvotersonbehalfoftheirownneedsorgoals.Ortheyseekthe submissionofthosealreadyelected.Propertyandtheassociated compensatorypowerarehighlyimportantintheexterior processes.Butinallbutthemostdeviantcasestheydonot rewardthevoterorthoseelected;rather,theypayforthesocial conditioningthathasbecometheeffectiveinstrumentofpower.

Inthemodernstate,andnotablyintheUnitedStates,thissocial conditioningisexercisedwiththegreatestintensity.Speeches, newspaperpublicityandadvertising,radioand,aboveall, televisioncommercials,areofcentralimportanceinthemodern politicalcampaign.Thevolumeandstrategyintheuseofthese instrumentsforwinningbeliefforconditionedpowerarethought decisive.Asimportantasthecandidatehimselforherselfisthe personwhoispresumedtopossessthetalentandknowledgefor themanagementoftherequisitesocialconditioning.6

Asexpected,theexerciseofconditionedpowerintheexterior processesofgovernmentbringsasymmetricalre-

6Forawide-ranging,impressive,althoughsomewhatunstructured, discussionofthemodernroleofmoneyinpolitics,seeHenry Bretton, The Power of Money (Albany:StateUniversityofNew YorkPress,1980),pp.164etseq.Averyrecentandcompelling accountisinElizabethDrew's Politics and Money (NewYork:

Macmillan,1983).

Page149

sponsefromthoseresistingit.Thisisagreatlyevident phenomenoninthemodernstate.Thosewhoorganizeandseek topersuadevotersandlegislatorsontheevilsofabortionare counteredbythosewhoorganizetopersuadeontherightof womentofreechoice.Theorganizationandpersuasionofthose whoseekreductionsof,orexemptionsfrom,taxeswhourgethe needforincentivestoinducetheirowninvestmentoreffortare counteredbythosewhoorganizeandpersuadeontheneedto closetaxloopholes.Thosewhowouldhaveprayerinpublic schoolsencounterthosewhowouldconfineittothechurches andthehomeorforgoitsbenefits.

Becauseorganizationandconditionedpowerasitsmeansof enforcementaresoreadilyavailableintheexteriorprocessesof government,theyaregreatlyused.Thesheervolumeofthe efforthas,inturn,aprofoundeffectontheefficiencyofthis instrument.Soliberallyisitwieldedindirectpersuasion, throughthemedia,byspeeches,books,pamphlets,andinother waysthatvotersandlegislatorsdevelopanimmunitytowhatthe mindcannotconceivablyabsorb.Thatsomuchexerciseof conditionedpowerhaslittleornopracticaleffectfwinsslightor nosubmissiondoesnot,however,lessenitsuse.Itisuniquely available.Also,allwhoengageinithaveanimpressionoftheir ownpowertheyhaveheldameeting,madeaspeech,appeared ontelevision,producedacommercial,publishedabook,written anarticleoraneditorial;accordingly,theymusthaveexercised power.Theactionisthesurrogatefor'theresult;resorttoan instrumentofpoweriswidelyconfusedinourtimewithan exerciseofpower.Tothis,anaspectoftheillusionofpower,I willreturn.

Centraltotheconditionedpoweroftheorganizationsoperating intheexteriorprocessesofgovernmentarethefurtherprinciples oforganizationasoutlinedin'chaptersVIandVII.Specifically, iftheorganizationseekingsubmissiontoitspurposesis internallystrongifitsmemberssubmitcompletelythenitsability towinexternalsubmission,inthepresentcasethesubmissionof votersandlegislators,isproportionatelygreater.Andthefewer thepurposestheorganizationpursuesandforwhichitrequires submission,thegreateritsinternaldisciplinewillbe.Great powerisexercisedbytheNationalRifleAssociationamong votersandlegislatorsintheUnitedStates.Thisreflectsthe narrownessofitsobjectivethepreservationorlegalizationofthe righttopossessand,presumptively,touselethalweapons.In likemanner,organizationsinoppositiontoorinsupportof women'srights,affirmativeactionprograms,andtheso-called right-to-worklawshaveasimilardisciplineandasimilar singlenessofpurpose.Thisisrecognizedineverydaypracticein therespectthatisaccordedthesingle-interestorspecial-interest lobby.Itmaybenotedinthisconnectionthatthepowerof conservativeorganizationsintheexteriorprocessesof governmentislikelyalwaystobegreaterinproportiontothe numberoftheirparticipantsthanthatofliberalorganizations. Thusorganizationsopposingwomen'srightsandabortion, thoughrepeatedlyshowntobelessnumerousintheelectorateas awhole,have,atleastinthepast,provedthemselvestobe strongerinlegislativeeffect.Thereasonisthegreater conservativeinstinctfordiscipline.Theconservativemood acceptstheestablishedbeliefs,the

151 socialconditioning;theliberalinstinctistoquestion,challenge, anddebate.

5

Theautonomousprocessesofthestatecomprisethemany, varied,andfrequentlyverylargeorganizationsthatadminister thetasksofmoderngovernment.IntheUnitedStatesthe departments,agencies,bureaus,commissions,andauthorities, alongwiththearmedforces,makeupthepermanentstructureof thegovernment.Theseorganizationsowelittletopersonalityas asourceofpower;itisameasureofitsslightimportancethat theirmembersareregularlyreferredtoasfacelessbureaucrats. Theyowemoretopropertytotheconsiderableandsometimes verylargeresourcestheypossessanddeploy.7 Butmostofall, thesourceoftheirpowerliesinextensive,complex,and,inthe mostimportantcases,disciplinedorganization.

Itisamarkedfeatureoftheautonomousprocessesof governmentthattheyhaveaccesstoallthreeoftheinstruments ofpower.Invaryingdegreeandsubjecttothefurthercontrolof thecourts,theyhaveaccesstocondignpower;theyhave extensiveaccesstocompensatorypower;theyrelyheavilyon bothimplicitandexplicitexercisesofconditionedpower.A referencetoagovernmentoflimitedpowers,a

7Thelimitationontheexerciseofcompensatorypower,orratheron thefinancialresourcesthatsupportit(thatis,thecontrolof appropriations),isthemajorinstrumentofpoweroftheexterior processesofgovernmentvis-à-vistheautonomousprocesses.While thefocusofallinterest,itisnotauniquelypowerfulinstrument.The autonomousunitsofgovernment,aftersomecentralreviewand adjustment,proposetheirbudgetstothelegislature,andinanbutthe moreroutineinstancestheirrequestsaremet.

commoncharacterizationofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates, refersalmostalways,itmaybenoted,tocondignpower.No similarmoralandlegalrestraintisplacedontherathermore importantexercisesofcompensatoryandconditionedpower. Intheautonomousprocessesofgovernmentconditionedpower is,again,ofprimaryimportance.Apowerfulagencyof government,thoughitordinarilyhasaccesstocompensatory rewardandmayhaveaccesstocondignpunishment,willrelyin greatestmeasureonconditionedpower.Implicitconditioninga generalacceptanceofthepurposesoftheparticularagencyis supportedbyamajorflowofinformationonthosepurposesby wayofmeetings,speeches,andcoveragebypress,radio,and television.Alsofrequentlyinvolvedisasophisticated managementofwhatismadeavailabletothepublic.Inthe UnitedStatesgovernmenttheDepartmentofDefense,the CentralIntelligenceAgency,theDepartmentofState,andthe NationalSecurityCouncilallgive,asamatterofroutine,the mostcarefulattentiontowhatissoreleased;itistakenfor grantedthatsuchinformationandthehoped-forbeliefwillserve thebestinterestsoftheagencyinquestion.Materialinconflict withthepurposesoftheagencyisroutinelywithheld;not infrequentlyitismadesubjecttoclassification,whichistosay itsunauthorizedreleasewillresultinthethreatorrealityof condignaction.Nothingisthoughtmoredamagingbureaucraticallymorereprehensiblethan"unauthorized"leaks. Theassociateddiscussionandcontroversyovermanagednews, leaks,andclassificationreflecttheimportanceattachedtosocial conditioningasasourceofpower.Journalistsandothersrightly sensethatamajorinstrumentintheexerciseofpoweris involved.AgenciesoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentthathaveno capacitytomanageinformationtheDepartmentsofCommerce,

Labor,andAgriculture-

Page153 havenopowercomparablewiththosethathavesuchcontrol.

Theabilitytohandleinformationsuccessfullyisanaspectofthe largerdisciplinethatrelatestheinternaltotheexternalpowerof organization.Thepublicagencythatextractsfromitsmembersa largemeasureofsubmissiontoitspurposesincludesinthat submissionthesurrenderoftheirfreedomofexpression.Thisis onevitalaspectofamoregeneralsubmission,which,inthe extremebutbynomeansexceptionalcase,meansthe abandonmentofindependentthoughttowhateverreflectsthe goalsoftheorganization.Itisthenthatoneisknownasagood soldier,agoodpublicemployee,agood"agencyman,"agood foreignserviceofficer,apersonwho"reallybelieves"inwhathe isdoing.Whenthissubordinationiscompleteandreliable,the agencyinquestionisproportionatelystronger;whenthe subordinationisslightorlacking,itispredictablyweaker.

Theconditionedpoweroftheautonomousprocessesof governmentisalsogreatlyenhancedbythesizeandcomplexity ofthetasksofthemodernstate.Thiscomplexityremovesits purposesfromeasypubliccomprehensionandthusfromthe effectiveresponseofthosewhosesubmissionissought.Andit willregularlybeavowedthatitspurposesaretoocomplicated fortheuntutoredtounderstand;cultivationofthebeliefthatthis issothenbecomesanaspectofsocialconditioning.Inpasttimes muchofthepoweroftheU.S.StateDepartment,asalsoofits counterpartsinothercountries,restedonthebeliefthatforeign policywastoo'subtleandintricateamatterfortheaverage citizenortheordinarypoliticiantocomprehend.Outsiders shouldkeepout,notchallengethepowerofthosewhohada monopolyoftherequisiteknowledgeandskills.Thesamesocial conditioningtechniqueisnowemployedwithgreateffectby thoseconcernedwithweaponspolicyandarmscontrol,as

Page154 thenextchapterwilltell.Thisdeliberateconditioning,in combinationwiththesize,complexity,andtechnologicaland othersophisticationinthetasksofmoderngovernment,leadsto thesubmissionthatisevidentinthephrase''We mustleaveitto theexperts."

Finally,powerintheautonomousprocessesofgovernment dependsontheirdirectrelationshipwithorganizationsinthe exteriorprocessesandtheassociatedandcooperativeexerciseof conditionedpower.TheextremecaseistheDepartmentof Defenseinalliancewiththeweaponsfirms.Butmanyand perhapsmostoftheautonomousagenciesofgovernmenthave companionateorganizationsintheexteriorprocessesthe DepartmentofAgricultureandthefarmgroups;theDepartment ofStateand,asitiscalled,theforeignpolicyestablishment;the BureauofLandManagementoftheDepartmentoftheInterior andthecattlemenwhoselivestockgrazethepubliclyowned lands;theArmyCorpsofEngineersandthosewhoplythe waterways.

Wheretheexerciseofpowerbytheautonomousprocessesof governmentisadversetothepurposesoforganizationsand individualsintheexteriorprocesses,thedialecticofpoweralso operates.Anuclearfreezemovementdevelopstocounterthe lethalpreoccupationsoftheDepartmentofDefenseandthe weaponsindustry;conservationistsrallytotheprotectionof federallyownedwildernesses;environmentalistsorganizeto counteranundulyrelaxedattitudeontoxic-wastedisposal.As ever,theexerciseofpowerinvitesagenerallysymmetrical response.

Inconsideringtheautonomousprocessesofgovernment,oneis ledtoemphasizetheroleoforganizationanditsassociatedsocial

conditioningasthedominantmanifestationsofpower.However, asinallthesematters,therearenoabsolutes.Whatiscalleda powerfulbureaucracywillhaveaccesstotheothertwo instrumentsofenforcement,

Page155 andthesewillderivefromallthreesourcesofpower.Thus,inits yearsofprominence,theFederalBureauofInvestigationwas rightlyconsideredapowerfulagency.InJ.EdgarHoover,ithad atitsheadanunquestionablyeffectivepersonality.Itwas generouslyendowedbytheCongresswithmoneyproperty.And itowedsomeofitspowertoahighlydisciplinedorganization thefullsubmissiontothepurposesoftheBureauofthosewho servedinitsranks.Turningtotheinstrumentsofenforcement,it hadaccesstocondignpowerbothwithintheframeworkoflaw andthroughtheunpleasantextralegalconsequencesitcould invokeforthosewhoresistedorcriticizeditsmethods.Fromits revenuesithadadequate,evengenerous,compensatorypower forthosewhoserveditspurposes.Andcarefulattentionwas giventosocialconditioning,toCultivatingbeliefinthevirtuous aimsandhigheffectivenessoftheorganizationandthedeep depravityofthesubversivesandcriminalswithwhomit contendedandfromwhomitprovidedprotection.The consequenceofthiscombinationofsourcesandinstrumentsof powerwasanaggregateofpowerthat,foralongtime,no Presidentthoughtitwisetochallenge.Buteventuallyheretoo therewasanansweringdialectic.ThepoweroftheFBIaroused oppositionandwassubstantiallycurtailed. 6

Betweenandinsomemeasureovertheautonomousandthe exteriorprocessesofthe'modernstateis,asnoted,a combinationofexecutiveandmediatingpower;inthecaseofthe UnitedStates,thisisthePresidentandhiscoterieofappointed officials.ThePresident,needlesstosay,isanoriginalsourceof power.Theofficealsoreflectsand

fullythemoderntrendsintheexerciseofpower.Personality remainsofundoubtedimportance,althoughitisconsiderably lessdecisivethaniscommonlyadvertisedandimagined.The resourcesthatthePresidenthasathiscommandtheroleof propertyareamajorsourceofpower.Andhere,aselsewherein moderntimes,organizationisofgreatlyincreasedsignificance. ThePresidentisnowthecreatureofaverylargeinnerpersonal administrativestaff;someseventy-ninemenandwomen currentlysurroundandassisthiminhistasks.Upuntilthetime ofFranklinD.Roosevelt,therewaslittlesuchsupporting organizationintheWhiteHouse;WoodrowWilsonwrotehis speecheshimselfonhisowntypewriter.

Withrespecttotheinstrumentsofpower,recoursetocondign poweris,ofcourse,closelycircumscribed.Itisnotconsidered appropriateorevenlawfulthattheChiefExecutiveshouldhave discretionindecisionstoprosecutecrime,andcertainlynotin thepenaltiesimposed.ThecompensatorypowerofthePresident isgreat;directlyorindirectlytheresourcesthathedeploysthose thathecanofferorwithholdwinagenerousmeasureof submission.Thedesirabilityofthisrewardandthethoughtofits possiblelossaresuitablyinthemindsofaverylargenumberof people.Thiscompensatorypowerextendsdowntofrivolous detailsattendanceatthesocialobservancesoftheWhiteHouse andthebestowalontheostentatiouslyfaithfulofminor presidentialsouvenirsorhonors.

However,themodernPresidentincreasinglyandinevitablyrelies mostuponconditionedpower.ItistothisthattheWhiteHouse organizationaccordsmajor,.nearlyexclusive,concern;itisto thisendthatitsdisciplineisextensivelydirected.Theclosest attentionispaid,asamatterofhighurgency,topress conferences,speeches,otherpublicappearances,indeed,toall

associationwiththe

Page157 media.Anysignificantneedtowinsubmissionbyextending powerovertheexteriorprocessesofgovernmentthe organizationsseekingpowerfromthestate,thevotingpublic leadsmoreorlessautomaticallytoapresidentialaddresson television.Asintheautonomousprocessesofgovernment,itis consideredoftheutmostimportancethatthereleaseof informationinconflictwiththerequiredsocialconditioningbe controlledorsuppressed.8

Althoughtheoriginalpowerofthepresidencyisconsiderable, therecouldconceivablybemoreerrorinexaggeratingthanin minimizingit.Averylargepartofwhatsuperficallyappearsto bepresidentialpoweris,aswe'veseen,themediationbetween conflictingexercisesofpowerbetweenthoseofdifferentpartsof theautonomousprocessesofgovernmentorbetweenthe autonomousandtheexteriorprocessesofgovernment.This mediatingpowershouldnotbethoughtasmallthing.Butwhat resultsfromitsexerciseisnottheoriginalwillofthePresident orhisstaffbutthatofoneoranother(orinpartialmeasureof both)ofthecontendingorganizations.

Otherfactorsgiveanenhancedimpressionofpresidentialpower. Becausethetraditionalassociationofpoweriswithpersonality andthepersonofthePresidentisgreatly

8IntheadministrationofRichardNixon,thisledtothe(eventually) widelypublicizedoperationsoftheso-calledplumbersandthe equallynotoriouswiretappingofstaffmembers.Bothreflectedthe concernforpreventingthereleaseofinformationdamagingtothe requiredbelief.Thegroundsforcomplaintagainstbothofthose exercisesofpowerwere,however,nottheefforttocontrolthe releaseofinformationthatwastakenforgrantedbutratherthe particulartechniquesofsuppression.

Page158

evident,heandhisofficeareassumed,inaccordancewithall conventionalthought(ortheabsenceofit),tohavemuchpower. Thosewhowriteofpresidentialpoweraredeeplysubjecttothis syllogism.

Thereisalsothematteroftheillusionofpower,afactorthathas beengreatlyenhancedbythemodernrelianceonsocial conditioning.Sincethesubmissionwonbyanyexerciseof conditionedpowerissubjectiveandrelativelyinvisiblein contrastwiththefarmoreobjectiveresultsoftheexerciseof condignorcompensatorypowerthereis,.asalreadymentioned, astrongtendencyforthesubmissiontobetakenforgranted.If thePresidentmakesatelevisionaddressorpromulgatesanew weaponspolicyorpleadsforsupportforhisbudget,agenerally favorableresponsetothepresidentialpurposeisassumed;the exerciseagainbecomestheresult.

Theillusionofpowerisalsoheightenedbythosewhoareclose tothepresidency.Presidentialacolytesareparticularly enthusiasticinitsexercise;byemphasizingthepowerofthe ChiefExecutive,they, pari passu,enhancetheirowninthe publiceye,andthis,inturn,becomesacompellingcontribution toself-esteem.Theexaggerationeffectcomesevenmore stronglyfromthejournalists,televisionreporters,andother mediaspecialistswhoworkincloseassociationwiththeWhite House.Alldeeplyparticipateintheexerciseof.conditioned powertheirreportingcontributesindispensablytotheneeded beliefand,onoccasion,tocounteringit.Thisparticipationgives anenhancedsenseofpowertowhichallbuttheleastsusceptible aredangerouslysubject.9

9TelevisionandnewspaperreporterscoveringtheWhiteHouse haveastrongimpressionofthegraveresponsibility,whichistosay power,theypossess.Itistheintentionofnearlyallsoemployedto

writeabookontheauthoritythusexercised.Andinanygivenyear severaldo Noneoftheseworksminimizesormakeslighto£the exec-

(Footnote continued on next page)

Noneofthisistoarguethattheillusionofpowerinthevarious processesofgovernmentoutweighsthereality.Thereare manifestationsofthepowerofthestatewheretherealityisvery greatindeedwhere,amongotherthings,theconditioningisso deepthatevenacalmdiscussionofthepowerinvolvedcanbe subjecttothereproachthatoneisnotfullyinharmonywiththe nationalinterest.Thisistrueofthemilitarypower,aformidable and,asIhavesaid,somberexerciseofpower,whichisthe subjectofthenextchapter.

(Footnote continued from previous page) utivepowertowhichtheauthorisoccupationallyadjacent.Andon fewsubjectsisanauthorsosecureagainstcriticism.Inthenatureof conditionedpowerthereisnowayofdistinguishingtherealityfrom theillusion.Andtheauthorissafeagainstanychargethathemaybe exaggeratinghispower,forhiscriticswillbehiscolleagues,who willbeequallypersuaded.

XVI

TheMilitaryPower

Thereisasuccessfulexpressionofpowerwhentheindividual submitstothepurposesofothersnotonlywillinglybutwitha senseofattendantvirtue.Thesupremeexpression,ofcourse,is .whenthepersondoesnotknowthatheorsheisbeing controlled.This,atthehighestlevel,istheachievementof conditionedpower;beliefmakessubmissionnotaconsciousact o£willbutanormal,naturalmanifestationoftheapproved behavior.Thosewhodonotsubmitaredeviant.Toamarked degreeinourtimesuchsubmissionistheachievementofthe militaryestablishment,byfarthemostpowerfulofthe autonomousprocessesofgovernment.Supportforastrong nationaldefenseisanexpressionofnormalpatriotism;notruly goodcitizendissents.Thishighlysuccessfulconditioningis, however,onlypartofanevenlargermanifestationofpower.The powerofthemilitaryembracesnotonlythesignificantsources ofpowerbut,withextraordinarycomprehensivenessandeffect, alltheinstrumentsofitsenforcement.Itisanawe-inspiring thing,notmadelesssobyitspotential,evenprobable, consequences.

Noneofthisistosaythatthepowerofthemilitaryhas

Page161 escapedattention;morethananyotherexerciseofpowerinour timeitisthesubjectofgravepublicunease.Andofsymmetrical resistance.Wearenowinapositiontoseethatthisconcernis,in fact,justified.Wemusthopethatfromaclearerviewofthe sourcesofitsstrengthwillcomeastrongerdesignforcountering itspower.

Ofthethreesourcesofpower,themilitaryestablishmenthastwo inlargeamountproperty(whichistosayfinancialresources) andorganization.Inthepast,andnotablyinwartime,personality wasalsoimportant.AslateasWorldWarIIintheUnitedStates, Britain,andGermany,therewereimpressiveleadersGeorgeC. Marshall,DwightD.Eisenhower,DouglasMacArthur(alreadya highlyvisiblefigureinpeacetime),BernardMontgomery,and ErwinRommel.Wherepersonalitydidnotexist,itwas extensivelysynthesizedwiththeless-than-reluctanthelpofthe press.Butinthemodernmilitaryestablishmentpersonalityhas littlesignificance.IntheVietnamWarthegeneralsinvolved, despiteconsiderableefforttothecontrary,werebothfor-gettable andquicklyforgotten.1 Thisisevenmorethecasewiththose whonowserveinpositionsofformalauthorityinthearmed forces.HardlyanyoneoutsidethePentagonknowsthenamesof thepresentJointChiefsofStaff.Here,aselsewhereintheageof organization,personalityasasourceofpowerhasgivenwayto theanonymousorganizationmen.2

1Reporterscoveringmilitarycampaignsare,intheusualcase, peculiarlyatthebehestofthegeneralstheycover.Itwasoneofthe decisiveweaknessesofthemilitarypowerinVietnamthatitlost controlofthepress.

2Theefforttosynthesizepersonalityhascontinuedinmodern (Footnote continued on next page)

Fromthesourcesofmilitarypowerinthevastresourcesit possessesanddeploysandinitshuge,institutionallydisciplined organization,thereproceeds,inturn,anotunimportantaccessto condignpowerandacomprehensivesubmissionwonbyboth compensatoryandconditionedpower.

Littleneedbesaidaboutthepropertyresourcesofthemilitary establishment.IntheUnitedStatestheyfarexceedanysimilar sourceofpower;3 theyembracenotonlywhatisavailabletothe armedservicesandthecivilianmilitaryestablishmentbutwhat flowsouttotheweaponsindustriesandthelargeinvestmentin plantandworkingcapitalthesesustain.Fromthiswealthcomes thecompensatorypowerthatwinsthesubmissionofsoldiers, sailors,andairmen,thehugecivilianrosteroftheDepartmentof Defense,andtheemployees,executives,andownersofthe weaponsandotherordnancefirms.

Thecompensatorypowerderivingfromthepropertyresourcesof themilitarythesubmissionwonfrombothitsownpersonneland itssuppliersisthereforalltoobserve.Butbecauseitisso visible,therehasbeensomeerrorofemphasisinidentifyingthe truelocusofthemilitarypower.Intheseeminglysophisticated traditionthatassociatespowerwithindustrialenterprisein reality,aholdoverofMarxistthoughtandthedominantcritical atti-

(Footnote continued from previous page) timesinthecaseofSecretariesofDefense.All,whileinoffice,are thoughttohavecertainmarkedpersonaltraitsthatgivethempower, but,asearlierobserved,thepowerofthosetraitsdoesnotsurvivea returntoprivatelife.

3"TheDepartmentofDefenseemploysmorepeopleandspendsmore moneyonthepurchaseofgoodsandservicesthanalltherestofthe governmentputtogether.TheDepartmentofHealthandHuman

Serviceshasalargerbudget,butthatbudgetconsistsalmostentirelyof transferpaymentstoindividuals"AdamYarmolinsky, Governance of the U.S. Military Establishment (NewYork:AspenInstitutefor HumanisticStudies,1982),p.1.

Page163 tudesofthelastcenturymilitarypowerisextensivelyassumedto beassociatedwiththedefenseindustries.Themilitary industrialistsarethedeusexmachina;theybothprocureand profitfromthemilitarybudget.Thereisnodoubtthatthepower thusexercisedisgreat:thesubmissionofscientists,engineers, executives,workers,andthedefense-dependentcommunitiesis wonthereby.Ofthispowerlegislatorsaremadeacutely conscious,andcampaigncontributionsfromthecorporations involvedaddtotheirawareness.Insuchfashionthe compensatorypowerofthemilitaryentersandinsomedegree dominatestheexteriorprocessesofgovernment.4 However,the relativevisibilityofthedefenseindustriesandtheirobvious connectionwiththeexteriorprocessesofgovernmentshouldnot leadanyonetominimizetheotherinstitutionsexercisingmilitary power.Thedefenseindustriesareanextensionofalarger structure,theheartofwhichliesintheautonomousprocessesof governmentinpopularparlance,thePentagon.Andimportantas arecompensatorypoweranditssourceinpropertyorfinancial resources,themoreimportantinstrumentofthemilitarypoweris conditionedpowerwithitsintimaterelationshiptoorganization.

4Enforcingataminimumadiscreetsilence.Commentingonthe reluctanceofbusinessexecutivestoexpressactiveconcernoverthe threatofnuclearwarandannihilation,RobertSchmidt,vice chairmanoftheControlDataCorporationandpresidentofthe AmericanCommitteeonEast/WestAccord,hasobserved,"Alotof businesspeoplechoosenottoraisetheirprofilebygettingintothat kindofdiscussion,"notingthatitdoesnotgivethemany"points withthegovernmentortheadministration."AndWilliamAldenof theAldenComputerSystemsCorporationhassaidthatmany businessleadersareunwillingtotakeastandbecausetheyfearthe Pentagonmight'blackball"theircompanies.QuotedbyFlorence Gravesin"AreTheseMenSovietDupes?", Common Cause (January/February1983).

Inmuchoflifeacertainmeritisthoughttobeattachedto independentself-expression.This,inturn,ishostiletotight, disciplinedorganizationwithitssymmetricalrelationshipto externalpower.Thestrongconditioningofmilitaryorganization, boththatofthearmedservicesandthatofthecivilian establishment,isbased,aswehaveseen,notinself-expression butindiscipline.Thisisthenreinforcedbycompensatoryreward andcondignpenalty.Thesoldierwhoacceptsfullythepurposes oftheorganizationgetspromotedandisaccordedavarietyof honorificrewards.Therecalcitrantissubjecttocondign punishment,includingdishonorableexpulsionor,attheextreme, court-martial.Suchcondignpowerisuniquelypossiblein supportofmilitarydiscipline;itisnotelsewhereavailablein public'orprivateorganization.

Disciplineislessstrongintheciviliancomponentofthe autonomousprocessesofthegovernmentandspecificallythat partassociatedwiththemilitary.However,theemployeesofthe Pentagonarenotnotedforspeechoractioninconflictwiththe purposesoftheirorganization.Theonewhoopenlydissents facestheperilousprospectsofthewhistleblower.Andthereare, asinallorganizations,manywaysofsuppressinglesser dissidence.Promotionisdenied;theindividualceasesto participateincollegialaction;heisnolongerthoughtresponsible orreliable;hebecomesunacceptableasanassociateinsocial observances.Theforcethuscompellingdisciplineisverygreat; nothingismoredamagingtothemilitarypowerthanapublic impressionofinternal

Page165 discordandconflict.5 Thisinternaldisciplinethenbecomesthe counterpartofstrongexternaleffect,aswesawinchaptersVI andVII.

Anessential,indeedvital,needfortheconditionedpowerofthe militaryisaspecificenemy.Ifthemilitarypoweristobemore thantraditional,ceremonial,orprecautionaryincharacter,a hostilethreatisindispensable.Suchathreatwinsthe appropriationsthepropertyfromwhichcompensatorypower derives.Italsoleadstoconsolidationofbeliefwithinthemilitary establishmentandsimilarbeliefoutside.Internaldisciplinemust bekepttight;externaldissentoroppositionmustbesubjectto thesuspicionorassertionthatthoseinvolvedareaiding,abetting, ormotivatedbytheenemy.6 Ataminimumtheyareunpatriotic; atmosttheirdissidencevergesontreason,invokingthe traditionalthreatofcondignpunishment.Deeplyconditioned attitudesaffirmthevalueofpatriotism,andthesebecomeof absoluteimportancewhenthereisexternaldanger.

IntheperiodsinceWorldWarII,NorthKorea,China,North Vietnam,andpre-eminentlytheSovietUnionhaveservedthe UnitedStatesastheenemythreat.Yearsofamildlyrelaxed relationshipwiththeU.S.S.R.inthe1970swerevisibly damagingtotheAmericanmilitarypower.Theabandonmentof détenteafter1980coincided,bynomeans

5Aswhen,in1982,itbecameknownthatamajorityoftheJoint ChiefsofStaffwereopposedtotheso-calleddense-packbasingof theMXmissile.

6Intheearly1980s,itwassaidthatadvocatesofafreezeonnuclear weaponswerebeingmanipulatedbytheSovietUnionorwere otherwisesubservienttoitspurposes.

166 accidentally,withalargeincreaseinmilitaryexpenditures.The formerwasclearlynecessarytoallowofthelatter.

Relatedtotheexistenceofanenemyarethecontrolof informationandtheresultingsocialconditioning.Theneedto keepmilitarysecretsfromtheenemyjustifiespreventing completeaccesstothegeneralpublic.Whatisthenreleasedcan besubstantiallyandevenextensivelywhatbestservesthe neededpublicbelieftherequiredsocialconditioning.This includesthemilitary'sviewofenemyintentionsandparticularly ofwhatisneededinthewayofweaponry.Criticaldiscussionof ordnanceandweaponssystemsismadesubjecttotherestraints ofclassificationaswellasthosegenerallyoforganizational disciplineandtothecondignpunishmentoritsthreatthat defendsagainsttherelease'ofclassifiedmaterial.Themilitary power,initsmanagementandcontrolofinformation,is,bya widemargin,themostcomprehensiveandsuccessfulexponent ofconditionedpower.

Notthatthisexerciseofpowerisunchallenged.Asthelast chapterstressed,continuingandsharpcontroversysurroundsthe managementofinformationintheinterestsofnationalsecurity. Whatcontrolisappropriate,necessary,andjustified?Whatis inappropriateandself-serving,animproperexerciseofthepower toclassify?Againcontroversyrightlyunderlinestheimportance ofthiscontrolBthisservicetoconditionedpowerinthemodern exerciseofmilitarypower.Allwhowelcomerestraintsonpower shouldcherishandencouragethiscontinuingdispute.

Notallthecontrolofinformationbythemilitarypoweristhe resulteitherofthedisciplineoforganizationorofformal

Page167 controls.Muchistheresultofthesheersizeoftheorganization involvedandofthetechnicalcharacter,realoravowed,ofthe issues.Thecitizenlookingatthemassandcomplexityofmodem militarytechnologysurrenderstothosewhoarepresumedto havemastery.Orhesurrenderstosurrogateswhoarethoughtto beincommandoftherequisitedetail.Andheisstrongly encouragedtodoso.Theconsequenceisanargumentbetween expertsfromwhichthepublicisexcluded,withtheeffectthat thesocialconditioningofthemilitarypoweriseffectively unchallengedinthecivilianworld.

Ahighlyimportantcaseofthisexclusionbytechnical complexityisthearms-controlissue.'Inrecenttimesthishas beenthenearlyexclusivepossessionofthearms-control specialists.They,inturn,areasmallcommunitytechnically accomplishedintheweaponryinvolved,jealousoftheir presumedknowledgeofSovietweaponsandintentions,and theologicallyadjustedtotheconceptofmassdeath.Withno slightindignationtheyexcludetheinterventionofoutsiders. Whatcandoctors,bishops,oruntutoredprofessorsknowabout suchcomplicatedmatters?Whatentitlesthemtospeakor interfere?Theself-confidentconvictionsofthearms-control theologiansarethesupremeexpressionofconditionedpower. Almostcasuallythenucleararmscommunityassumesand defendspowertoarbitrateandcontrolnotonlyquestionsof individuallifeanddeathbutthequestionofthesurvivalofthe humanrace.Ofalltheexpressionsofpowercitedinthesepages thisoneistranscendent,forinherentinitsexerciseisthepower toendallotherexercisesofpower.

IntheUnitedStates,asinotherdemocracies,itisthoughtwise andevennecessarythatthemilitarypowerbekeptsubordinate tocivilianauthorityandrestraint.Thisisawell-establishedpoint

oflaw.Itisalsoarestraintthatisquestion-

Page168

ablyeffectiveinpractice.InnearlyallrecentPentagon confrontations,whenfacedwiththestronglyconditioned attitudesofthemilitaryestablishment,civilianshavesurrendered thereto.Theywishtobethoughtforthright,decisive,heroic,and otherwiseinkeepingwiththeconditionedmilitaryvirtue.They mustshowthattheycanmastertheintricaciesofmilitary operationsandofweaponry,thattheyarenolessawarethan soldiersoftheneedformilitarydefense.Inconsequence,many civiliansontheNationalSecurityCouncil,frequentlyintheState Department,intheintelligenceagencies,andnotablyinthe DepartmentofDefenseitselfhaveendedupbeingmorewarlike, morecommittedtoweaponssystemsandlargebudgets,thanthe membersofthearmedforcesthemselves.

6

Greatthoughitis,themilitarypowerisnotplenary.The purposesitpursuesarenotinherentlyattractive.Deaththatisno longerconfinedtojuniorofficersandenlistedmen7 butisnow, prospectively,amasscivilianexperiencedoesnotlenditself naturallytoconditionedpower;nordoesenforcedmilitary service.TheVietnamWarproducedintheUnitedStatesoneof themostcomprehensiveeffortsinsocialconditioninginmodem times.Nothingwassparedintheattempttomakethewarseem necessaryandacceptabletotheAmericanpublic.Theeffort failedwhencounteredbyan

7High-rankingofficershavinglongsinceescapedthisthreat.''The nearestthemoderngeneraloradmiralcomestoasmall-arms encounterofanysortisataduckhuntinthecompanyofcorporation executivesattheretreatofContinentalMotors,Inc."C.Wright Mills, The Power Elite (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,x956), p.189.

Page169 evenlargerandmorepervasivedialectic.8 Eventuallyitwas acceptedthatmilitaryoperationscouldnolongerbesustainedin thefaceof,asitwassaid,anincreasinglyhostilepublicopinion. Themilitary.poweroverreacheditsresourcesinconditioned power;theresultwasasubstantialreverse.Now,adecadelater, therecontinuestobethepubliclyexpressedhopethatVietnam hasbeenforgotten.That,inthepresentterminology,istoexpress thewishthatthesocialconditioningthatwasthensoadverseto themilitarypowerisnolongeroperative.

Asthisiswritten,thereisindicationofasimilardialecticbased oncompellingcurrentcircumstances.Themodernmilitiary powerintheUnitedStatesisstronglycommittedtonuclear weapons,acommitmentthathasledtoextensiveconditioningon theirnecessityandeventheirbenignity.This,inturn,hashadthe predictablesymmetricalreaction,aleadingmanifestationof whichhasbeenthenationwidedemandforafreezeonthe development,deployment,andtestingofthoseweapons.And therehasbeenayetlargereffortbothhereandinEuropetourge negotiationofeffectivecontrolandreductionsofallarmaments inanatmosphereofrelaxedpoliticalandmilitarytension.This challengestheneedofthemilitarypowerforanenemyand allowsforandencouragesthepossibilityofasimilarmove-

8Thedialecticbecameespeciallystrongasthedrafttheprospectof militarydisciplineandthepossibilityofdeathreachedthoseinthe collegeanduniversitycommunitywhohadacapacityforselfexpressionandaresultingabilitytofindanaudienceandmaketheir objectionsknownthatis,toengageinsocialconditioningonthe unwisdomofthewar.Thedraftinvolvesthesubstitutionofcondign forcompensatorypowertoinducemilitaryservicetowin submissiontothemilitarypower.Itisnot,asthisiswritten,publicly acceptableintheUnitedStates,althoughitsurvivesinother countries,includingsuchcommittedlyneutrallandsasAustriaand

mentintheSovietUnion.Itseemspropertoask,infaceofthe currentmilitarypower,thatallwhoreadthesepagesinvolve themselveswiththiscountervailingeffort.Onitseffectiveuse humansurvivalitselfcandepend.9

9Referenceinthesepageshasbeentothemiltarypowerinthe UnitedStates.Thispowerhasageneralcounterpartintheother industrialcountriesand,needlesstosay,intheSovietUnion. However,itisinthenew(andsomeolder)nationsofAsia,Africa, andLatinAmericathatithasitsmostcomprehensiverole.Ofatotal of134independentstatesintheworldnofewerthan39arenow,by anacceptablecalculation,governedbymilitarydictatorships.The powersoexpressedisavaryingcombinationofthesourcesand instrumentshereidentified Personalitiesemerge,thoughoftenofa dimorevenrepellentsort.Armiescommandanddeploysubstantial propertyresourcesfromthepublictreasury,and,aboveall,ina worldwhereitisexceptionalandexiguous,theyhaveorganization. (LatinAmericanarmiesarenotmodelsofrigorousandeffective discipline,butinmostofthesecountriesnootherorganizational structurerivalstheminthisregard.)Fromtheresourcescommanded bythemilitaryestablishmentcomescompensatorypoweroverits soldiersaveryeffectiveexpressionofpowerinthepoorrural societywheremilitaryserviceisamajorupwardstepineconomic well-being.Thereisasubstantial,ifnotalwayscompelling,exercise ofconditionedpower,muchofitconcernedwithbenefitsinconflict withmilitarypurpose.Mostimportantofall,thereisagenerous availabilityofcondignpowerforsuppressingdissentbothwithin andoutsidethemilitaryorganization.Theresultisthatmilitary powerhasbecomethemajorthreattociviliananddemocratic processtheworldaround.

XVII

ThePowerofReligionandthePress

Inmoderntimesboththesourcesandtheinstrumentsof religiouspowerintheChristianworldhavegreatlydiminished. Thepoweroncederivingfromadivinepresencefrompersonality stillexists;thereiswidespreaddeferencepaidtoiteveryday. Butaseventhemostdevoutwillagree,thevisionhasdimmedas comparedwiththeearlierperceptionofit.Formanytheholy presenceisinvokedonlyasaSabbath-dayroutineorunder conditionsofextremepersonalnecessityorterror.Andbysome itiswhollyresistedanddenied.

Thepowerofpersonalityisstillpresentincertaincontemporary religiousleadersintheUnitedStatestheReverendBilly Graham,theReverendJerryFalwell,theReverendOralRoberts, theReverendSunMyungMoon,andnumerouslessnotable figuresof,however,markedlocaleffect.Theyarehardlytobe comparedwiththegreatreligiousvoicesofthepast.Astrong publicinstinctalsoconfinesthemodernpreacherorpriestto,in themain,religiousthemes.Those

Page172 whostepbeyondtoseeksubmissiononsexualpracticesorthe sanctityofprivateenterprisearecommonlythoughttobe extendingtheiractivitiesinanundueway.

ThepropertyoftheChurchhasalsodeclinedgreatlyinrelative importanceasasourceofpower.Onceofmagnificentextent,it isnowofminormagnitudewhencomparedtosecularresources. ThewealthoftheVaticancommandsrespectforitsmysteryand possiblemisuseratherthanforitssize.

Finallyandmostdramatically,therehasbeenthedissolutionof organization.Whatwasoncetheinternally(andrelatively) disciplinedandmonolithicorganizationofChristianitybythe CatholicChurchhasnowbecomehundredsofdiverseand,in mostcases,looselystructuredgroups,eachinsomemeasureof competitionwithalltheothers.

2

Withtherelativeandabsolutedeclineinthesourcesofpower hasgoneasimilarbutmuchmoredamagingweakeningofthe instrumentsofenforcement.Condignpunishmentforliving Christiansisnolongerpermissible;and,asearlierobserved,its useasathreatforthehereafterhasalsogreatlydiminished.To citefearofeternalpunishmentasareasonforavoiding unacceptablebehaviororthoughtwhilestillalive(thatis,for submittingtotheauthorityoftheChurch)isatleastmildlyoldfashioned.

Compensatorypowerthepurchaseofreligiousconformancehas disappearedaswell.Thepromiseofheavenlyrewardremainsfor manyasubstantialincentivetosubmission,butitisfarless powerfulthaninthepast.Theevanescentcharacterofthis promiseascomparedwith

173 earthlycompensationisevidentinthereprovingstatement"He willhavetogethisrewardinHeaven."

Untilwellintothepresentcentury,thespecificcareandfeeding oftheneedybothathomeandabroadwasanotunimportant designforobtainingtheirreligiousobedience.Thosesoenticed regularlyregardedthechurchobservancesandrequisite submissionasthepricetheyhadtopayforfood,shelter,and medicalsuccor.Compensatorypowerintheformofhospital careandschoolingwasusedtowinsubmissioninprimitive societies,anditextended,onoccasion,tooutrightpurchase. Suchexerciseofcompensatorypowerisnowofnegligible importanceintheundevelopedlands,andintheindustrial countriesithasbeenextensivelyreplacedbythewelfare apparatusofthemodemstate.

Inconsequenceoftheforegoing,conditionedpowerremains almostthesolereliablemeansforwinningreligioussubmission. Itisofundoubtedeffect,butittoohassuffered.FromtheMiddle Agesuntilwellintothepresentcentury,aspreviouslyindicated, thepowerofreligionowedmuchtoitsnear-monopolyofaccess toconditionedenforcement.Noothervoicespokewithsimilar authorityevenonsecularmatters,anddissentingopinionswere silencedbyformsofcondignactionthatcouldbeexceptionally definitive.Nowtheexerciseofconditionedpowerinallmodern communitiesisprofoundlycompetitive.

Basictotheearliervirtualmonopolyofthatpowerbyreligion wasitscontrolofeducation.Thesecularizationoftheschool systemwas,therefore,amajorblow,oneresistedtothisdayboth bytheCatholicChurch,withitscontinuedcommitmenttoits owneducationalestablishment,and,inattenuatedfashion,by thosewhoseekprayerandotherreligiousobservancesinthe

publicschools.

Sciencehasalsomadedeepinroadsontheerstwhile

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religiousmonopoly.Ofthislittlemoreneedbesaid,foralmost nothinghasbeenleftunsaid.Scientificconditioningisalsoa powerfulinstrument.Itderivesfromtheoccasionalsignificant personality,fromimportantpropertyresourcesthataccruetoits support,andfromsubstantialorganization.Asamanifestationof conditionedpower,theconditioningofscienceis,onthewhole, farmorerigorousandfarmoredisciplinedthanthatofmodern religion.Thereligiousmindisthoughttobepliableanddiverse; thescientificmindisaprecise,strictlychanneledinstrument. Religiousobservancesarelooselystructured;scientific procedureshaverigidparameters.Scienceandreligionoperatein anuneasyassociation,protectedbythefrequentcommentthat thereisnoirreconcilableconflictbetweenthetwo.Noone shouldbemisled;theeffectofscienceonthereligiouspower, specificallyonitsconditionedpower,hasbeenenormous.There maybeanexceptioninthecaseoftheFundamentalistsects, wherescienceinconsistentwiththedoctrine,notablythe Darwinistsystem,isrighteouslyexcluded.Thisisanexception thatdemonstratestherule.

Whereoncetherewasonlyonesourceofreligiousconditioning, thatofthelocalpriest,nowtherearemanyvoicesfrommany churches.Oncealsothepriest,inhisweeklyadjuration,hada nearmonopolyofaccesstothepublicmind;aslateasthelast centuryonlybooks(forthefewtowhomtheywereavailable) andthelocalnewspaperswerehisrivalsinthisarea.Nowthe mostdevoutcommunicantreturnsfromtheSundayserviceto turnontelevision.Thatandradio,newspapers,magazines, politicalspeeches,andbooksarenowallreadilyavailableandin competitionwithreligionforpublicattention.Itisnotwithout significancethatthereligiousfiguresofgreatestinfluenceinour timearethosewhohavemostsuccessfullyexploitedthe

resourcesofradioandtelevision.

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Theimplicitasdistinctfromtheexplicitconditioningofreligion remainsconsiderable.Itcontinuestocommandagreatermeasure ofsubmissiontothebroadcanonsofreligiousdoctrinethanwe may,infact,know.Butboththeimplicitandexplicit conditioningofreligiousauthorityaresubjecttothemass competitivecacophonythatispartofthecontemporaryexercise ofconditionedpower.Both,inconsequence,havediminishedin significance,ashavetheothersourcesandinstrumentsofthe powerofreligion.1

1ThereasonsforthedeclineinreligiousauthorityintheChristian ChurchbecomeclearwhenChristianpoweriscontrastedwiththe greatercontinuingpowerofothertraditions,notablythatofIslam. ForMoslemspersonalityremainsmuchmoreimportant;itis manifestedbythestrongerpresenceofbothGodandtheProphet andbyprayersfortheirintercession,whichplayahighlyprominent roleinthedailyroutine.Physicallyextantpersonalities,suchasthe AyatollahKhomeini,arefarmoresignificant.AndIslamic organizationhasafargreaterinternaldisciplineandconsequent externaleffect.Itis,indeed,weakenedbythedivisionsbetweenthe twogreatconvocations,theSunnisandtheShiitesandtherivalry andevenhatredbetweenthetwo,butorganization,nonetheless, remainsamuchstrongersourceofpowerthanthatavailableinthe evenmoredeeplydividedChristiantradition.

Itisintheinstrumentsofpower,however,thatIslamhasitsgreatest strength.Condignpowerisstillexercisedwithgreateffect,bothinthis worldandaspromisedforthenext.Deviationcanbesubjecttoan exceptionallysanguinarysetofpunishments,extendinginextreme casestoamputationor,inthecaseofnoncompliantwomen,deathby stoning.Oftheeventualfateofnonbelieversnooneisleftindoubt.

Complementingthecondignenforcementisafarmorevigorous exerciseofconditionedpowerthanisknownintheChristianworld. TheQuran,therevelationsofAllahtoMohammed,doesnotallowof liberaldiscussion.The suras arethewordoflaw;thetrulydevoutknow manybyheart.AlsoMoslems,defendingtheconditioningpowerofthe

Quranandthereligiouspoweringeneral,rightlyseeorsensethe dangersofcompetitiveWesternizedcommunicationoftheintruding andseductiveeffectofnewspapers,radio,television,andWestern secularandscientificattitudes.Totheextentthatthesearesuccessfully resisted,thedisciplineoftheQuranandthereligiousauthorityofIslam arefurtherenhanced.

Thepowerofthepressandofradioandtelevisionderives,as doesthatofreligion,fromorganization;itsprincipalinstrument ofenforcement,likethatofreligion,isbeliefsocialconditioning. Atonetime,personalitywasimportant;itwasexemplifiedinthe UnitedStatesbythegreatpresslords,as,significantly,theywere calledAdolphS.Ochs,JosephPulitzer,WilliamRandolph Hearst,ColonelRobertRutherfordMcCormickandinBritainby LordsRother-mereandBeaverbrook.2 Soalsoinbroadcasting, withDavidSarnoffandWilliamPaleyintheUnitedStatesand LordReithinBritain.Now,overcomingsomeefforttothe contrary,theheadsofthegreatnewspapersandbroadcasting networksarelargelyanonymous.Encounteredatsocial gatherings,theymust,likethepresidentofIBM,introduce themselves;whenpresentingchecks,theyareaskedfor identification.Inthepressandontelevisionnamesandfaces abound,butmuchofthisissyntheticpersonality,createdby organizationforthepurposesoftheorganization.Itreflectsnot therealbutthetraditionalroleofpersonality.Intelevisionmuch oftheinformationthatispassedontothepublichasemerged fromtheorganization,not.fromtheindividual;onoccasion,the personwhoreadsithasnotseenitexceptforabriefrehearsal.In allcases,thereporter,anchorman,orcommentatorspeaksfrom withintheframeworkoftheorganization;allaresubjectto organizationalattentionandconstraint,eventhoughthismaybe deniedinmomentsofself-appreciation.Onmajornewspapers thecolumnistwhoconsistentlyadvocatedhisorherpersonal

2RupertMurdoch,itwillbesuggested,continuesinthistradition. This,perhapsunfortunately,istrue.

preferenceforthedeathpenalty,amassiveandeffectivecurbon themilitarypower,orfreeabortionwouldberegardedwithsome discomfort.Thegreatpersonalitiesofthepressinthepastsaw theirpapersasinstrumentsforpersuasion;theydidnotdreamof accordingspacefortheopposingview.Inthemodernpressand televisionitistakenforgrantedthatanystrongopinionmustbe balancedbyanotherincarefulopposition.

Propertyremainsimportantforthepressandtelevision;its compensatorypoweriswhatsustainsthelargeandexpensive structuresinvolved.Butorganizationis,oncemore,thedecisive sourceofpower.Itisthesocialconditioningflowingfrom organizationanddeterminedbythecharacteroforganizationthat sustainsandwinstheexternalsubmission.

Thissubmissionis,undoubtedly,great.Thebeliefthatwasonce accordedthepriestandperhapsinlessermeasurethe schoolmasterisnowaccordedthespokesmenandwomenof televisionand'thepress.Allusiontothesourceofbeliefis universalandautomatic"Ireaditinthepaper"or"Isawiton television."Itiswithreferencetosomepressortelevision commentthatnearlyallpoliticalconversationbegins;itiswith theeffectonpublicbeliefofsuchnewsoranalysisthatavery largepartofallpoliticaldiscussionisconcerned.Incombination withproperty,thepersuasivepoweroftelevisionissubjecttoa measureoffinancialcalculation:Oncethechancesofcandidates forpublicofficewereappraisedinaccordancewithpersonality orpolicy;nowthecommonplacecalculationturnsonthe comparativeamountsofmoneytheywillbeabletocollectfor televisionadvertising.

Yetthereismoredangerofoverestimatingthanof underestimatingthepowerofthemodernmedia.Thereare,as noted,theconstraintsimposedbyorganizationasasourceof power.Sinceanorganizationaljudgmentiscollective,itobviates individualdeeplyandpersistentlyheldpositions.3 Beliefsmust bebalancedwithappropriatecountervailingbeliefs.Noneofthis producestheconditioningthatemergedintimespastfrom stronglyarticulated,muchreiteratedpersonaladvocacy.

Ayetmoreimportantreasonforreservationastothepowerof themodernmediaoftelevisionandradio,aswellasthepressis thevolumeofthecurrentpersuasiveeffort.This,itneedhardly beemphasized,ishuge.Itisinevitable,inconsequence,that giventhelimitationsofthehumanmindandmemory,muchis ignoredandmoreispromptlyforgotten.Enduringbeliefisnot won,andonlyarandomeffectisachievedfromwhateverbelief istemporarilycreated.Whatcapturessomeevadesothers.The lessonforreligionapplies.Itsconditioningwaspowerfulwhenit wassimple,unclutteredbydoubtordissentingview,andwhenit hadamonopolyofaccesstothehumanmind.Sowiththe modernpressandbroadcastingmedia.

Itwasearlierobservedinthecaseofthepoliticianthatafter tellinganaudiencewhatitwishestohearandlisteningtothe resultingapplause,heregularlyassociateshisrecep-

3Duringpoliticalcampaignstelevisionnetworksandstationsdonot seek,inanyseriousway,toinfluencetheelectionofcandidates,the voteonreferenda,orpublicattitudesonissues.Overwhelmingly, theircommentisonwhoisahead,whoisbehind,andwhattactics arewinningorlosingvotes.Fortelevisionanelectioncampaignisa speciesofspectatorsport.This,too,reflectsorganizational constraint.

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tionwithsuccessfulpersuasion.Thisisanimportantcaseofthe illusionofpower,andthesameillusionoperatesstronglywith themedia.Readingorhearingwhattheyalreadybelieve,readers andlistenersmakeknowntheirfavorablereaction.This,inturn, istakentobeinfluence.Itissoregardedevenwhentheinitial communicationwaswrittenortelevisedwithaspecificviewto elicitingsuchapproval.Indeed,intheextremecase,the televisionstationornetworkascertainsbyresearchwhatthe viewermostwantstohearandsee,respondstothatdesire,and thenacceptsthattheviewerresponseistheresultofits persuasion.

Finally,influencetheachievementofbeliefisreducedbythe overtimprobabilityofmuchthatisurged.Thisisespeciallysoof television.Commercialsonthehightherapeuticpowersof commonplacemedicinalpreparations,thesocialgainsfrom whiterclothing,theavowedmoraltoneofaspiringpoliticians,all inviteacompellingdisbelief.Sincethisisthetendencyregarding someofwhatisseenandheard,thereisatendencytodisbelieve all.

What has beensuccessfulasregardsthepowerofthepressand televisionhasbeenthepersuasionastothatpower,abeliefthat extendsinevitablytotheparticipantsthemselves.Thepointhas previouslybeenmade.Theself-esteemoftheWashington reporterornetworkcommentatorisadmirablyservedby meditationonthepowerheorsheexercises.Thesenseofthis poweristhenreflectednotonlyinasolemnityofmienbutin muchequallysoberpublicwritingandconfession,anditis furtherenhancedbytheattentionandtheeffortsatsocialand likesubornationofreporters,editors,columnists,and commentatorsbypoliticians,lobbyists,andprofessionally righteouscitizenswhoseekaccesstothemedia.

Addingfurthertotheimpressionofthemedia'spowerisitsrole asaformofrelieffrompoliticalfrustration.The

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responsiveandarticulatecitizeninourtimeseesmuchofwhich heorshedisapproves.Asthereissomeresultingresortto organizationandspeechmaking,sothereisaresorttothemedia. Articlesarewritten;lettersaresenttoeditors;atahigherlevel, televisioninterviewsarewelcomed.Fromallthiscomesa measureofpsychicreliefsomethinghasbeenaccomplished. Essentialtothissenseofaccomplishmentisabeliefinthepower ofthemedia.4

Finally,thereiswhatmaybecalledtheresidualeffect.Condign enforcementofsubmissionhasgreatlydeclinedinthemodern industrialsociety.So,withhigherlevelsofaffluence,hasthe strengthofthecompulsionassociatedwithcompensatorypower. Thepressureofneedisless;thealternativesaregreatlymore numerous.Whatremainsisconditionedpower.Tothisthepress andtelevisionhaveanobviousrelationship.Itmust,accordingly, bethetruemodernexpressionofpower.Whatelseisthere?

Nooneshouldminimizethepowerofthemedia;inorganization andsocialconditioningitcombinesthegreatmodernsourceand thegreatmoderninstrumentofpower.Nonetheless,thepowerof thepressandtelevisionmustbeseenincarefulperspective.That includesthepossibilitythatthegeneralexerciseofallpowerhas declinedthat,ascomparedwithearliertimes,thereisnowmuch lesssubmissionofsometothepurposesofothers.Itisinthe contextofthisgeneraldeclinethattheexercisesofpowerthat remainthatofthemodernmilitaryestablishmentand,more generally,thoseofthestateandthegreatcorporateenterprises mustbeviewed.

4ImplicitinMarshallMcLuhan'sfamouschaptertitle''TheMedium IstheMessage."(Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man [NewYork:McGraw-HillPaperbackEdition,1965],pp.7-21.)

AFinalWord:TheConcentrationandDiffusionof Power

IntheMiddleAgestherecouldhavebeenlittletalkorthoughtof power.Itwasmassivelypossessedonlybytheprince,thebaron, andthepriest.Forthecitizenryingeneral,submissiontoitwas natural,automatic,andcomplete.Exceptashusbandsmight enforceitonwivesandeldersonchildren,itwasnotsomething thattheordinaryindividualeverexpectedtoexercise.Nor,after theriseofcapitalism,wasthesituationmuchchanged.There wasstillgovernmentandreligiousauthority,andnowtherewas thepowerofthemerchantandtheindustrialist.Thelaborerwho wentdailytothemillsubmittednearlythewholeorhisorher lifetothecommandoftheowner;whatlittleremainedwas controlledbythestateandtheChurch.Thenotionofsome independentareaofauthoritydidnotarise.Forthesilentmasses, powerlessnesswasthenaturalorderofthings.Powerwasnot discussedbecauseonlyatinyminorityofpeopleexercisedit. Thesingular(andtomany,thedamag-

182

ing)achievementofMarxwasinpersuadingtheworkingmasses thatthislackofpowerthissubmissionwasnotnaturalor inevitable.Powercould,infact,begained.

Powerisacompellingtopictodaynotnecessarilybecauseitis moreeffectivelyexercisedthanbeforebutbecauseinfinitely morepeoplenowhaveaccesstoeitherthefactofpoweror,more important,theillusionofitsexercise.Themodernrealityisa combinationofgreatorganizationalconcentrationsofpowerand greatdiffusionamongindividualsinitsexerciseorseeming exercise.Itwouldbeconvenientforpresentpurposeswereitone ortheother,but,asever,socialrealityexistsasanadmixture.

Theconcentrationisclearlyapartofthecontemporarysceneand willinvokeonlyslightdispute;itisevidentinthemodern industrialenterprise,themodernstate,and,combiningand callingonbothoftheothers,themodernmilitarypower.The concentrationofindustrialpowercanbeseeninthemere handfulofhugeorganizationsthatnowdominatemodern economicactivitythethousandorsothat,aspreviouslytold, contributetwothirdsofprivatelyproducedproductintheUnited Statesandasimilarconcentrationintheotherindustrial countries.Thisisinoverwhelmingcontrasttothewide distributionofeconomicactivityintheearlierageofmarket capitalism;includingintheUnitedStates,andtothestillwidely distributedagriculturalenterprises.Theonlythingthatnow disguisesthisconcentrationofeconomicpower(andthennot well)istheincreasinglyobsolescentconditioningthatassertsthe continuedpower-dissolvingsubordinationofthefirmtothe classicalmarket.

Thereisalso,incontrastwithearliertimes,themassive apparatusofthemodernstateandtherein,aswehaveseen,the

modernmilitarypower.Thelatterlettherebenodoubtreflectsa majorcentralizationofpower,withitsaccesstoallthreeofthe instrumentsofenforcementand

183 withstrengthderivingfromtwoofthesources,namelythe massivedeploymentofpropertyand,bymodernstandards,a uniquelycontrolledanddisciplinedorganization.Thatsomany reactsostrongly,evensopassionately,initssupportisonlya measureofthecompensatoryandconditionedpowerit commands.Theaggregateofthepowersoexercisedshould neverbedismissedfromthemoreavailablemind.

2

Aswehavesufficientlyseen,organizationandtheassociated roleofsocialconditioningarebasictoallmodernexerciseof power.Atthesametime,andparadoxically,theybringnotonly themodernconcentrationofpowerbutalsoits personal diffusion.

Thereisdiffusiontoparticipantswithinthestructureof organization,notablywithinthemoderncorporationandthe modernpublicagency,andevenmorethereistheillusionof individualsintheseorganizationsthattheyhaveandareusing power.Aspersonalitygiveswaytoorganization,thereis, inevitably,awiderparticipationintheexerciseofpower.What onceexpressedthewillofthebossisnowtheproductof bureaucracyofconferenceandcommitteeandproposalspassing upthroughtheorganizationalhierarchyformodification, amendment,andratification.Intheolderbusinessenterprise submissionwastotheowner;his.word,asitwassaid,waslaw. Inthemodernlargecorporationsubmissionistothebureaucratic processesinwhichmanyparticipate.Theboss,ashemaystillbe called,istheagentofthosewhoinstructhim;thepowerheis presumedtoexerciseisatleastpartlytheendowmentofthose who,sensitivetohisvanity,attributetohimanauthoritythat, wereitreal,wouldbedisastrous.Themoderncorporatetitle

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reality:thechiefexecutiveofficertheCEOisonlythechief amongthosewithexecutiveauthority.Aswiththemodern corporation,sowiththepublicagency.It,too,concentrates powerandthendistributesitamongtheindividualparticipants. Thereisproofofthisinternaldiffusionofpowerwhenthe'top commandchangesinthegreatorganization.Rarelyinthe modernbusinessenterpriseandnotusuallyinthepublicagency isitexpectedthatpolicyandactionwillmuchchangeasaresult. Itisacceptedinpractice,asdistinctfromtheeconomicand politicalliturgy,thatingreatorganizationspowerisexercised fromwithinthemanagementandnotbythetransitoryfigureat thetop.

Withintheorganizationtherealityofpersonallyexercisedpower consistsintheability,onoccasion,toinfluencethepurposesof theorganizationandtoaffectorcontributetotheexternal submissionthatitseeks.Solongastheindividualsubmitstothe purposesofthecorporationorthepublicbureaucracysubmitsto itsinternalpowerheretainssomecapacitytoinfluenceits exerciseofpower.Heorsheisaninfluentialexecutiveorbureau chief,ahard-nosedforemanorsupervisor.

Muchmoreimportant,however,istheillusion.Someofthis arises,onceagain,fromtheostentatiousdeferencethat subordinatesinanorganizationaccordthoseabovetheminthe hierarchy.1 Moreimportant,perhaps,sincetheorganizationhas power,theindividualfeelsthatsomeshareofitishisown.His submissiontotheorganizationiscomplete,butbysome subjectiveprocessofsharing,someofitspowerbelongstohim.

1IncludingtheWashingtonofficialwhopresentshissuperior,inthe frequentcasethePresidenthimself,withpolicyproposalsforwhich thereisnoacceptablealternativeandthencomplimentshisprincipal

onthewisdomofhischoice.

Themoremarkedmanifestationoforganization,however,isin combiningagreatconcentrationofpowerwithagreat multiplicationoforganizedgroupsandgreatdiffusionofpower asbetweenorganizations.Thislatterleadson,inturn,toaneven morecomprehensiveillusionastoitsexercise.

3

Thechiefcharacteristicoforganizationisitsconstantand widespreadavailability.Compellingpersonalityisinfixed supply,andthisremainstrueeveninatimewhenpersonalityis extensivelysynthesizedinpoliticsandbythemedia.Propertyis also,atanygivenmoment,infixedamount.Organization,in contrast,issubjecttounlimitedproliferation.Andasitisopento anyonetoformanorganizationtoadvancehisorherpurposes, soanyoneoranysuchorganizationcanresorttotheassociated instrumentsofconditionedpower.Speeches,pamphletsand books,televisionandotheradvertising,pressreleases,magazine articles,andanearinfinityofotherformsofpersuasionare available.Thesearethemodernmanifestationsofpower;the resultingdiffusionwillbeevident.So,andevenmore significantly,willbetheillusiontowhichthisformofexercise givesrise.Byforminganorganization,issuingstatements, havingaccesstotelevision,peoplecanbelievetheyhavepower. Allthis,tostressoncemore,isthereasonfortheintense discussionofpowerinmoderntimes.Itisnotbecauseitis exercisedwithanyspecialstrengthorbecauseanygreat submissioniswon;suchmanifestationsarefar.less comprehensivethaninpasttimes.Itisbecausesomany individualshavesomepowerortheillusionofitsexercise.

Lifeinallmodernindustrialsocieties,butnotablyintheUnited States,isdistinguishedbythenumberoforganiza-

Page186 tionsincompetitionforthepublicandpoliticalmind-lobbies, political-actioncommittees,public-interestorganizations,trade associations,tradeunions,publicrelationsfirms,politicaland diverseotherconsultants,radioandtelevisionevangelists,and more,adinfinitum.Acommonreaction,oftenoneofgrave concern,istotheirpower.Amorevalidperceptionisofthe distributionordisseminationofpowerthattheyreflect.Were powerstronglyconcentratedinthestate,theywouldnotexist. Therewouldbenofurtherpowertoseekandshare.Itisbecause theyareabletoinfluencethegovernmentandappropriatesome partofitspowerthattheyhavefunction.This,inturn,istosay thatthepowernormallyassociatedwiththemodernstateisalso diffused.

Contributingfurthertothediffusionofpowerhasbeentheeffect ofaffluence.Thishasweakenedtheroleofpropertyand therewithofcompensatorypower.Withaffluence,consumers andworkershavealternatives;itislessnecessary,accordingly, thattheysubmittoanygivenexerciseofauthority.Theneedy consumerissubjecttothepowerofthelandlord,shopkeeper, loanshark;theaffluentoneisnot.Monopolyisasourceof powerinapoorsociety;inarichcountryitinvitespeopletofind alternatives.Thepoorandhungryworkersubmitstohis employer;thewell-paidemployeeisunderalessermeasureOf compulsion.

Thecompulsionisalsoweakenedifthereisincomeavailablein theformofunemploymentcompensationorwelfarepaymentsas thealternativetohungerandhardship.Asearlierobserved,no complaintismorecommoninthemodernindustrialsocietythan thatworkersarenolongerasdiligentandasdisciplinedasinthe

past.Thiscomplaint

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shouldbedirected,inpart,againsttheaffluencethathas diminishedthecompensatorypoweroftheemployer.Butitruns alsoagainsttheSocialSecurityandotherbenefitsthathavegone fartoeliminatefear.Thosewhoattackthewelfareapparatusof themodernstatecorrectlysenseitsroleindiminishingand diffusingthecompensatorypowerthat,inpasttimes,served employerpower.Whetherthisisunfortunate,unwise,orsocially deleteriousis,tobesure,anotherquestion.

Powerisalsonowdiffusedbyitsdialectic,ofwhichsufficient hasbeensaid.Thosewhoonceacceptedcompulsionnow organizeautomaticallytoresistit.Thiswasnotastrueinearlier times;sucharesponsewasthenregardedassubversive,an attitudefromwhichthosenowexercisingpowerarealsonot immune.

Thereremain,however,thegreatexceptions.Themodem militaryestablishmentstronglyconcentratespower.Itexactsa highlevelofsubmissionfromalargenumberofindividuals withintheorganization,andinsymmetricalfashionitexactsan equivalentobedienceoutside.Themodernlargecorporation expectsandreceivesahighlevelofconformityfromthemanyin itsmanagement.Anditspropertyresourcesaccorditan extensivecommandoverthemanyitemploys.Fromthisflows anextensivesubmissionbythecitizenryandbythestate.Asin thecaseofthemilitary,thepurposesofthegreatbusiness enterprise,theideasthatsustainit,arelargely,thoughnotquite completely,abovedebate.Associalconditioningadversetothe militaryisunpatrioticandnegligentofnationalsecurity,sothat whichisadversetothemodemindustrialenterpriseissubversive ofthefreeenterprisesystem.Nottheleastofthestrengthsofthe militaryandcorporatepoweristhediffusioninthesourcesof powerthatarebroughtinopposition.Andalsothe illusion of

powerintheopposingdialectic.Nothingso

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servesthemilitaryorcorporatepowerasthebeliefofits opponentsthattheyhaveaccomplishedsomethingbyholdinga meeting,givingaspeech,orissuingamanifesto.Nooneina democracyshouldbeindoubtastotherealeffectivenessof organizedoppositiontoconcentratedpower.Butallmusthave anacuteunderstandingoftheweaknessarisingfromthe diffusionofpowerandthedifferencebetweenillusionand practicaleffect.

Itisnotthepurposeofthisbooktopassjudgmentonthe exerciseofpower,thenotablyalarmingroleofthemodern militarypowerapart.(Thelatterisnotsomethingofwhichone cantakeawhollydetachedandanalyticalview.)Therecanbe suffering,indignity,andunhappinessfromtheexerciseofpower. Therecan,aswell,besuffering,indignity,andunhappinessfrom theabsenceofitsexercise.Insteaditismyhopethatthereader willemergefromthesepageswitha.reasonablysolidsenseof thenatureandstructureofpowerofitssourcesandthe instrumentsbywhichitisexercised,ofthevariedassociations betweenthesourcesandtheinstrumentsofpower,oftheir changeovertime,andoftheir'modernformandeffect.!would especiallyhopethattheremightbeabetterunderstandingofthe greatmodemroleofconditionedpower,thatpowerwhichis principallyeffectivebecausewearesoextensivelyinnocentof itsexercise-becausewethinkofourselvesasrespondingto seeminglynormalbelief,seeminglynaturalandacceptedvirtue. Iwouldalsohope,needlesstosay,forabetterperceptionofthe illusionofpowertowhichsomanyaresubjectand,asjust observed,oftheweaknessindealingwithgreatconcentrationsof powerthatarisesfromthemoderntendencyto

189 itsdiffusioninthecounteringexercise.Letus,wherecorporate ormilitarypowerisexercised,recognizethateffective consolidationofthecounteringpower,notdiffusionand competitionasbetweenmanyopposingorganizations,isamajor, indeedabsolute,essential.Finallyandmoregenerally,Inaturally hopeforanenduringsenseofwhatandhowmuchliesbackof ourdailyreferencestopowerandourequallyconstant involvementtherewith.