TheologicalStudies 70(2009)
CROSSINGTHEDIVIDE:FOUNDATIONSOFATHEOLOGY OFMIGRATIONANDREFUGEES
DANIEL G.GROODY,C.S.C.
Examiningtheologicalreflectioninanageofmigration,theauthor focusesonfourfoundationsofatheologyofmigrationandrefugees: (1) ImagoDei: CrossingtheProblem–PersonDivide;(2) Verbum Dei: CrossingtheDivine–HumanDivide;(3) MissioDei: Crossing theHuman–HumanDivide;and(4) VisioDei: CrossingtheCountry–Kingdomdivide.Asacalltocrossbordersandovercomebarriers,migrationisawayofthinkingaboutGodandhumanlifeand anexpressionoftheChristianmissionofreconciliation.
MIGRATIONHASBEENPART ofhumanhistorysinceitsorigins.But today,duetowidespreadchangesprecipitatedbyglobalization, morepeoplearemigratingthaneverbefore—twiceasmanynowas25 yearsago. 1 Nearly200millionpeople,oroneoutofevery35people aroundtheworld,arelivingawayfromtheirhomelands.Thisisroughly theequivalentofthepopulationofBrazil,thefifthlargestontheplanet.2
DANIEL G.GROODY,C.S.C.,earnedhisPh.D.fromtheGraduateTheological Union,Berkeley,andisnowassistantprofessoroftheologyanddirectorofthe CenterforLatinoSpiritualityandCultureattheUniversityofNotreDame.In 2007and2008hewasavisitingresearchfellowattheRefugeeStudiesCentre, OxfordUniversity.Hisrecentpublicatonsreflecthisinterestintheintersectionof globalization,immigration,andtheology: BorderofDeath,ValleyofLife:An ImmigrantJourneyofHeartandSpirit (2002); Globalization,Spirituality,andJustice:NavigatingthePathtoPeace (2007);andtheeditedcollections, TheOptionfor thePoorinChristianTheology (2007)and,withGioacchinoCampese, APromised Land,APerilousJourney:TheologicalPerspectivesonMigration (2008).Atheologyofmigrationandrefugeesandthespiritualityofimmigrantsareinpreparation.
Groody’sworkissupportedbytheRefugeeStudiesCentreatOxfordUniversity, theAssociationofTheologicalSchools/LillyEndowment,andtheUniversityofNotre Dame’sInstituteforLatinoStudies,theInstituteforScholarshipintheLiberalArts, theKelloggInstituteforInternationalStudies,theJoanB.KrocInstituteforInternationalPeaceStudies,andtheNanovicInstituteforEuropeanStudies.
1 KhalidKoser, InternationalMigration:AVeryShortIntroduction (NewYork: OxfordUniversity,2007)5.
2 Someofthemostimportantsourcesonmigrationstatisticscomefromthe WorldBank(http://www.worldbank.org),theInternationalOrganizationofMigration(IOM,http://www.iom.int/jahia/jsp/index.jsp),theInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO,http://www.ilo.org/global/lang–en/index.htm),theUnitedNations HighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR,http://www.unhcr.org),theUnited
Manyofthesemigrantsareforciblyuprooted:approximately30–40million areundocumented,24millionareinternallydisplaced,andalmost10millionarerefugees.3
Theseflowsofpeopleprecipitateconflictandcontroversy;theyaffect notonlymigrantsbutreceivingcommunitiesaswell,makingmigration anincreasinglyvolatileandcontentiouspoliticalissue.4 Theclashof cultures,identities,andreligions,alongwithdebatesovereconomics, resources,andrights,haspolarizedpublicdiscourse,makingthemigrationdebateconvolutedandconfused.Notonlydoesrhetoricaboutimmigrationconflate,ifnotmanipulate,multipleissueslikenational securityandhumaninsecurity,sovereignrightsandhumanrights,civil lawandnaturallaw,butthedisciplinesgoverningthedebatehavenot givenustheconceptsnecessarytomovebeyondunfruitful,polemical discourseandreachthecoreissues.
Categoriessuchaslegalityandillegality,thedocumentedandtheundocumented,andcitizenandalien,notonlyfailtocometotermswitha newglobalreality,buttheyalsoleavegapingareasofinjusticeintheir wake.Somearguethattougherenforcementwillresolvetheproblemof
NationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(UNDESA;seeespecially TrendsinTotalMigrationStock:The2005Revision,http://www.un.org/esa/ population/publications/migration/UN_Migrant_Stock_Documentation_2005.pdf), andtheGlobalCommissionforInternationalMigration(GCIM,http://www.gcim. org/en/).Seeinparticular MigrationinanInterconnectedWorld:Reportofthe GlobalCommissionforInternationalMigration,(Geneva:GlobalCommissionon InternationalMigration)83–85,availableathttp://www.gcim.org/attachements/ gcim-complete-report-2005.pdf(accessedMay11,2009).
3 Formoreonthesestatistics,seehttp://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/254 (accessedMay12,2009).
4 Whileoftenperceivedasaprobleminitself,forcedmigrationismoreoftena symptomofdeeperissuesrelatedtohumancrisesrangingfrompoverty,persecution,andunderdevelopment,towidespreadsociopoliticalandeconomicchanges suchasnation-buildingandindustrialexpansion,andtoglobaleventslikewars, andnaturaldisasters.Accordingtothe2005reportoftheGCIM,thefactorsthat precipitatemigrationinclude:(1)wagedisparities:45.7%ofpeopleinSub-Saharan Africa,14.4%inSouthAsia,and10.4%inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean earnlessthan$1perday;(2)unemploymentrates:12.2%intheMiddleEastand NorthAfrica,10.9%inSub-SaharanAfrica,and6.6%inindustrializedeconomies; (3)differentialsinlifeexpectancy:58yearsinlowincomecountries,and78yearsin highincomecountries;(4)educationgaps:58%womenand68%menliterateinlow incomecountries,almostfullliteracyinhighincomecountries;76%primaryschool enrollmentinlowincomecountries,almostfullenrollmentinhighincome countries;(5)demographicgradients:onaverage5.4childrenborntoeachwoman inSub-SaharanAfrica,comparedwith3.8intheArabWorld,2.5inLatinAmerica andtheCaribbean,and1.4inEurope.See MigrationinanInterconnectedWorld: NewDirectionsforAction 84,http://www.gcim.org/attachements/gcim-complete-report-2005.pdf(accessedMay2,2009).
migrationandrefugees(asevidencedbytheUnitedStates,Israel,“fortress Europe,”andotherpartsoftheworld),butthismassivemovementof peoples,regardlessofthepoliciesofnation-states,willcontinue,transformingthecontoursofcommunitiesaroundtheglobe.Affectingallareas ofhumanlife,migrationisarguablyoneofthemostcomplexissuesinthe world,anditwillbecomemoresignificantinthefuture.5 Becausemigrationisoneofitsdefiningissues,the21stcenturyhasbeenreferredtoby somescholarsas“theageofmigration.”6
CROSSINGOVER:BRIDGINGTHEMIGRATION–THEOLOGYDIVIDE
Migrationissuesaresocomplexandfar-reachingthatunderstanding themdemandsabroadrangeofinterdisciplinaryresearch.7 Economics, politics,geography,demography,sociology,psychology,law,history,anthropology,andenvironmentalstudiesareforemostamongthedisciplinesthatshapetheemergingfieldofmigrationstudiesandmigration theory.Theology,however,isalmostnevermentionedinmajorworksor atcentersofmigrationstudies.Someresearchhasbeendoneonmigrationandreligionfromasociologicalperspective,butthereisvirtually nothingonthetopicfromatheologicalperspective.8 Theologyseemsto entertheacademicterritoryfromtheoutside,asifitwerea“disciplinary refugee”withnoofficialrecognitionintheoveralldiscourseaboutmigration.9
5 FormerUNSecretaryGeneralKofiAnnansummarizestheproblematicnatureofthisageofmigrationintermsofthe“issuesofhumanrightsandeconomic opportunity,oflabourshortagesandunemployment,ofbraindrainandbraingain, ofmulticulturalismandintegration,ofrefugeeflowsandasylum-seekers,oflaw enforcementandhumantrafficking,ofhumansecurityandnationalsecurity.” UNDESA, WorldEconomicandSocialSurvey2004:InternationalMigration (NewYork:UNDepartmentofEconomicandSocialInformationandPolicy Analysis,2004)iii.
6 StephenCastlesandMarkJ.Miller, TheAgeOfMigration:InternationalPopulationMovementsintheModernWorld (London:Guilford,2003).
7 Foravaluableintroductiontoglobalmigrationandrefugees,seePhilipMarfleet, RefugeesinaGlobalEra (NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2006).
8 TwoofthemostnotablestudiesonmigrationandreligionareHelenRose EbaughandJanetSaltzmanChafetz,eds., ReligionacrossBorders:Transnational ImmigrantNetworks (Lanham,Md.:Altamira,2002);andYvonneYazbeckHaddad,JaneI.Smith,andJohnL.Esposito, ReligionandImmigration:Christian, Jewish,andMuslimExperiencesintheUnitedStates (Lanham,Md.:Altamira, 2003).
9 Formoreontheinterdisciplinarynatureofmigrationstudiesandmigration theory,seeC.B.BrettellandJ.F.Hollifield,eds., MigrationTheory:Talking acrossDisciplines (NewYork:Routledge,2000);andPeterC.Meilaender, Toward aTheoryofImmigration (NewYork:Palgrave,2001).
Evenamongtheologiansthetopicofmigrationislargelyundocumented.10 TheVaticanandvariousepiscopalconferenceshavenotablewritingsabout thepastoralcareofimmigrants,11 buttodatelittlehasbeenwrittenabout migrationasatheologicalreality.Thecurrentclimatepointstotheneedto movethemigrationdebatetoanevenbroaderintellectualterrain,onein whichtheologynotonlyhassomethingtolearnbutsomethingtooffer. MyaiminthisarticleistoreflectcriticallyonthemysteryofGodinanage ofmigration,whichisawayofthinkingaboutthegospelmessageinlightof thesignofthetimes.12
SinceVaticanII,theologyhasbeenrecastinvariouswaysinresponseto thechallengesofthemodernworld,suchasthosepresentedbyliberation movements,feminism,religiouspluralism,postmodernity,culturaldiversity,andesthetics.Thelongstandingbutnowacceleratingrealityofglobal migrationpresentsanotheropportunitytogroundtheologicalanalysisina specificsociallocationthatemergesfrom“thejoysandhopes,thegriefs andanxieties”ofmanymarginalpeopletoday.13 Ourunderstandingof Godandofmigrationcanmutuallyshapeandenricheachotherandhelp bridgetheologyandmigrationstudies,traditionandoneofthemost
10 SomeofthefewstudiesonmigrationandtheologyincludeDanielG.Groody andGioacchinoCampese,eds., APromisedLand,APerilousJourney:Theological PerspectivesonMigration (NotreDame,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDame,2008); GioacchinoCampeseandPietroCiallella, Migration,ReligiousExperience,and Globalization (NewYork:CenterforMigrationStudies,2003);WilliamR.O’Neill, andWilliamC.Spohn.“RightsofPassage:TheEthicsofImmigrationandRefugee Policy,” TheologicalStudies 59(1998)84–106;andDrewChristiansen,“Movement, Asylum,Borders:ChristianPerspectives,” InternationalMigrationReview 30 (1996)7–17.
11 SeeinparticularPiusXII,ApostolicConstitution, Exsulfamilianazarethana, August1,1952,http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius12/p12exsul.htm(accessed May11,2009);PontificalCouncilforthePastoralCareofMigrantsandItinerant People, ErgamigrantescaritasChristi (TheLoveofChristtowardMigrants) (2004);andPontificalCouncil“CorUnum”andPontificalCouncilforthePastoral CareofMigrantsandItinerantPeople,“Refugees:AChallengetoSolidarity” (1992)(VaticandocumentscitedinthisarticleareavailableontheVaticanWeb site);thejointstatementofthe ConferenciadelEpiscopadoMexicano andUnited StatesConferenceofCatholicBishops(USCCB),StrangersNoLonger:Together ontheJourneyofHope(January2003),http://www.usccb.org/mrs/stranger.htm (accessedMay11,2009).
12 VaticanII, Gaudiumetspes no.4,http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_ councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat -ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en. html(accessedMay11,2009).DavidTracynotesthat“thecentraltheological problemofourdayisnottheproblemofthenonbelieverbuttheproblemof thosethoughttobenonpersonsbythereigningelite”(Tracy,“TheChristian OptionforthePoor,”in TheOptionforthePoorinChristianTheology,ed. DanielG.Groody[NotreDame,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDame,2007]119).
13 Gaudiumetspes no.1.
vexingsocialissuesofthemodernworld.Ihopenotonlytohighlightthe moraldemandsrelatedtodisplacedpeoplesbutalsotoexplorenewways inwhichwemightexaminethetheologicalterritoryofmigrationandeven challengesomeoftheunderlyingphilosophical,ifnotideological,presuppositionsbehindthedebateaboutmigrantsandrefugees.
Mystudyfocusesonfourfoundationsofsuchatheologyasindicated bythefollowingsubtitles:(1) ImagoDei:CrossingtheProblem-Person Divide;(2) VerbumDei:CrossingtheDivine-HumanDivide;(3) Missio Dei:CrossingtheHuman-HumanDivide;and(4) VisioDei:Crossingthe Country-KingdomDivide.Eachoffersawayofthinkingabouttheologyand migrationasacalltocrossbordersandovercomebarriers.Migrationisnot onlyasocialrealitywithprofoundimplicationsbutalsoawayofthinking aboutGodandwhatitmeanstobehumanintheworld,whichcanbecome animportantimpetusintheministryofreconciliationandacompellingforce inunderstandingandrespondingtomigrantsandrefugees.
IMAGODEI:CROSSINGTHEPROBLEM–PERSONDIVIDE
Oneoftheinitialchallengesintheimmigrationdebatedealswithlanguage.Agreatdivideexistsbetweentheproblemofmigrationandmigratingpeople,betweenthosewhoarelabeledandtheirlabelers,betweenthe politicalandsocialidentitiesofmigrantsandrefugeesandtheirhumanand spiritualidentities.
Scholarshaverecentlyattendedtothecategorizationoftheforcibly displaced.14 Termslike refugee,migrant,forcedmigrant,immigrant,undocumented,internallydisplacedperson,andalienaresomeofthemostcommon. 15 Theliteratureonthissubjectiscomingtotermswiththeinherent
14 RogerZetter,“MoreLabels,FewerRefugees:RemakingtheRefugeeLabel inanEraofGlobalization,” JournalofRefugeeStudies 20(2007)172–92.
15 Theterms migrant, immigrant, refugee,and internallydisplacedpersons are oftenusedinterchangeably,althoughtheycarrydifferentnuances.TheUnited Nationsuses“migrant”generallytorefertopeoplelivingoutsidetheirhomelandfor ayearormoreregardlessoftheirreasonorlegalstatusandoftenincludesinternationalbusinesspeopleordiplomatswhoareonthemovebutnoteconomically disadvantaged.But,asIamherefocusingonpeopleatthebottomoftheeconomic ladder,Iwilluse“migrant”torefertoeconomicmigrants,forcedmigrantsor refugees,andinternallydisplacedpeoples.TheIOM’s WorldMigrationReport2005 defines“undocumented”or“irregularmigrants”as“workersormembersoftheir familiesnotauthorizedtoenter,tostayortoengageinemploymentina state,”(http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/1674?entryId=932[accessed May3,2009]).The1951UnitedNationsConventionRelatingtotheStatusof Refugeesdefinesa“refugee”asonewho,“owingtowell-foundedfearofpersecution forreasonsofrace,religion,nationality,membershipofaparticularsocialgroup orpoliticalopinions,isoutsidethecountryofhisnationalityandisunableor, owingtosuchfear,isunwillingtoavailhimselfoftheprotectionofthatcountry”
limitationsofsuchterminology.Theproblemisthattheselabelsarelargelypolitical,legal,andsocialconstructions.AsRogerZetternotes,“Far fromclarifyinganidentity,thelabelconveys,instead,anextremelycomplexsetofvalues,andjudgmentswhicharemorethanjustdefinitional.”16
Althoughlabelingmaybeaninescapablepartofpolicy-makingandits language,thedifficultyariseswhenmigrants,immigrants,refugees,and asylumseekersareidentifiedprincipallyandprimarilyintermsoftheir politicalstatusratherthantheirhumanidentity.Theimplicationsinvolve morethansemantics.
Labelsoftengenerateasymmetricalrelationships,leavingmigrantsand refugeesvulnerabletocontrol,manipulation,andexploitation.Identifying immigrantsintermsofpoliticaldescriptorscanunintentionallycreatenew formsofpsychologicalcolonization.Referringtotheproblemofcultural labels,VirgilioElizondonotes:
ThemostinjuriouscrimeoftheconquestofLatinAmerica,andthereweremany horriblethingsaboutit,wasthatthewhiteEuropeanconquistadoresimposeda deepsenseofshameofbeinganindio,mestizo,mulatto....Manytodaystill experienceshameregardingtheirskincolor,theirwayoflife,theirwayofbeing, theirwayofdress,theirwayofspeaking,andtheirwaysofworship.Suchrejection brandsthesoul,inawayworseandmorepermanentthanabrandingofthe master’smarkwithahotironontheface.17
(http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/ha/prsr/prsr.html[accessedMay3,2009]).TheUnited NationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR),inthedocument Guiding PrinciplesonInternalDisplacement,defines“internallydisplacedpersons”asthose “whohavebeenforcedorobligedtofleeortoleavetheirhomesorplacesofhabitual residence,inparticularasaresultoforinordertoavoidtheeffectsofarmedconflict, situationsofgeneralizedviolence,violationsofhumanrightsornaturalorhumanmadedisasters,andwhohavenotcrossedaninternationallyrecognizedStateborder”(http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/7/b/principles.htm[accessedMay3,2009]). Althoughtheseclassificationshelpdeterminethelegalprotectionsavailableto migrants,manyscholarstodayagreethatatsomepointthesecategorizationsblur. Somepeoplemayfleetheirhomelandsbecauseofpoliticalpersecutionandfall underthecategoryofforcedmigrantsorrefugees,forexample,buttheirmotivations mayalsostemfromeconomicconsiderationsandthereforethesamepeoplecanbe economicmigrantsaswell.Mostmigrantsaremotivatedby“push”factorsthatdrive themawayfromtheirhomelandsand“pull”factorsthatdrawthemtobetterlivesin anotherplace.Formypurposes“migration” canbeanaptdescriptorfortheChristian journey,and“refugees”highlightssomeofthemostvulnerablepeopleofthemigrant population.Amongthemanyreportsonmigrationandrefugees,seetheappendixof TheWorldMigrationReport2005.
16 RogerZetter,“LabelingRefugees:TheFormingandTransformingofaBureaucraticIdentity,” JournalofRefugeeStudies 4(1991)39–62,at40.
17 VirgilioElizondo,“Culture,theOptionforthePoor,andLiberation,”in OptionforthePoorinChristianTheology,ed.DanielG.Groody(NotreDame, Ind.:UniversityofNotreDame,2007)164.
Partofthetaskofatheologyofmigrationistobridgethegapcreatedby theselabels,challengethedehumanizingstereotypescreatedbythese labels,andbuildup(inthewordsofPaulVIandJohnPaulII)“acivilizationoflove”and“acultureoflife.”18 Thetaskentailshelpingthoseonthe movediscoveraninneridentitythatfosterstheirownagencyratherthanan imposedexternalidentitythatincreasestheirvulnerabilityandsubjugation.
Asvaluableassocialsciencecontributionshavebeeninunderstanding migration,itsowndisciplinarylimitationspreventitsmakinganexplicit theologicalaffirmationaboutmigrantsandrefugees.Theologytakesthe discoursetoadeeperlevel.“TheJudeo-Christiantradition,”astheU.S. Catholicbishopshavenoted,“issteepedinimagesofmigration,”fromthe migrationofAdamandEveoutofthegardenofEden(Gen3:23–24),to thevisionoftheNewJerusaleminthefinalpagesoftheNewTestament (Rev21:1–4).19
InthebookofGenesisweareintroducedtoacentraltruththathuman beingsarecreatedintheimageandlikenessofGod(Gen1:26–27;5:1–3;9:6; 1Cor11:7;Jas3:9).Thisisnotjustanotherlabelbutawayofspeaking profoundlyabouthumannature.Definingallhumanbeingsintermsof imagoDei providesaverydifferentstartingpointforthediscourseonmigrationandcreatesaverydifferenttrajectoryforthediscussion. ImagoDei namesthepersonalandrelationalnatureofhumanexistenceandthemystery thathumanlifecannotbeunderstoodapartfromofthemysteryofGod.20
18 PaulVIwasthefirstpopetousetheexpression“acivilizationoflove”:“Itis thecivilizationofloveandofpeacewhichPentecosthasinaugurated—andweare allawarehowmuchtodaytheworldstillneedsloveandpeace!”(PaulVI,Regina CoeliAddress,May17,1970,http://www.civilizationoflove.net/19700517_Summary. htm[accessedOctober19,2008]).JohnPaulIIalsospeaksofacivilizationorcommunionofloveinseveralofhisencyclicals(Novomillennioineunte no.42; Redemptor hominis no.10; EcclesiainEuropa nos.82–85),aswellas“acultureoflife”(Evangeliumvitae nos.21,28,50,77,82,86,87,92,95,98,100).
19 USCCB, OneFamilyunderGod:AStatementoftheU.S.Bishops’Committee onMigration,rev.ed.(Washington:USCCB,1998)2.
20 Although imagoDei isfoundationaltoChristiantheology,ithasbeeninterpretedinvariouswaysthroughouthistory.Mostdebatesabouttheterm’smeaning revolvearoundtheconditionofhumannatureaftertheFall,aswellasissues relatedtoattributes(suchasreason,will,emotions,andcreativity),ethicalqualities,socialcharacteristics,anddivinefiliation.Irenaeusdistinguishedbetween“image”and“likeness,”notingthat“image”indicatesanontologicalparticipation (methexis)and“likeness”(mime ˆ sis)amoraltransformation(Adversushaereses 5.6.1;5.8.1;5.16.2).Tertullianbelievedthattheimagecouldneverbedestroyed, butitcouldbelostbysin(Debaptismo 5,6.7).Augustineaddressedtherelational andtrinitariandimensionsof imagoDei,itsthreefoldstructure(memory,intelligence,andwill)andthefundamentalorientationofhumanbeingstoGod(Confessions 1.1.1).Aquinasconsideredthreestagesofthe imagoDei: imagocreationis (nature), imagorecreationis (grace),and similitudinis (glory)(Summatheologiae [hereafter ST]1,q.93,a.4).Hebelievedthatthe imagoDei enableshumanbeings
LisaSowleCahillnotesthattheimageofGodis“theprimaryChristian categoryorsymbolofinterpretationofpersonalvalue.”21 “[This]symbol,” MaryCatherineHilkertadds,“grounds furtherclaimstohumanrights”and “givesrisetojustice.”22 Onereasonwhyitisbettertospeakintermsof irregularmigrationratherthan “illegalaliens”isthattheword alien isdehumanizingandobfuscatesthe imagoDei inthosewhoareforciblyuprooted.
Onthesurfaceitmayseembasictogroundatheologyofmigrationon imagoDei,butthetermisoftenignoredinpublicdiscourse.Definingthe migrantandrefugeefirstandforemostintermsof imagoDei rootssuch personsintheworldverydifferentlythaniftheyareprincipallydefinedas socialandpoliticalproblemsorasillegalaliens;thetheologicalterms includeasetofmoraldemandsaswell.Withoutadequateconsideration ofthehumanityofthemigrant,itisimpossibletoconstructjustpolicies orderedtothecommongoodandtothebenefitofsociety’sweakestmembers.Thefactthatinourcurrentglobaleconomyitiseasierforacoffee toparticipateinthelifeofGod.TheclassicReformationtraditionstendedtostress morethedepravityofhumannaturewhereasCatholicandOrthodoxpositionshold thatsinimpairsordisfiguresthe imagoDei butdoesnotdestroyit.Theriseofthe Enlightenmentandmodernity,andmovementstowardempiricismandrationalism, pushedthenotionof imagoDei intothebackground,oreliminateditaltogether, replacingitwithananthropologythatseeshumanbeingsasself-constituting, autonomoussubjects.LudwigFeuerbach,KarlMarx,andSigmundFreudwent furtherbyadvancingthatGodisnomorethanaprojectionofthehumanimagination;thustheyopenthedoortodeconstructiveinterpretationsaboutthehuman person.AfterVaticanII,however,thenotionof imagoDei,receivedrenewed attention,andtodayitgroundsmuchofmodernCatholicsocialteaching. Imago Dei providesanimportantfoundationforecologicalquestions,humanitarian debates,genderissues,eschatologicalconcerns,andsocial-justicechallenges,and particularlyformytreatmenthereoftheissueofmigrationandrefugees.Fora thoroughyetconcisetreatmentof imagoDei,seeInternationalTheologicalCommission(ITC),CommunionandStewardship:HumanPersonsCreatedinthe ImageofGod,http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html(accessedMay3,2009); PhyllisTrible, GodandtheRhetoricofSexuality (Philadelphia:Fortress,1978) 72–143;DavidTracy,“ReligionandHumanRightsinthePublicRealm,” Daedalus 112(1983)237–54;Ju ¨ rgenMoltmann, GodinCreation (SanFrancisco:Harper& Row,1985);DouglasJohnHall, ImagingGod:DominionasStewardship (Grand Rapids,Mich.:Eerdmans,1986);andMaryCatherineHilkert,O.P.,“ImagoDei,”in NewDictionaryofCatholicSpirituality,ed.MichaelDowney(Collegeville,Minn.: Liturgical,1993)535.
21 LisaSowleCahill,“TowardaChristianTheoryofHumanRights,” Journalof ReligiousEthics 8(1980)279.
22 MaryCatherineHilkert,“CryBelovedImage:RethinkingtheImageofGod,” in IntheEmbraceofGod:FeministApproachestoTheologicalAnthropology,ed. AnnO’HaraGraff(Maryknoll,N.Y.:Orbis,1995)190–204.
beantocrossbordersthanthosewhocultivateitraisesseriousquestions abouthowoureconomyisstructuredandordered.
Initseffortstosafeguardthedignityofallpeople,Catholicsocialteachinghasconsistentlyarguedthatthemoralhealthofaneconomyis measurednotintermsoffinancialmetricslikethegrossnationalproduct orstockpricesbutintermsofhowtheeconomyaffectsthequalityoflifein thecommunityasawhole.23 Catholicsocialteachingstatesthatanordered economymustbeshapedbythreequestions:Whatdoestheeconomydo for people?Whatdoesitdo to people?and,Howdopeople participatein it?24 Itputsstrongestemphasisonwhatimpacttheeconomyhasonthepoor. Itstressesthattheeconomyismadeforhumanbeings,nothumanbeings fortheeconomy.Intheimmigrationdebatethismeansthattheprimary costsarehumancosts,not“bottomlines”orprofitmargins;Catholicsocial teachingaskstowhatextenttheeconomyofacountryenhancesthedignity ofeveryhumanbeing,especiallyofthosewhoarevulnerableanddeemed insignificant.
Asnotedin Gaudiumetspes,imagoDei alsomeansthatpeople,by implication,oughttohaveavailable“everythingnecessaryforleadingalife trulyhuman,suchasfood,clothing,andshelter;therighttochooseastate oflifefreelyandtofoundafamily,therighttoeducation,toemployment, toagoodreputation,torespect,toappropriateinformation,toactivityin accordwiththeuprightnormofone’sownconscience,toprotectionof privacyandrightfulfreedom.eveninmattersreligious.”25 Preferably,peoplecanmeetsuchneedsintheirhomeland,butwhentheseconditionsare notmet,asJohnXXIIInoted,peoplehavearighttoemigrateinorderto “morefittinglyprovideafuture”forthemselvesandtheirfamily.26
Formanyforcedmigrants,movingacrossbordersisconnectedtofinding ajob.Writingagainstthebackdropoftheexploitationofmigrantworkers andmuchglobalunemployment,JohnPaulIIin Laboremexercens addressedtheconnectionbetweenhumandignity,socialjustice,and work.27 Henotesthat“thepersonworkingawayfromhisnativeland, whetherasapermanentemigrantoraseasonalworker,shouldnotbe placedatadisadvantageincomparisonwiththeotherworkersinthat societyinthematterofworkingrights.Emigrationinsearchofworkshould innowaybecomeanopportunityforfinancialorsocialexploitation.”28
Catholicsocialteachingrecognizestheright,andeventheresponsibility, ofastatetocontrolitsborders,butitalsoarguesthat,whenastatecannot
23 USCCB,EconomicJusticeforAll,no.14,http://www.osjspm.org/economic_ justice_for_all.aspx(accessedMay3,2009).
24 Ibid.no.1.
26 JohnXXIII, Paceminterris no.106.
25 Gaudiumetspes no.26.
27 JohnPaulII, Laboremexercens no.1.
28 Ibid.no.23.
providetheconditionsnecessaryforhumandignity,peoplehavearightto migratetoforeignlands,evenwithoutproperlegaldocumentation.29 The bishopsoftheUnitedStateshaveaddedthat“anylimitationoninternationalmigrationmustbeundertakenonlyaftercarefulconsiderationofthe demandsofinternationalsolidarity.Theseconsiderationsincludedevelopment,tradeandinvestmentprograms,educationandtraining,andeven distributionpoliciesdesignedtonarrowthewidegapsbetweentherich andthepoor.”30
Thenotionof imagoDei andhumandignityisrootedinChristian theology,butitsimplicationshaveuniversalscope,withcorollariesin otherreligious,philosophical,andhumanitariantraditions.Humandignity, rootedintheologicalpremises,alsohascloseaffinitieswithhumanrights language,particularlyasitisexpressedinthe1948UniversalDeclaration ofHumanRights,31 andthe1951UnitedNationsConventionrelatingto theStatusofRefugees,32 whichremainsthecharterdocumentforrefugee rightsandprotections.Humandignityandhumanrightslanguageunderscoretheinherentvalueandworthofeveryperson,regardlessoftheir political,economic,social,orgeographicalstatus.
ImagoDei isintegrallyrelatedtotheTrinity,whichmeansitisnot primarilyanindividualisticnotionbutarelationalone.Mostmigrants leavetheirhomesnotonlytorealizeagreaterdignityforthemselvesbut alsofortheirfamilies.Statisticsonglobalremittancesofferoneindicator oftheconnectionbetweenmigrationandrelationships.In2006,migrants senthometotheirfamilies,ofteninsmallamountsof$100to$300ata time,morethan$300billion.Meanwhile,thetotalOverseasDevelopment Aidfromdonornationstopoorercountrieswas$106billion.Thismeans thatmigrantslivingonmeagermeansspentthreetimesasmuchmoney helpingalleviateglobalpovertyasthewealthiestcountriesoftheworld.33
29 SacredCongregationforBishops,“InstructiononthePastoralCareofPeople WhoMigrate,”August22,1969(Washington:UnitedStatesCatholicConference)7.
30 USCCB, OneFamilyUnderGod:AStatementoftheU.S.Bishops’Committee onMigration,rev.ed.(Washington:USCCB,1998)6.
31 UnitedNations,UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,http://www.un.org/ Overview/rights.html(accessedMay11,2009).
32 OfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights,Conventionrelatingto theStatusofRefugees,http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/o_c_ref.htm.
33 FormoreonOverseasDevelopmentStatistics,seeDevelopmentCo-operationDirectorate(OECD),DevelopmentAidataGlance2007,http://masetto. sourceoecd.org/vl=3495881/cl=12/nw=1/rpsv/devaid2007/s-1-1.htm(accessedMay7, 2009).Formoreonimmigrantremittances,seetheInternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopmentreport,“SendingMoneyHome:WorldwideRemittanceFlows toDevelopingCountries,”http://www.ifad.org/events/remittances/maps/brochure.pdf (accessedMay3,2009).
Contrarytopopularperceptions,suchstatisticsfurtherelucidatethe imago Dei inthepoor,especiallyinitsgenerativeandsacrificialdimensions.
ImagoDei isatwo-edgedswordthatpositivelyfunctionsasanaffirmationofthevalueandworthofeveryperson,andevaluatesandchallengesanytendenciestodominateoroppressthepoorandneedy,or degradethemthroughvariousmanifestationsofracism,nativism,and xenophobia.34 TheexpulsionfromEdenofAdamandEve,theoriginal imaginesDei,andtheirborder-crossingintothelandbeyond,namesthe humanpropensitytomovetowardastateofsinanddisorder(Gen3:1–13). Sindisfiguresthe imagoDei,resultinginafallenworldthatcreates discordinrelationships.TheterritoryintowhichtheProdigalSon migratesandsquandersallhisworldlywealth(Lk15:11–32)symbolizes thisbarrenterrain;itisaplacethatmovespeopleawayfromtheoriginal creativedesignintoaplaceofestrangementfromGod,others,and themselves.35
VERBUMDEI:CROSSINGTHEDIVINE–HUMANDIVIDE
Thenotionof imagoDei putforthintheOldTestamentisrealizedinthe NewTestamentthroughthe imagoChristi.Christistheperfectembodiment of imagoDei andtheonewhohelpspeoplemigratebacktoGodbyrestoring inthemwhatwaslostbysin.36 InwaysthatresonatewithThomasAquinas’s notionof exitusetreditus, 37 KarlBarthwritesabouttheincarnationinterms
34 Migrantsandrefugeesoftenbeartheburdenofahumanitylivingintension betweenthelandoflikenesstoGod(regiosimilitudinis),whichfostersthedignity ofeveryperson,andthelandofunlikenesstoGod(regiodissimilitudinis).The conceptof regiodissimilitudinis hasitsorigininPlatonicthought,butithasparallelsintheScriptures.MysticslikeBernardofClairvauxandothersintheMiddle Agesalsousedtheconceptwhenspeakingaboutthemovementofpeopleaway fromthedivineimageandlikenesstowardastateofalienation.Formoreonthis topic,seeEtienneGilson,“RegiodissimilitudinisdePlatona ` SaintBernardde Clarivaux,” MedievalStudies 9(1947)109–17.
35 GeorgesDidi-Huberman, FraAngelico:DissemblanceandFiguration,trans. JaneMarieTodd(Chicago:UniversityofChicago,1995)45.
36 AstheInternationalTheologicalCommission(ITC)notes,inChrist“wefind thetotalreceptivitytotheFatherwhichshouldcharacterizeourownexistence,the opennesstotheotherinanattitudeofservicewhichshouldcharacterizeour relationswithourbrothersandsistersinChrist,andthemercyandloveforothers whichChrist,astheimageoftheFather,displaysforus”(ITC,Communionand Stewardship,no.53).
37 Aquinasnotesthatthebasicprincipleofthemorallife,thenaturallaw,and allofcreationaredynamicbynatureinthateverythingcomesfromGodand returnstoGod(exitusetreditus).Migrationnameswhatitmeanstobehuman beforeGod:themovementfromGodtheCreator,thereturntoGod,andthe conditionofthatreturninChristthemediator.SeeAquinas, ST 1–2,q.92.
of“thewayoftheSonofGodintothefarcountry.”38 Hedoesnotexplicitly usetheterm“migration,”buthisreflectionsareawayofspeakingofGod’s crossingoverintothedarkterritoryofasinful,brokenhumanity.What distinguishestheChristianGodfromother,falsegods,Barthnotes,isthat theyarenotreadyforthisdownwardmobility,“thisactofextravagance,this farjourney.”39 Throughthe VerbumDei,Jesus’kenosisanddeathonthe cross,Godovercomesthebarrierscausedbysin,redrawstheborderscreated bypeoplewhohavewithdrawnfromGod,andentersintothemostremote andabandonedplacesofthehumancondition.
Noaspectofatheologyofmigrationismorefundamental,normore challenginginitsimplications,thantheincarnation.ThroughJesus,God entersintothebrokenandsinfulterritoryofthehumanconditioninorder tohelpmenandwomen,lostintheirearthlysojourn,findtheirwayback hometoGod.AsnotedintheGospelofJohn,migrationshapesJesus’own selfunderstanding:“Havinglovedhisownwhowereintheworld,heloved themtotheend. ...JesusknewthattheFatherhadgiveneverythinginto hishands,thathehadcomefromGod,andthathewasgoingbacktoGod” (Jn13:1,3).The VerbumDei fromthisperspectiveisthegreatmigrationof humanhistory:God’smovementinlovetohumanitymakespossible humanity’smovementtoGod.HansUrsvonBalthasaradds,“IftheProdigalSonhadnotalreadybelievedinhisfather’slove,hewouldneverhave setoutonhishomewardjourney.”40
Thesojournofthe VerbumDei intothisworldisriddledwithpolitical andreligiouscontroversies,manyofwhichareconnectedtonarratives aboutmigration.InLuke’sGospel,Jesusenterstheworldamidadrama involvingdocumentation(Lk2:1–5).InMatthew’saccount,Jesusandhis familymustfleeathreatthatendangerstheirlives,makingthempolitical refugees(Mt2:13–17,aparalleltoafoundationalmigrationinbiblical history,Exodus1).InJohn‘sGospel,manyhavetroublebelievinginJesus preciselybecauseoftheplacefromwhichheemigrates(Jn7:41–43,52).In afallenworld,humanbeingsfindmanycompellingpolitical,legal,social, andreligiousreasonstoexclude—andreject—themigrantSonofGod.41
38 KarlBarth, TheDoctrineofReconciliation:ChurchDogmatics,trans.G.W. Bromiley,ed.G.W.BromileyandT.F.Torrance(NewYork:Continuum,2004) 157–210.
39 Ibid.159.
40 HansUrsvonBalthasar, LoveAlone:TheWayofRevelation,5thed.(London:Sheed&Ward,1992)84.
41 Jesuswasrejectedbymanyinhisday,includingHerodwhofearedlosinghis power(Mt2:1–13);Jesus’family,whothoughthewasoutofhismind(Mk3:20–21);hisneighborswhofailedtounderstandhisorigins(Mt13:54–57;Mk6:1–4;Lk 4:13–30);therichyoungman,whohadgreatwealthbutdidnotwanttoshareit(Mt 19:16–22;Mk10:17–22;Lk18:18–23);thereligiousleaderswhoenviedJesus’popularitywiththepeople(Mt26:3–4;Jn11:47–53);Judas,whoexploitedJesusfor
650 THEOLOGICALSTUDIES
InmigratingtothehumanraceGodentersintoaplaceof“otherness,” theverymigrationthathumanbeingsfearandfindsodifficulttomake.This movementofdivinitytohumanityispredicatednotonlaws,institutions,or anyformofhumanmeritbut,aboveall,onGod’sgratuity.Incrossing bordersofeverykindforthegoodofothers,the VerbumDei revealsthe mysteryofGod’sapriori,self-givinglove.AsBarthobserves:
TheincarnationoftheWord,...Hiswayintothefarcountry,Hisexistenceinthe formaservi,issomethingwhichwecanunderstand...bysupposingthatinitwe have...a novummysterium ...withwhatisnoeticallyandlogicallyanabsolute paradox,withwhatisonticallythefactofacleftorriftorgulfinGodHimself, betweenHisbeingandessenceinHimselfandHisactivityandworkasthereconcileroftheworldcreatedbyHim.42
The VerbumDei meansthatforGodtherearenobordersthatcannotbe crossed,neitherwithinhimselfnorinthecreatedworld.AccordingtoBarth, “themysteryrevealstousthatforGoditisjustasnaturaltobelowlyasitis tobehigh,tobenearasitistobefar,tobelittleasitistobegreat,tobe abroadasitistobeathome.”43 The VerbumDei manifeststhat,evenas humanbeingserectbarriersofeverysort,Godwallsoffnoonefromthe divineembrace.
Anotherparadoxicaldimensionofthemysteryoftheincarnationisthat, whilehumanmigrationtendstowardanupwardmobilityandthegreater realizationofhumandignity,divinemigrationtendstowardadownward mobilitythatisevenwillingtoundergotheworsthumanindignities(Phil 2:5–11).Scripturedepictsthemovementofapeopletowardapromised land,butGod’smovementisjusttheopposite:itisanimmersioninto thoseterritoriesofhumanlifethataredeprivedoflifeandprosperity. Godmigratesintoaworldthatispooranddivided,notbecauseGodfinds somethinggoodaboutpovertyandestrangement,butbecauseitispreciselyinhistory’sdarkestplacethatGodcanrevealhopetoallwhoexperience pain,rejection,andalienation.
Christreachesouttoallthoseconsidered,inBarth’sterms,“alienlife.”44 Christmovesnotawayfromalienation,difference,andothernessbuttowardit,withoutceasingtobewhoheis:“Hewentintoastrangeland,but eventhere,andespeciallythere,HeneverbecameastrangertoHimself.”45 God’sidentificationwithhumanityissototalthatinChristhenotonly moneyandfavorwiththoseinpower(Mt26:14–16,47–50,Lk22:4–6,Jn18:2–5); Peter,whofearedtheramificationsofassociationwithhim(Mt26:69–75,Mk 14:66–72,Lk22:54–62,Jn18:15–18,25–27);andthecrowdswhoshouted“crucify him”anddidnothingtoredressinjustice(Mt27:15–18,20–23;Mk15:6–14;Lk 23:13–23;Jn19:5–7,14–15).
42 Barth, DoctrineofReconciliation 184.
43 Ibid.192.
45 Ibid.180.
44 Ibid.171.
reachesouttothestrangerbutbecomesthestranger:“Hedoesnotmerely gointolowliness,intothefarcountry,tobeHimselfthere,asHedidinHis turningtoIsrael.ButnowHeHimselfbecomeslowly.HeHimselfisthe manwhoisHisSon.HeHimselfhasbecomeastrangerinHim.”46 Inthe journeyintoothernessandvulnerability,the VerbumDei entersintototal identificationwiththosewhoareabandonedandalienated.
Thedownwardwayofthe VerbumDei leadsultimatelytothecross.47 The kenosis ofJesusisGod’sradicalriskofmovementintothebroken territoryofhumanlife,withpotentiallycataclysmicconsequencesifitfails. Formanycompellingreasons,numerousmigrantsandrefugeesreframe theirownstoryinthelightofJesus’journey.Leavingtheirhomelands, undergoingdangerousjourneys,andtakingupresidenceinaforeignland notonlyentailsemptyingthemselvesbutradicallysurrenderingeverything theyown,withoutanyassurancethatwhattheylosewillcomebackto them.48 ThecrossistheultimateexpressionofGod’sself-givinglove, God’ssolidaritywiththosewhosuffer,andGod’spoweratworkamid humanstruggleandweakness.ThenotionofthecrucifiedGodandthe crucifiedpeoplesisatopicthatrequiresin-depthconsiderationbeyondthe scopeofthisarticle,butthisnotionisacentraldimensionofatheology ofmigrationandhastremendousimplicationsforthosewhoareforcibly displaced,especiallyforaddressingtheinnerwoundsthatmigrantsand refugeesexperience.49
46 Ibid.170.
47 Ibid.208.
48 DavidPowerexaminesindepththenotionof kenosis, whichhasmany ramificationsforourdiscussiononmigrantsandrefugees.Henotesthatthe self-emptyingofChristpromptsthechurchtoagreateridentificationwiththe poorandtowaitinhopeforthegratuitousgiftoflife.Heobservesthat“for humankindtobeunitedinone ...thewebofhatred,injustice,andsinhasto bebroken....Humansneedtoknowhowtofacedeathinthehopeoflife,be itpersonal,generationalorcultural.Inself-giving,inbeingforothers,inseekingfreedomfromaglobalBabel,beliefinbothhumancommunityandin transcendentgiftareneededandpossible.InJesusChristwearegivenaway tobefreefromevil,awaytopasstolifethroughdeathlivedasself-giftand witness”(DavidNoelPower, LovewithoutCalculation:AReflectiononDivine Kenosis,“HeEmptiedHimself,TakingtheFormofaSlave,”Philippians2:7 [NewYork:Crossroad,2005]4).
49 ElSalvadoranJesuitIgnacioEllacurı´a,whowasmurderedin1989byamilitarydeathsquad,referredtothepooras“thepeoplecrucifiedinhistory”(Ignacio Ellacurı´a,“TheCrucifiedPeople,”in MysteriumLiberationis:FundamentalConceptsofLiberationTheology,ed.IgnacioEllacurı´aandJonSobrino[Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis,1993]580–604,at580).SeealsoJonSobrino,“Lateologı´ayel‘PrincipiodeLiberacio ´ n,’” Revistalatinoamericanadeteologı ´ a 12(May–August1995) 115–40;andMichaelE.Lee,“LiberationTheology’sTranscendentMoment:The WorkofXavierZubiriandIgnacioEllacurı´aasNoncontrastiveDiscourse,” JournalofReligion 83(2003)226–43;KevinBurkeandRobertLassalle-Klein, Love ThatProducesHope:TheThoughtofIgnacioEllacurı ´ a (Collegeville,Minn.:Liturgical,
THEOLOGICALSTUDIES
Althoughtheincarnationsaves,Barthnotesthatitalso“offends.”It offendspreciselybecauseitbringsintoquestionthedisorderedvaluesofa societythathaslostitssenseof imagoDei.Itchallengesespeciallythose whoexcludeonthebasisofsuperficialnotionsofprivateproperty,legal status,andpersonalorevennationalrightswithoutanysocial,moral,or divinereferencepoint,oranyregardfortheexigenciesofdistributive, contributive,andrestorativejusticethatflowasanaturalconsequence fromdivinegratuity.Theincarnationmovespeoplebeyondanarrow, self-servingidentityintoagreateridentificationwiththoseconsidered “other”insociety,particularlythoselikemigrantsandrefugeeswhoare poorandregardedasinsignificant.
ReflectingontheimplicationsoftheparableoftheGoodSamaritan forhumanrelationships,Augustinewrites,“ourLordandGodhimself wishedtobecalledourneighborbecauseitishimselfthattheLord JesusChristisindicatingastheonewhocametothehelpofthatman lyinghalfdeadontheroad,beatenupandlefttherebyrobbers”(Lk 10:25–37).50 FollowingChristinawayshapedbythegiftofselfto othersbecomesawayofspeakingaboutparticipationintheself-giving loveofGod.Inbecomingneighbortoallintheincarnation,thatis,to allwholiveinthesinfulterritoryofafallenhumanity,Godredefines thebordersbetweenneighborsandopensupthepossibilityfornew relationships.
Theincarnation,asaborder-crossingevent,isamodelofgratuitousselfgivingthroughwhichGodemptieshimselfofeverythingbutlove,sothat hecanmorefullyidentifywithothers,entercompletelyintotheirvulnerablecondition,andaccompanytheminaprofoundactofdivine-human solidarity.Thisgratuitousnatureoftheincarnationoffersadifferent frameworkforevaluatinghumanmigrationandquestionssomeofthe underlyingpremisesofthedebate.Incrossingthebordersthatdivide humanbeingsfromGod,the VerbumDei isaprofoundgiftthatmakes 2006).SeealsoGioacchinoCampese,“¿CuantosMa ´ s? TheCrucifiedPeoples attheUS/MexicoBorder,”in APromisedLand,APerilousJourney:TheologicalPerspectivesonMigration,ed.DanielG.GroodyandGioacchinoCampese (NotreDame,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDame,2008)271–98;andDanielG. Groody, BorderofDeath,ValleyofLife:AnImmigrantJourneyofHeartand Spirit (Lanham,Md.:Rowman&Littlefield,2002).SeealsoDanielG.Groody, “JesusandtheUndocumented:ASpiritualGeographyofaCrucifiedPeople,” TheologicalStudies 70(2009)298–316.
50 Augustine, TeachingChristianity,trans.EdmundHill,ed.JohnE.Rotelle, WorksofSaintAugustine:ATranslationforthe21stCentury(HydePark,N.Y.: NewCity,1996)120–21.
profounddemandsonthosewhoreceiveit.51 MigrationbecomesadescriptivemetaphorforthemovementofGodtowardothersinthehuman responseofdiscipleship.
MISSIODEI:CROSSINGTHEHUMAN–HUMANDIVIDE
ThemissioDeiistorestorethe imagoDei ineverypersonthroughthe redemptiveworkofthe VerbumDei.Theuniversalmessageofthegospel isdirectedtoallnationsandallpeoples,anditisconcernedwithallaspects ofhumanbeingsandthefulldevelopmentofeveryperson.52 Thechurch, throughthepoweroftheSpirit,takesuptheGreatCommissionofJesus bymigratingtoallnations,proclaimingtheGoodNewsofsalvation,and workingagainsttheforcesofsinthatdisfigurethe imagoDei (Mt28:16–20). InadditiontothefoundationalministriesofPeterandPaul,traditionholds thatsuchmissionaryendeavorsledJamestomigratetoSpain,Phillipto Asia,andThomastoIndia.“Whileittranscendsalllimitsoftimeand confinesofrace,”notes Lumengentium,“theChurchisdestinedtoextend toallregionsoftheearth.”53
AcentraldimensionofthismissionisJesus’ministryofreconciliation,whichdealslargelywithovercominghumanconstructionsthat dividetheinsiderfromtheoutsider,particularlythoseconstructions generatedbylawinitsvariousforms. 54 The missioDei challenges
51 GustavoGutie ´ rrezhascontributedgreatlytoreflectiononthepoorfroma theologicalperspectiveandtheethicaldemandsthatflowfromthegratuitous natureofGod’slovefortheworldandoutreachtothosemostinneed.Henotes: “Theconditionofthepoor,becauseitisdeeplytiedtoinhumanity,isaradical challengetothehumanandChristianconscience.Noone—nomattertheirgeographicalorsociallocation,theircultureorreligion—canpretendthattheyarenot grippedbyit.Toperceivetheconditionofthepoor,itisnecessarytoseepovertyin allitsdepthandbreadth.Itisachallengethatextendsbeyondthesocialfield, becomingademandtothinkabouthowweproclaimtheGospelinourdayand howwemightpresentthethemesoftheChristianmessageinnewways....The Christianisawitnesstotheresurrection,thedefinitivevictoryoverallformsof death”(Gutie ´ rrez,“MemoryandProphecy,”in OptionforthePoorinChristian Theology 17–40,at28).
52 Populorumprogressio no.42.
53 Lumengentium no.9.
54 RobertSchreiteroutlinesfivedistinctiveelementsofaChristianunderstandingofreconciliationinlightofthemigrantreality:(1)Godistheagentofreconciliation;(2)healingbeginswiththevictim;(3)thehealingbroughtaboutinthe reconciliationprocesstakesthevictimtoanewplace;(4)themigrationstoryhas tobereframed;and(5)thehealingprocessofreconciliationisnevercomplete.He notesthatoneofthecommondenominatorsintheministryofreconciliationto migrantsisdealingwithtraumacausedbyleavingone’shomeland,travelingtoa newplace,andsettlinginanunfamiliarlocation.Formoreonmissionandmigration,see:RobertJ.Schreiter,“MigrantsandtheMinistryofReconciliation,”in
humantendenciestoidolizethestate,religion,oraparticularideologyand useitasaforcethatexcludesandalienates,evenwhenitdoessounderthe guiseofobediencetoagreatercause.Jesus’opennesstoGentiles,hisreachingouttotheSyrophoenicianorCanaanitewoman(Mt15:21–28;Mk7:24–30), hisresponsetotheRomancenturion(Mt8:5–13;Lk7:1–10),andmany otherencountersillustrateJesus’willingnesstogobeyondbordersand narrowinterpretationsoftheLawinobediencetoagreaterlawoflove (Mk12:28–34).
Jesus’fellowshipwithsinners(Mt9:9–13),hisconcernforthoseoutsidetheLaw(Mt8:1–4),andhispraiseoftherighteousGoodSamaritan (Lk10:25–37)raiseimportantquestionsaboutlaw,itspurposes,misuses, andabuses.JesusrecognizedthevalueoftheLaw(Mt5:17–18),buthe alsochallengedpeopletoseethelargerpictureoftheLawandunderstanditsdeepermeaning(Lk13:10–17).IntheGospelstherearethree parallelaccountsofJesus’disciplespickingheadsofgrainontheSabbathtoassuagetheirhungerandofJesushealingamanwithashriveled handontheSabbath.Whenchallengedbythereligiousleadersand crowdsaboutbreakingSabbathlaws,Jesusrespondsthat“theSabbath ismadeforman,notmanfortheSabbath,”andthatthe“higherlaw”is thatitislawful—evenrequired—todogoodontheSabbathand,by extension,oneveryotherdayaswell(Mt12:1–14;Mk2:23–3:6;Lk6:1–22).Byhiswordsandactions,Jesusdemonstratesthatcompassion requiresareadingoftheLawthat givesprimaryconsiderationto meetinghumanneeds.
Noareaismoredivisiveintheimmigrationdebatethantheissueof immigrationlawandpublicpolicy.55 Inpublicdiscourse,peoplecommonly saytheyhavenoproblemwithimmigration,buttheydohaveaproblem withpeoplebreakingthelaw.Theproblemwiththisperspectiveisthatit makesnodistinctionbetweenvariouskindsoflawandassumesequal bindingforceforalllaw.InThomisticterms,thereisdivinelaw,eternal APromisedLand,APerilousJourney 107–23;RobertJ.Schreiter, TheMinistryof Reconciliation:SpiritualityandStrategies (Maryknoll,N.Y.:Orbis,2008);DanielG. Groody, BorderofDeath,ValleyofLife 115–36;StephenBevans,“Missionamong Migrants,MissionofMigrants:MissionoftheChurch,”in APromisedLand,A PerilousJourney 89–106.Formoreonmissionfromavarietyofculturaland continentalperspectives,seeRobertJ.Schreiter, MissionintheThirdMillennium (Maryknoll,N.Y.:Orbis)2002.
55 AnimportantworkonpublicpolicyandChristianvaluesisDanaW. Wilbanks, Re-CreatingAmerica:TheEthicsofU.S.ImmigrationRefugeePolicyin aChristianPerspective (Nashville:Abingdon,1996).
law,naturallaw,andcivillaw.56 Thisconfusion,resultinginafailureto differentiate,becomesparticularlyproblematicwhensome,invokingsupposedlyPaulinetheology(Rom13:1–7),unquestioninglyandmistakenly equatethecurrentcivillawandpublicpolicywithadivinelyordained mandate.Theordinancesandregulationsrelatedtosovereignrightsand civillawmustbeseenalongsidetheneeds,duties,andresponsibilities propertohumanrightsandnaturallaw.57 Evenifthenotionofnaturallaw isahotlycontestedtopicintheologicalstudies,andevenifourunderstandingofdivineandeternallawisincomplete,attheveryleast,lawheremust firstbeunderstoodinlightoftheprotectionofhumandignity.Catholic socialteachingusesthislineofreasoninginarguingthatpeoplehavearight tomigratewhentheircountryoforiginlacksthenecessarymeanstoprovidethemwiththecapacityandopportunitytoprovideforthemselves.58
Thestructuresofasocietymustbeseriouslyexaminedundertheentiretyoflegalreasoningwhenthousandsofimmigrantsandrefugeesdieeach yeartryingtocrossareaslikethedesertsoftheAmericanSouthwestorthe watersdividingNorthAfricafromEurope.Heremanydifferentkindsof lawareatwork:lawsofnationsthatcontrolborders;lawsofhumannature thatleadpeopletoseekopportunitiesformoredignifiedlives;naturallaw thatdealswithethicaldimensionsofrespondingtothoseinneed;and divinelawthatexpressestheCreator’swillforallpeople.Thefactthatso manymigrantsaredyingintheireffortstomeetbasichumanneedsraises seriousquestionsaboutcurrentcivillawsandpoliciesandtheirdissonance withotherformsoflaw.QuotingAquinas,MartinLutherKingJr.,froma Birminghamjail,putitthisway:“Anunjustlawisahumanlawthatisnot
56 Aquinasunderstood“law”as“anordinanceofreasonforthecommon good,promulgatedbyhimwhohasthecareofthecommunity”(ST 1–2,q.90). Theeternallawgovernseverythingintheuniverse:thedivinelawcorrespondsto theOldLawandNewLawoftheHebrewScripturesandNewTestament;the naturallawdealswithethicalnormsandhumanbehavior;andthecivillawdeals withhumancodesusedforsocialorder.Foranoverviewofnaturallawandits developmentwithinCatholictradition,seeStephenJ.Pope,“NaturalLawin CatholicSocialTeachings,”in ModernCatholicSocialTeaching:Commentaries andInterpretations,ed.KennethR.Himes(Washington:GeorgetownUniversity, 2005)41–71.Foramoreextendedtreatment,seeJohnFinnis, NaturalLawand NaturalRights (NewYork:OxfordUniversity,2001).
57 ForinterdisciplinaryperspectivesonrightsinAfrica,seeDavidHollenbach, ed., RefugeeRights:Ethics,Advocacy,andAfrica (Washington:GeorgetownUniversity,2008).
58 FormoreonCatholicsocialteachingregardingmigration,seeMichaelA. Blume,“MigrationandtheSocialDoctrineoftheChurch,”in Migration,Religious Experience,andGlobalization,ed.GioacchinoCampeseandPietroCiallella(New York:CenterforMigrationStudies,2003)62–75. ATHEOLOGYOFMIGRATIONANDREFUGEES
rootedineternallawandnaturallaw”;59 itisviolenceagainstthe imago Dei
Whenpeoplecrossborderswithoutproperdocumentation,mostarenot simplybreakingcivillawsbutobeyingthelawsofhumannature,suchas theneedtofindworksoastofeedtheirfamiliesandattainmoredignified lives.Moreover,crossinginternationalborderswithoutpapersinmost countriesisanadministrativeinfraction,notafelony;itisnotaviolation ofdivinelawornaturallaw,andinsuchcasesundocumentedimmigration shouldinnowaybeconfusedwithseriouscriminalactivityorthreatsto nationalsecurity.60 Muchmisunderstandingandinjusticeoccurwhen immigrantsandimmigrationareperceivedprimarilyasproblemsinthemselvesratherthanassymptomsofdeepersocialillsandimbalances,as mattersofnationalsecurityratherthanasresponsestohumaninsecurity, associalthreatsratherthanasforeignneighbors.
Conventionalwisdomthatguidedmuchofpolicy-makingthroughout historyimpliedthatdealingwiththeproblemofundocumentedimmigrantswillkeepacountrysafer.Recenthistoryshows,however,thatsuch arationaleisuntenable:theterroristbombingoftheMurrahFederal BuildinginOklahomaCitywasperpetratedbyAmericancitizens,notby outsiders,andalthoughthe9/11attacksweredonebypeoplebornoutside theUnitedStates,all19terroristscameintothecountryonlegalvisas. Rhetoricallymixingcriminalsandterroristswithundocumentedimmigrants
59 S.JonathanBass, BlessedArethePeacemakers:MartinLutherKing,Jr.,Eight WhiteReligiousLeaders,and“TheLetterfromtheBirminghamJail” (Baton Rouge:LouisianaStateUniversity,2001)244.CardinalRogerMahony,addressing thefailureofCongressionalleadershiptopasscomprehensiveimmigrationreform inJune2007,appealstoalawthatsupersedestheparticularlawsofanation: “Today,wedon’thavealawonthepartofourHouseofRepresentativesandthe Senate.Wedon’thaveacivillaw,butwearefollowingabetterlaw,thelawof God.WearefollowingtheteachingsofGodintheOldTestament.Also,weare followingtheteachingandexampleofJesusintheGospel.Thislawformeisa higherlaw,andwewillkeepfollowingit”(CardinalRogerMahony,Statement regardingtheFailureoftheSenate’sComprehensiveImmigrationReformBill, ArchdioceseofLosAngeles,OfficeofMediaRelations,June29,2007).
60 While“entrywithoutinspection”haslongbeenacriminaloffense,ithas traditionallybeentreatedasanadministrativeviolation,leadingtocivildeportationproceedings.Inrecentyears,however,theDepartmentofHomelandSecurity hasreferredforcriminalprosecutionincreasingnumbersofimmigrantswhohave enteredillegallyandcommittedotherimmigrationviolations.“Immigration crimes”nowrepresentmorethanone-halfofallfederalcriminalprosecutions, morethanallthecasesreferredbytheFederalBureauofInvestigation,theDrug EnforcementAdministration,andotherfederalagenciescombined.SeeDoris MeissnerandDonaldKerwin, DHSandImmigration:TakingStockandCorrecting Course (Washington:MigrationPolicyInstitute,February2009)40-41,http://www. migrationpolicy.org/pubs/DHS_Feb09.pdf(accessedMay18,2009).
seekingworkonlyinflamesanddistortsthedebateandmakesthevulnerableeasytargetsforacountry’sunrestandanxiety.
TheUnitedNations’“ConventionandProtocolrelatingtotheStatusof Refugees”helpsfostersomelegalprotectionforrefugees,butthesituation isbleakerforeconomicmigrants.61 Neitherinternationallawnorparticularnationstatesrecognizethecategoryofeconomicmigrantsasonethat meritslegalprotection.Amidcontemporarypolemicsaroundthelegal statusofforcedmigrants,theologyandphilosophyhelpexpandtheintellectualterrainbyprovidingabroaderunderstandingoflaw.62 Adetailed treatmentisnotpossiblehere,buttherelationshipbetweencivillaw, naturallaw,divinelaw,andeternallawintheethicsoftheimmigration debateisanareathatneedsmoreattentionandwheretheologycanbeof greatvalue.Theologynotonlybreaksopenandjudgesasinadequatea binaryanalysisofmigrationthatlimitsittocategoriessuchaslegal/illegal, citizen/alien,andright/wrong;butalsotheologyprovidesaclearerlens throughwhichtoreadthecomplexityofrealityandamoreadequate frameworkforrespondingtothemostvulnerablemembersofsocietyand forbuildingacivilizationoflove.
JesuswasparticularlyconcernedwiththeLawasittookreligious form.Hispracticeoftablefellowshipgivesusaveryimportantwindow intohisunderstandingoftheLawinlightofthekingdomofGod.Luke Brethertonobservesthat“tablefellowshipwithsinners,andthereconfiguringofIsrael’spurityboundaries...signifiestheheartofJesus’ mission.”63 ThroughtablefellowshipJesusfulfillsthemessageofthe prophets,invitesallpeopletosalvation,andpromiseshisdisciplesa place“attable”inGod’skingdom(Lk22:30).Insharingamealwith thoseonthefringesofsocietyinordertocreatenewcommunities,Jesus frequentlycrossedborderscreatedbynarrowinterpretationsoftheLaw. Hereachedoutinparticulartothosewhoweremarginalizedracially(Lk 7:1–10),economically(Lk7:11–17),religiously(Lk7:24–35),andmorally (Lk7:36–50).Hisinvitationtothetablewasgoodnewsforthepoorand othersdeemedinsignificantorrejectedbysociety;othersitconfusedor evenscandalized.
Jesus’tablefellowshipwithsinners,inNormanPerrin’swords,“must havebeenmostmeaningfultohisfollowersandmostoffensivetohis
61 Forthetextofthe“ConventionandProtocolrelatingtotheStatus ofRefugees,”seehttp://www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/3b66c2aa10.pdf (accessedMay3,2009).
62 SeeinparticularTerryCoonan,“ThereAreNoStrangersamongUs:Catholic SocialTeachingandU.S.ImmigrationLaw,” CatholicLawyer 40(2000)105–64,at 105.
63 LukeBretherton, HospitalityasHoliness:ChristianWitnessamidMoralDiversity (Burlington,Vt.:Ashgate,2006)128.
critics.”64 Hisrejectionofsocialandreligiouscategoriesofinclusion/exclusionisprobablywhatpromptedhiscriticstowanttodispensewithhim becauseitaffrontedtheirreligiousvision.AsRobertKarrisputit,“Jesus gothimselfcrucifiedbythewayheate.”65 Inbringingscribe,taxcollector, fisherman,andzealotintoonecommunity,Jesuschallengedhisfollowers toanewkindofrelationshipbeyondhumanlyconstructedborders,one basednotonsocialstatus,therulesofanation,orreligiousself-righteousness,butonacommonhopeforthecomingofGod’sreign(Mt8:11; 11:16–19).ForJesus,God’smercycouldnotbecontainedwithinthewalls oflimitedmindsets(Mt7:1–5;Mt13:10–17),andhechallengedpeopleto realizeahigherlawbasedonGod’suncalculatingmercyratherthanon theirrestrictednotionsofworthinessandunworthiness(Lk6:27–38).
Jesus’practiceoftablefellowshipsituateshimagainstthebackdropof covenanttheology,whichisintegrallyrelatedtothenotionofmigration. ThepromisesgiventoAbrahamandMosesbothemergefrommigration stories,theformerfromthelandofUroftheChaldeanstoCanaanandthe latterfromEgyptthroughSinaitothePromisedLand.Covenant,like migration,wasnotoriginallyabiblicalconceptbutasociopoliticalone.A covenant(berit)wasabindingagreementbetweentwoparties,whichresultedinanewrelationship.Thecovenanthelpedovercomedividing forcesandfosteredjusticeandpeaceinthecommunity.Indescribingits relationshipwithYahweh,IsraelusedthissociopoliticalconceptofcovenantasametaphorthatexpressesGod’sunconditionalloveandthehuman responsibilitytorespondtoit.
OldTestamentscholarshaveidentifiedtwodifferenttypesofcovenant. ThefirststemsfromYahweh’scovenantwithAbraham(Gen15:1–18; 17:1–14)withparallelsinDavid(2Sam7:1–17);thesecondflowsfromthe Mosaiccovenant(Exod19–24).TheAbrahamiccovenant,parallelingroyalgranttreatiesintheancientNearEast,isanunbreakableagreement foundedonthegratuityofagreaterpartytoalesserparty.TheMosaic covenant,parallelingtheHittite-Suzeraintytreaty,isaconditionalagreementfoundedonamutualagreementofreciprocalfidelitiesthatcanbe brokenthroughdisobedience.ThefirstcovenantstressesGod’scommitmenttoIsrael;thesecondemphasizesIsrael’sresponsibilitytoGod.66 As RaymondBrownnotes,“Whilethecovenantsofdivinecommitmentgave Israelconfidence,thecovenantsofhumanresponsibilitygaveIsraela
64 SeeNormanPerrin, RediscoveringtheTeachingofJesus (SanFrancisco: Harper&Row,1976)102.
65 RobertJ.Karris, Luke:ArtistandTheologian (NewYork:Paulist,1985)47.
66 MichaelGuinan,“DavidicCovenant,”in TheAnchorBibleDictionary,ed. DavidN.Freedman(NewYork:Doubleday,1996)72;Guinan,“MosaicCovenant,”inibid.909.SeealsoWalterBrueggemann, Solomon:Israel’sIronicIconof HumanAchievement (Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolina)58–59,219.
conscience.”67 Throughthecovenant,GodoffersIsraelacombinationof giftsandtasks,promisesandresponsibilities.Thestipulationofthemosaic covenant,laterreiteratedinDeuteronomy,isthatIsraelmustimitate God’sfidelitybyreachingouttothemostvulnerableofsociety,most notablythewidow,orphan,andimmigrant(Exod22:21–22;23:9).
Thecovenantistakentoanewlevelinthelife,death,andresurrection ofJesus.OnthecrossJesusaccomplishesthe missioDei bycrossingthe borderthatdivideshumanbeingsfromGodandeachother,initiatinga newcreationcharacterizedbyrightrelationships.Paulputsitthisway: “Forheisourpeace,hewhomadebothoneandbrokedownthedividing wallofenmity,throughhisflesh”(Eph2:14–15).AlthoughPaulisreferring tothehostilitybetweenJewsandGentiles,theimplicationsofhiswordsare moreuniversalinscope.Christbreaksdownthewallthatseparatespeople andreconcilestheworldtohimselfthroughhisdeathonthecross.
The missioDei,inwhichthechurchparticipates,isnotjustabouthelpingthepoorbutaboutfollowingChristanddiscoveringthatthosewhom oneiscalledtoservealsohavesomethingtogive.CathyRossarguesthat theheartofthechurch’smissionisaboutmakingroomandcreatingspace, inparticular“allowingpeoplethespacetocometoGodintheirown way.”68 Thisnotionofcreatingspaceisfoundationaltoatheologyof migrationbecauseitseesthe missioDei notfirstasanimposingevangelizationbutasaministryofgeneroushospitality,onethatismutually enrichingforthosewhogiveandthosewhoreceive.
Jesus’obediencetoahigherlawoflove,hispracticeoftablefellowship, hispromiseofanewcovenant,andhisbreakingdownthewallofenmity throughhisdeathonthecrossarewaysGodopensupapathtofreedom inaworldofbarriers,restrictions,anddivision.Itisthismessagethat,led bytheSpirit,compelledPaul,Peter,andtheothersapostlestowitnessto Christandmigrate“throughoutJudeaandSamaria,andtotheendsofthe earth”(Acts1:8).
VISIODEI:CROSSINGTHECOUNTRY–KINGDOMDIVIDE
The imagoDei, VerbumDei,and missioDei areallbasedonthe visio Dei.ThenotionofvisioDeiisbasedinlargepartontheMattheanbeatitude,“BlessedarethepureofheartfortheyshallseeGod”(Mt5:8).This blessednesshasbeendebatedthroughouthistory,buttwoclassicdistinctions
67 RaymondE.Brown, TheBookofDeuteronomy:IntroductionandCommentary, OldTestamentReadingGuide10(Collegeville,Minn.:Liturgical,1965).
68 CathyRoss,“CreatingSpace:HospitalityasaMetaphorforMission,” unpublishedpaper,October16,2007,availableathttp://www.cms-uk.org/ Resources/CrowtherCentrehome/Missiologyarticles/ta bid/191/language/en-GB/ Default.aspx(accessedMay12,2009).
emergeinthetradition,namely,whatispossibleinthislife(invia )and thatofperfecthappinessinheaven( inpatria). 69 Putanotherway,Christiandiscipleship,whilesituatedwithinthecitizenshipofthe patria of thisworld,ultimatelyisgroundedincitizenshipof,andmovementtoward,thepatriaofthenext.Inadditiontopledgingallegiancetoa particularcountry,the visioDei bringsoutthatone’sultimateobedienceistoGodalone,whichleadsone beyondanynationalandpolitical boundariestoultimatefidelitytothekingdomofGod.MeisterEckhart addsthatthegoalofChristianlifeisnotsomuchtoseekthe visioDei inheavenastoseethingsinthislifeasGodseesthem.70 Ourfocushere ishowthisvisiontakesrootinhumanhistory,howitinfluencessocial transformation,andhowittransfiguresthewayweunderstandmigrants andrefugees. 71
AtheologyofmigrationseekstoarticulatearenewedvisionofGodand humanlifeasitislivedoutbetweentheeschatologicalhorizonoffaith andunbeliefandahistoricalhorizonofjusticeandinjustice.Augustine
69 BernardMcGinnpointsoutthatthroughoutthetradition visioDei holdsin tensiontwoapparentlycontradictorybiblicalclaims:sometextsaffirmthatGod canbeseen(Gen32:30;Isa6:5;Mt5:8);othersdenyit(Gen32:30;Exod33:20;Mt 11:27;Jn1:18;6:46;1Tm6:16;1Jn4:12).Like imagoDei, visioDei isalsomuch debatedthroughouthistory,particularlyabouthowthevisionofGoddealswith therelationshipbetweenthislifeandthenext.InnocentIIIspokeofthreekindsof visionofGod:corporeal,veiled,andcomprehensive.“Thecorporealvisionbelongs tothesenses;theveiledtoimages;thecomprehensivetotheunderstanding” (InnocentIII,Sermon31,PL217,coll.598–96).McGinntracesthevariousways inwhichthisconcepthasbeenconsideredthroughoutthetraditionbywriterssuch asClementofAlexandria,Augustine,Dionysius,Eriugena,GregoryofNyssa, AlberttheGreat,ThomasAquinas,andMeisterEckhart.McGinnnotesthat,even thoughmanydebatetherelationshipbetween visioDei inthislifeandthenext, thereisgeneralagreementthatthevisionofGodisthegoalofChristianlife.My focushereistoexaminethesocialimplicationsofsuchavision.SeeBernard McGinn,“VisioDei:SeeingGodinMedievalTheologyandMysticism,”in EnvisagingHeavenintheMiddleAges,ed.CarolynMuessigandAdPutterwithGarth GriffithandJudithJefferson(NewYork:Routledge,2007)15–33;seealso McGinn,“VisionsandVisualizationsintheHereandHereafter,” HarvardTheologicalReview 98(2005)227–46;andMcGinn,“SeeingandNot-Seeing:Nicholasof Cusa’s DevisioneDei intheHistoryofWesternMysticism,”in Cusanus:The LegacyofLearnedIgnorance,ed.PeterCasarella(Washington:CatholicUniversityofAmerica,2005)26–53.
70 BernardMcGinn,“VisioDei:SeeingGodinMedievalTheologyandMysticism”24–27.
71 Thenotionof visioDei isintegrallyrelatedtoevangelicalpoverty.Formore ontherelationshipbetweenpovertyandthedirectawarenessofGod,andpoverty asaresponsetomaterialprosperityinmedievalsocietyandthepurificationofself, seeDavidLinge,“Mysticism,Poverty,andReasonintheThoughtofMeister Eckhart,” JournaloftheAmericanAcademyofReligion 46(1978)465–88.
believedthatloveandvisiongotogetherinthepursuitofjustice.72 BecauseChristianorthodoxyandorthopraxisemergeoutofanunderstanding ofGodandGodalone,the visioDei shapespeople’sethicaldispositions andoffersanewwayofperceivingthe imagoDei inthosewhosedignityis oftendisfiguredbydehumanizingstereotypesanddemeaningpublicrhetoric.Initscareforall,especiallythosemostinneed,thechurchnotonly goesbeyondbordersbutunitesitselfwiththoseontheothersideofthem, givingexpressiontoitsinterconnectednessasthebodyofChrist.Inimitationofitsfounder,thechurchservesallpeopleregardlessoftheirreligious beliefs,theirpoliticalstatus,ortheirnationalorigins.
The visioDei comesintofocusinthepersonofJesusChristandthe kingdomheproclaimed.Thekingdomoftruthandlife,holinessand grace,justice,love,andpeacebringspeopleintoadifferentkindofsocial andethicalterritory.73 Itisbasednotongeographyorpoliticsbuton divineinitiativeandopennessofheart,leadingtoadifferentkindof visionofthecurrentworldorder,wheremanyofthefirstarelastand thelastfirst(Mt19:30;20:16;Mk10:31;Lk13:29–30).Jesusclearly taughtthatmanyofthevaluesandmetricspeopleemploytomeasure otherswillbeinvertedandthattheexcludedwillbegivenpriorityinthe kingdom.Thekingdomcallspeopleintomovement,makingchurch membersexilesonearth,strangersinthisworld,andsojournersenroute toanotherplace.74
ThewordmostfrequentlyusedforsojournerintheNewTestament is paroikos,fromwhichisderivedtheEnglishword“parish”(Eph2:19; 1Pt2:11).InPhilippians3:20PauldescribesChristiansaslivinginthis worldbutcarryingthepassportofanotherworld:“Butourcitizenship isinheaven,andfromitwealsoawaitaSavior,theLordJesus Christ.”TheauthorofHebrewsspeaksofthejourneyinhopetoward adifferentplace:“herewehavenolastingcity,butweseektheone thatistocome”(Heb13:14).Inthemidstofrecountingthestoriesof
72 “ThemoreardentlyweloveGod,”Augustinewrote,“themorecertainlyand calmlydoweseehim,becauseweseeinGodtheunchangingformofjustice, accordingtowhichwejudgehowoneoughttolive”(DeTrinitate 8.9.13).See McGinn,“VisioDei:SeeingGodinMedievalTheologyandMysticism”17.One wayofdescribingAugustine’snotionoftheblindingdisfigurementoftheimageof Godistosaytheimageisdeformedbypride,thatis,theloveofpoweroverjustice (Trin. 13.17).Faithintheincarnationisthebeginningofatransformationofthe image,reformedbyChrist’spreferenceforjusticeoverpower,andthistransformationoftheimagetendstowardthevisionofGod(Trin. 14.23;15.21).Formoreon thistopic,seeJohnC.Cavadini,“TheQuestforTruthinAugustine’sDeTrinitate,” TheologicalStudies 58(1997)429–40.
73 Lumengentium no.36.
74 ChristineD.Pohl,“BiblicalIssuesinMissionandMigration,” Missiology 31 (2003)3–15.
themajorfiguresofbiblicalhistory,theauthorwritesoftheirfaithand hope:
Allthesepeoplewerestilllivingbyfaithwhentheydied.Theydidnotreceivethe thingspromised;theyonlysawthemandwelcomedthemfromadistance.Andthey admittedthattheywerealiensandstrangersonearth.Peoplewhosaysuchthings showthattheyarelookingforacountryoftheirown.Iftheyhadbeenthinkingof thecountrytheyhadleft,theywouldhavehadopportunitytoreturn.Instead,they werelongingforabettercountry—aheavenlyone.ThereforeGodisnotashamedto becalledtheirGod,forhehaspreparedacityforthem.(Heb11:13–16)
JohnHenryNewmanadds,“Thosetoowhoaresettingoutforaforeignland begthattheMartyrsmaybetheirfellow-travellersandguidesofthejourney.”75
BecauseofthehumantendencytomakeGodintoourowndisordered imageandlikeness,however, visioDei demandsconversion,individually andcollectively(ecclesiasemperreformanda).Exodus20:2states,“I,the Lord,amyourGod,whobroughtyououtofthelandofEgypt,thatplace ofslavery.”Theword“Egypt”(mitsrayim)literallymeans“doublestraits,” (areferencetoupperandlowerstraitsthatformtheterritoryofEgypt throughwhichtheNileflows),“narrowplaces,”or“narrowconfinement.”76 Beyondtheliteralreadingoftheword mitsrayim,thesubsequent figurativeinterpretationsarestriking.
Initsstoryofmigration,Israelwasdeliverednotonlyfromaspecific nationalterritorybutalsofromanarrowwayofthinking.Liberationat Sinaimeansmorethansimplytakingofftheshackles.Itinvolvesa cognitivemigration,takingonanewmindset,adoptinganewwayof lookingattheworld,livingoutadifferentvision,andultimatelylearning toloveasGodloves.ThemigrationofIsraelaftertheExoduswasmeant tohelpIsraelreenvisionhowtoliveintheworld,ataskthatproved morechallengingthanthegeographicalmigration:itwaseasiertotake Israeloutofthe mitsrayim thantotakethe mitsrayim outofIsrael.After comingtopowerandbecomingmoreprosperous,Israelfrequentlyforgot itshistoryandsubsequentlythosewhocametothemasstrangersand immigrants.
75 JohnHenryNewman,“AnEssayontheDevelopmentofChristianDoctrine,” 6thed.(NotreDame,Ind.:UniversityofNotreDame,1989)375.
76 TheHebrewlettersfor“Egypt”arethosefoundinPsalm116:3:“thesnare [literally“theoppressiveconfinement”or“narrowstraits”]ofSheol”andPsalm 118:5:“outofmydistress[literally“strait,”“narrowconfinement,”“tightplace”]I calledontheLord.”ThereisanexactmatchbetweentheunvocalizedHebrew “Egypt”and“narrowstraits”asitisspelledinLamentations1:3:“Allherpersecutorscomeuponherwheresheisnarrowlyconfined.”Theauthorisclearlyusinga playonwordsherebetween“narrowconfinements”andEgypt.SeeLaurelA. Dykstra, SetThemFree:TheOtherSideofExodus (Maryknoll,N.Y.:Orbis,2002) 58.IamgratefultoLisaMarieBelzforthisinsight.
TheNewTestamentalsoaddressesthe visioDei bygivingthedisciplesa newimaginationaboutstrangers.AsTerryCoonannotes, Thereis...adiscernableshiftinthemoralparadigmoftheNewTestament: whereasintheOldTestament,theJewishpeoplewerecalledtowelcomethe strangerbecausetheythemselveshadoncebeenstrangers,intheNewTestament, theChristianobligationtodosoderivesfromtheconvictionthat,inthefaceofthe stranger,theChristiancommunityencountersthefaceofJesus.77
LookingintothefaceofJesusincludesaninescapabledimensionof judgment.Fromtheperspectiveofatheologyofmigration,notextismore centralthanMatthew25:31–46.78 Whilescholarscontinuetodebatewho arethe“least”(elachiston)inthispassage,whatissignificantformy discussionhereisthatthistextdescribesthesociallocationofmany migrantsandrefugees:hungryintheirhomelands,thirstyindesertsthey attempttocross,nakedafterbeingrobbedoftheirpossessions,imprisoned indetentioncenters,sickinhospitals,and,iftheymakeittotheirdestination,theyareoftenestrangedandmarginalized.Thistextimpliesthat crossingbordersmakespossiblenewrelationships,anditputstheverdict ofjudgment,toagreatextent,inpeople’sownhands:theextenttowhich peoplecrossbordersinthislifedeterminestowhatextenttheywillcross theminthenext(Lk16:19–31).RobertMcAfeeBrownaddsthatthistext speaksofthejudgmentofnotonlyindividualsbutalsonations.79
The visioDei alsochallengespeopletomovebeyondanidentitybased onanarrowsenseofnational,racial,orpsychologicalterritoriality.Itholds outinsteadthepossibilityofdefininglifeonmuchmoreexpansivespiritual terrainconsistentwiththekingdomofGod.Correspondingwiththepositivedimensionsofglobalizationthatfosterinterconnection,itchallenges anyformofideological,political,religious,orsocialprovincialismthat blindspeoplefromseeingtheinterrelatednatureofreality.The visioDei involvesnotonlypassivelygazingonGod’sessenceinthenextworld (visiobeatifica)butalsoincreating communio inthisworld.Salvation meansrestoringsighttopeoplewhohavelostasenseofthe imagoDei, offeringthemanewimaginationthroughtheworkofthe VerbumDei,and invitingthemtoliveandmoveintheworldinadifferentwaythroughthe missioDei.
ThisvisiontakesshapeeachNovemberwhenpeoplegatheralongthe Mexican-Americanbordertocelebrateacommonliturgy.Aswithother
77 TerryCoonan,“ThereAreNoStrangersamongUs”110–11.
78 FormoreondifferentwaysMatthew25:31–46hasbeeninterpretedthroughouthistory,seeJohnR.Donahue,S.J.,“The‘Parable’oftheSheepandtheGoats: AChallengetoChristianEthics,” TheologicalStudies 41(1986)3–31.
79 RobertMcAfeeBrown, UnexpectedNews:ReadingtheBiblewithThird WorldEyes (Philadelphia,Pa.:Westminster,1984)127–41.
liturgies,alargecrowdgatherstoprayandworshiptogether.However, inthisliturgya16-footironfencedividesthecommunity,onesidein Mexico,theotherintheUnitedStates.BorderPatrolagentsinhelicoptersandtruckskeepastricteyeonthecrowdtoensurethatnoone passesoverfromMexicototheUnitedStates,butthosegatheredpraise GodforChrist’s“Passover”fromdeathtolife.Inaglobalrealitythat oftensetsupwallsandbarriers,thisEucharistbearswitnesstothe primacyofGod’suniversal,undivided,andunrestrictedloveinthecontextofpoliticalconstructionsthatdividepeople.Italsoremindspeople thatthewallsdividingusfromGodandfromoneanotherhavealready beguntocrumbleandthatthisnewageofreconciliationhasalready begun,evenasChristianswaitforitsultimatefulfillmentwhenJesus comesagain.
CONCLUSION
Myprimarypurposeisnottomakeacasefororagainstopenborders buttoofferanewwayofconceptualizingadifficultandcontentious globalissue.Itseekstobroadentheintellectualterrainaboutmigration andforgethebeginningsofsometheologicalfoundationsforsuchaperspective.Viewedasatheologicalconcept,migrationoffersarichhermeneuticforsomeofthemostfoundationaldimensionsofhumanexistence andoffersadifferentvantagepointformakingmoralchoices;itilluminatesthegiftanddemandofChristianfaithinlightofthepressingsocial problemsofthemodernworld,anditopensupaspacetobringoutwhat ismosthumaninadebatethatoftendiminishesanddehumanizesthose forciblydisplaced.
Althoughsomearguethatcombiningtheologyandmigrationmixespoliticswithreligion,andothersthatmigrationfallsmoretothedomainofsocial sciencethantheologicalreflection,migrationtouchessomanyaspectsoflife andsocietythatitcannotbehermeticallycompartmentalized.Academic reflectionrequiresitsowntransborderdiscoursetounderstandthecomplex phenomenonofglobalmigrationanditsmultidimensionalimplications.A theologyofmigrationnotonlydialogueswithotherdisciplinesbutintegrates theirfindingsintotheoveralltaskoffaithseekingunderstandinginthe modernworld.Moreover,socialscienceandtheologyneedeachotherinthis difficultdebate.Socialsciencewithouttheologydoesnotgiveusaperspectivewideenoughtoaccountforthedeeperrelationalandspiritualdimensionsofhumanlifethatshape,define,andsustainhumanexistence—afact thatbecomesmoreevidentespeciallyamidcrisisandtrial.Theologywithout socialscienceleavesuslessequippedtoreadthesignsofthetimes,engage contemporaryissues,orspeaktothepressingquestionsthataffectlarge portionsoftheworld.
The imagoDei, VerbumDei, missioDei,and visioDei arefourfoundationsofalargertheologyofmigration.Rereadingthemessuchas exodus,exile,diaspora,andthe viacrucis inlightofthecontemporary experienceofmigrantsandrefugeescancontributemuchtoourunderstandingofGod,humanlife,andtherelationshipbetweenthetwo.This articlehasbeguntoexploresomeelementsofmigrationinlightof traditionaltheologicalthemessuchascreation,incarnation,mission,and thesalvificvisionofthekingdomofGod.Migrantsandrefugeesbringto theforefrontoftheologicalreflectionthecryofthepoor,andthey challengemoresedentaryformsofchurchinsociallocationsofaffluence andinfluence.Themigrantrevealstheparadoxicaltruththatthepoor arenotjustpassiverecipientsofcharitablegivingbutbearersofthe gospelthatcannotbeencounteredexceptbymovingoutintoplacesof riskandvulnerability(Mt25:31–46).
Threefocalpointsinparticularbegintobringoutsomeoftheimplicationsandramificationsofmigrationasatheologicalconcept.First,atheologyofmigrationisawayofspeakingaboutthemeaningofhumanlife withintheeconomyofcreationandredemption.80 Tobehumanmeans beingonthewaytoGod(instatuviatoris),movingforwardinhopebetweenthebordersofChrist’sfirstandsecondcoming,betweenthepresent lifeandthelifetocome,betweentheearthlyJerusalemandthenew Jerusalem.“Thevirtueofhopeisthefirstappropriatevirtueofthe status viatoris,”notesJosefPieper;“itisthegenuinevirtueofthe‘notyet.’” 81 Themigrantgivesexpressiontothetransitorynatureofexistenceandto thecourageneededtomoveforwardamidtherisks,tensions,vulnerabilities,sufferings,anddisappointmentsoflife.ThecloserpeoplemovetowardunionwithGodandcommunionwithothers,themoresuchunionwill manifestitselfinbreakingdownwallsthatdivide,exclude,andalienate. ThefurtherpeoplemoveawayfromintegrationwiththeDivine,themore thatmovementwillmanifestitselfinafearthatcreateswallsandbarriers oneverylevelofhumanexistence.
80 CardinalRogerMahony,inhisTempletonLecture,“TheChallengeof‘We thePeople’inaPost9/11World:Immigration,theAmericanEconomy,andthe Constitution,”http://www.la-archdiocese.org/news/pdf/news_884_TempletonFinal May_8_07%20_2_.pdf(accessedMay4,2009),addressestheimmigrationissuein lightoftherootmeaningof“economy”(oikonomia,definedasthearrangementof ahousehold).Henotesthatintheearlychurch“oikonomia collectivelyreferredto thewayGod’shouseholdisorderedoradministered,andinthatsenseeconomized. God’shousehold,God’sgrandeconomy,isoneinwhichholinessandtruth,justice andlove,andaboveall,peace(eirene or shalom)prevail.”Hearguesthatwhat makesforasoundeconomyis“thefullflourishingofeveryonewhoispartofGod’s economy,household,orcommunity.”
81 JosefPieper, ABriefReaderontheVirtuesoftheHumanHeart (San Francisco:Ignatius,1991)39.
Second,atheologyofmigrationisawayofspeakingaboutthesignificanceoftheincarnationinlightoftheissuesofcontemporarysocietyand theinjusticesofthecurrentglobaleconomy.Theincarnationhasmuchto sayaboutaGodwhocrossesbordersinordertoforgenewrelationships andthechallengetoallhumanbeingstodothesame.Evenifbordersof nationstateshavesomeproximatevalueinconstructingidentity,protectingvalues,securingrights,andadministeringresources,fromaChristian perspective,sovereignrightsaresubjecttoalargervisionofhumanrights, thecommongood,thekingdomofGod,andthegratuityofGod.A theologyofmigrationunderscoresthatinthefinalanalysisthehuman andrelationalcostsfaroutweightheeconomicones.Atheologyofmigrationfostersasystematicframeworkthatnotonlysafeguards“negative” civil-politicallibertiescentraltohumanrightsdiscourse(suchastheright nottobetorturedorkilled),butalsoadvocatesfor“positive”economic, social,andculturalrights(suchastherighttowork,toshelter,tofamily unity,andeventomigrate)thatareattheheartofCatholicsocialteaching andpromotecorrelativedutiesthatflowfromhumandignity.
Third,atheologyofmigrationisawayofspeakingaboutthemissionof thechurchwithinthecontextofadisorderedpoliticaleconomy.Itseeksto fosterhumandignityinthepoorandvulnerable,tochallengeanystructuresandsystemsofsocietythatdivideanddehumanize,andtoupliftall effortstobuildamorejustandhumaneworld.Reducingpeopletotheir legalorpoliticalstatusnotonlydeniesdignitytothoseinneedbutalso dehumanizesthosewhohavetheopportunitytohelp.AgaKhan,aformer UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesfrom1966–1978,once observed:“Theawkwardtruthabouthumandeprivationisthatitdemeans thosewhopermitorignoreitmorethanitdoesthosewhoaredeprived.”82 Thequestion,then,isnotwhethertoalloworrestrictmigrationbutwhetherourmoralchoicesarecreatingdividesthatmoveustowardaglobalizationofpolarityratherthantowardaglobalizationofsolidarity.InDavid Hollenbach’swords,“Theneedsofthepoortakepriorityoverthewants oftherich.Thefreedomofthedominatedtakespriorityovertheliberty ofthepowerful.Theparticipationofmarginalizedgroupstakespriority overthepreservationofanorderwhichexcludesthem.”83 Ignoringthose inpainandbuildingofwallsofseparationalienatespeoplenotonlyfrom eachotherbutalsofromthemselves.
Atheologyofmigrationseekstounderstandwhatitmeanstotakeon themindandheartofChristinlightoftheplightoftoday’smigrantsand
82 GilLoescher,“ThePRSProject,”unpublishedpaper,presentedatQueen ElizabethHouse,OxfordUniversity,November22,2007.
83 DavidHollenbach, ClaimsinConflict:RetrievingandRenewingtheCatholic HumanRightsTradition (NewYork:Paulist,1979)204.
refugees.Tolimitcompassiontothebordersofone’snationality,one’s family,orevenone’sselfisamigrationtowarddisintegration.Forthoseon atrajectorytowarddisintegration,atheologyofmigrationcannotmake sense,sinceitwillalwaysbenewsfromaforeignland.“IfIseeapersonor personssuffer,”notesElieWiesel,“andthedistancebetweenusdoesnot shrink...thenmyplaceisnotgood,notenviable.”84 Iftheterm“alien”is tobeusedatall,itwouldbedescriptivenotofthosewholackpolitical documentationbutofthosewhohavesodisconnectedthemselvesfrom Godandothersthattheyareincapableofseeinginthevulnerablestranger amirrorofthemselves,areflectionofChrist,andaninvitationtohuman solidarity.
84 ElieWiesel,“TheRefugee,”in Sanctuary:AResourceGuideforUnderstandingandParticipatingintheCentralAmericanRefugee’sStruggle,ed.GaryMacEoin (NewYork:Harper&Row,1985)9.
