On Mark Twain
R. Kent Rasmussen
IsMarkTwainthegreatestwriterAmericahasyetproduced?Many peoplewouldanswerthatquestionintheaffirmative,butperhapssuch aquestionshouldnotbeaskedinthefirstplace.Leavingasidethematterofwhetheritisevenpossibletoanswersuchaquestion,itshouldbe enoughtosaythatTwain is agreatwriter.Proofinsupportofthisassertionliesinthefactthatfullyacenturyafterhisdeathpeoplecontinueto readhisbooksavidly—evenwhentheyarenotassignedinschool— andscholarscontinuetooffernewandoftenexcitinginterpretationsof hislifeandwork.
In1906,fouryearsbeforeTwaindied,heobservedthatoverthe courseoftheprecedingcentury,220,000bookshadbeenpublishedin theUnitedStates,but“notabathtub-fullofthemarestillaliveandmarketable.”Thatstatementmaycontainsomeexaggeration,butTwain’s essentialpointisastruenowasitwasthen:fewbooksoutlivetheirauthors.Indeed,thismayhavebeenespeciallytruefornineteenthcenturyAmericannovelists,mostofwhomareutterlyforgottentoday. Thereareexceptions,ofcourse,andofthese,Twainisclearlythemost outstandingexample.Intheyear2010—afullcenturyafterTwain died—notonlyweremostofhisbooksstillinprint,somehadnever goneoutofprint,evenbriefly,sincetheywerefirstpublishedduring thenineteenthcentury.TheremaynotbeanotherAmericanauthor fromhistimeforwhomthesamecanbesaid.Thisfactraisesquestions aboutwhataccountsforTwain’senduringpopularityandwhetherhis popularitysaysanythingabouthisgreatnessasawriter.
AsimplebutincompleteanswertothequestionofwhyTwain’s popularityhasenduredisthatatleastthreeofhisbookshaveentered therealmofacknowledgedclassics.Thetitlecharactersandbasic storylinesof TheAdventuresofTomSawyer (1876), Adventuresof HuckleberryFinn (1884),and ThePrinceandthePauper (1881)have becomesodeeplyingrainedinAmericanculturethatmanypeople
Mark Twain
awareofthesetitlesmaynotevenknowthatTwainwrotethem.Indeed,whentheDisneyCompanyused“ThePrinceandthePauper”as thetitleforananimatedMickeyMousefilmin1990,itdidnoteven bothertoincludeTwain’snameinthefilm’scredits—anomissionthat seemstosuggestthatTwain’sstoryhaspassedbeyondtherealmofa mereclassictobecomeatimelessandanonymouslycreatedfairytale. However,thissortofpopularitydoesnotaccountforwhyabooksuch as HuckleberryFinn isassignedreadinginthousandsofhighschool andcollegeclasseseveryyearandisthesubjectofaseeminglyendless outpouringofscholarlytheses,articles,andbooks.
Amongscholars,thedifferencebetweenliteraryworksworthyof studyandthosethatarenotliesinthematteroftheir“interpretability”— or,insimplerterms,howmuchcanbereadintothem.Whereasabook suchasHermanMelville’s MobyDick (1851)lendsitselftonearly endlessinterpretationsofitsthemes,symbols,andmultiplelevels, anintelligent,witty,beautifullycrafted,andimmenselyentertainingmodernnovelmayrevealallthatithastosayonitsfirstreading,withnothingremainingtobeinterpreted.IsubmitthatMark Twainisagreatwriterbecausemanyofhisbookscanbereadboth ashighentertainmentandasheftyliteraryworksofalmostendless interpretability.
Twain’swritingsarerepeatedlyread,analyzed,deconstructed,and reinterpretedbecausetheycontinuetohavesomethingfreshtosayto eachnewgeneration.InhisessayonTwainandAmbroseBiercewrittenforthisvolume,LawrenceI.BerkovestatesthatTwain“remainsan unaccountableliterarygenius,agiantfortheages.”Berkove’sphrase “unaccountableliterarygenius”isanaptone,asitreflectsthegrowing viewthatTwainhasdepthsthatcanneverfullybeplumbed,thatwe cangoonforeverreadingandstudyinghimandneverfullyexplain him.ThisisaviewwithwhichIconcur.Throughoutthenearlytwenty yearsIhavestudiedandwrittenaboutTwain,Ihavenevercomeclose togrowingboredwiththeman.EverytimeIrereadoneofhisbooks,I noticethingsIdonotrecallhavingnoticedbefore.EverytimeIamsat-
isfiedIhaveansweredoneofmyquestionsabouthim,Ifindoneortwo newquestionsemergingtotakeitsplace.Everyyearseesthepublicationofatleastahalfdozennewbooksabouthim,andeachtimeIread oneofthem,IfeellikeIamfinallybeginningtounderstandhimfully forthefirsttime—until,thatis,thenextnewbookcomesalong.
IfallthismakesstudyingTwainsoundlikeitshouldbewearing,itis not.Infact,itisexactlytheopposite.EverypersonIhavemetwhohas spentyearsreadingandstudyingTwain—bothscholarsand“buffs”— relishessharinginthethrillofmakingnewdiscoveries,andIdonotrecallevermeetinganyonewhohaslostinterestinTwainbecausereadinghisworksandstudyinghimhadbecomeboring.Indeed,Iwonder howitwouldevenbepossibletofindTwainboring.
Someyearsago,whenShelleyFisherFishkinandIwereconducting almostdailye-mailconversationsaboutourworkonTwain,weasked eachotherwhywenevergetboredwithhim.Ihavenotforgottenthe littleepiphanythatShelleysharedwithmeononeoccasion:wedonot getboredwithTwainbecauseheconnectswith everything.Like Twain’sbathtubanecdote,thisremarkmaybeabitofanexaggeration, butitalsoexpressesanimportanttruth.MarkTwainreallydoesconnectwithalmosteverything.Duringhisnearlyseventy-fiveyearson ourplanet,helivedthroughoneofthegreatestperiodsofsocial,political,andtechnologicalchangeinhumanhistory.
AsStephenRailtondiscussesin“MarkTwainandHisTimes” withinthisvolume,whenTwainwasbornin1835,fewerthanthirteen millionAmericanswerelivinginthenation’stwenty-fourstates.By thetimehedied,in1910,morethanninety-twomillionAmericans werelivinginforty-sixstates,andthepercentageofthemlivingincitieshadmorethandoubled.Moreover,atthetimeofTwain’sbirth, slaverywasflourishing,steam-poweredtrainsandvesselswerestillin rudimentarystagesofdevelopment,medicalpracticeshadscarcelyadvancedsincetheMiddleAges,andinventionssuchasphotography,telegraphy,andeventypewritersstilllayinthefuture.Bythetimeofhis death,tensofthousandsofmilesofrailroadtracksweremovinghigh-
speedtrainsaroundthecountry,iron-hulledsteamshipswereplying theworld’soceans,gas-poweredautomobileswereontheroads,and airplanesweretakingtotheskies.Photographyhadadvancedtocolor picturesandmotionpictures,telegraphywasalreadygivingwayto telephonesandwirelessradio,medicinewasonthethresholdofits modernera,andslaveryhadlongsincebeenabolished.
MarkTwainwasnottheonlyAmericantolivethroughalltheseand otherchanges,buthewasunusualincloselyobservingandcommentingonthem.Moreover,hewasalsoexceptionallywelltraveled;he livedforatleastafewmonthsineveryregionoftheUnitedStates.He alsospentnearlytwelveyearsabroadandvisitedeveryinhabitedcontinent.Duringhiswidespreadtravels,hemetmanyoftheworld’sleadingcultural,political,andscientificfiguresandhadcloserelationships withmorethanafewofthem.Theessaysinthisvolumeareconcerned primarilywithTwainasawriter,butallaspectsofhislifearesofascinatingthathehasattractedalmostasmuchattentionfrombiographers ashehasfromliteraryscholars.
Twain’sinterestsweresobroadanddiversethatitisdifficulttofind asubjectonwhichhiswritingsdonottouch,atleastbriefly.Healso hadarichimaginationandincrediblyinventivemindthatallowedhim toprojectintothefuturetechnologiesandpoliticalandsocialdevelopmentsthathadnotyetoccurred.AsDavidKettererdiscussesin“Mark TwainasaScience-FictionWriter”inthisvolume,Twainevenwrote aboutadevicesimilartotelevisiondecadesbeforeitwasinvented.For allthesereasonsandmore,sayingthatTwainconnectswitheverything maynotbeasgreatanexaggerationasonemightsuspect.
Thereare,ofcourse,otherimportantdimensionstoMarkTwainthat keepreadersandscholarscomingbacktohim.Oneofthemostimportantoftheseishisremarkableabilitytomakereaderslaugh.Whatever elseonethinksabouthiswriting,heisfrequentlyveryfunnyandoften inunexpectedways.Amajorpartofhis“unaccountablegenius”ishis knackforinvestinghiswritingwithanunforcedhumor.Hiswriting stylegrewoutoftheAmericanSouthwest’straditionoffrontierhumor,
whichwasbuiltonsuchdevicesaseccentriccharacters,outrageous exaggeration,andcolorfuldialects.Likemanynineteenth-centuryhumorists,Twainusedthesedevicesandothers;however,hequicklydistancedhimselffromhiscontemporariesbyinvestinginhisworkqualitiesotherwriterscouldnotmatch.Oneofthechiefamongthesewas thenaturalnessofhisdialogue.Hewasalwaysanexcellentobserver, andhehadaparticularlygoodearforlanguage.Whereasmanyofthe humoristsofhistimestroveforlaughsbyinventingfracturedidioms andusingcacography—thedeliberatemisspellingofwords—toexaggeratetheignoranceoftheircharacters,Twainstrovetoemulatenaturalhumanspeechandlookedforhumorinotherdevices.Oneofthe mostpopularAmericanhumoristsofthemid-nineteenthcentury,and animportantinfluenceonTwainhimself,wasArtemusWard.This passagefromWard’ssketchtitled“Women’sRights”isanextremeexampleofcacography:
IpitchtmytentinasmalltowninInjiannyonedaylastseeson,&whileI wasstandingatthedoretakinmoney,adeppytashunofladiescameup& sedtheywosmembersoftheBunkumvilleFemaleReformin&Wimin’s Rite’s Associashun, and thay axed me if thay cood go in without payin.
Cantherebeanydoubtaboutwhyfewpeoplestillreadthissortof thing?Passagessuchasthesereekofartificiality;nolivinghuman couldeverhavespokensuchwords.CompareWard’spassagewiththe openinglinesofTwain’s HuckleberryFinn:
Youdon’tknowaboutme,withoutyouhavereadabookbythenameof “TheAdventuresofTomSawyer,”butthatain’tnomatter.Thatbookwas madebyMr.MarkTwain,andhetoldthetruth,mainly.Therewasthings whichhestretched,butmainlyhetoldthetruth.Thatisnothing.Inever seenanybodybutlied,onetimeoranother,withoutitwasAuntPolly,or the widow, or maybe Mary.
Expressedinthenarrativevoiceoftheyouthfulandlargelyunschooled Huck,thispassageresemblesWard’sinthatitispermeatedwithgrammaticalerrors,butatthesametimeitfeelsauthentic.Whenwereadit, wecanbelievewearehearingtheunaffectedvoiceofanignorant backwoodsboy,notanartificialcreation.Almostamazingly,Twain wasabletosustainthatvoicethroughouttheentirenovel.
Oneofthereasons HuckleberryFinn isconsideredagreatnovelis thecontributionitmadetoAmericanliteraturebyhelpingtoliberateit fromtheshacklesofstifflyformalnarrativetechniques.Twain’suseof theignorantHuckashisnovel’snarratorwasaboldexperiment.Some contemporarycriticsdamnedthebookascoarsebecauseofHuck’s grammaticalerrorsandoccasionalvulgarities,butthissamevoice wouldinfluencemanygreattwentieth-centuryAmericanwriters,and itisnowconsideredoneof HuckleberryFinn’sprimarystrengths.
AlargepartoftheacademicandscholarlyattentiongiventoMark Twainhaslongbeenlavishedon HuckleberryFinn,whichisarguably hisgreatestbook.AttheSixthInternationalConferenceontheStateof MarkTwainStudiesinElmira,NewYork,inAugust2009,LouisJ. Budd,thedeanofTwainstudies,exhortedfellowscholarsnottofocus somuchononeTwainworkthattheyneglecthismanyotherwritings. NoteverybookthatTwainwroteisgreat,orevenimportant,certainly, butalmosteverythinghewroteisofinterestforonereasonoranother. Agoodexampleis TomSawyer,whichisthesubjectofanessayby CynthiaGriffinWolffinthisvolume.Although HuckleberryFinn is clearlythesuperiorbookandtheonethatgarnersthemostseriousattention, TomSawyer hasprobablybeenreadbymorepeople,andTom maybeanevenmorefamiliarAmericaniconthanHuck.Nevertheless, asAlanGribbenpointsoutin“MarkTwain’sCriticalReception”in thisvolume, TomSawyer hasyettoreceiveabook-lengthscholarly analysis.Thisoversightseemsremarkableinviewofthebook’senduringpopularity.However,itcanprobablybeatleastpartlyaccounted forbythelong-standingperceptionofthenovelasasimple“boy book”—ajuvenileworknotworthyofseriousadultattention.
Iwasmesmerizedby TomSawyer thefirsttimeIreaditattheageof nine,andmostchildrenwhoreaditlikeitasmuchasIdidasachild. However,Twainwrotethenovelnotmerelyforchildrenbutalsofor adults.Asheexplainsinthebook’spreface,“Partofmyplanhasbeen totrytopleasantlyremindadultsofwhattheyoncewerethemselves, andofhowtheyfeltandthoughtandtalked,andwhatqueerenterprises theysometimesengagedin.”Becausehewasthinkingofhisadult readerswhenhecomposedthebook,muchofwhathappensin Tom Sawyer goesovertheheadsofitsyoungerreaders,asitconveyswhat Wolffcallsa“nightmarevisionofboyhood.”Although TomSawyer doesnotdealwiththemesasweightyasslaveryandsocialdegradation,as HuckleberryFinn does,itpresentsadarkandoftenfrightening depictionoflifeinafrontiervillageduringthemid-nineteenthcentury thatisinsharpcontrasttothepleasantlynostalgicvisionthenovelis generallyperceivedasconveying. TomSawyer isclearlyanovelthat requirescarefulreading.
AnotherpopularbookbyTwainthatmeritsamorecarefulreadingis AConnecticutYankeeinKingArthur’sCourt (1889).Inthisnovel, alate-nineteenth-centuryAmericansuddenlyfindshimselfinsixthcenturyEngland,whichhetriestotransformintoamoderndemocratic republic.Oneofthefirstnovelstousetimetravelasaplotdevice,this sprawlingstoryhaslongdelightedreaderswithitsmanyhumorous scenespittingthepastagainstthenineteenth-centurypresent,suchas armoredknightsplayingbaseballandwearingsandwichboardstoadvertisesoap,themodernYankeeusingalassotobestthefinestknights inajoustingtournament,andthemeeksurrenderofsixbelligerent knightsatthesightofersatztobaccosmokeshootingthroughthebars oftheYankee’smetalhelmet.However,thenovel’splayfulhumor eventuallygiveswaytoalmostunimaginableviolenceanddestruction, turningtheYankee’sdreamofcreatinganegalitarianrepublicintoanotherkindofnightmarevision.Astheydowiththeflawsinother Twainstories,manyreadersareinclinedtodismissthisjarringshiftin thenovel’stoneasmerecarelessnessonTwain’spart.However,as
LawrenceBerkovearguesinhisessayon ConnecticutYankee reprintedinthisvolume,theproblemliesmoreinourmisreadingofthe novelthaninTwain’sdesign.Whileexplaininghowthenovelshould beread,BerkovearguesthatTwainmaybeanevengreaterwriterthan isgenerallyacknowledged—anotherexampleofhowTwain’sworks areconstantlybeingreinterpreted.
AbuzzwordthataroseonAmericanhighschoolandcollegecampusesduringthelatetwentiethcenturywas“relevance.”Increasingly dissatisfiedwithtraditionalacademiccoursework,studentsbegandemandingthatwhattheystudiedhavemorerelevancetotheirreallives andthechallengestheywouldfaceasworkingadults.Theywerealso reactingagainstwhattheyperceivedasoverlynarrowperspectiveson historyandcultureanddemandedbroaderrepresentationofnonwhite andfeministpointsofview.Ifrelevanceiswhatreadersarelookingfor inliterature,theyarelikelytofindmoreofitinMarkTwain’swritings thanintheworksofotherAmericanwritersofhistime.ThekindsofissuesthatTwainaddressesandthestyleinwhichhewriteshaveakind oftimelessnessthatmakehisworksasrelevanttodayastheirwerein hisowntime.