The Political and Religious Structure in Jesus' Time

The Political and Religious Structure in Jesus’ Time

In looking at the political and religious structure at the time of Jesus, we could explore countless topics. In this article we look attopics of the structure of the Jewish sects, the practice of taxation and tithing, and the exercising of crucifixion as a means of execution and control.

Jewish Sects

Just as Christianity today is divided intodifferent groups (Catholics, Methodists,Lutherans, nondenominational evangelicalchurches), so too ancient Jewishreligion had distinct groups or sects.In Jesus’ time in Palestine, three groupswere particularly influential. Josephusidentifies these groups (he calls them“philosophies”): the Sadducees, thePharisees, and the Essenes.

We should make clear from the startthat only a small minority of people actuallybelonged to these sects, but theirstrong influence on Jewish society isundeniable. The Pharisees were the largestof the three, consisting of about sixthousand members during the time ofHerod the Great (out of a total populationof perhaps one million people inPalestine).These groups can be compared notonly to Christian denominations butalso to modern political parties. In ancientJudaismthere was no sharp distinctionbetween religion and politics.All three groups were concerned notonly with religious behavior but alsowith the political issues of their day.

Sadducees

The name Sadducees most likely comesfrom the name Zadok, a priest whoanointed David’s son Solomon as king(see 1 Kings 1:32–40). The descendantsof Zadok, the Zadokites, were recognizedas the only legitimate priests byEzekiel (see Ezekiel44:9–31) and the authorof the Book of Chronicles. It’s likelythat the Sadducees were Zadokites whosupported the Hasmonean (descendantsof the Maccabees) kings and priests.The Sadducees were apparently ofthe elite, wealthy class, and were closelyallied with the high priestly families.Josephus says the Sadducees had a followingamong the rich only, while thePharisees had a greater following amongthe common people. In the Acts of theApostles, the Sadducees are associatedwith the high priest and the JerusalemTemple (see 4:1–2, 5:17). Josephusnames the high priest Ananus as a Sadducee.

In New Testament times, the highpriest was appointed by King Herod,the client king of the Romans, then byHerod’s son Archelaeus, and later directlyby Roman rulers of Judea. Withtheir connections with the high priestlyfamilies, the Sadducees were closely tiedto Roman rule in Palestine. Ancient Jews held a variety of differentbeliefs about the afterlife. Josephussays the Sadducees believed that thesoul died along with the body; the Actsof the Apostles reports that “the Sadduceessay that there is no resurrectionor angels or spirits, while the Phariseesacknowledge all three” (23:8).

Members of the Sadducees tried toshow that the belief in resurrection wasnot logical when they asked Jesus abouta hypothetical case in which awomanhad married seven men. In the life after resurrection, whose wife would shebe? (see Mark 12:18–27). Jesus answeredthem, “When they rise from the dead,they neither marry nor are given inmarriage, but they are like the angels inheaven” (12:25). In other words, the normalstandards of marriage do not applyin the resurrected life.

According to Josephus, the Phariseesand Sadducees were often in conflict.The Pharisees taught many religiousrules that were not directly in the Torah;the Sadducees rejected all laws thatwere not

explicitly written in the Torah.Josephus also reports that the Sadduceeswere harsher in their legal judgmentsand punishments than were thePharisees. The rabbinic literature oftenportrays the Pharisees and Sadduceesdisagreeing about matters of purity.

Pharisees

It appears that most members of thePharisees were not priests. They hadconsiderable influence in Israelite society—Josephus reports that at the beginningof the revolt against Rome in AD66, the leading Pharisees met with thehigh priests and “men of power” in anattempt to resolve the crisis.

This political influence, however, wasindirect. The Pharisees did not holdpolitical offices but rather influencedsuch leaders as the Hasmonean QueenSalome Alexandra and later Herod theGreat. Mark portrays the Pharisees asplotting with the “Herodians” to destroyJesus (see Mark 3:6, 12:13). They did, however, serve on the council (“Sanhedrin”)that advised the high priest (seeActsof the Apostles5:34, 23:6–9).

Origins of the Pharisees

Many scholars think the Pharisaicparty evolved from a group known asthe Hasideans, zealous supporters ofthe Torah who joined the Maccabeanrevolt: “Then they were joined by agroup of Hasideans, valiant Israelites, allof them devout followers of the law” (1Maccabees2:42). The name Hasideans comesfrom the Hebrew hasid, meaning “pious”or “devout.”

Most scholars also believe the Pharisaicmovement later developed intorabbinic Judaism. This Judaism, basedon the Scriptures as interpreted by theMishnah and Talmud, is the form ofthe Jewish faith that has survived intomodern times. Thuscareful study ofearly rabbinic documents, such as the Mishnah (ca. AD 200),allows us to gainsome insights into the Pharisees’ teachingat the time of Jesus.

The Pharisees are often portrayed inthe Gospels as hypocritical, concernedmore with outward show than with sincerefaith, “for they preach but they donot practice” (Matthew23:3; see also 23:4–5,25–28). Jesuscontrasts the prayers of a self-righteousPharisee with a humble tax collector; itis the tax collector who goes away justifiedby God (see Luke18:9–14). It is notsurprising that the Gospel writers tendedto focus on negative aspects of thePharisaic movement, as early Christiansand Pharisees were in serious conflictover basic issues, such as the observanceof Torah.

Josephus’s portrait is much morepositive. He reports that the Phariseesavoided luxury and lived a simple lifestyle.In contrast to the Sadducees, theyenjoyed support among the common people.

Pharisees and the Torah

The primary aim of the Phariseeswas to apply the details of the Torah toeveryday life. Many of the commandmentsof Torah are vague, and at timesthey are inconsistent or even contradictory.The Pharisees worked out practicalmethods to overcome these challenges. They were well known for “traditions”that they taught as a supplementto, or as an interpretation of, the commandmentsof the Torah. The synopticGospels report that the Pharisees weremeticulous about washing their handsand purifying themselves before eating(see Mark 7:3–4);they apparently applied some priestly purity laws to theirown daily meals. Another tradition wasthe declaration of something as qorban—a dedication of a possession to theTemple that allowed a person to continueusing it for himself and not sharingit with others (see 7:11).

Josephus reports that the Phariseeswere lenient in their judgments aboutpunishments, and we know that someof their traditions allowed Jews to observethe Torah in an easier and morepractical manner. For example, strictbiblical laws forbade carrying food fromhouse to house on the Sabbath. The Pharasaic tradition of ’eruv allowed theconstruction of doorposts and lintels sothat several houses could be joined togetheras one, and families could thussocialize on the Sabbath. The traditionof the prosbul allowed a debt to be collectedby a community council, evenduring the seventh year, when, accordingto biblical law (see Deuteronomy15:2), alldebts were to be forgiven. This practicemade it easier for farmers or craftsmento get loans when the seventh year wasapproaching.

Pharisees and Early Christians

Although the Gospels often portrayJesus in conflict with the Pharisees (seeMark 2:23–28, 3:1–6), the relationshipbetween the Pharisees and the earlyChristian movement was more complex.Followers of Jesus and the Pharisees (incontrast to the Sadducees) shared a beliefin the resurrection of the dead andpunishment and rewards in the afterlife.The Apostle Paul was a Pharisee (seePhilippians3:5, Acts of the Apostles 23:6). Pharisees were alsopart of the first church community atJerusalem (see Actsof the Apostles15:5).Besides Paul, other notable first-centuryPharisees were Gamaliel, an influential member of the Sanhedrin whowas “respected by all the people” (5:34),and the priest, general, and historian Josephus.

Essenes

Many scholars identify at least onebranch of the Essenes with the communitythat lived in the desert wilderness atQumran (although other scholars rejectthis connection). Qumran is the site onthe northwestern end of the Dead Seaat which the so-called Dead Sea Scrollswere found. The Qumran communitywas governed by a strict hierarchy headedby priests; the so-called Teacher ofRighteousness (often mentioned in thescrolls) was apparently the founder ofthe community.

The community seems to have begunwhen a group of priests left Jerusalembecause of a dispute with theTemple priesthood. They disagreed withthe interpretation of Torah practicedby the Jerusalem priests, and especiallywith interpretation of laws of purity. Itis likely that the Qumran community members, with their belief that only aZadokite should be high priest, rejectedthe non-Zadokite Hasmonean highpriests. The communityfurther disagreed with the Hasmoneanadoption of a solar calendar in place ofthe old lunar one. This dispute was important,as knowing the precise date was essential for keeping the festivals mandatedin the Torah.

The Dead Sea Scrolls include manycopies of biblical books, commentarieson Scripture, hymns, prayers, andrules for governing the community.One scroll, the “War Scroll,” describesa final battle at the end of history inwhich the Sons of Light (the Qumrancommunity), aided by God, will destroythe powers of darkness (the forces of thecommunity’s Jewish opponents as wellas Gentiles).

With their withdrawal into the wilderness,their strict lifestyle, and theiremphasis on God’s coming judgment,the members of the Qumran communityare similar to John the Baptist, whopreached his apocalyptic message ofrepentance in the Judean desert. Somescholars, in fact, speculate that John was once a member of the Qumran community.

The Gospel writers associateIsaiah’sprophecy “A voice of one cryingout in the desert: / ‘Prepare the wayof the Lord, / make straight his paths’”(Mark 1:3, seeIsaiah40:3)with John the Baptist; the Qumran community appliedthis same prophecy to their owngroup.

The Essenes thought of themselvesas the only faithful remnant of Israel; they believed their community replacedthe Temple as the site of the true, uncorruptedworship of God.

Samaritans

Samaritans are inhabitants of Samaria,a district in central Palestine, betweenGalilee and Judea.After the split of Israel into thenorthern and southern kingdoms afterthe death of King Solomon, Samaria formed part of the northern kingdomof Israel (see 1 Kings, chapters11–12). Its capitalwas the city of Samaria, constructedby King Omriand his son Ahab in theninth century (see 16:24). At this time the people were simply known as Israelites.

The city of Samaria was conqueredby the Assyrians in 721 BC, and manyof its leading citizens were deported.The Assyrian king settled colonists fromBabylon and other cities in the region ofSamaria (see 2 Kings 17:24). The religiousrites of the colonists (including worshipof the Babylonian god Marduk) weremixed with the worship of the Lord (see17:29–33). According to the biblicalrecord, Samaritans in Jesus’ time weredescendants of these colonists. The Samaritansthemselves, however, claimeddirect descent from the Israelite tribesof Ephraim and Manasseh. It is afterthe Babylonian Exile that the people arecalled Samaritans.

From the timeof the return of theJudean exiles from the Babylonian Exile,tensions between Jews and Samaritansarose. The major dispute involvedthe proper worship of the Lord. TheSamaritans were opposed to the rebuildingof Jerusalem and the Temple (seeEzra4:1–4,Nehemiah2:18–20), favoring theirholy place built on Mount Gerizim inSamaria. The dispute is reflected in thewords of the Samaritan woman to Jesus:“Our ancestors worshiped on thismountain [Mount Gerizim]; but youpeople say that the place to worship isin Jerusalem” (John 4:20).In addition, Samaritans acceptedonlythe first five books, the Pentateuch, ofthe Old Testament as their Scriptures.Their version of the Pentateuch differsslightly from other ancient Hebrewversions. The most striking differenceis the addition of a commandment to build an altar at Mount Gerizim (seeExodus20:17). Samaritans shared with Jewsthe expectations of a Messiah (see John4:25); Samaritans focused especiallyon the prophecy that God would raiseup another prophet like Moses (see Deuteronomy 18:18).

At times the conflict between Jewsand Samaritans turned violent. TheHasmonean King John Hyrcanus destroyedthe holy place at Gerizim in 128BC; Samaritans massacred some Jewishpilgrims in AD 52.

Jews in the time of Jesus thus despisedSamaritans as foreigners whoworshipped the Lord in the wrong way.Jesus seemedto have had some warinessof the Samaritans as well. He warnedhis disciples, “Do not go into pagan territoryor enter a Samaritan town” (Matthew 10:5). Yetin other ways, Jesus, as a first-centuryJew, had a remarkable opennessto Samaritans. His Parable of theGood Samaritan contrasts a priest andLevite who ignore a man in need witha Samaritan who stops to help (see Luke10:25–37,see also 17:11–19). Thisparablewould have deeply offended Jesus’Jewish listeners. Most striking is Jesus’conversation with a Samaritan womanat a well (see John 4:4–42).

The early followers of Jesus continuedhis openness. Philip (a member ofthe first church in Jerusalem), Peter, andJohn preached about Jesus in Samaria.As a resultmany Samaritans accepted the Gospel and were baptized (see Actsof the Apostles 8:5–25).

Taxes and Tithing

The old saying “The only sure thingsin life are death and taxes” held true forbiblicalsocieties also, where the populacewas taxed by both government andreligious authorities. Taxes were paid inthree ways: as money, as a percentage ofcrops or animals, or as forced labor.

Taxes in Old Testament Times

In ancient Israel, government tax collectionwas unsystematic, varying fromking to king. Taxes were levied in orderto pay tribute to foreign kings (see 2Kings 15:20, 23:35); Solomon employedforced labor in building the Temple andother building projects (see 1 Kings 5:27–32, 9:15–-22). Samuel warned the peoplethat a king would make them slavesand take 10 percent of their crops, vineyards,and flocks (see 8:15–17), but itis unclear to what extent the kings actuallydid these things. Taxes were alsocollected to maintain the priests andtheTemple (see 2 Kings 12:5).

Taxes in First-Century Palestine

The exact percentage of income thatwas taken in taxes by the Roman governmentin Jesus’ time is not clear. Onescholarly estimate puts it at around 12.5percent. We know that shortly after theMaccabean revolt, a Syrian king referredto his right to collect “thethird of thegrain and the half of the fruit of the trees”(1 Maccabees10:30).

In addition to a tax on crops, theHerodian government also collected a“head tax.” Every male over fourteenand every female over twelve in a familywas assessed a tax of one denarius (approximatelythe daily wage of a laborer).A census would be taken in orderto register each family for tax purposes(see Luke2:1). This is the tax discussed byJesus andthe Pharisees when Jesus concluded,“Repay to Caesar what belongsto Caesar and to God what belongs toGod” (Mark 12:17).

Besides these direct taxes, the Romanscharged many indirect taxes, suchas road tolls and port fees. The Romanmilitary stationed in Palestine also hadthe legal right to force the native populationto help them carry supplies forup to one mile; this right is reflected inJesus’ teaching, “Should anyone pressyou into service for one mile, go withhim for two miles” (Matthew5:41). Romansoldiers exercised this right when theyforced Simon of Cyrene to carry Jesus’cross when Jesus became too weak tocarry it (see Mark 15:21).

The government regulated economicactivity in other ways. Fishermen, forexample, could not merely go out andfish in Palestinian lakes; rather, they hadto obtain a contract from a tax collector,who might lend them money to buyboats and nets, in return for a percentageof their profits. This tax collector, in turn, had contracted with a chief taxcollector who had been appointed byKing Herod. Because his office was inthe fishing village of Capernaum, Jesus’disciple Matthew was most likely a contractorof fishing rights (see Matthew9:9, Mark2:14).

Religious Taxes or Tithes

The tithes collected by Jewish religiousleaders were also a kind of tax. Titheswere 10 percent of a worker’s produce,including both crops and flocks (see Leviticus 27:30–33). There were two main tithes. One tithe was to be taken to Jerusalemduring the festival times, or sold,andthe money spent in Jerusalem (see Deuteronomy 14:22–29). Every third year, however,this tithe was put into a community storehouse, where people, includingthe “alien, orphan, and widow,” couldcome and “eat their fill” (Deuteronomy14:28–29).Another tithe was used to support thepriests and Levites, who did not work their own land. This tithe was given tothe Levites who, in turn, would give atithe of this tithe to the priests (see Numbers 18:21–32). This seems to have been atithe on crops, not on animals.

Additionally, the people gave a firstfruits offering from their crops or herds,which was brought either in kind or asa money payment to the Temple duringthe pilgrimage festivals (see Numbers 18:15–19). The Torah also requires other offerings,such asa wave offering (see 18:11) and a sinoffering (see Leviticus4:27–28). Tobit explainshow he faithfully paid these varioustithes and offerings (see 1:6–8).

The Torah does give options for apoor person’s offering. If a person couldnot afford an animal, he could offer twobirds; if he could not afford two birds,he could offer flour (see Leviticus5:7–10; seealso 12:8, 14:21–22).

Finally, the Temple tax, required annuallyof every adult Jewish male, wasused for the general needs of the Temple.In Jesus’ timethe Temple tax was ahalf shekel (or two drachmas), approximately the cost of two days’ wages for alaborer. Jesus refers to this tax in his discussionwith Peter (see Matthew17:24–27).This tax was collected not only in Palestinebut alsoin Jewish communities throughout the Diaspora.

The Tax Collection System in Jesus’ Time

Neither the Roman emperors nor theHellenistic kings who ruled over Palestinecollected taxes directly; rather, theyoperated through the client-patron system.Patronswere typically membersofthe elite class who had wealth or powerand thus could offer protection or otherbenefits to a client in return for the client’sloyalty, goods, or services. “Brokers”were people in the middle whowould put patrons in touch withclients.Even rulers likeKing Herod were essentiallyclients of the Roman emperor,governing with the emperor’s approval.

At the top of this patronage system,the Roman emperor demanded a certainamount of tribute tax from his clientKing Herod. Herod in turn contractedwith members of the elite who weredesignated as “chief tax collectors.” Attimes the high priest was also involvedin guaranteeing the delivery of a certain amount of taxes to the Romans. Thesechief tax collectors, in turn, hired anumber of local tax collectors (brokers)who brought in the actual revenue. Thetax collectors mentioned in the Gospelsare all local Jews (see Mark 2:15; Luke18:10–14, 19:1–10).

The right to collect taxes in a certainarea (village or district) was auctionedoff to the highest bidder. The chief taxcollector contracted with the local taxcollectors to bring in a certain amountof money; anything over that amountwas kept by the local tax collector.

The local tax collectors were amongthe most despised members of the Jewishcommunities for several reasons: (1)they earned money by collecting otherpeople’s money, which was considered dishonorable in itself; (2) they had areputation for dishonesty (the tax collectorZacchaeus promises Jesus he willrepay four times over anything he hasextorted [see Luke19:8]); (3) they wereactively cooperating with the Romanswho were occupying the land of Israel; and (4)theywere grouped together with prostitutes (see Matthew21:31)and sinners (see Mark 2:16) as the dregsof society.

Some farmers who were forced fromtheir land by their inability to pay theirdebts formed gangs of outlaws whosurvived by raids on the wealthy elite.The “criminals” crucified on either sideof Jesus (see Luke 23:33) and Barabbas,the prisoner who was released insteadof Jesus (see 23:18–25), were possiblyoutlaws of this type. They were popularamong the people as “Robin Hoods”who resisted Roman elites and their clients;this may have been one factor inthe crowd’s decision to release Barabbas instead of Jesus (see 23:25).

Jesus himself taught his followers topay their taxes (see Matthew17:25–27 [Templetax], Mark 12:13–17 [Roman tax]), asdid Paul (see Romans13:6–7).

Crucifixion

Most people today associate crucifixionwith Jesus’ death. The cross on whichJesus died has become a major symbolof Christianity.

In the ancient world, however,crucifixion was used as a punishmentin many societies. Living victims ofthis punishment were nailed or tied tocrosses, trees, or stakes.Sometimes thedead bodies of criminals were treated inthis way. The cruel practice was foundamong the Persians, Greeks, Romans, and other peoples. Jesus was just one ofthousands of people killed by crucifixionin the ancient world.

In the Romanmethod of crucifixion,the victim was tied or nailed to awooden cross. The victim often remainedalive for several days, all thewhile enduring terrible pain. The actualcause of death was often asphyxiation;when the victim no longer had thestrength tohold up his body, he wouldslump down and his breathing would becut off. The Gospels report the Romancustom of breaking the victim’s legs (ensuringthat the victim could no longerhold up his body) in order to speed updeath. Jesus’ legs were not broken, as hewas already dead when the Roman soldierscame (see John 19:31–33).

The purpose of crucifixion wastwofold—to torture the victim as longas possible before death, as a cruel punishment,and to serve as a warning toothers. Thereforecrucifixions oftentook place in public places, such as thecrossroads of busy highways, on hilltops,and even in theaters. Often rebelswho revolted against a government werepublicly crucified to deter others. Sixthousand slaves were crucified along theAppian Way, a major highway leadinginto Rome, after the slave revolt led bySpartacus was crushed.

The Roman practice also shamedand humiliated the victim in every way.The victim was often tortured first andthen stripped naked before crucifixion.The Gospels recordhow the Romansoldiers tortured Jesus, mocked him,and then stripped off his clothes beforecrucifying him (see Mark 15:15–20).

In Roman society, the penalty wasreserved mainly for criminals, rebels,and slaves; the Roman statesman Cicerosimply calls it the “slaves’ punishment.”Cicero also writes that Roman citizensshould not even spend time thinkingabout crucifixion, as it was such a degradingand unworthy way of dying. Another Roman practice was to attachto the top of the cross a sign indicatingthe alleged crime of the victim.The inscription on Jesus’ cross read, “Jesusthe Nazorean, the King of the Jews,”written in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek (John19:19–20). This refers to the fact thatJesus was crucified as the Messiah, onewho claimed to be the king sent by Godto rule over the Jewish People. Todayyou might see “INRI” at the top of acrucifix: these letters represent the Latintranslation of the inscription Iesous NazarenusRex Iudaeorum (“Jesus of Nazareth,King of the Jews”).

Crucifixion in the Roman Empirewas thus understood as a great sourceof shame, a punishment given only tothe lowest criminals and slaves. So whenthe early Christians taught that theirLord and Savior had been crucified,most people must have thought theChristians were crazy for worshipping a man who had been shamed in this way.The Apostle Paul writes, “We proclaimChrist crucified, a stumbling block toJews and foolishness toGentiles”(1 Corinthians1:23). It was a stumbling blockfor most Jews, because a common Jewishexpectation of the Messiah is that hewould be a great king who would driveout the Roman oppressors—it was inconceivablethat God’s chosen Messiahwould be crucified. The Gentiles toowould have had a difficult time believingthat any kind of savior or honored religious figure would be crucified.

The followers of Jesus, however,transformed the negative and shamefulconnotations of the cross into a life-givingteaching. Jesus himself insistedthat his follower “must deny himself,take up his cross, and follow me. Forwhoever wishes to save his life will loseit, but whoever loses his life for mysake and that of the gospel will save it”(Mark 8:34–35). Thusthe cross symbolizesthe followers’ willingness to acceptthe hardships involved in followingJesus, but this acceptance leads to savingone’s life. Paul similarly taught thatit is through death that our new lifeis attained: “We were indeed buriedwith him

through baptism into death,so that, just as Christ was raised fromthe dead by the glory of the Father, we too might live in newness of life” (Romans 6:4).

(Most of the content in this article has been adapted fromthe Saint Mary’s Press®

Essential Quick Charts: Bible Basics (2007), written by Gary Dreier.

The scriptural quotations in this article are from the New American Bible with Revised New Testament and Revised Psalms. Copyright © 1991, 1986, and 1970 by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, D.C. Used by the permission of the copyright owner. All rights reserved.No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.)

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