The Road to Wigan Pier` by demandside

TheRoadtoWiganPier

byGeorgeOrwell

STYLEDBY LIMPIDSOFT

Title:TheRoadtoWiganPier

Author:GeorgeOrwell

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PARTONE

THE firstsoundinthemorningswastheclumpingofthe mill-girls’clogsdownthecobbledstreet.Earlierthan that,Isuppose,therewerefactorywhistleswhichIwasnever awaketohear.Mybedwasintheright-handcorneronthe sidenearestthedoor.Therewasanotherbedacrossthefoot ofitandjammedhardagainstit(ithadtobeinthatpositiontoallowthedoortoopen)sothatIhadtosleepwithmy legsdoubledup;ifIstraightenedthemoutIkickedtheoccupantoftheotherbedinthesmalloftheback.Hewasan elderlymannamedMrReilly,amechanicofsortsandemployed’ontop’atoneofthecoalpits.Luckilyhehadtogo toworkatfiveinthemorning,soIcoulduncoilmylegsand haveacoupleofhours’propersleepafterhewasgone.Inthe bedoppositetherewasaScotchminerwhohadbeeninjured inapitaccident(ahugechunkofstonepinnedhimtothe groundanditwasacoupleofhoursbeforetheycouldlever itoff),andhadreceivedfivehundredpoundscompensation. Hewasabighandsomemanofforty,withgrizzledhairanda clippedmoustache,morelikeasergeant-majorthanaminer,

andhewouldlieinbedtilllateintheday,smokingashort pipe.Theotherbedwasoccupiedbyasuccessionofcommercialtravellers,newspaper-canvassers,andhire-purchase toutswhogenerallystayedforacoupleofnights.Itwasa doublebedandmuchthebestintheroom.Ihadsleptinit myselfmyﬁrstnightthere,buthadbeenmanoeuvredoutof ittomakeroomforanotherlodger.Ibelieveallnewcomers spenttheirﬁrstnightinthedoublebed,whichwasused,so tospeak,asbait.Allthewindowswerekepttightshut,with aredsandbagjammedinthebottom,andinthemorningthe roomstanklikeaferret’scage.Youdidnotnoticeitwhen yougotup,butifyouwentoutoftheroomandcameback, thesmellhityouinthefacewithasmack.

Ineverdiscoveredhowmanybedroomsthehousecontained,butstrangetosaytherewasabathroom,datingfrom beforetheBrookers’time.Downstairstherewastheusual kitchenliving-roomwithitshugeopenrangeburningnight andday.Itwaslightedonlybyaskylight,forononesideofit wastheshopandontheotherthelarder,whichopenedinto somedarksubterraneanplacewherethetripewasstored. Partlyblockingthedoorofthelardertherewasashapeless sofauponwhichMrsBrooker,ourlandlady,laypermanently ill,festoonedingrimyblankets.Shehadabig,paleyellow, anxiousface.Nooneknewforcertainwhatwasthematter withher;Isuspectthatheronlyrealtroublewasover-eating. Infrontoftheﬁretherewasalmostalwaysalineofdamp washing,andinthemiddleoftheroomwasthebigkitchen tableatwhichthefamilyandallthelodgersate.Ineversaw thistablecompletelyuncovered,butIsawitsvariouswrappingsatdifferenttimes.Atthebottomtherewasalayerof oldnewspaperstainedbyWorcesterSauce;abovethatasheet ofstickywhiteoil-cloth;abovethatagreensergecloth;above thatacoarselinencloth,neverchangedandseldomtakenoff.

Generallythecrumbsfrombreakfastwerestillonthetableat supper.Iusedtogettoknowindividualcrumbsbysightand watchtheirprogressupanddownthetablefromdaytoday.

Theshopwasanarrow,coldsortofroom.Onthe.outside ofthewindowafewwhiteletters,relicsofancientchocolateadvertisements,werescatteredlikestars.Insidethere wasaslabuponwhichlaythegreatwhitefoldsoftripe, andthegreyflocculentstuffknownas’blacktripe’,andthe ghostlytranslucentfeetofpigs,readyboiled.Itwastheordinary’tripeandpea’shop,andnotmuchelsewasstocked exceptbread,cigarettes,andtinnedstuff.’Teas’wereadvertisedinthewindow,butifacustomerdemandedacupoftea hewasusuallyputoffwithexcuses.MrBrooker,thoughout ofworkfortwoyears,wasaminerbytrade,butheandhis wifehadbeenkeepingshopsofvariouskindsasaside-line alltheirlives.Atonetimetheyhadhadapub,buttheyhad losttheirlicenceforallowinggamblingonthepremises.I doubtwhetheranyoftheirbusinesseshadeverpaid;they werethekindofpeoplewhorunabusinesschieflyinordertohavesomethingtogrumbleabout.MrBrookerwas adark,small-boned,sour,Irish-lookingman,andastonishinglydirty.Idon’tthinkIeveroncesawhishandsclean. AsMrsBrookerwasnowaninvalidhepreparedmostof thefood,andlikeallpeoplewithpermanentlydirtyhands hehadapeculiarlyintimate,lingeringmannerofhandling things.Ifhegaveyouasliceofbread-and-buttertherewas alwaysablackthumb-printonit.EvenintheearlymorningwhenhedescendedintothemysteriousdenbehindMrs Brooker’ssofaandfishedoutthetripe,hishandswerealreadyblack.Ihearddreadfulstoriesfromtheotherlodgers abouttheplacewherethetripewaskept.Blackbeetleswere saidtoswarmthere.Idonotknowhowoftenfreshconsignmentsoftripewereordered,butitwasatlongintervals,for

MrsBrookerusedtodateeventsbyit.’Letmeseenow,I’ve hadinthreelotsoffroze(frozentripe)sincethathappened,’ etc.Welodgerswerenevergiventripetoeat.Atthetime Iimaginedthatthiswasbecausetripewastooexpensive;I havesincethoughtthatitwasmerelybecauseweknewtoo muchaboutit.TheBrookersneveratetripethemselves,Inoticed.

TheonlypermanentlodgersweretheScotchminer,Mr Reilly,twoold-agepensioners,andanunemployedmanon theP.A.C.namedJoe–hewasthekindofpersonwhohasno surname.TheScotchminerwasaborewhenyougottoknow him.Likesomanyunemployedmenhespenttoomuch timereadingnewspapers,andifyoudidnotheadhimoffhe woulddiscourseforhoursaboutsuchthingsastheYellow Peril,trunkmurders,astrology,andtheconflictbetweenreligionandscience.Theold-agepensionershad,asusual,been drivenfromtheirhomesbytheMeansTest.Theyhanded theirweeklytenshillingsovertotheBrookersandinreturn gotthekindofaccommodationyouwouldexpectforten shillings;thatis,abedintheatticandmealschieflyofbreadand-butter.Oneofthemwasof’superior’typeandwasdying ofsomemalignantdisease–cancer,Ibelieve.Heonlygotout ofbedonthedayswhenhewenttodrawhispension.The other,calledbyeveryoneOldJack,wasanex-mineraged seventy-eightwhohadworkedwelloverfiftyyearsinthe pits.Hewasalertandintelligent,butcuriouslyenoughhe seemedonlytorememberhisboyhoodexperiencesandto haveforgottenallaboutthemodemminingmachineryand improvements.Heusedtotellmetalesoffightswithsavage horsesinthenarrowgalleriesunderground.Whenheheard thatIwasarrangingtogodownseveralcoalmineshewas contemptuousanddeclaredthatamanofmysize(sixfeet twoandahalf)wouldnevermanagethe’travelling’;itwas

nousetellinghimthatthe’travelling’wasbetterthanitused tobe.Buthewasfriendlytoeveryoneandusedtogiveus allaﬁneshoutof’Goodnight,boys!’ashecrawledupthe stairstohisbedsomewhereundertherafters.WhatImost admiredaboutOldJackwasthathenevercadged;hewas generallyout-oftobaccotowardstheendoftheweek,buthe alwaysrefusedtosmokeanyoneelse’s.TheBrookershad insuredthelivesofbothold-agepensionerswithoneofthe tanner-a-weekcompanies.Itwassaidthattheywereoverheardanxiouslyaskingtheinsurance-tout’howlongpeople liveswhenthey’vegotcancer’.

Joe,liketheScotchman,wasagreatreaderofnewspapers andspentalmosthisentiredayinthepubliclibrary.Hewas thetypicalunmarriedunemployedman,aderelict-looking, franklyraggedcreaturewitharound,almostchildishfaceon whichtherewasanaivelynaughtyexpression.Helooked morelikeaneglectedlittleboythanagrown-upman.Isupposeitisthecompletelackofresponsibilitythatmakesso manyofthesemenlookyoungerthantheirages.FromJoe’s appearanceItookhimtobeabouttwenty-eight,andwas amazedtolearnthathewasforty-three.Hehadaloveofresoundingphrasesandwasveryproudoftheastutenesswith whichhehadavoidedgettingmarried.Heoftensaidtome, ’Matrimonialchainsisabigitem,’evidentlyfeelingthistobe averysubtleandportentousremark.Histotalincomewas fifteenshillingsaweek,andhepaidoutsixorseventothe Brookersforhisbed.Isometimesusedtoseehimmaking himselfacupofteaoverthekitchenfire,butfortheresthe gothismealssomewhereoutofdoors;itwasmostlyslicesof bread-and-margandpacketsoffishandchips,Isuppose.

Besidesthesetherewasaﬂoatingclienteleofcommercialtravellersofthepoorersort,travellingactors–always commonintheNorthbecausemostofthelargerpubshire

varietyartistsattheweek-ends–andnewspaper-canvassers. Thenewspaper-canvasserswereatypeIhadnevermetbefore.Theirjobseemedtomesohopeless,soappallingthat Iwonderedhowanyonecouldputupwithsuchathing whenprisonwasapossiblealternative.Theywereemployed mostlybyweeklyorSundaypapers,andtheyweresentfrom towntotown,providedwithmapsandgivenalistofstreets whichtheyhadto’work’eachday.Iftheyfailedtosecure aminimumoftwentyordersaday,theygotthesack.So longastheykeptuptheirtwentyordersadaytheyreceived asmallsalary–twopoundsaweek,Ithink;onanyorderover thetwentytheydrewatinycommission.Thethingisnot soimpossibleasitsounds,becauseinworking-classdistricts everyfamilytakesinatwopennyweeklypaperandchanges iteveryfewweeks;butIdoubtwhetheranyonekeepsajob ofthatkindlong.Thenewspapersengagepoordesperate wretches,out-of-workclerksandcommercialtravellersand thelike,whoforawhilemakefranticeffortsandkeeptheir salesuptotheminimum;thenasthedeadlyworkwears themdowntheyaresackedandfreshmenaretakenon.I gottoknowtwowhowereemployedbyoneofthemorenotoriousweeklies.Bothofthemweremiddle-agedmenwith familiestosupport,andoneofthemwasagrandfather.They wereontheirfeettenhoursaday,’working’theirappointed streets,andthenbusylateintothenightﬁllinginblankforms forsomeswindletheirpaperwasrunning—oneofthose schemesbywhichyouare’given’asetofcrockeryifyoutake outasixweeks’subscriptionandsendatwo-shillingpostal orderaswell.Thefatone,thegrandfather,usedtofallasleep withhisheadonapileofforms.NeitherofthemcouldaffordthepoundaweekwhichtheBrookerschargedforfull board.Theyusedtopayasmallsumfortheirbedsandmake shamefacedmealsinacornerofthekitchenoffbaconand

bread-and-margarinewhichtheystoredintheirsuit-cases.

TheBrookershadlargenumbersofsonsanddaughters, mostofwhomhadlongsincefledfromhome.Somewere inCanada’atCanada’,asMrsBrookerusedtoputit.There wasonlyonesonlivingnearby,alargepig-likeyoungman employedinagarage,whofrequentlycametothehousefor hismeals.Hiswifewastherealldaywiththetwochildren, andmostofthecookingandlaunderingwasdonebyherand byEmmie,thefianceeofanothersonwhowasinLondon. Emmiewasafair-haired,sharp-nosed,unhappy-lookinggirl whoworkedatoneofthemillsforsomestarvationwage,but neverthelessspentallhereveningsinbondageattheBrookers’house.Igatheredthatthemarriagewasconstantlybeing postponedandwouldprobablynevertakeplace,butMrs BrookerhadalreadyappropriatedEmmieasadaughter-inlaw,andnaggedherinthatpeculiarwatchful,lovingway thatinvalidshave.Therestofthehouseworkwasdone,or notdone,byMrBrooker.MrsBrookerseldomrosefromher sofainthekitchen(shespentthenightthereaswellasthe day)andwastooilltodoanythingexcepteatstupendous meals.ItwasMrBrookerwhoattendedtotheshop,gave thelodgerstheirfood,and’didout’thebedrooms.Hewas alwaysmovingwithincredibleslownessfromonehatedjob toanother.Oftenthebedswerestillunmadeatsixinthe evening,andatanyhourofthedayyouwereliabletomeet MrBrookeronthestairs,carryingafullchamber-potwhich hegrippedwithhisthumbwellovertherim.Inthemornings hesatbythefirewithatuboffilthywater,peelingpotatoesat thespeedofaslow-motionpicture.Ineversawanyonewho couldpeelpotatoeswithquitesuchanairofbroodingresentment.Youcouldseethehatredofthis’bloodywoman’s work’,ashecalledit,fermentinginsidehim,akindofbitterjuice.Hewasoneofthosepeoplewhocanchewtheir

grievanceslikeacud.

Ofcourse,asIwasindoorsagooddeal,Iheardallabout theBrookers’woes,andhoweveryoneswindledthemand wasungratefultothem,andhowtheshopdidnotpayand thelodging-househardlypaid.Bylocalstandardstheywere notsobadlyoff,for,insomewayIdidnotunderstand,Mr BrookerwasdodgingtheMeansTestanddrawinganallowancefromtheP.A.C.,buttheirchiefpleasurewastalkingabouttheirgrievancestoanyonewhowouldlisten.Mrs Brookerusedtolamentbythehour,lyingonhersofa,asoft moundoffatandself-pity,sayingthesamethingsoverand overagain.’Wedon’tseemtogetnocustomersnowadays.I don’tknow’owitis.Thetripe’sjusta-layingtheredayafter day–suchbeautifultripeitis,too!Itdoesseem’ard,don’tit now?’etc.,etc.,etc.AllMrsBrookers’lamentsendedwith’ Itdoesseem’ard,don’titnow?’liketherefrainofaballade. Certainlyitwastruethattheshopdidnotpay.Thewhole placehadtheunmistakabledusty,ﬂyblownairofabusiness thatisgoingdown.Butitwouldhavebeenquiteuselessto explaintothemwhynobodycametotheshop,evenifone hadhadthefacetodoit;neitherwascapableofunderstandingthatlastyear’sdeadbluebottlessupineintheshopwindowarenotgoodfortrade.

Butthethingthatreallytormentedthemwasthethoughtof thosetwoold-agepensionerslivingintheirhouse,usurping ﬂoor-space,devouringfood,andpayingonlytenshillingsa week.Idoubtwhethertheywerereallylosingmoneyover theold-agepensioners,thoughcertainlytheproﬁtonten shillingsaweekmusthavebeenverysmall.Butintheireyes thetwooldmenwereakindofdreadfulparasitewhohad fastenedonthemandwerelivingontheircharity.OldJack theycouldjusttolerate,becausehekeptout-of-doorsmostof theday,buttheyreallyhatedthebedriddenone,Hookerby

name.MrBrookerhadaqueerwayofpronouncinghisname, withouttheHandwithalongU–’Uker’.WhattalesIheard aboutoldHookerandhisfractiousness,thenuisanceofmakinghisbed,thewayhe’wouldn’teat’thisand’wouldn’teat’ that,hisendlessingratitudeand,aboveall,theselﬁshobstinacywithwhichherefusedtodie!TheBrookerswerequite openlypiningforhimtodie.Whenthathappenedtheycould atleastdrawtheinsurancemoney.Theyseemedtofeelhim there,eatingtheirsubstancedayafterday,asthoughhehad beenalivingwormintheirbowels.SometimesMrBrooker wouldlookupfromhispotato-peeling,catchmyeye,and jerkhisheadwithalookofinexpressiblebitternesstowards theceiling,towardsoldHooker’sroom.’It’sab-,ain’tit?’ hewouldsay.Therewasnoneedtosaymore;Ihadheard allaboutoldHooker’swaysalready.ButtheBrookershad grievancesofonekindandanotheragainstalltheirlodgers, myselfincluded,nodoubt.Joe,beingontheP.A.C.,waspracticallyinthesamecategoryastheold-agepensioners.The Scotchmanpaidapoundaweek,buthewasindoorsmostof thedayandthey’didn’tlikehimalwayshangingroundthe place’,astheyputit.Thenewspaper-canvasserswereoutall day,buttheBrookersborethemagrudgeforbringingintheir ownfood,andevenMrReilly,theirbestlodger,wasindisgracebecauseMrsBrookersaidthathewokeherupwhen hecamedownstairsinthemornings.Theycouldn’t,they complainedperpetually,getthekindoflodgerstheywanted–good-class’commercialgentlemen’whopaidfullboardand wereoutallday.Theirideallodgerwouldhavebeensomebodywhopaidthirtyshillingsaweekandnevercameindoorsexcepttosleep.Ihavenoticedthatpeoplewholet lodgingsnearlyalwayshatetheirlodgers.Theywanttheir moneybuttheylookonthemasintrudersandhaveacuriouslywatchful,jealousattitudewhichatbottomisadetermi-

nationnottoletthelodgermakehimselftoomuchathome. Itisaninevitableresultofthebadsystembywhichthelodger hastoliveinsomebodyelse’shousewithoutbeingoneofthe family.

ThemealsattheBrookers’housewereuniformlydisgusting.Forbreakfastyougottworashersofbaconandapale friedegg,andbread-and-butterwhichhadoftenbeencut overnightandalwayshadthumb-marksonit.HowevertactfullyItried,IcouldneverinduceMrBrookertoletmecutmy ownbread-and-butter;hewouldhandittomeslicebyslice, eachslicegrippedﬁrmlyunderthatbroadblackthumbsFor dinnerthereweregenerallythosethreepennysteakpuddings whicharesoldready-madeintins–thesewerepartofthe stockoftheshop,Ithink–andboiledpotatoesandricepudding.Forteatherewasmorebread-and-butterandfrayedlookingsweetcakeswhichwereprobablyboughtas’stales’ fromthebaker.ForsuppertherewasthepaleﬂabbyLancashirecheeseandbiscuits.TheBrookersnevercalledthese biscuitsbiscuits.Theyalwaysreferredtothemreverently as’creamcrackers’–’Haveanothercreamcracker,MrReilly. You’lllikeacreamcrackerwithyourcheese’–thusglozing overthefactthattherewasonlycheeseforsupper.Several bottlesofWorcesterSauceandahalf-fulljarofmarmalade livedpermanentlyonthetable.Itwasusualtosouseeverything,evenapieceofcheese,withWorcesterSauce,but Ineversawanyonebravethemarmaladejar,whichwasan unspeakablemassofstickinessanddust.MrsBrookerhad hermealsseparatelybutalsotooksnacksfromanymealthat happenedtobegoing,andmanoeuvredwithgreatskillfor whatshecalled’thebottomofthepot’,meaningthestrongest cupoftea.Shehadahabitofconstantlywipinghermouth ononeofherblankets.Towardstheendofmystayshetook totearingoffstripsofnewspaperforthispurpose,andinthe

morningtheﬂoorwasoftenlitteredwithcrumpled-upballs ofslimypaperwhichlaythereforhours.Thesmellofthe kitchenwasdreadful,but,aswiththatofthebedroom,you ceasedtonoticeitafterawhile.

Itstruckmethatthisplacemustbefairlynormalas lodging-housesintheindustrialareasgo,foronthewhole thelodgersdidnotcomplain.Theonlyonewhoeverdid sotomyknowledgewasalittleblack-haired,sharp-nosed Cockney,atravellerforacigarettefirm.Hehadneverbeen intheNorthbefore,andIthinkthattillrecentlyhehadbeen inbetteremployandwasusedtostayingincommercialhotels.Thiswashisfirstglimpseofreallylow-classlodgings, thekindofplaceinwhichthepoortribeoftoutsandcanvassershavetoshelterupontheirendlessjourneys.Inthe morningasweweredressing(hehadsleptinthedoublebed, ofcourse)Isawhimlookroundthedesolateroomwithasort ofwonderingaversion.HecaughtmyeyeandsuddenlydivinedthatIwasafellow-Southerner.’Thefilthybloodybastards!’hesaidfeelingly.Afterthathepackedhissuit-case, wentdownstairsand,withgreatstrengthofmind,toldthe Brookersthatthiswasnotthekindofhousehewasaccustomedtoandthathewasleavingimmediately.TheBrookerscouldneverunderstandwhy.Theywereastonishedand hurt.Theingratitudeofit!Leavingthemlikethatfornoreasonafterasinglenight!Afterwardstheydiscusseditover andoveragain,inallitsbearings.Itwasaddedtotheirstore ofgrievances.

Onthedaywhentherewasafullchamber-potunderthe breakfasttableIdecidedtoleave.Theplacewasbeginning todepressme.Itwasnotonlythedirt,thesmells,andthe vilefood,butthefeelingofstagnantmeaninglessdecay,of havinggotdownintosomesubterraneanplacewherepeoplegocreepingroundandround,justlikeblackbeetles,inan

endlessmuddleofslovenedjobsandmeangrievances.The mostdreadfulthingaboutpeopleliketheBrookersistheway theysaythesamethingsoverandoveragain.Itgivesyou thefeelingthattheyarenotrealpeopleatall,butakindof ghostforeverrehearsingthesamefutilerigmarole.Inthe endMrsBrooker’sself-pityingtalk–alwaysthesamecomplaints,overandover,andalwaysendingwiththetremulous whineof’Itdoesseem’ard,don’titnow?’–revoltedmeeven morethanherhabitofwipinghermouthwithbitsofnewspaper.ButitisnousesayingthatpeopleliketheBrookers arejustdisgustingandtryingtoputthemoutofmind.For theyexistintensandhundredsofthousands;theyareone ofthecharacteristicby-productsofthemodernworld.You cannotdisregardthemifyouacceptthecivilizationthatproducedthem.Forthisispartatleastofwhatindustrialismhas doneforus.ColumbussailedtheAtlantic,thefirststeamenginestotteredintomotion,theBritishsquaresstoodfirmundertheFrenchgunsatWaterloo,theone-eyedscoundrelsof thenineteenthcenturypraisedGodandfilledtheirpockets; andthisiswhereitallled–tolabyrinthineslumsanddark backkitchenswithsickly,ageingpeoplecreepingroundand roundthemlikeblackbeetles.Itisakindofdutytoseeand smellsuchplacesnowandagain,especiallysmellthem,lest youshouldforgetthattheyexist;thoughperhapsitisbetter nottostaytheretoolong.

Thetrainboremeaway,throughthemonstroussceneryof slag-heaps,chimneys,piledscrap-iron,foulcanals,pathsof cinderymudcriss-crossedbytheprintsofclogs.Thiswas March,buttheweatherhadbeenhorriblycoldandeverywherethereweremoundsofblackenedsnow.Aswemoved slowlythroughtheoutskirtsofthetownwepassedrowafterrowoflittlegreyslumhousesrunningatrightanglesto the-embankment.Atthebackofoneofthehousesayoung

womanwaskneelingonthestones,pokingastickupthe leadenwaste-pipewhichranfromthesinkinsideandwhich Isupposewasblocked.Ihadtimetoseeeverythingabout her–hersackingapron,herclumsyclogs,herarmsreddened bythecold.Shelookedupasthetrainpassed,andIwasalmostnearenoughtocatchhereye.Shehadaroundpaleface, theusualexhaustedfaceoftheslumgirlwhoistwenty-ﬁve andlooksforty,thankstomiscarriagesanddrudgery;and itwore,forthesecondinwhichIsawit,themostdesolate, hopelessexpressionIhaveever-seen.Itstruckmethenthat wearemistakenwhenwesaythat’Itisn’tthesameforthem asitwouldbeforus,’andthatpeoplebredintheslumscan imaginenothingbuttheslums.ForwhatIsawinherface wasnottheignorantsufferingofananimal.Sheknewwell enoughwhatwashappeningtoher–understoodaswellasI didhowdreadfuladestinyitwastobekneelingthereinthe bittercold,ontheslimystonesofaslumbackyard,pokinga stickupafouldrain-pipe.

Butquitesoonthetraindrewawayintoopencountry,and thatseemedstrange,almostunnatural,asthoughtheopen countryhadbeenakindofpark;forintheindustrialareas onealwaysfeelsthatthesmokeandﬁlthmustgoonforever andthatnopartoftheearth’ssurfacecanescapethem.Ina crowded,dirtylittlecountrylikeoursonetakesdeﬁlement almostforgranted.Slag-heapsandchimneysseemamore normal,probablelandscapethangrassandtrees,andevenin thedepthsofthecountrywhenyoudriveyourforkintothe groundyouhalfexpecttoleverupabrokenbottleorarusty can.Butoutherethesnowwasuntroddenandlaysodeep thatonlythetopsofthestoneboundary-wallswereshowing, windingoverthehillslikeblackpaths.IrememberedthatD. H.Lawrence,writingofthissamelandscapeoranothernear by,saidthatthesnow-coveredhillsrippledawayintothedis-

tance’likemuscle’.Itwasnotthesimilethatwouldhaveoccurredtome.Tomyeyethesnowandtheblackwallswere morelikeawhitedresswithblackpipingrunningacrossit.

Althoughthesnowwashardlybrokenthesunwasshiningbrightly,andbehindtheshutwindowsofthecarriageit seemedwarm.Accordingtothealmanacthiswasspring, andafewofthebirdsseemedtobelieveit.Fortheﬁrsttime inmylife,inabarepatchbesidetheline,Isawrookstreading.Theydiditonthegroundandnot,asIshouldhave expected,inatree.Themannerofcourtshipwascurious. Thefemalestoodwithherbeakopenandthemalewalked roundherandappearedtobefeedingher.Ihadhardlybeen inthetrainhalfanhour,butitseemedaverylongwayfrom theBrookers’back-kitchentotheemptyslopesofsnow,the brightsunshine,andthebiggleamingbirds.

Thewholeoftheindustrialdistrictsarereallyoneenormoustown,ofaboutthesamepopulationasGreaterLondon but,fortunately,ofmuchlargerarea;sothateveninthemiddleofthemthereisstillroomforpatchesofcleannessand decency.Thatisanencouragingthought.Inspiteofhardtrying,manhasnotyetsucceededindoinghisdirteverywhere. Theearthissovastandstillsoemptythateveninthefilthy heartofcivilizationyoufindfieldswherethegrassisgreen insteadofgrey;perhapsifyoulookedforthemyoumight evenfindstreamswithlivefishintheminsteadofsalmon tins.Forquitealongtime,perhapsanothertwentyminutes,thetrainwasrollingthroughopencountrybeforethe villa-civilizationbegantocloseinuponusagain,andthen theouterslums,andthentheslag-heaps,belchingchimneys, blast-furnaces,canals,andgaso-metersofanotherindustrial town.

OUR civilization,paceChesterton,isfoundedoncoal, morecompletelythanonerealizesuntilonestopsto thinkaboutit.Themachinesthatkeepusalive,andthemachinesthatmakemachines,arealldirectlyorindirectlydependentuponcoal.InthemetabolismoftheWesternworld thecoal-minerissecondinimportanceonlytothemanwho ploughsthesoil.Heisasortofcaryatiduponwhoseshouldersnearlyeverythingthatisnotgrimyissupported.For thisreasontheactualprocessbywhichcoalisextractedis wellworthwatching,ifyougetthechanceandarewilling totakethetrouble.Whenyougodownacoal-mineitisimportanttotryandgettothecoalfacewhenthe’fillers’are atwork.Thisisnoteasy,becausewhenthemineisworking visitorsareanuisanceandarenotencouraged,butifyougo atanyothertime,itispossibletocomeawaywithatotally wrongimpression.OnaSunday,forinstance,amineseems almostpeaceful.Thetimetogothereiswhenthemachines areroaringandtheairisblackwithcoaldust,andwhenyou canactuallyseewhattheminershavetodo.Atthosetimes theplaceislikehell,oratanyratelikemyownmentalpicture ofhell.Mostofthethingsoneimaginesinhellareifthere— heat,noise,confusion,darkness,foulair,and,aboveall,unbearablycrampedspace.Everythingexceptthefire,forthere isnofiredownthereexceptthefeeblebeamsofDavylamps andelectrictorcheswhichscarcelypenetratethecloudsof coaldust.

Whenyouhaveﬁnallygotthere–andgettingthereisain itself:Iwillexplainthatinamoment–youcrawlthroughthe lastlineofpitpropsandseeoppositeyouashinyblackwall threeorfourfeethigh.Thisisthecoalface.Overheadis thesmoothceilingmadebytherockfromwhichthecoalhas

beencut;underneathistherockagain,sothatthegalleryyou areinisonlyashighastheledgeofcoalitself,probablynot muchmorethanayard.Thefirstimpressionofall,overmasteringeverythingelseforawhile,isthefrightful,deafening dinfromtheconveyorbeltwhichcarriesthecoalaway.You cannotseeveryfar,becausethefogofcoaldustthrowsback thebeamofyourlamp,butyoucanseeoneithersideofyou thelineofhalf-nakedkneelingmen,onetoeveryfourorfive yards,drivingtheirshovelsunderthefallencoalandflingingitswiftlyovertheirleftshoulders.Theyarefeedingit ontotheconveyorbelt,amovingrubber,beltacoupleoffeet widewhichrunsayardortwobehindthem.Downthisbelta glitteringriverofcoalracesconstantly.Inabigmineitiscarryingawayseveraltonsofcoaleveryminute.Itbearsitoffto someplaceinthemainroadswhereitisshotintotubsholdinghalfatun,andthencedraggedtothecagesandhoisted totheouterair.

Itisimpossibletowatchthe’ﬁllers’atworkwithout feellingapangofenvyfortheirtoughness.Itisadreadful jobthattheydo,analmostsuperhumanjobbythestandard ofanordinaryperson.Fortheyarenotonlyshiftingmonstrousquantitiesofcoal,theyarealsodoing,itinaposition thatdoublesortreblesthework.Theyhavegottoremain kneelingallthewhile–theycouldhardlyrisefromtheirknees withouthittingtheceiling–andyoucaneasilyseebytrying itwhatatremendouseffortthismeans.Shovellingiscomparativelyeasywhenyouarestandingup,becauseyoucan useyourkneeandthightodrivetheshovelalong;kneeling down,thewholeofthestrainisthrownuponyourarmand bellymuscles.Andtheotherconditionsdonotexactlymake thingseasier.Thereistheheat–itvaries,butinsomemines itissuffocating–andthecoaldustthatstuffsupyourthroat andnostrilsandcollectsalongyoureyelids,andtheunend-

ingrattleoftheconveyorbelt,whichinthatconfinedspace isratherliketherattleofamachinegun.Butthefillerslook andworkasthoughtheyweremadeofiron.Theyreallydo looklikeironhammeredironstatues–underthesmoothcoat ofcoaldustwhichclingstothemfromheadtofoot.Itisonly whenyouseeminersdownthemineandnakedthatyourealizewhatsplendidmen,theyare.Mostofthemaresmall (bigmenareatadisadvantageinthatjob)butnearlyallof themhavethemostnoblebodies;wideshoulderstaperingto slendersupplewaists,andsmallpronouncedbuttocksand sinewythighs,withnotanounceofwastefleshanywhere.In thehotterminestheywearonlyapairofthindrawers,clogs andknee-pads;inthehottestminesofall,onlytheclogsand knee-pads.Youcanhardlytellbythelookofthemwhether theyareyoungorold.Theymaybeanyageuptosixtyor evensixty-five,butwhentheyareblackandnakedtheyall lookalike.Noonecoulddotheirworkwhohadnotayoung man’sbody,andafigurefitforaguardsmanatthat,justa fewpoundsofextrafleshonthewaist-line,andtheconstant bendingwouldbeimpossible.Youcanneverforgetthatspectacleonceyouhaveseenit–thelineofbowed,kneelingfigures,sootyblackallover,drivingtheir,hugeshovelsunder thecoalwithstupendousforceandspeed.Theyareonthe jobforsevenandahalfhours,theoreticallywithoutabreak, forthereisnotime’off’.Actuallythey,snatchaquarterofan hourorsoatsometimeduringtheshifttoeatthefoodthey havebroughtwiththem,usuallyahunkofbreadanddrippingandabottleofcoldtea.ThefirsttimeIwaswatching the’fillers’atworkIputmyhanduponsomedreadfulslimy thingamongthecoaldust.Itwasachewedquidoftobacco. Nearlyalltheminerschewtobacco,whichissaidtobegood againstthirst.

Probablyyouhavetogodownseveralcoal-minesbefore

youcangetmuchgraspoftheprocessesthataregoingon roundyou.Thisischieflybecausethemereeffortofgetting fromplacetoplace;makesitdifficulttonoticeanythingelse, Insomewaysitisevendisappointing,oratleastisunlike whatyouhave,expected.Yougetintothecage,whichisa steelboxaboutaswideasatelephoneboxandtwoorthree timesaslong.Itholdstenmen,buttheypackitlikepilchards inatin,andatallmancannotstanduprightinit.Thesteel doorshutsuponyou,andsomebodyworkingthewinding gearabovedropsyouintothevoid.Youhavetheusualmomentaryqualminyourbellyandaburstingsensationinthe cars,butnotmuchsensationofmovementtillyougetnear thebottom,whenthecageslowsdownsoabruptlythatyou couldswearitisgoingupwardsagain.Inthemiddleofthe runthecageprobablytouchessixtymilesanhour;insome ofthedeeperminesittouchesevenmore.Whenyoucrawl outatthebottomyouareperhapsfourhundredyardsunderground.Thatistosayyouhaveatolerable-sizedmountainontopofyou;hundredsofyardsofsolidrock,bonesof extinctbeasts,subsoil,flints,rootsofgrowingthings,green grassandcowsgrazingonit–allthissuspendedoveryour headandheldbackonlybywoodenpropsasthickasthe calfofyourleg.Butbecauseofthespeedatwhichthecage hasbroughtyoudown,andthecompleteblacknessthrough whichyouhavetravelled,youhardlyfeelyourselfdeeper downthanyouwouldatthebottomofthePiccadillytube.

Whatissurprising,ontheotherhand,istheimmensehorizontaldistancesthathavetobetravelledunderground.BeforeIhadbeendownamineIhadvaguelyimaginedthe minersteppingoutofthecageandgettingtoworkonaledge ofcoalafewyardsaway.Ihadnotrealizedthatbeforehe evengetstoworkhemayhavehadtocreepalongpassagesas longasfromLondonBridgetoOxfordCircus.Inthebegin-

ning,ofcourse,amineshaftissunksomewherenearaseam ofcoal;Butasthatseamisworkedoutandfreshseamsare followedup,theworkingsgetfurtherandfurtherfromthe pitbottom.Ifitisamilefromthepitbottomtothecoalface, thatisprobablyanaveragedistance;threemilesisafairly normalone;thereareevensaidtobeafewmineswhereit isasmuchasﬁvemiles.Butthesedistancesbearnorelation todistancesaboveground.Forinallthatmileorthreemiles asitmaybe,thereishardlyanywhereoutsidethemainroad, andnotmanyplaceseventhere,whereamancanstandupright.

Youdonotnoticetheeffectofthistillyouhavegoneafew hundredyards.Youstartoff,stoopingslightly,downthe dim-litgallery,eightortenfeetwideandaboutfivehigh, withthewallsbuiltupwithslabsofshale,likethestone wallsinDerbyshire.Everyyardortwotherearewooden propsholdingupthebeamsandgirders;someofthegirders havebuckledintofantasticcurvesunderwhichyouhaveto duck.Usuallyitisbadgoingunderfoot–thickdustorjagged chunksofshale,andinsomemineswherethereiswateritis asmuckyasafarm-yard.Alsothereisthetrackforthecoal tubs,likeaminiaturerailwaytrackwithsleepersafootor twoapart,whichistiresometowalkon.Everythingisgrey withshaledust;thereisadustyfierysmellwhichseemstobe thesameinallmines.Youseemysteriousmachinesofwhich youneverlearnthepurpose,andbundlesoftoolsslungtogetheronwires,andsometimesmicedartingawayfromthe beamofthelamps.Theyaresurprisinglycommon,especiallyinmineswherethereareorhavebeenhorses.Itwould beinterestingtoknowhowtheygotthereinthefirstplace; possiblybyfallingdowntheshaft–fortheysayamousecan fallanydistanceuninjured,owingtoitssurfaceareabeing solargerelativetoitsweight.Youpressyourselfagainstthe

walltomakewayforlinesoftubsjoltingslowlytowardsthe shaft,drawnbyanendlesssteelcableoperatedfromthesurface.Youcreepthroughsackingcurtainsandthickwooden doorswhich,whentheyareopened,letoutﬁerceblastsofair. Thesedoorsareanimportantpartoftheventilationsystem. Theexhaustedairissuckedoutofoneshaftbymeansoffans, andthefreshairenterstheotherofitsownaccord.Butifleft toitselftheairwilltaketheshortestwayround,leavingthe deeperworkingsunventilated;soalltheshortcutshavetobe partitionedoff.

Atthestarttowalkstoopingisratherajoke,butitisa jokethatsoonwearsoff.Iamhandicappedbybeingexceptionallytall,butwhentherooffallstofourfeetorlessitis atoughjobforanybodyexceptadwarforachild.Younot onlyhavetobenddouble,youhavealsogottokeepyour headupallthewhilesoastoseethebeamsandgirdersand dodgethemwhentheycome.Youhave,thehefore,aconstant crickintheneck,butthisisnothingtothepaininyourknees andthighs.Afterhalfamileitbecomes(Iamnotexaggerating)anunbearableagony.Youbegintowonderwhether youwillevergettotheend–stillmore,howonearthyouare goingtogetback.Yourpacegrowsslowerandslower.You cometoastretchofacoupleofhundredyardswhereitis allexceptionallylowandyouhavetoworkyourselfalong inasquattingposition.Thensuddenlytheroofopensoutto amysteriousheight–sceneofandoldfallofrock,probably–andfortwentywholeyardsyoucanstandupright.Therelief isoverwhelming.Butafterthisthereisanotherlowstretchof ahundredyardsandthenasuccessionofbeamswhichyou havetocrawlunder.Yougodownonallfours;eventhisisa reliefafterthesquattingbusiness.Butwhenyoucometothe endofthebeamsandtrytogetupagain,youﬁndthatyour kneeshavetemporarilystruckworkandrefusetoliftyou.

Youcallahalt,ignominiously,andsaythatyouwouldliketo restforaminuteortwo.Yourguide(aminer)issympathetic. Heknowsthatyourmusclesarenotthesameashis.’Only anotherfourhundredyards,’hesaysencouragingly;youfeel thathemightaswellsayanotherfourhundredmiles.But ﬁnallyyoudosomehowcreepasfarasthecoalface.You havegoneamileandtakenthebestpartofanhour;aminer woulddoitinnotmuchmorethantwentyminutes.Having gotthere,youhavetosprawlinthecoaldustandgetyour strengthbackforseveralminutesbeforeyoucanevenwatch theworkinprogresswithanykindofintelligence.

Comingbackisworsethangoing,notonlybecauseyouare alreadytiredoutbutbecausethejourneybacktotheshaftis slightlyuphill.Yougetthroughthelowplacesatthespeed ofatortoise,andyouhavenoshamenowaboutcallingahalt whenyourkneesgiveway.Eventhelampyouarecarryingbecomesanuisanceandprobablywhenyoustumbleyou dropit;whereupon,ifitisaDavylamp,itgoesout.Ducking thebeamsbecomesmoreandmoreofaneffort,andsometimesyouforgettoduck.Youtrywalkingheaddownas theminersdo,andthenyoubangyourbackbone.Eventhe minersbangtheirbackbonesfairlyoften.Thisisthereason whyinveryhotmines,whereitisnecessarytogoabouthalf naked,mostoftheminershavewhattheycall’buttonsdown theback’–thatis,apermanentscaboneachvertebra.When thetrackisdownhilltheminerssometimesﬁttheirclogs, whicharehollowunder-neath,ontothetrolleyrailsandslide down.Inmineswherethe’travelling’isverybadalltheminerscarrysticksabouttwoandahalffeetlong,hollowedout belowthehandle.Innormalplacesyoukeepyourhandon topofthestickandinthelowplacesyouslideyourhand downintothehollow.Thesesticksareagreathelp,andthe woodencrash-helmets–acomparativelyrecentinvention—

areagodsend.TheylooklikeaFrenchorItaliansteelhelmet, buttheyaremadeofsomekindofpithandverylight,and sostrong,thatyoucantakeaviolentblowontheheadwithoutfeelingit.Whenfinallyyougetbacktothesurfaceyou havebeenperhapsthreehoursundergroundandtravelled twomiles,andyou,aremoreexhaustedthanyouwouldbe byatwenty-five-milewalkaboveground.Foraweekafterwardsyourthighsaresostiffthatcomingdownstairsisquite adifficultfeat;youhavetoworkyourwaydowninapeculiarsidelongmanner,withoutbendingtheknees.Yourminer friendsnoticethestiffnessofyourwalkandchaffyouabout it.(’How’dtaliketoworkdownpit,eh?’etc.)Yetevena minerwhohasbeenlongawayfrontwork–fromillness,for instance–whenhecomesbacktothepit,suffersbadlyforthe firstfewdays.

ItmayseemthatIamexaggerating,thoughnoonewho hasbeendownanold-fashionedpit(mostofthepitsinEnglandareold-fashioned)andactuallygoneasfarasthecoal face,islikelytosayso.ButwhatIwanttoemphasizeisthis. Hereisthisfrightfulbusinessofcrawlingtoandfro,which toanynormalpersonisahardday’sworkinitself;andit isnotpartoftheminer’sworkatall,itismerelyanextra, liketheCityman’sdailyrideintheTube.Theminerdoes thatjourneytoandfro,andsandwichedinbetweenthereare sevenandahalfhoursofsavagework.Ihavenevertravelledmuchmorethanamiletothecoalface;butoftenit isthreemiles,inwhichcaseIandmostpeopleotherthan coal-minerswouldnevergetthereatall.Thisisthekindof pointthatoneisalwaysliabletomiss.Whenyouthinkof thecoal-mineyouthinkofdepth,heat,darkness,blackened ﬁgureshackingatwallsofcoal;youdon’tthink,necessarily, ofthosemilesofcreepingtoandfro.Thereisthequestionof time,also.Aminer’sworkingshiftofsevenandahalfhours

doesnotsoundverylong,butonehasgottoaddontoitat leastanhouradayfor’travelling’,moreoftentwohoursand sometimesthree.Ofcourse,the’travelling’isnottechnically workandtheminerisnotpaidforit;butitisaslikeworkas makesnodifference.Itiseasytosaythatminersdon’tmind allthis.Certainly,itisnotthesameforthemasitwouldbe foryouorme.Theyhavedoneitsincechildhood,theyhave therightmuscleshardened,andtheycanmovetoandfro undergroundwithastartlingandratherhorribleagility.A minerputshisheaddownandruns,withalongswinging stride,throughplaceswhereIcanonlystagger.Attheworkingsyouseethemonallfours,skippingroundthepitprops almostlikedogs.Butitisquiteamistaketothinkthatthey enjoyit.Ihavetalkedaboutthistoscoresofminersandthey alladmitthatthe’travelling’ishardwork;inanycasewhen youhearthemdiscussingapitamongthemselvesthe’travelling’isalwaysoneofthethingstheydiscuss.Itissaidthat ashiftalwaysreturnsfromworkfasterthanitgoes;neverthelesstheminersallsaythatitisthecomingawayaftera hardday’swork,thatisespeciallyirksome.Itispartoftheir workandtheyareequaltoit,butcertainlyitisaneffort.Itis comparable,perhaps,toclimbingasmallishmountainbefore andafteryourday’swork.

Whenyouhavebeendownintwoorthreepitsyoubegin togetsomegraspoftheprocessesthataregoingonunderground.(Ioughttosay,bytheway,thatIknownothing whateveraboutthetechnicalsideofmining:Iammerely describingwhatIhaveseen.)Coalliesinthinseamsbetweenenormouslayersofrock,sothatessentiallytheprocessofgettingitoutislikescoopingthecentrallayerfroma Neapolitanice.Intheolddaystheminersusedtocutstraight intothecoalwithpickandcrowbar–averyslowjobbecause coal,whenlyinginitsvirginstate,isalmostashardasrock.

Nowadaysthepreliminaryworkisdonebyanelectricallydrivencoal-cutter,whichinprincipleisanimmenselytough andpowerfulband-saw,runninghorizontallyinsteadofvertically,withteethacoupleofincheslongandhalfaninch oraninchthick.Itcanmovebackwardsorforwardsonits ownpower,andthemenoperatingitcanrotateitthisway orthat.IncidentallyitmakesoneofthemostawfulnoisesI haveeverheard,andsendsforthcloudsofcoaldustwhich makeitimpossibletoseemorethantwotothreefeetandalmostimpossibletobreathe.Themachinetravelsalongthe coalfacecuttingintothebaseofthecoalandunderminingit tothedepthoffivefeetorfivefeetandahalf;afterthisitis comparativelyeasytoextractthecoaltothedepthtowhich ithasbeenundermined.Whereitis’difficultgetting’,however,ithasalsotobeloosenedwithexplosives.Amanwith anelectricdrill,likearathersmallversionofthedrillsused instreet-mending,boresholesatintervalsinthecoal,inserts blastingpowder,plugsitwithclay,goesroundthecornerif thereisonehandy(heissupposedtoretiretotwenty-five yardsdistance)andtouchesoffthechargewithanelectric current.Thisisnotintendedtobringthecoalout,onlyto loosenit.Occasionally,ofcourse,thechargeistoopowerful, andthenitnotonlybringsthecoaloutbutbringstheroof downaswell.

Aftertheblastinghasbeendonethe’ﬁllers’cantumblethe coalout,breakitupandshovelitontotheconveyorbelt. Itcomesoutﬁrstinmonstrousboulderswhichmayweigh anythinguptotwentytons.Theconveyorbeltshootsitonto tubs,andthetubsareshovedintothemainroadandhitched ontoanendlesslyrevolvingsteelcablewhichdragsthem tothecage.Thentheyarehoisted,andatthesurfacethe coalissortedbybeingrunoverscreens,andifnecessaryis washedaswell.Asfaraspossiblethe’dirt’–theshale,that

is–isusedformakingtheroadsbelow.Allwhatcannotbe usedissenttothesurfaceanddumped;hencethemonstrous ’dirt-heaps’,likehideousgreymountains,whicharethecharacteristicsceneryofthecoalareas.Whenthecoalhasbeen extractedtothedepthtowhichthemachinehascut,thecoal facehasadvancedbyfivefeet.Freshpropsareputintohold upthenewlyexposedroof,andduringthenextshifttheconveyorbeltistakentopieces,movedfivefeetforwardandreassembled.Asfaraspossiblethethreeoperationsofcutting, blastingandextractionaredoneinthreeseparateshifts,the cuttingintheafternoon,theblastingatnight(thereisalaw, notalwayskept,thatforbidsitsbeingdonewhenothermen areworkingnearby),andthe’filling’inthemorningshift, whichlastsfromsixinthemorninguntilhalfpastone.

Evenwhenyouwatchtheprocessofcoal-extractionyou probablyonlywatchitforashorttime,anditisnotuntilyou beginmakingafewcalculationsthatyourealizewhatastupendoustaskthe’fillers’areperforming.Normallyeacho manhastoclearaspacefourorfiveyardswide.Thecutter hasunderminedthecoaltothedepthoffivefeet,sothatifthe seamofcoalisthreeorfourfeethigh,eachmanhastocutout, breakupandloadontothebeltsomethingbetweenseven andtwelvecubicyardsofcoal.Thisistosay,takingacubic yardasweighingtwenty-sevenhundred-weight,thateach manisshiftingcoalataspeedapproachingtwotonsanhour. Ihavejustenoughexperienceofpickandshovelworktobe abletograspwhatthismeans.WhenIamdiggingtrenches inmygarden,ifIshifttwotonsofearthduringtheafternoon,IfeelthatIhaveearnedmytea.Butearthistractable stuffcomparedwithcoal,andIdon’thavetoworkkneeling down,athousandfeetunderground,insuffocatingheatand swallowingcoaldustwitheverybreathItake;nordoIhave towalkamilebentdoublebeforeIbegin.Theminer’sjob

wouldbeasmuchbeyondmypowerasitwouldbetoperformonaﬂyingtrapezeortowintheGrandNational.Iam notamanuallabourerandpleaseGodInevershallbeone, buttherearesomekindsofmanualworkthatIcoulddoifI hadto.AtapitchIcouldbeatolerableroad-sweeperoran inefﬁcientgardenerorevenatenth-ratefarmhand.Butby noconceivableamountofeffortortrainingcouldIbecomea coal-miner,theworkwouldkillmeinafewweeks.

Watchingcoal-minersatwork,yourealizemomentarily whatdifferentuniversespeopleinhabit.Downtherewhere coalisdugisasortofworldapartwhichonecanquiteeasily gothroughlifewithouteverhearingabout.Probablymajorityofpeoplewouldevenprefernottohearaboutit.Yetit istheabsolutelynecessarycounterpartofourworldabove. Practicallyeverythingwedo,fromeatinganicetocrossing theAtlantic,andfrombakingaloaftowritinganovel,involvestheuseofcoal,directlyorindirectly.Forallthearts ofpeacecoalisneeded;ifwarbreaksoutitisneededallthe more.Intimeofrevolutiontheminermustgoonworkingor therevolutionmuststop,forrevolutionasmuchasreaction needscoal.Whatevermaybehappeningonthesurface,the hackingandshovellinghavegottocontinuewithoutapause, oratanyratewithoutpausingformorethanafewweeksat themost.InorderthatHitlermaymarchthegoose-step,that thePopemaydenounceBolshevism,thatthecricketcrowds mayassembleatLords,thatthepoetsmayscratchoneanother’sbacks,coalhasgottobeforthcoming.Butonthe wholewearenotawareofit;weallknowthatwe’musthave coal’,butweseldomorneverrememberwhatcoal-getting involves.HereamIsittingwritinginfrontofmycomfortablecoalﬁre.ItisAprilbutIstillneedaﬁre.Onceafortnightthecoalcartdrivesuptothedoorandmeninleather jerkinscarrythecoalindoorsinstoutsackssmellingoftar

andshootitclankingintothecoal-holeunderthestairs.Itis onlyveryrarely,whenImakeadeﬁnitemental-effort,thatI connectthiscoalwiththatfar-offlabourinthemines.Itis just’coal’–somethingthatIhavegottohave;blackstuffthat arrivesmysteriouslyfromnowhereinparticular,likemanna exceptthatyouhavetopayforit.Youcouldquiteeasily driveacarrightacrossthenorthofEnglandandneveronce rememberthathundredsoffeetbelowtheroadyouareon theminersarehackingatthecoal.Yetinasenseitistheminerswhoaredrivingyourcarforward.Theirlamp-litworld downthereisasnecessarytothedaylightworldaboveasthe rootistotheﬂower.

Itisnotlongsinceconditionsinthemineswereworsethan theyarenow.Therearestilllivingafewveryoldwomen whointheiryouthhaveworkedunderground,withtheharnessroundtheirwaists,andachainthatpassedbetween theirlegs,crawlingonallfoursanddraggingtubsofcoal. Theyusedtogoondoingthisevenwhentheywerepregnant.Andevennow,ifcoalcouldnotbeproducedwithout pregnantwomendraggingittoandfro,Ifancyweshouldlet themdoitratherthandepriveourselvesofcoal.But-mostof thetime,ofcourse,weshouldprefertoforgetthattheywere doingit.Itissowithalltypesofmanualwork;itkeepsus alive,andweareobliviousofitsexistence.Morethananyone else,perhaps,theminercanstandasthetypeofthemanual worker,notonlybecausehisworkissoexaggeratedlyawful, butalsobecauseitissovitallynecessaryandyetsoremote fromourexperience,soinvisible,asitwere,thatwearecapableofforgettingitasweforgetthebloodinourveins.In awayitisevenhumiliatingtowatchcoal-minersworking. Itraisesinyouamomentarydoubtaboutyourownstatus asan’intellectual’andasuperiorpersongenerally.Foritis broughthometoyou,atleastwhileyouarewatching,that

itisonlybecauseminerssweattheirgutsoutthatsuperior personscanremainsuperior.YouandIandtheeditorof theTimesLit.Supp.,andthepoetsandtheArchbishopof CanterburyandComradeX,authorofMarxismforInfants–allofusreallyowethecomparativedecencyofourlivesto poordrudgesunderground,blackenedtotheeyes,withtheir throatsfullofcoaldust,drivingtheirshovelsforwardwith armsandbellymusclesofsteel.

WHEN theminercomesupfromthepithisfaceissopale thatitisnoticeableeventhroughthemaskofcoaldust. Thisisduetothefoulairthathehasbeenbreathing,and willwearoffpresently.ToaSoutherner,newtothemining districts,thespectacleofashiftofseveralhundredminers streamingoutofthepitisstrangeandslightlysinister.Thenexhaustedfaces,withthegrimeclinginginallthehollows, haveafierce,wildlook.Atothertimes,whentheirfacesare clean,thereisnotmuchtodistinguishthemfromtherestof thepopulation.Theyhaveaveryuprightsquare-shouldered walk,areactionfromtheconstantbendingunderground, butmostofthemareshortishmenandtheirthickill-fitting clotheshidethesplendouroftheirbodies.Themostdefinitelydistinctivethingaboutthemisthebluescarsontheir noses.Everyminerhasbluescarsonhisnoseandforehead, andwillcarrythemtohisdeath.Thecoaldustofwhichthe airundergroundisfullenterseverycut,andthentheskin growsoveritandformsabluestainliketattooing,whichin factitis.Someoftheoldermenhavetheirforeheadsveined likeRoquefortcheesesfromthiscause.Assoonastheminer comesabovegroundhegarglesalittlewatertogettheworst

ofthecoaldustoutofhisthroatandnostrils,andthengoes homeandeitherwashesordoesnotwashaccordingtohis temperament.FromwhatIhaveseenIshouldsaythata majorityofminersprefertoeattheirmealfirstandwash afterwards,asIshoulddointheircircumstances.Itisthe normalthingtoseeaminersittingdowntohisteawitha Christy-minstrelface,completelyblackexceptforveryred lipswhichbecomecleanbyeating.Afterhismealhetakesa largishbasinofwaterandwashesverymethodically,firsthis hands,thenhischest,neck,andarmpits,thenhisforearms, thenhisfaceandscalp(itisonthescalpthatthegrimeclings thickest),andthenhiswifetakestheflannelandwasheshis back.Hehasonlywashedthetophalfofhisbodyandprobablyhisnavelisstillanestofcoaldust,butevensoittakes someskilltogetpass-ablycleaninasinglebasinofwater. FormyownpartIfoundIneededtwocompletebathsafter goingdownacoal-mine.Gettingthedirtoutofone’seyelids isatenminutes’jobinitself.

Atsomeofthelargerandbetterappointedcollieriesthere arepitheadbaths.Thisisanenormousadvantage,fornot onlycantheminerwashhimselfallovereveryday,incomfortandevenluxury,butatthebathshehastwolockers wherehecankeephispitclothesseparatefromhisday clothes,sothatwithintwentyminutesofemergingasblack asaNegrohecanberidingofftoafootballmatchdressedup tothenines.Butitisonlycomparativelyseldombecausea seamofcoaldoesnotlastforever,sothatitisnotnecessarily worthbuildingabatheverytimeashaftissunk.Ican-not getholdofexactﬁgures,butitseemslikelythatratherless thanoneminerinthreehasaccesstoapitheadbath.Probablyalargemajorityofminersarecompletelyblackfromthe waistdownforatleastsixdaysaweek.Itisalmostimpossibleforthemtowashalloverintheirownhomes.Everydrop

ofwaterhasgottobeheatedup,andinatinyliving-room whichcontains,apartfromthekitchenrangeandaquantity offurniture,awife,somechildren,andprobablyadog,there issimplynotroomtohaveaproperbath.Evenwithabasin oneisboundtosplashthefurniture.Middle-classpeopleare fondofsayingthattheminerswouldnotwashthemselves properlyeveniftheycould,butthisisnonsense,asisshown bythefactthatwherepitheadbathsexistpracticallyallthe menusethem.Onlyamongtheveryoldmendoesthebelief stilllingerthatwashingone’slegs’causeslumbago’.Moreoverthepitheadbaths,wheretheyexist,arepaidforwholly orpartlybytheminersthemselves,outoftheMiners’Welfare Fund.Sometimesthecollierycompanysubscribes,sometimestheFundbearsthewholecost.Butdoubtlessevenat thislatedatetheoldladiesinBrightonboarding-housesare sayingthat’ifyougivethoseminersbathstheyonlyusethem tokeepcoalin’.

Asamatteroffactitissurprisingthatminerswashasregularlyastheydo,seeinghowlittletimetheyhavebetween workandsleep.Itisagreatmistaketothinkofaminer’s workingdayasbeingonlysevenandahalfhours.Sevenand ahalfhoursisthetimespentactuallyonthejob,but,asIhave alreadyexplained,onehasgottoaddontothistimetakenup in’travelling’,whichisseldomlessthananhourandmayoftenbethreehours.Inadditionmostminershavetospenda considerabletimeingettingtoandfromthepit.Throughout theindustrialdistrictsthereisanacuteshortageofhouses, anditisonlyinthesmallminingvillages,wherethevillage isgroupedroundthepit,thatthemencanbecertainoflivingneartheirwork.InthelargerminingtownswhereIhave stayed,nearlyeveryonewenttoworkbybus;halfacrown aweekseemedtobethenormalamounttospendonfares. OneminerIstayedwithwasworkingonthemorningshift,

whichwasfromsixinthemorningtillhalfpastone.Hehad tobeoutofbedataquartertofourandgotbacksomewhere afterthreeintheafternoon.InanotherhousewhereIstayed aboyofﬁfteenwasworkingonthenightshift.Heleftfor workatnineatnightandgotbackateightinthemorning, hadhisbreakfast,andthenpromptlywenttobedandslept tillsixintheevening;sothathisleisuretimeamountedto, aboutfourhoursaday–actuallyagooddealless,ifyoutake offthetimeforwashing,eating,anddressing.

Theadjustmentsaminer’sfamilyhavetomakewhenhe ischangedfromoneshifttoanothermustbetiresomeinthe extreme.Ifheisonthenightshifthegetshomeintimefor breakfast,onthemorningshifthegetshomeinthemiddle oftheafternoon,andontheafternoonshifthegetshomein themiddleofthenight;andineachcase,ofcourse,hewants hisprincipalmealofthedayassoonashereturns.Inotice thattheRev.W.R.Inge,inhisbookEngland,accusesthe minersofgluttony.FrommyownobservationIshouldsay thattheyeatastonishinglylittle.MostoftheminersIstayed withateslightlylessthanIdid.Manyofthemdeclarethat theycannotdotheirday’sworkiftheyhavehadaheavy mealbeforehand,andthefoodtheytakewiththemisonlya snack,usuallybread-and-drippingandcoldtea.Theycarry itinaﬂattincalledasnap-canwhichtheystraptotheirbelts. Whenaminergetsbacklateatnighthiswifewaitsupfor him,butwhenheisonthemorningshiftitseemstobethe customforhimtogethisbreakfastforhimself.Apparently theoldsuperstitionthatitisbadlucktoseeawomanbefore goingtoworkonthemorningshiftisnotquiteextinct.Inthe olddays,itissaid,aminerwhohappenedtomeetawoman intheearlymorningwouldoftenturnbackanddonowork thatday.

BeforeIhadbeeninthecoalareasIsharedthewide-spread

illusionthatminersarecomparativelywellpaid.Onehears itlooselystatedthataminerispaidtenorelevenshillingsa shift,andonedoesasmallmultiplicationsumandconcludes thateveryminerisearningroundabout£2aweekor£150 ayear.Butthestatementthataminerreceivestenoreleven shillingsashiftisverymisleading.Tobeginwith,itisonly theactualcoal’getter’whoispaidatthisrate;a’dataller’, forinstance,whoattendstotherooﬁng,ispaidatalower rate,usuallyeightornineshillingsashift.Again,whenthe coal’getter’ispaidpiecework,somuchpertonextracted,as isthecaseinmanymines,heisdependentonthequalityof thecoal;abreakdowninthemachineryora’fault’–thatis,a streakofrockrunningthroughthecoalseam–mayrobhim ofhisearningsforadayortwoatatime.Butinanycase oneoughtnottothinkoftheminerasworkingsixdaysa week,ﬁfty-twoweeksayear.Almostcertainlytherewillbe anumberofdayswhenheis’laidoff’.Theaverageearning pershiftworkedforeverymine-worker,ofallagesandboth sexes,inGreatBritainin1934,was9s.13/4d.[Fromthe CollieryTearBookandCoalTradesDirectoryfor1935.]If everyonewereinworkallthetime,thiswouldmeanthatthe mine-workerwasearningalittleover£142ayear,ornearly £215s.aweek.Hisrealincome,however,isfarlowerthan this,forthe9s.13/4d.ismerelyanaveragecalculationon shiftsactuallyworkedandtakesnoaccountofblankdays.

Ihavebeforemeﬁvepay-checksbelongingtoaYorkshire miner,forﬁveweeks(notconsecutive)atthebeginningof 1936.Averagingthemup,thegrossweeklywagestheyrepresentis£215s.2d.;thisisanaverageofnearly9s.21/2d. ashift.Butthesepay-checksareforthewinter,whennearly allminesarerunningfulltime.Asspringadvancesthecoal tradeslacksoffandmoreandmoremenare’temporarily stopped’,whileothersstilltechnicallyinworkarelaidoff

foradayortwoineveryweek.Itisobviousthereforethat £150oreven£142isanimmenseover-estimateforthemineworker’syearlyincome.Asamatteroffact,fortheyear1934 theaveragegrossearningsofallminersthrough-outGreat Britainwasonly£11511s.6d.Itvariedconsider-ablyfrom districttodistrict,risingashighas£1332s.8d.inScotland, whileinDurhamitwasalittleunder£105orbarelymore than£2aweek.ItaketheseﬁguresfromTheCoidScuttle, byMrJosephJones,MayorofBarnsley,Yorkshire.MrJones adds:

Thesefigurescovertheearningsofyouthsaswellasadults andofthehigher—aswellasthelower-paidgrades...anyparticularlyhighearningwouldbeincludedinthesefigures,as wouldtheearningsofcertainofficialsandotherhigher-paid menaswellasthehigheramountspaidforovertimework.

Theﬁgures,beingaverages,fail...torevealthepositionof thousandsofadultworkerswhoseearningsweresubstantiallybelowtheaverageand’whoreceivedonly30s.to40s. orlessperweek.

MrJones’sitalics.Butpleasenoticethateventhese wretchedearningsaregrossearnings.Ontopofthisthereare allkindsofstoppageswhicharedeductedfromtheminer’s wageseveryweek.Hereisalistofweeklystoppageswhich wasgivenmeastypicalinoneLancashiredistrict:

Someofthesestoppages,suchastheBenevolentFundand theunionfees,are,sotospeak,theminer’sownresponsibility,othersareimposedbythecollierycompany.Theyarenot thesameinalldistricts.Forinstance,theiniquitousswindleofmakingtheminerpayforthehireofhislamp(atsixpenceaweekhebuysthelampseveraltimesoverinasingle year)doesnotobtaineverywhere.Butthestoppagesalways seemtototaluptoaboutthesameamount.OntheYorkshire miner’sﬁvepay-checks,theaveragegrossearningperweek is£215s.2d.;theaveragenetearning,afterthestoppages havecomeoff,isonly£211s.4d.–areductionof3s.10d.a week.Butthepay-check,naturally,onlymentionsstoppages whichareimposedorpaidthroughthecollierycompany; onehasgottoaddtheunionfees,bringingthetotalreductionuptosomethingoverfourshillings.Probablyitissafeto saythatstoppagesofonekindandanothercutfourshillings orthereaboutsfromeveryadultminer’sweeklywage.So thatthe£11511s.6d.whichwasthemine-worker’saverageearningthroughoutGreatBritainin1934shouldreally besomethingnearer£105.Asagainstthis,mostminersreceiveallowancesinkind,beingabletopurchasecoalfortheir ownuseatareducedrate,usuallyeightornineshillingsa ton.ButaccordingtoMrJones,quotedabove,’theaverage valueofallallowancesinkindforthecountryasawholeis onlyfourpenceaday’.Andthisfourpenceadayisoffset,in manycases,bytheamounttheminerhastospendonfares ingettingtoandfromthepit.So,takingtheindustryasa whole,thesumtheminercanactuallybringhomeandcall hisowndoesnotaveragemore,perhapsslightlyless,than

Meanwhile,howmuchcoalistheaverageminerproducing?

Thetonnageofcoalraisedyearlyperpersonemployedin miningrisessteadilythoughratherslowly.In1914every mine-workerproduced,onaverage,253tonsofcoal;in1934 heproduced280tons.[TheCoalScuttle.TheCollieryYew BookendCoalTradesDirectorygivesaslightlyhigherfigure.]Thisofcourseisanaveragefigureformine-workersof allkinds;thoseactuallyworkingatthecoalfaceextractan enormouslygreateramount–inmanycases,probably,well overathousandtonseach.Buttaking280tonsasarepresentativefigure,itisworthnoticingwhatavastachievement thisis.Onegetsthebestideaofitbycomparingaminer’s lifewithsomebodyelse’s.IfIlivetobesixtyIshallprobably haveproducedthirtynovels,orenoughtofilltwomediumsizedlibraryshelves.Inthesameperiodtheaverageminer produces8400tonsofcoal;enoughcoaltopaveTrafalgar Squarenearlytwofeetdeeportosupplysevenlargefamilieswithfuelforoverahundredyears.

Oftheﬁvepay-checksImentionedabove,nolessthan threearerubber-stampedwiththewords’deathstoppage’. Whenamineriskilledatworkitisusualfortheotherminerstomakeupasubscription,generallyofashillingeach, forhiswidow,andthisiscollectedbythecollierycompany andautomaticallydeductedfromtheirwages.Thesigniﬁcantdetailhereistherubberstamp.Therateofaccidents amongminersissohigh,comparedwiththatinothertrades, thatcasualtiesaretakenforgrantedalmostastheywouldbe inaminorwar.Everyyearoneminerinaboutninehundrediskilledandoneinaboutsixisinjured;mostofthese injuries,ofcourse,arepettyones,butafairnumberamount

tototaldisablement.Thismeansthatifaminer’sworking lifeisfortyyearsthechancesarenearlyseventooneagainst hisescapinginjuryandnotmuchmorethantwentytoone againsthisbeingkilledoutright.Noothertradeapproaches thisindangerousness;thenextmostdangerousistheshippingtrade,onesailorinalittleunder1300beingkilledeveryyear.TheﬁguresIhavegivenapply,ofcourse,tomineworkersasawhole;forthoseactuallyworkingunderground theproportionofinjurieswouldbeverymuchhigher.Every mineroflongstandingthatIhavetalkedtohadeitherbeen inafairlyseriousaccidenthimselforhadseensomeofhis mateskilled,andineveryminingfamilytheytellyoutales offathers,brothers,oruncleskilledatwork.(’Andhefell sevenhundredfeet,andtheywouldn’tneverhavecollected t’piecesonlyhewerewearinganewsuitofoil-skins,’etc., etc.,etc.)Someofthesetalesareappallingintheextreme. Oneminer,forinstance,describedtomehowamateofhis, a’dataller’,wasburiedbyafallofrock.Theyrushedtohim andmanagedtouncoverhisheadandshoulderssothathe couldbreathe,andhewasaliveandspoketothem.Thenthey sawthattheroofwascomingdownagainandhadtorun tosavethemselves;the’dataller’wasburiedasecondtime. Onceagaintheyrushedtohimandgothisheadandshouldersfree,andagainhewasaliveandspoketothem.Then theroofcamedownathirdtime,andthistimetheycould notuncoverhimforseveralhours,afterwhich,ofcourse,he wasdead.Buttheminerwhotoldmethestory(hehadbeen buriedhimselfononeoccasion,buthewasluckyenoughto havehisheadjammedbetweenhislegssothattherewasa smallspaceinwhichhecouldbreathe)didnotthinkitwasa particularlyappallingone.Itssigniﬁcance,forhim,wasthat the’dataller’hadknownperfectlywellthattheplacewhere hewasworkingwasunsafe,andhadgonethereindailyex-

pectationofanaccident.’Anditworkedonhismindtothat extentthathegottokissinghiswifebeforehewenttowork. Andshetoldmeafterwardsthatitwereovertwentyyears sincehe’dkissedher.’

Themostobviouslyunderstandablecauseofaccidentsis explosionsofgas,whichisalwaysmoreorlesspresentinthe atmosphereofthepit.Thereisaspeciallampwhichisused totesttheairforgas,andwhenitispresentinatalllarge quantitiesitcanbedetectedbytheflameofanordinaryDavy lampburningblue.Ifthewickcanbeturneduptoitsfull extentandtheflameisstillblue,theproportionofgasisdangerouslyhigh;itis,nevertheless,difficulttodetect,becauseit doesnotdistributeitselfevenlythroughouttheatmosphere buthangsaboutincracksandcrevices.Beforestartingwork amineroftentestsforgasbypokinghislampintoallthe corners.Thegasmaybetouchedoffbyasparkduringblastingoperations,orbyapickstrikingasparkfromastone,or byadefectivelamp,orby’gobfires’–spontaneouslygeneratedfireswhich’smoulderinthecoaldustandareveryhard toputout.Thegreatminingdisasterswhichhappenfrom timetotime,inwhichseveralhundredmenarekilled,are usuallycausedbyexplosions;henceonetendstothinkofexplosionsasthechiefdangerofmining.Actually,thegreat majorityofaccidentsareduetothenormalevery-daydangersofthepit;inparticular,tofallsofroof.Thereare,forinstance,’pot-holes’—ircularholesfromwhichalumpofstone bigenoughtokillamanshootsoutwiththepromptitude ofabullet.With,sofarasIcanremember,onlyoneexception,alltheminersIhavetalkedtodeclaredthatthenew machinery,and’speedingup’generally,havemadethework moredangerous.Thismaybepartlyduetoconservatism, buttheycangiveplentyofreasons.Tobeginwith,thespeed atwhichthecoalisnowextractedmeansthatforhoursata

timeadangerouslylargestretchofroofremainsunpropped. Thenthereisthevibration,whichtendstoshakeeverything loose,andthenoise,whichmakesithardertodetectsigns ofdanger.Onemustrememberthataminer’ssafetyundergrounddependlargelyonhisowncareandskill.Anexperiencedminerclaimstoknowbyasortofinstinctwhenthe roofisunsafe;thewayheputsitisthathe’canfeeltheweight onhim’.Hecan,forinstance,hearthefaintcreakingofthe props.Thereasonwhywoodenpropsarestillgenerallypreferredtoirongirdersisthatawoodenpropwhichisaboutto collapsegiveswarningbycreaking,whereasagirderﬂiesout un-expectedly.Thedevastatingnoiseofthemachinesmakes itimpossibletohearanythingelse,andthusthedangeris increased.

Whenaminerishurtitisofcourseimpossibletoattend tohimimmediately.Heliescrushedunderseveralhundredweightofstoneinsomedreadfulcrannyunderground,and evenafterhehasbeenextricateditisnecessarytodraghis bodyamileormore,perhaps,throughgallerieswherenobodycanstandupright.Usuallywhenyoutalktoaman whohasbeeninjuredyouﬁndthatitwasacoupleofhoursor sobeforetheygothimtothesurface.Sometimes,ofcourse, thereareaccidentstothecage.Thecageisshootingseveralyardsupordownatthespeedofanexpresstrain,and itisoperatedbysomebodyonthesurfacewhocannotsee whatishappening.Hehasverydelicateindicatorstotell himhowfarthecagehasgot,butitispossibleforhimto makeamistake,andtherehavebeencasesofthecagecrashingintothepit-bottomatitsverymaximumspeed.This seemstomeadreadfulwaytodie.Forasthattinysteel boxwhizzesthroughtheblacknesstheremustcomeamomentwhenthetenmenwhoarelockedinsideitknowthat somethinghasgonewrong;andtheremainingsecondsbe-

foretheyaresmashedtopieceshardlybearthinkingabout. Aminertoldmehewasonceinacageinwhichsomething wentwrong.Itdidnotslowupwhenitshouldhavedone, andtheythoughtthecablemusthavesnapped.Asithappenedtheygottothebottomsafely,butwhenhesteppedout hefoundthathehadbrokenatooth;hehadbeenclenching histeethsohardinexpectationofthatfrightfulcrash.

Apartfromaccidentsminersseemtobehealthy,asobviouslytheyhavegottobe,consideringthemusculareffortsdemandedofthem.Theyareliabletorheumatism andamanwithdefectivelungsdoesnotlastlonginthat dust-impregnatedair,butthemostcharacteristicindustrial diseaseisnystagmus.Thisisadiseaseoftheeyeswhich makestheeyeballsoscillateinastrangemannerwhenthey comenearalight.Itisduepresumablytoworkinginhalfdarkness,andsometimesresultsintotalblindness.Miners whoaredisabledinthiswayoranyotherwayarecompensatedbythecollierycompany,sometimeswithalump sum,sometimeswithaweeklypension.Thispensionnever amountstomorethantwenty-nineshillingsaweek;ifitfalls belowﬁfteenshillingsthedisabledmancanalsogetsomethingfromthedoleortheP.A.C.IfIwereadisabledminer Ishouldverymuchpreferthelumpsum,forthenatany rateIshouldknowthatIhadgotmymoney.Disabilitypensionsarenotguaranteedbyanycentralizedfund,sothatif thecollierycompanygoesbankruptthatistheendofthe disabledminer’spension,thoughhedoesﬁgureamongthe othercreditors.

InWiganIstayedforawhilewithaminerwhowassufferingfromnystagmus.Hecouldseeacrosstheroombut notmuchfurther.Hehadbeendrawingcompensationof twenty-nineshillingsaweekforthepastninemonths,butthe collierycompanywerenowtalkingofputtinghimon’partial

compensation’offourteenshillingsaweek.Italldepended onwhetherthedoctorpassedhimasﬁtforlightwork’on top’.Evenifthedoctordidpasshimtherewould,needless tosay,benolightworkavailable,buthecoulddrawthedole andthecompanywouldhavesaveditselfﬁfteenshillingsa week.Watchingthismangotothecollierytodrawhiscompensation,Iwasstruckbytheprofounddifferencesthatare stillmadebystatus.Herewasamanwhohadbeenhalf blindedinoneofthemostusefulofalljobsandwasdrawingapensiontowhichhehadaperfectright,ifanybodyhas arighttoanything.Yethecouldnot,sotospeak,demand thispension–hecouldnot,forinstance,drawitwhenand howhewantedit.Hehadtogotothecollieryonceaweek atatimenamedbythecompany,andwhenhegottherehe waskeptwaitingaboutforhoursinthecoldwind.ForallI knowhewasalsoexpectedtotouchhiscapandshowgratitudetowhoeverpaidhim;atanyratehehadtowastean afternoonandspendsixpenceinbusfares.Itisverydifferent foramemberofthebourgeoisie,evensuchadown-at-heel memberasIam.EvenwhenIamonthevergeofstarvationI havecertainrightsattachingtomybourgeoisstatus.Idonot earnmuchmorethanaminerearns,butIdoatleastgetit paidintomybankinagentle-manlymannerandcandrawit outwhenIchoose.Andevenwhenmyaccountisexhausted thebankpeoplearepassablypolite.

Thisbusinessofpettyinconvenienceandindignity,ofbeingkeptwaitingabout,ofhavingtodoeverythingatother people’sconvenience,isinherentinworking-classlife.A thousandinﬂuencesconstantlypressaworkingmandown intoapassiverole.Hedoesnotact,heisactedupon.Hefeels himselftheslaveofmysteriousauthorityandhasaﬁrmconvictionthat’they’willneverallowhimtodothis,that,and theother.OncewhenIwashop-pickingIaskedthesweated

pickers(theyearnsomethingundersixpenceanhour)why theydidnotformaunion.Iwastoldimmediatelythat’they’ wouldneverallowit.Whowere’they’?Iasked.Nobody seemedtoknow,butevidently’they’wereomnipotent.

Apersonofbourgeoisorigingoesthroughlifewithsome expectationofgettingwhathewants,withinreasonablelimits.Hencethefactthatintimesofstress’educated’people tendtocometothefront;theyarenomoregiftedthanthe othersandtheir’education’isgenerallyquiteuselessinitself,buttheyareaccustomedtoacertainamountofdeferenceandconsequentlyhavethecheeknecessarytoacommander.Thattheywillcometothefrontseemstobetaken forgranted,alwaysandeverywhere.InLissagaray’sHistory oftheCommunethereisaninterestingpassagedescribing theshootingsthattookplaceaftertheCommunehadbeen suppressed.Theauthoritieswereshootingtheringleaders, andastheydidnotknowwhotheringleaderswere,they werepickingthemoutontheprinciplethatthoseofbetter classwouldbetheringleaders.Anofﬁcerwalkeddowna lineofprisoners,pickingoutlikely-lookingtypes.Oneman wasshotbecausehewaswearingawatch,anotherbecause he’hadanintelligentface’.Ishouldnotliketobeshotfor havinganintelligentface,butIdoagreethatinalmostany revolttheleaderswouldtendtobepeoplewhocouldpronouncetheiraitches.

ASyouwalkthroughtheindustrialtownsyouloseyourself inlabyrinthsoflittlebrickhousesblackenedbysmoke,festeringinplanlesschaosroundmiryalleysandlittlecindered yardswheretherearestinkingdust-binsandlinesofgrimy

washingandhalf-ruinousw.c.s.Theinteriorsofthesehouses arealwaysverymuchthesame,thoughthenumberofrooms variesbetweentwoorﬁve.Allhaveanalmostexactlysimilar living-room,tenorﬁfteenfeetsquare,withanopenkitchen range;inthelargeronesthereisasculleryaswell,inthe smalleronesthesinkandcopperareintheliving-room.At thebackthereistheyard,orpartofayardsharedbyanumberofhouses,justbigenoughforthedustbinandthew.c.s. Notasingleonehashotwaterlaidon.Youmightwalk,Isuppose,throughliterallyhundredsofmilesofstreetsinhabited byminers,everyoneofwhom,whenheisinwork,getsblack fromheadtofooteveryday,withouteverpassingahousein whichonecouldhaveabath.Itwouldhavebeenverysimple toinstallahot-watersystemworkingfromthekitchenrange, butthebuildersavedperhapstenpoundsoneachhouseby notdoingso,andatthetimewhenthesehouseswerebuilt nooneimaginedthatminerswantedbaths.

Foritistobenotedthatthemajorityofthesehousesare old,fiftyorsixtyyearsoldatleast,andgreatnumbersof themarebyanyordinarystandardnotfitforhumanhabitation.Theygoonbeingtenantedsimplybecausethereare nootherstobehad.Andthatisthecentralfactabouthousing intheindustrialareas:notthatthehousesarepokyandugly, andinsanitaryandcomfortless,orthattheyaredistributedin incrediblyfilthyslumsroundbelchingfoundriesandstinkingcanalsandslag-heapsthatdelugethemwithsulphurous smoke–thoughallthisisperfectlytrue–butsimplythatthere arenotenoughhousestogoround.

’Housingshortage’isaphrasethathasbeenbandiedabout prettyfreelysincethewar,butitmeansverylittletoanyone withanincomeofmorethan£10aweek,oreven£5aweek forthatmatter.Whererentsarehighthedifficultyisnotto findhousesbuttofindtenants.WalkdownanystreetinMay-

fairandyouwillsee’ToLet’boardsinhalfthewindows.But intheindustrialareasthemeredifficultyofgettingholdofa houseisoneoftheworstaggravationsofpoverty.Itmeans thatpeoplewillputupwithanything–anyholeandcorner slum,anymiseryofbugsandrottingfloorsandcracking walls,anyextortionofskinflintlandlordsandblackmailing agents–simplytogetaroofovertheirheads.Ihavebeeninto appallinghouses,housesinwhichIwouldnotliveaweek ifyoupaidme,andfoundthatthetenantshadbeenthere twentyandthirtyyearsandonlyhopedtheymighthavethe lucktodiethere.Ingeneraltheseconditionsaretakenasa matterofcourse,thoughnotalways.Somepeoplehardly seemtorealizethatsuchthingsasdecenthousesexistand lookonbugsandleakingroofsasactsofGod;othersrailbitterlyagainsttheirlandlords;butallclingdesperatelytotheir houseslestworseshouldbefall.Solongasthehousingshortagecontinuesthelocalauthoritiescannotdomuchtomake existinghousesmorelivable.Theycan’condemn’ahouse, buttheycannotorderittobepulleddowntillthetenanthas anotherhousetogoto;andsothecondemnedhousesremain standingandarealltheworseforbeingcondemned,because naturallythelandlordwillnotspendmorethanhecanhelp onahousewhichisgoingtobedemolishedsoonerorlater. InatownlikeWigan,forinstance,thereareovertwothousandhousesstandingwhichhavebeencondemnedforyears, andwholesectionsofthetownwouldbecondemnedenbloc iftherewereanyhopeofotherhousesbeingbuilttoreplace them.TownslikeLeedsandSheffieldhavescoresofthousandsof’backtoback’houseswhichareallofacondemned typebutwillremainstandingfordecades.

Ihaveinspectedgreatnumbersofhousesinvariousmining townsandvillagesandmadenotesontheiressentialpoints. IthinkIcanbestgiveanideaofwhatconditionsarelikeby

transcribingafewextractsfrommynotebook,takenmoreor lessatrandom.Theyareonlybriefnotesandtheywillneed certainexplanationswhichIwillgiveafterwards.Herearea fewfromWigan:

• HouseinWallgatequarter.Blindbacktype.Oneup, onedown.Living-roommeasures12ftby10ft,room upstairsthesame.Alcoveunderstairsmeasuring5ftby 5ftandservingaslarder,scullery,andcoal-hole.Windowswillopen.Distancetolavatory50yards.Rent4s. 9d.,rates2s.6d.,total7s.3d.

• Anothernearby.Measurementsasabove,butnoalcove understairs,merelyarecesstwofeetdeepcontaining thesink–noroomforlarder,etc.Rent3s.2d.,rates2s., total5s.2d.

• HouseinScholesquarter.Condemnedhouse.Oneup, onedown.Rooms15ftby15ft.Sinkandcopperin living-room,coal-holeunderstairs.Floorsubsiding. Nowindowswillopen.Housedecentlydry.Landlord good.Rent3s.8d.rates2s.6d.,total6s.2d.

• Anothernearby.Twoup,twodown,andcoal-hole. Wallsfallingabsolutelytopieces.Watercomesintoupstairsroomsinquantities.Floorlopsided.Downstairs windowswillnotopen.Landlordbad.Rent6s.,rates 3s.6d.,total9s.6d.

• HouseinGreenough’sRow.Oneup,twodown.Livingroom13ftby8ft.Wallscomingapartandwatercomes in.Backwindowswillnotopen,frontoneswill.Ten infamilywitheightchildrenveryneartogetherinage. Corporationsaretryingtoevictthemforovercrowding

butcannotﬁndanotherhousetosendthemto.Landlordbad.Rent4s.,rates2s.3d.,total6s.3d.

SomuchforWigan.Ihavepagesmoreofthesametype. HereisonefromShefﬁeld–atypicalspecimenofShefﬁeld’s severalscorethousand’backtoback’houses:

• HouseinThomasStreet.Backtoback,twoup,one down(i.e.athree-storeyhousewithoneroomoneach storey).Cellarbelow.Living-room14ftby10ft,and roomsabovecorresponding.Sinkinliving-room.Top ﬂoorhasnodoorbutgivesonopenstairs,Wallsin living-roomslightlydamp,wallsintoproomscoming topiecesandoozingdamponallsides.Houseissodark thatlighthastobekeptburningallday.Electricityestimatedat6d.aday(probablyanexaggeration).Sixin family,parentsandfoulchildren.Husband(onP.A.C.) istuberculous.Onechildinhospital,theothersappear healthy.Tenantshavebeensevenyearsinthishouse. Wouldmove,butnootherhouseavailable.Rent6s.6d., ratesincluded.

HereareoneortwofromBarnslcy:

• HouseinWortleyStreet.Twoup,onedown.Livingroom12ftby10ft.Sinkandcopperinliving-room, coal-holeunderstairs.Sinkwornalmostﬂatandconstantlyoverﬂowing.Wallsnottoosound.Pennyin slotgas-light.Houseverydarkandgas-lightestimated 4d.aday.Upstairsroomsarereallyonelargeroom partitionedintotwo.Wallsverybad—wallofback roomcrackedrightthrough.Window-framescoming topiecesandhavetobestuffedwithwood.Raincomes

throughinseveralplaces.Sewerrunsunderhouseand stinksinsummerbutCorporation’saystheycan’tdo nowt’.Sixpeopleinhouse,twoadultsandfourchildren,theeldestagedﬁfteen.Youngestbutoneattendinghospital–tuberculosissuspected.Houseinfestedby bugs.Rent5s.3d.,includingrates.

• HouseinPeelStreet.Backtoback,twoup,twodown andlargecellar.Living-roomloftsquarewithcopper andsink.Theotherdownstairsroomthesamesize, probablyintendedaspar-lourbutusedasbedroom. Upstairsroomsthesamesizeasthosebelow.Livingroomverydark.Gas-lightestimatedat41/2d.aday. Distancetolavatory70yards.Fourbedsinhousefor eightpeople–twooldparents,twoadultgirls(theeldest agedtwenty-seven),oneyoungman,andthreechildren.Parentshaveonebed,eldestsonanother,and remainingﬁvepeoplesharetheothertwo.Bugsvery bad–’Youcan’tkeep’emdownwhenit’s’ot.’Indescribablesqualorindownstairsroomandsmellupstairsalmostunbearable.Rent5s.71/2d.,includingrates.

• HouseinMapplewell(smallminingvillagenearBarnsley).Twoup,onedown.Living-room14ftby13ft.Sink inliving-room.Plastercrackingandcomingoffwalls. Noshelvesinoven.Gasleakingslightly.Theupstairs roomseach10ftby8ft.Fourbeds(forsixpersons,all adult),but’onebeddoesnowt’,presumablyforlackof bedclothes.Roomneareststairshasnodoorandstairs havenobanister,sothatwhenyoustepoutofbedyour foothangsinvacancyandyoumayfalltenfeetonto stones.Dryrotsobadthatonecanseethroughtheﬂoor intotheroombelow.Bugs,but’Ikeeps’emdownwith sheepdip’.Earthroadpastthesecottagesislikeamuck-

heapandsaidtobealmostimpassableinwinter.Stone lavatoriesatendsofgardensinsemi-ruinouscondition. Tenantshavebeentwenty-twoyearsinthishouse.Are L11inarrearswithrent,andhavebeenpayinganextra 1s.aweektopaythisoff.Landlordnowrefusesthis andhasservedorderstoquit.Rent5s.,includingrates.

Andsoonandsoonandsoon.Icouldmultiplyexamplesbythescore–theycouldbemultipliedbythehundred thousandifanyonechosetomakeahouse-to-houseinspectionthroughouttheindustrialdistricts.Meanwhilesomeof theexpressionsIhaveusedneedexplaining.’Oneup,one down’meansoneroomoneachstorey–i.e.atwo-roomed house.’Backtoback’housesaretwohousesbuiltinone, eachsideofthehousebeingsomebody’sfrontdoor,sothat ifyouwalkdownarowofwhatisapparentlytwelvehouses youareinrealityseeingnottwelvehousesbuttwenty-four. Thefronthousesgiveonthestreetandthebackonesonthe yard,andthereisonlyonewayoutofeachhouse.Theeffectofthisisobvious.Thelavatoriesareintheyardatthe back,sothatifyouliveonthesidefacingthestreet,toget tothelavatoryorthedust-binyouhavetogooutofthe frontdoorandwalkroundtheendoftheblock–adistance thatmaybeasmuchastwohundredyards;ifyouliveat theback,ontheotherhand,youroutlookisontoarowof lavatories.Therearealsohousesofwhatiscalledthe’blind back’type,whicharesinglehouses,butinwhichthebuilder hasomittedtoputinabackdoor–frompurespite,apparently.Thewindowswhichrefusetoopenareapeculiarity ofoldminingtowns.Someofthesetownsaresounderminedbyancientworkingsthatthegroundisconstantlysubsidingandthehousesaboveslipsideways.InWiganyou passwholerowsofhouseswhichhaveslidtostartlingangles,theirwindowsbeingtenortwentydegreesoutofthe

horizontal.Sometimesthefrontwallbelliesoutwardtillit looksasthoughthehouseweresevenmonthsgoneinpregnancy.Itcanberefaced,butthenewfacingsoonbeginsto bulgeagain.Whenahousesinksatallsuddenlyitswindowsarejammedforeverandthedoorhastobereﬁtted. Thisexcitesnosurpriselocally.Thestoryoftheminerwho comeshomefromworkandﬁndsthathecanonlygetindoors bysmashingdownthefrontdoorwithanaxeisconsidered humorous.InsomecasesIhavenoted’Landlordgood’or ’Landlordbad’,becausethereisgreatvariationinwhatthe slum-dwellerssayabouttheirlandlords.Ifound–onemight expectit,perhaps–thatthesmalllandlordsareusuallythe worst.Itgoesagainstthegraintosaythis,butonecansee whyitshouldbeso.Ideally,theworsttypeofslumlandlordisafatwickedman,preferablyabishop,whoisdrawinganimmenseincomefromextortionaterents.Actually,it isapooroldwomanwhohasinvestedherlife’ssavingsin threeslumhouses,inhabitsoneofthem,andtriestoliveon therentoftheothertwo–never,inconsequence,havingany moneyforrepairs.

Butmerenotesliketheseareonlyvaluableasremindersto myself.TomeasIreadthemtheybringbackwhatIhave seen,buttheycannotinthemselvesgivemuchideaofwhat conditionsarelikeinthosefearfulnorthernslums.Words aresuchfeeblethings.Whatistheuseofabriefphraselike ’roofleaks’or’fourbedsforeightpeople’?Itisthekind ofthingyoureyeslidesover,registeringnothing.Andyet whatawealthofmiseryitcancover!Takethequestionof overcrowding,forinstance.Quiteoftenyouhaveeightor eventenpeoplelivinginathree-roomedhouse.Oneofthese roomsisaliving-room,andasitprobablymeasuresabout adozenfeetsquareandcontains,besidesthekitchenrange andthesink,atable,somechairs,andadresser,thereisno

roominitforabed.Sothereareeightortenpeoplesleeping intwosmallrooms,probablyinatmostfourbeds.Ifsome ofthesepeopleareadultsandhavetogotowork,somuch theworse.Inonehouse,Iremember,threegrown-upgirls sharedthesamebedandallwenttoworkatdifferenthours, eachdisturbingtheotherswhenshegotuporcamein;inanotherhouseayoungminerworkingonthenightshiftslept bydayinanarrowbedinwhichanothermemberofthefamilysleptbynight.Thereisanaddeddifficultywhenthereare grown-upchildren,inthatyoucannotletadolescentyouths andgirlssleepinthesamebed.InonefamilyIvisitedthere wereafatherandmotherandasonanddaughteragedround aboutseventeen,andonlytwobedsforthelotofthem.The fathersleptwiththesonandthemotherwiththedaughter; itwastheonlyarrangementthatruledoutthedangerofincest.Thenthereisthemiseryofleakingroofsandoozing walls,whichinwintermakessomeroomsalmostuninhabitable.Thentherearebugs.Oncebugsgetintoahousethey areinittillthecrackofdoom;thereisnosurewayofexterminatingthem.Thentherearethewindowsthatwillnot open.Ineednotpointoutwhatthismustmean,insummer,inatinystuffyliving-roomwherethefire,onwhichall thecookingisdone,hastobekeptburningmoreorlessconstantly.Andtherearethespecialmiseriesattendantupon backtobackhouses.Afiftyyards’walktothelavatoryor thedust-binisnotexactlyaninducementtobeclean.Inthe fronthouses–atanyrateinaside-streetwheretheCorporationdon’tinterfere–thewomengetintothehabitofthrowing theirrefuseoutofthefrontdoor,sothatthegutterisalways litteredwithtea-leavesandbreadcrusts.Anditisworthconsideringwhatitislikeforachildtogrowupinoneofthe backalleyswhereitsgazeisboundedbyarowoflavatories andawall.

Insuchplacesastheseawomanisonlyapoordrudge muddlingamonganinfinityofjobs.Shemaykeepupher spirits,butshecannotkeepupherstandardsofcleanliness andtidiness.Thereisalwayssomethingtobedone,andno conveniencesandalmostliterallynotroomtoturnround. Nosoonerhaveyouwashedonechild’sfacethananother’s isdirty;beforeyouhavewashedthecrocksfromonemeal thenextisduetobecooked.Ifoundgreatvariationinthe housesIvisited.Somewereasdecentasonecouldpossibly expectinthecircumstances,someweresoappallingthatI havenohopeofdescribingthemadequately.Tobeginwith, thesmell,thedominantandessentialthing,isindescribable. Butthesqualorandtheconfusion!Atubfulloffilthywaterhere,abasinfullofunwashedcrocksthere,morecrocks piledinanyoddcorner,tornnewspaperlitteredeverywhere, andinthemiddlealwaysthesamedreadfultablecovered withstickyoilclothandcrowdedwithcookingpotsandirons andhalf-darnedstockingsandpiecesofstalebreadandbits ofcheesewrappedroundwithgreasynewspaper!Andthe congestioninatinyroomwheregettingfromonesidetothe otherisacomplicatedvoyagebetweenpiecesoffurniture, withalineofdampwashinggettingyouinthefaceevery timeyoumoveandthechildrenasthickunderfootastoadstools!Therearescenesthatstandoutvividlyinmymemory. Thealmostbareliving-roomofacottageinalittlemining village,wherethewholefamilywasoutofworkandeveryoneseemedtobeunderfed;andthebigfamilyofgrown-up sonsanddaughterssprawlingaimlesslyabout,allstrangely alikewithredhair,splendidbones,andpinchedfacesruined bymalnutritionandidleness;andonetallsonsittingbythe fire-place,toolistlesseventonoticetheentryofastranger, andslowlypeelingastickysockfromabarefoot.Adreadful roominWiganwhereallthefurnitureseemedtobemadeof

packingcasesandbarrelstavesandwascomingtopiecesat that;andanoldwomanwithablackenedneckandherhair coiningdowndenouncingherlandlordinaLancashire-Irish accent;andhermother,agedwelloverninety,sittinginthe backgroundonthebarrelthatservedherasacommodeand regardingusblanklywithayellow,cretinousface.Icouldﬁll uppageswithmemoriesofsimilarinteriors.

Ofcoursethesqualorofthesepeople’shousesissometimestheirownfault.Evenifyouliveinabacktobackhouse andhavefourchildrenandatotalincomeofthirty-twoand sixpenceaweekfromtheP.A.C.,thereisnoneedtohaveunemptiedchamber-potsstandingaboutinyourliving-room. Butitisequallycertainthattheircircumstancesdonotencourageself-respect.Thedeterminingfactorisprobablythe numberofchildren.Thebest-keptinteriorsIsawwerealwayschildlesshousesorhouseswheretherewereonlyoneor twochildren;with,say,sixchildreninathree-roomedhouse itisquiteimpossibletokeepanythingdecent.Onethingthat isverynoticeableisthattheworstsqualorsareneverdownstairs.Youmightvisitquiteanumberofhouses,evenamong thepoorestoftheunemployed,andbringawayawrongimpression.Thesepeople,youmightreﬂect,cannotbesobadly offiftheystillhaveafairamountoffurnitureandcrockery. Butitisintheroomsupstairsthatthegauntnessofpoverty reallydisclosesitself.Whetherthisisbecausepridemakes peopleclingtotheirliving-roomfurnituretothelast,orbecausebeddingismorepawnable,Idonotknow,butcertainly manyofthebedroomsIsawwerefearfulplaces.Among peoplewhohavebeenunemployedforseveralyearscontinuouslyIshouldsayitistheexceptiontohaveanythinglike afullsetofbedclothes.Oftenthereisnothingthatcanbe properlycalledbedclothesatall–justaheapofoldovercoats andmiscellaneousragsonarustyironbedstead.Inthisway

overcrowdingisaggravated.Onefamilyoffourpersonsthat Iknew,afatherandmotherandtwochildren,possessedtwo bedsbutcouldonlyuseoneofthembecausetheyhadnot enoughbeddingfortheother.

Anyonewhowantstoseetheeffectsofthehousingshortageattheirveryworseshouldvisitthedreadfulcaravandwellingsthatexistinnumbersinmanyofthenorthern towns.Eversincethewar,inthecompleteimpossibilityof gettinghouses,partsofthepopulationhaveoverflowedinto supposedlytemporaryquartersinfixedcaravans.Wigan,for instance,withapopulationofabout85,000,hasroundabout 200caravan-dwellingswithafamilyineach–perhapssomewherenear1000peopleinall.Howmanyofthesecaravancoloniesexistthroughouttheindustrialareasitwouldbedifficulttodiscoverwithanyaccuracy.Thelocalauthoritiesare reticentaboutthemandthecensusreportof1931seemsto havedecidedtoignorethem.ButsofarasIcandiscoverby inquirytheyaretobefoundinmostofthelargertownsin LancashireandYorkshire,andperhapsfurthernorthaswell. TheprobabilityisthatthroughoutthenorthofEnglandthere aresomethousands,perhapstensofthousandsoffamilies (notindividuals)whohavenohomeexceptafixedcaravan.

Buttheword’caravan’isverymisleading.Itcallsupapictureofacosygypsy-encampment(infineweather,ofcourse) withwoodfirescracklingandchildrenpickingblackberries andmany-colouredwashingflutteringonthelines.The caravan-coloniesinWiganandSheffieldarenotlikethat.I hadalookatseveralofthem,IinspectedthoseinWiganwith considerablecare,andIhaveneverseencomparablesqualor exceptintheFarEast.IndeedwhenIsawthemIwasimmediatelyremindedofthefilthykennelsinwhichIhaveseen IndiancoolieslivinginBurma.But,asamatteroffact,nothingintheEastcouldeverbequiteasbad,forintheEastyou

haven’tourclammy,penetratingcoldtocontendwith,and thesunisadisinfectant.

AlongthebanksofWigan’smirycanalarepatchesofwaste groundonwhichthecaravanshavebeendumpedlikerubbishshotoutofabucket.Someofthemareactuallygypsy caravans,butveryoldonesandinbadrepair.Themajorityareoldsingle-deckerbuses(therathersmallerbusesof tenyearsago)whichhavebeentakenofftheirwheelsand proppedupwithstrutsofwood.Somearesimplywagonswithsemi-circularslatsontop,overwhichcanvasis stretched,sothatthepeopleinsidehavenothingbutcanvas betweenthemandtheouterair.Inside,theseplacesareusuallyaboutfivefeetwidebysixhigh(Icouldnotstandquite uprightinanyofthem)andanythingfromsixtofifteenfeet long.Some,Isuppose,areinhabitedbyonlyoneperson,but Ididnotseeanythatheldlessthantwopersons,andsome ofthemcontainedlargefamilies.One,forinstance,measuringfourteenfeetlong,hadsevenpeopleinit–sevenpeoplein about450cubicfeetofspace;whichistosaythateachperson hadforhisentiredwellingaspaceagooddealsmallerthan onecompartmentofapubliclavatory.Thedirtandcongestionoftheseplacesissuchthatyoucannotwellimagineit unlessyouhavetesteditwithyourowneyesandmoreparticularlyyournose.Eachcontainsatinycottagekitchener andsuchfurnitureascanbecrammedin–sometimestwo beds,moreusuallyone,intowhichthewholefamilyhave tohuddleasbesttheycan.Itisalmostimpossibletosleep onthefloor,becausethedampsoaksupfrombelow.Iwas shownmat-tresseswhichwerestillwringingwetatelevenin themorning.Inwinteritissocoldthatthekitchenershave tobekeptburningdayandnight,andthewindows,needlesstosay,areneveropened.Waterisgotfromahydrant commontothewholecolony,someofthecaravan-dwellers

havingtowalk150or200yardsforeverybucketofwater. Therearenosanitaryarrangementsatall.Mostofthepeople constructalittlehuttoserveasalavatoryonthetinypatch ofgroundsurroundingtheircaravan,andonceaweekdiga deepholeinwhichtoburytherefuse.AllthepeopleIsawin theseplaces,especiallythechildren,wereunspeakablydirty, andIdonotdoubtthattheywerelousyaswell.Theycould notpossiblybeotherwise.ThethoughtthathauntedmeasI wentfromcaravantocaravanwas,Whatcanhappeninthose crampedinteriorswhenanybodydies?Butthat,ofcourse,is thekindofquestionyouhardlycaretoask.

Someofthepeoplehavebeenintheircaravansformany years.TheoreticallytheCorporationaredoingawaywiththe caravan-coloniesandgettingtheinhabitantsoutintohouses; butasthehousesdon’tgetbuilt,thecaravansremainstanding.MostofthepeopleItalkedtohadgivenuptheideaof evergettingadecenthabitationagain.Theywerealloutof work,andajobandahouseseemedtothemaboutequally remoteandimpossible.Somehardlyseemedtocare;othersrealizedquiteclearlyinwhatmiserytheywereliving. Onewoman’sfacestaysbyme,awornskull-likefaceon whichwasalookofintolerablemiseryanddegradation.I gatheredthatinthatdreadfulpigsty,strugglingtokeepher largebroodofchildrenclean,shefeltasIshouldfeelifIwere coatedalloverwithdung.Onemustrememberthatthese peoplearenotgypsies;theyaredecentEnglishpeoplewho haveall,exceptthechildrenbornthere,hadhomesoftheir ownintheirday;besides,theircaravansaregreatlyinferior tothoseofgypsiesandtheyhavenotthegreatadvantageof beingonthemove.Nodoubttherearestillmiddle-classpeoplewhothinkthattheLowerOrdersdon’tmindthatkind ofthingandwho,iftheyhappenedtopassacaravan-colony inthetrain,wouldimmediatelyassumethatthepeoplelived

therefromchoice.Ineverarguenowadayswiththatkind ofperson.Butitisworthnoticingthatthecaravan-dwellers don’tevensavemoneybylivingthere,fortheyarepayingaboutthesamerentsastheywouldforhouses.Icould nothearofanyrentlowerthanﬁveshillingsaweek(ﬁve shillingsfor200cubicfeetofspace!)andthereareevencases wheretherentisashighastenshillings.Somebodymustbe makingagoodthingoutofthosecaravans!Butdearlytheir continuedexistenceisduetothehousingshortageandnot directlytopoverty.

TalkingoncewithaminerIaskedhim.whenthehousingshortageﬁrstbecameacuteinhisdistrict;heanswered, ’Whenweweretoldaboutit’,meaningthattillrecentlypeople’sstandardsweresolowthattheytookalmostanydegree ofovercrowdingforgranted.Headdedthatwhenhewasa childhisfamilyhadslepteleveninaroomandthoughtnothingofit,andthatlater,whenhewasgrown-up,heandhis wifehadlivedinoneoftheold-stylebacktobackhousesin whichyounotonlyhadtowalkacoupleofhundredyards tothelavatorybutoftenhadtowaitinaqueuewhenyou gotthere,thelavatorybeingsharedbythirty-sixpeople.And whenhiswifewassickwiththeillnessthatkilledher,shestill hadtomakethattwohundredyards’journeytothelavatory. This,hesaid,wasthekindofthingpeoplewouldputupwith ’tilltheyweretoldaboutit’.

Idonotknowwhetherthatistrue.Whatiscertainisthat nobodynowthinksitbearabletosleepeleveninaroom,and thatevenpeoplewithcomfortableincomesarevaguelytroubledbythethoughtof’theslums’.Hencetheclatterabout ’rehousing’and’slumclearance’whichwehavehadatintervalseversincethewar.Bishops,politicians,philanthropists, andwhatnotenjoytalkingpiouslyabout’slumclearance’, becausetheycanthusdivertattentionfrommoreserious

evilsandpretendthatifyouabolishtheslumsyouabolish poverty.Butallthistalkhasledtosurprisinglysmallresults. Sofarasonecandiscover,thecongestionisnobetter,perhapsslightlyworse,thanitwasadozenyearsago.Thereis certainlygreatvariationinthespeedatwhichthedifferent townsareattackingtheirhousingproblem.Insometowns buildingseemstobealmostatastandstill,inothersitisproceedingrapidlyandtheprivatelandlordisbeingdrivenout ofbusiness.Liver-pool,forinstance,hasbeenverylargely rebuilt,mainlybytheeffortsoftheCorporation.Sheffield, too,isbeingtorndownandrebuiltprettyfast,thoughperhaps,consideringtheunparalleledbeastlinessofitsslums, notquitefastenough.[ThenumberofCorporationhousesin processofconstructioninSheffieldatthebeginningof1936 was1398.ToreplacetheslumareasentirelySheffieldissaid toneed100,000houses.]

Whyrehousinghasonthewholemovedsoslowly,and whysometownscanborrowmoneyforbuildingpurposes somuchmoreeasilythanothers,Idonotknow.Thosequestionswouldhavetobeansweredbysomeonewhoknows moreaboutthemachineryoflocalgovernmentthanIdo.A Corporationhousecostsnormallysomewherebetweenthree andfourhundredpounds;itcostsratherlesswhenitisbuilt by’directlabour’thanwhenbuiltbycontract.Therentof thesehouseswouldaveragesomethingovertwentypounds ayearnotcountingrates,soonewouldthinkthat,evenallowingforoverheadexpensesandinterestonloans,itwould payanyCorporationtobuildasmanyhousesascouldbe tenanted.Inmanycases,ofcourse,thehouseswouldhaveto beinhabitedbypeopleontheP.A.C.,sothatthelocalbodies wouldmerelybetakingmoneyoutofonepocketandputting itintoanother–i.e.payingoutmoneyintheformofrelief andtakingitbackintheformofrent.Buttheyhavegot

topaythereliefinanycase,andatpresentaproportionof whattheypayisbeingswallowedupbyprivatelandlords. Thereasonsgivenfortheslowrateofbuildingarelackof moneyandthedifﬁcultyofgettingholdofsites–forCorporationhousesarenoterectedpiecemealbutin’estates’,sometimesofhundredsofhousesatatime.Onethingthatalwaysstrikesmeasmysteriousisthatsomanyofthenortherntownsseeﬁttobuildthemselvesimmenseandluxurious publicbuildingsatthesametimeastheyareincryingneed ofdwellinghouses.ThetownofBarnsley,forinstance,recentlyspentcloseon£150,000onanewtownhall,although admittedlyneedingatleast2000newworking-classhouses, nottomentionpublicbaths.(ThepublicbathsinBarnsley containnineteenmen’sslipperbaths–thisinatownof70,000 inhabitants,largelyminers,notoneofwhomhasabathin hishouse!)For£150,000itcouldhavebuilt350Corporation housesandstillhad£10,000tospendonatownhall.However,asIsay,Idonotpretendtounderstandthemysteries oflocalgovernment.Imerelyrecordthefactthathousesare desperatelyneededandarebeingbuilt,onthewhole,with paralyticslowness.

Still,housesarebeingbuilt,andtheCorporationbuilding estates,withtheirrowuponrowoflittleredhouses,allmuch likerthantwo.peas(wheredidthatexpressioncomefrom? Peashavegreatindividuality)arearegularfeatureoftheoutskirtsoftheindustrialtowns.Astowhattheyarelikeand howtheycomparewiththeslumhouses,Icanbestgivean ideabytranscribingtwomoreextractsfrommydiary.The tenants’opinionsoftheirhousesvarygreatly,soIwillgive onefavourableextractandoneunfavourable.Bothofthese arefromWiganandbotharethecheaper’non-parlourtype’ houses:

• HouseinBeechHillEstate.Downstairs.Largelivingroomwithkitchenerfireplace,cup-boards,andfixed dresser,compositionfloor.Smallhallway,largish kitchen.UptodateelectriccookerhiredfromCorporationatmuchthesamerateasagascooker.Upstairs. Twolargishbedrooms,onetinyone–suitableonlyfor aboxroomortemporarybedroom.Bathroom,w.c., withhotandcoldwater.Smallishgarden.Thesevary throughouttheestate,butmostlyrathersmallerthan anallotment.Fourinfamily,parentsandtwochildren. Husbandingoodemploy.Housesappearwellbuiltand arequiteagreeabletolookat.Variousrestrictions,e.g.it isforbiddentokeeppoultryorpigeons,takeinlodgers, sub-let,orstartanykindofbusinesswith-outleavefrom theCorporation.(Thisiseasilygrantedinthecaseof takinginlodgers,butnotinanyoftheothers.)Tenant’ verywellsatisfiedwithhouseandproudofit.Houses inthisestateallwellkept.Corporationaregoodabout repairs,butkeeptenantsuptothemarkwithregardto keepingtheplacetidy,etc.Rent11s.3d.includingrates. Busfareintotown2d.

• HouseinWellyEstate.Downstairs.Living-room14ft by10ft,kitchenagooddealsmaller,tinylarderunder stairs,smallbutfairlygoodbathroom.Gascooker,electriclighting.Outdoorw.c.Upstairs.Onebedroom12ft by10ftwithtinyﬁreplace,anotherthesamesizewithoutﬁreplace,another7ftby6ft.Bestbedroomhassmall wardrobeletintowall.’Gardenabout20yardsby10. Sixinfamily,parentsandfourchildren,eldestsonnineteen,eldestdaughtertwenty-two.Noneinworkexcept eldestson.Tenantsverydiscontented.Theircomplaints are:’Houseiscold,draughty,anddamp.Fireplacein living-roomgivesoutnoheatandmakesroomvery

dusty—attributedtoitsbeingsettoolow.Fireplacein bestbedroomtoosmalltobeofanyuse.Wallsupstairs cracking.Owingtouselessnessoftinybedroom,ﬁve aresleepinginonebedroom,one(theeldestson)inthe other.’Gardensinthisestateallneglected.Rent10s.3d., inclusive.Distancetotownalittleoveramile—thereis nobushere.

Icouldmultiplyexamples,butthesetwoareenough,asthe typesofCorporationhousesbeingbuiltdonotvarygreatly fromplacetoplace.Twothingsareimmediatelyobvious. TheﬁrstisthatattheirveryworsttheCorporationhousesare betterthantheslumstheyreplace.Themerepossessionofa bathroomandabitofgardenwouldout-weighalmostany disadvantage.Theotheristhattheyaremuchmoreexpensivetolivein.Itiscommonenoughforamantobeturned outofacondemnedhousewhereheispayingsixorseven shillingsaweekandgivenaCorporationhousewherehe hastopayten.Thisonlyaffectsthosewhoareinworkor haverecentlybeeninwork,becausewhenamanisonthe P.A.C.hisrentisassessedataquarterofhisdole,andifitis morethanthishegetsanextraallowance;inanycase,there arecertainclassesofCorporationhousestowhichpeopleon thedolearenotadmitted.Butthereareotherwaysinwhich lifeinaCorporationestateisexpensive,whetheryouarein workoroutofit.Tobeginwith,owingtothehigherrents,the shopsintheestatearemuchmoreexpensiveandtherearenot somanyofthem.Thenagain,inacomparativelylarge,detachedhouse,awayfromthefrowsyhuddleoftheslum,itis muchcolderandmorefuelhastobeburnt.Andagainthere istheexpense,especiallyforamaninwork,ofgettingtoand fromtown.Thislastisoneofthemoreobviousproblems ofrehousing.Slumclearancemeansdiffusionofthepopulation.Whenyourebuildonalargescale,whatyoudoineffect

istoscoopoutthecentreofthetownandredistributeiton theoutskirts.Thisisallverywellinaway;youhavegotthe peopleoutoffetidalleysintoplaceswheretheyhaveroomto breathe;butfromthepointofviewofthepeoplethemselves, whatyouhavedoneistopickthemupanddumpthemdown fivemilesfromtheirwork.Thesimplestsolutionisflats.If peoplearegoingtoliveinlargetownsatalltheymustlearn toliveontopofoneanother.Butthenorthernworkingpeopledonottakekindlytoflats;evenwherefiatsexisttheyare contemptuouslynamed’tenements’.Almosteveryonewill tellyouthathe’wantsahouseofhisown’,andapparentlya houseinthemiddleofanunbrokenblockofhousesahundredyardslongseemstothemmore’theirown’thanaflat situatedinmid-air.

ToreverttothesecondofthetwoCorporationhousesI havejustmentioned.Thetenantcomplainedthatthehouse wascold,damp,andsoforth.Perhapsthehousewasjerrybuilt,butequallyprobablyhewasexaggerating.Hehad cometherefromaﬁlthyhovelinthemiddleofWiganwhich Ihappenedtohaveinspectedpreviously;whiletherehehad madeeveryefforttogetholdofaCorporationhouse,andhe wasnosoonerintheCorporationhousethanhewantedto bebackintheslum.Thislookslikemerecaptiousnessbut itcoversaperfectlygenuinegrievance.Inverymanycases, perhapsinhalfthecases,IfoundthatthepeopleinCorporationhousesdon’treallylikethem.Theyaregladtogetout ofthestinkoftheslum,theyknowthatitisbetterfortheir childrentohavespacetoplayaboutin,buttheydon’tfeel reallyathome.Theexceptionsareusuallypeopleingood employwhocanaffordtospendalittleextraonfuelandfurnitureandjourneys,andwhoinanycaseareof’superior’ type.Theothers,thetypicalslum-dwellers,missthefrowsy warmthoftheslum.Theycomplainthat’outinthecountry’,

i.e.ontheedgeofthetown,theyare’starving’(freezing). CertainlymostCorporationestatesareprettybleakinwinter.SomeIhavebeenthrough,perchedontreelessclayey hillsidesandsweptbyicywinds,wouldbehorribleplaces tolivein.Itisnotthatslum-dwellerswantdirtandcongestionfortheirownsakes,asthefat-belliedbourgeoisielove tobelieve.(SeeforinstancetheconversationaboutslumclearanceinGalsworthy’sSwanSong,wheretherentier’s cherishedbeliefthattheslum-dwellermakestheslum,and notviceversa,isputintothemouthofaphilanthropicJew.) Givepeopleadecenthouseandtheywillsoonlearntokeep itdecent.Moreover,withasmart-lookinghousetoliveupto theyimproveinself-respectandcleanliness,andtheirchildrenstartlifewithbetterchances.Nevertheless,inaCorporationestatethereisanuncomfortable,almostprison-like atmosphere,andthepeoplewholivethereareperfectlywell awareofit.

Anditisherethatonecomesonthecentraldifﬁcultyof thehousingproblem.WhenyouwalkthroughthesmokedimslumsofManchesteryouthinkthatnothingisneeded excepttoteardowntheseabominationsandbuilddecent housesintheirplace.Butthetroubleisthatindestroying theslumyoudestroyotherthingsaswell.HousesareI’desperatelyneededandarenotbeingbuiltfastenough;butin sofarasrehousingisbeingdone,itisbeingdone–perhapsit isunavoidable–inamonstrouslyinhuman’manner.Idon’t meanmerelythatthehousesarenewandugly.Allhouses havegottobenewatsometime,andasamatteroffactthe typeofCorporationhousenowbeingbuiltisnotatalloffensivetolookat.OntheoutskirtsofLiverpoolthereare whatamounttowholetownsconsistingentirelyofCorporationhouses,andtheyarequitepleasingtotheeye;theblocks ofworkers’ﬂatsinthecentreofthetownmodelled,Ibelieve,

ontheworkers’flatsinVienna,aredefinitelyfinebuildings. Butthereissomethingruthlessandsoullessaboutthewhole business.Take,forinstance,therestrictionswithwhichyou areburdenedinaCorporationhouse.Youarenotallowedto keepyourhouseandgardenasyouwantthem–insomeestatesthereisevenaregulationthateverygardenmusthave thesamekindofhedge.Youarenotallowedtokeeppoultryorpigeons.TheYorkshireminersarefondofkeeping homerpigeons;theykeeptheminthebackyardandtake themoutandracethemonSundays.Butpigeonsaremessy birdsandtheCorporationsuppressesthemasamatterof course.Therestrictionsaboutshopsaremoreserious.The numberofshopsinaCorporationestateisrigidlylimited, anditissaidthatpreferenceisgiventotheCo-opandthe chainstores;thismaynotbestrictlytrue,butcertainlythose aretheshopsthatoneusuallyseesthere.Thisisbadenough forthegeneralpublic,butfromthepointofviewoftheindependentshopkeeperitisadisaster.Manyasmallshopkeeper isutterlyruinedbysomerehousingschemewhichtakesno noticeofhisexistence.Awholesectionofthetowniscondemnedenbloc;presentlythehousesarepulleddownand thepeoplearetransferredtosomehousingestatemilesaway. Inthiswayallthesmallshopkeepersofthequarterhavetheir wholeclienteletakenawayfromthematasingleswoopand receivenotapennyofcompensation.Theycannottransfer theirbusinesstotheestate,becauseeveniftheycanafford themoveandthemuchhigherrents,theywouldprobably berefusedalicence.Asforpubs,theyarebanishedfromthe housingestatesalmostcompletely,andthefewthatremain aredismalsham-Tudorplacesfittedoutbythebigbrewery companiesandveryexpensive.Foramiddle-classpopulationthiswouldbeanuisance–itmightmeanwalkingamile togetaglassofbeer;foraworking-classpopulation,which

usesthepubasakindofclub,itisaseriousblowatcommunallife.Itisagreatachievementtogetslum-dwellers intodecenthouses,butitisunfortunatethat,owingtothe peculiartemperofourtime,itisalsoconsiderednecessary torobthemofthelastvestigesoftheirliberty.Thepeople themselvesfeelthis,anditisthisfeelingthattheyarerationalizingwhentheycomplainthattheirnewhouses–somuch better,ashouses,thanthosetheyhavecomeoutof–arecold anduncomfortableand’unhomelike’.

Isometimesthinkthatthepriceoflibertyisnotsomuch eternalvigilanceaseternaldirt.TherearesomeCorporation estatesinwhichnewtenantsaresystematicallyde-lousedbeforebeingallowedintotheirhouses.Alltheirpossessions exceptwhattheystandupinaretakenawayfromthem,fumigated,andsentontothenewhouse.Thisprocedurehasits points,foritisapitythatpeopleshouldtakebugsintobrand newhouses(abugwillfollowyouaboutinyourluggageifhe getshalfachance),butitisthekindofthingthatmakesyou wishthattheword’hygiene’couldbedroppedoutofthedictionary.Bugsarebad,butastateofaffairsinwhichmenwill allowthemselvestobedippedlikesheepisworse.’Perhaps, however,whenitisacaseofslumclearance,onemusttake forgrantedacertainamountofrestrictionsandinhumanity. Whenallissaidanddone,themostimportantthingisthat peopleshallliveindecenthousesandnotinpigsties.Ihave seentoomuchofslumstogointoChestertonianraptures aboutthem.Aplacewherethechildrencanbreatheclean air,andwomenhaveafewconveniencestosavethemfrom drudgery,andamanhasabitofgardentodigin,mustbebetterthanthestinkingback-streetsofLeedsandShefﬁeld.On balance,theCorporationEstatesarebetterthantheslums; butonlybyasmallmargin.

WhenIwaslookingintothehousingquestionIvisitedand

inspectednumbersofhouses,perhapsahundredortwohundredhousesaltogether,invariousminingtownsandvillages. IcannotendthischapterwithoutremarkingontheextraordinarycourtesyandgoodnaturewithwhichIwasreceivedeverywhere.Ididnotgoalone–Ialwayshadsomelocalfriend amongtheunemployedtoshowmeround–butevenso,it isanimpertinencetogopokingintostrangers’housesand askingtoseethecracksinthebedroomwall.Yeteveryone wasastonishinglypatientandseemedtounderstandalmost withoutexplanationwhyIwasquestioningthemandwhat Iwantedtosee.Ifanyunauthorizedpersonwalkedinto myhouseandbeganaskingmewhethertheroofleakedand whetherIwasmuchtroubledbybugsandwhatIthoughtof mylandlord,Ishouldprobablytellhimtogotohell.This onlyhappenedtomeonce,andinthatcasethewomanwas slightlydeafandtookmeforaMeansTestnark;butevenshe relentedafterawhileandgavemetheinformationIwanted.

Iamtoldthatitisbadformforawritertoquotehisownreviews,butIwantheretocontradictareviewerintheManchesterGuardianwhosaysaproposofoneofmybooks:

SetdowninWiganorWhitechapelMrOrwellwouldstill exerciseanunerringpowerofclosinghisvisiontoallthatis goodinordertoproceedwithhiswholeheartedviliﬁcation ofhumanity.

Wrong.MrOrwellwas’setdown’inWiganforquitea whileanditdidnotinspirehimwithanywishtovilifyhumanity.HelikedWiganverymuch–thepeople,notthe scenery.Indeed,hehasonlyonefaulttoﬁndwithit,and thatisinrespectofthecelebratedWiganPier,whichhehad sethisheartonseeing.Alas!WiganPierhadbeendemolished,andeventhespotwhereitusedtostandisnolonger certain.

WHEN youseetheunemploymentfiguresquotedattwo millions,itisfatallyeasytotakethisasmeaningthat twomillionpeopleareoutofworkandtherestofthepopulationiscomparativelycomfortable.Iadmitthattillrecently Iwasinthehabitofdoingsomyself.Iusedtocalculatethatif youputtheregisteredunemployedatroundabouttwomillionsandthrewinthedestituteandthosewhoforonereason andanotherwerenotregistered,youmighttakethenumber ofunderfedpeopleinEngland(foreveryoneonthedoleor thereaboutsisunderfed)asbeing,attheverymost,fivemillions.Thisisanenormousunder-estimate,because,inthe firstplace,theonlypeopleshownonunemploymentfigures arethoseactuallydrawingthedole–thatis,ingeneral,heads offamilies.Anunemployedman’sdependantsdonotfigure onthelistunlesstheytooaredrawingaseparateallowance. ALabourExchangeofficertoldmethattogetattherealnumberofpeoplelivingon(notdrawing)thedole,youhavegot tomultiplytheofficialfiguresbysomethingoverthree.This alonebringsthenumberofunemployedtoroundaboutsix millions.Butinadditiontherearegreatnumbersofpeople whoareinworkbutwho,fromafinancialpointofview, mightequallywellbeunemployed,becausetheyarenot drawinganythingthatcanbedescribedasalivingwage.[For instance,arecentcensusoftheLancashirecottonmillsrevealedthefactthatover40,000full-timeemployeesreceive lessthanthirtyshillingsaweekeach.InPreston,totakeonly onetown,thenumberreceivingoverthirtyshillingsaweek was640andthenumberreceivingwiderthirtyshillingswas 3113.]Allowfortheseandtheirdependants,throwinasbeforetheold-agepensioners,thedestitute,andothernondescripts,andyougetanunderfedpopulationofwelloverten

millions.SirJohnOrrputsitattwentymillions.

TakethefiguresforWigan,whichistypicalenoughofthe industrialandminingdistricts.Thenumberofinsuredworkersisroundabout36,000(26,000menand10,000women). Ofthese,thenumberunemployedatthebeginningof1936 wasabout10,000.Butthiswasinwinterwhentheminesare workingfulltime;insummeritwouldprobablybe12,000. Multiplybythree,asabove,andyouget30,000or36,000. ThetotalpopulationofWiganisalittleunder87,000;sothat atanymomentmorethanonepersoninthreeoutofthe wholepopulation–notmerelytheregisteredworkers–iseitherdrawingorlivingonthedole.Thosetenortwelvethousandunemployedcontainasteadycoreoffromfourtofive thousandminerswhohavebeencontinuouslyunemployed forthepastsevenyears.AndWiganisnotespeciallybadly offasindustrialtownsgo.’EveninSheffield,whichhasbeen doingwellforthelastyearorsobecauseofwarsandrumoursofwar,theproportionofunemploymentisaboutthe same–oneinthreeofregisteredworkersunemployed.

Whenamanisﬁrstunemployed,untilhisinsurance stampsareexhausted,hedraws’fullbeneﬁt’,ofwhichthe ratesareasfollows:

perweek

Singleman17s. Wife9s. Eachchildbelow143s.

Thusinatypicalfamilyofparentsandthreechildrenof whomonewasoverfourteen,thetotalincomewouldbe 32s.perweek,plusanythingthatmightbeearnedbythe eldestchild.Whenaman’sstampsareexhausted,beforebeingturnedovertotheP.A.C.(PublicAssistanceCommittee),

hereceivestwenty-sixweeks’’transitionalbeneﬁt’fromthe U.A.B.(UnemploymentAssistanceBoard),theratesbeingas follows:

perweek

Singleman15s. Manandwife24s.

Children14-186s.

Children11-144s.6d.

Children8-114s.

Children5-83s.6d.

Children3-53s.

ThusontheU.A.B.theincomeofthetypicalfamilyofﬁve personswouldbe37s.6d.aweekifnochildwasinwork. WhenamanisontheU.A.B.aquarterofhisdoleisregarded asrent,withaminimumof7s.6d.aweek.Iftherenthe ispayingismorethanaquarterofhisdolehereceivesan extraallowance,butifitislessthan7s.6d.,acorresponding amountisdeducted.PaymentsontheP.A.C.theoretically comesoutofthelocalrates,butarebackedbyacentralfund. Theratesofbeneﬁtare:

perweek

Singleman12s.6d. Manandwife23s.

Eldestchild4s. Anyotherchild3s.

Beingatthediscretionofthelocalbodiestheseratesvary slightly,andasinglemanmayormaynotgetanextra2s.6d. weekly,bringinghisbeneﬁtupto15s.AsontheU.A.B.,a quarterofamarriedman’sdoleisregardedasrent.Thusin

thetypicalfamilyconsideredabovethetotalincomewould be33s.aweek,aquarterofthisbeingregardedasrent.In addition,inmostdistrictsacoalallowanceof1s.6d.aweek (1s.6d.isequivalenttoaboutahundredweightofcoal)is grantedforsixweeksbeforeandsixweeksafterChristmas.

Itwillbeseenthattheincomeofafamilyonthedolenormallyaveragesroundaboutthirtyshillingsaweek.Onecan writeatleastaquarterofthisoffasrent,whichistosaythat theaverageperson,childoradult,hasgottobefed,clothed, warmed,andotherwisecared-forforsixorsevenshillingsa week.Enormousgroupsofpeople,probablyatleastathird ofthewholepopulationoftheindustrialareas,arelivingat thislevel.TheMeansTestisverystrictlyenforced,andyou areliabletoberefusedreliefattheslightesthintthatyouare gettingmoneyfromanothersource.Dock-labourers,forinstance,whoaregenerallyhiredbythehalf-day,havetosign onataLabourExchangetwicedaily;iftheyfailtodosoit isassumedthattheyhavebeenworkingandtheirdoleisreducedcorrespondingly.Ihaveseencasesofevasionofthe MeansTest,butIshouldsaythatintheindustrialtowns, wherethereisstillacertainamountofcommunallifeandeveryonehasneighbourswhoknowhim,itismuchharderthan itwouldbeinLondon.Theusualmethodisforayoungman whoisactuallylivingwithhisparentstogetanaccommodationaddress,sothatsupposedlyhehasaseparateestablishmentanddrawsaseparateallowance.Butthereismuch spyingandtale-bearing.OnemanIknew,forinstance,was seenfeedinghisneighbour’schickenswhiletheneighbour wasaway.Itwasreportedtotheauthoritiesthathe’hada jobfeedingchickens’andhehadgreatdifficultyinrefuting this.ThefavouritejokeinWiganwasaboutamanwhowas refusedreliefonthegroundthathe’hadajobcartingfirewood’.Hehadbeenseen,itwassaid,cartingfirewoodat

night.Hehadtoexplainthathewasnotcartingfirewood butdoingamoonlightflit.The’firewood’washisfurniture.

ThemostcruelandevileffectoftheMeansTestisthe wayinwhichitbreaksupfamilies.Oldpeople,sometimes bedridden,aredrivenoutoftheirhomesbyit.Anoldage pensioner,forinstance,ifawidower,wouldnormallylive withoneorotherofhischildren;hisweeklytenshillings goestowardsthehouseholdexpenses,andprobablyheisnot badlycaredfor.UndertheMeansTest,however,hecountsas a’lodger’andifhestaysathomehischildren’sdolewillbe docked.So,perhapsatseventyorseventy-ﬁveyearsofage, hehastoturnoutintolodgings,handinghispensionoverto thelodging-housekeeperandexistingonthevergeofstarvation.Ihaveseenseveralcasesofthismyself.Itishappening alloverEnglandatthismoment,thankstotheMeansTest.

Nevertheless,inspiteofthefrightfulextentofunemployment,itisafactthatpoverty–extremepoverty–islessinevidenceintheindustrialNorththanitisinLondon.Everythingispoorerandshabbier,therearefewermotor-carsand fewerwell-dressedpeople;butalsotherearefewerpeople whoareobviouslydestitute.EveninatownthesizeofLiverpoolorManchesteryouarestruckbythefewnessofthe beggars.Londonisasortofwhirlpoolwhichdrawsderelict peopletowardsit,anditissovastthatlifethereissolitary andanonymous.Untilyoubreakthelawnobodywilltake anynoticeofyou,andyoucangotopiecesasyoucouldnot possiblydoinaplacewhereyouhadneighbourswhoknew you.Butintheindustrialtownstheoldcommunalwayof lifehasnotyetbrokenup,traditionisstillstrongandalmost everyonehasafamily–potentially,therefore,ahome.Ina townof50,000or100,000inhabitantsthereisnocasualand asitwereunaccounted-forpopulation;nobodysleepingin thestreets,forinstance.Moreover,thereisjustthistobesaid

fortheunemploymentregulations,thattheydonotdiscouragepeoplefrommarrying.Amanandwifeontwenty-three shillingsaweekarenotfarfromthestarvationline,butthey canmakeahomeofsorts;theyarevastlybetteroffthanasinglemanonfifteenshillings.Thelifeofasingleunemployed manisdreadful.Helivessometimesinacommonlodginghouse,moreoftenina’furnished’roomforwhichheusually payssixshillingsaweek,findinghimselfasbesthecanon theothernine(saysixshillingsaweekforfoodandthree forclothes,tobacco,andamusements).Ofcoursehecannot feedorlookafterhimselfproperly,andamanwhopayssix shillingsaweekforhisroomisnotencouragedtobeindoors morethanisnecessary.Sohespendshisdaysloafinginthe publiclibraryoranyotherplacewherehecankeepwarm. Thatkeepingwarm–isalmostthesolepreoccupationofasingleunemployedmaninwinter.InWiganafavouriterefuge wasthepictures,whicharefantasticallycheapthere.Youcan alwaysgetaseatforfourpence,andatthematineeatsome housesyoucanevengetaseatfortwopence.Evenpeopleon thevergeofstarvationwillreadilypaytwopencetogetout oftheghastlycoldofawinterafternoon.InSheffieldIwas takentoapublichalltolistentoalecturebyaclergyman,and itwasbyalongwaythesilliestandworst-deliveredlectureI haveeverheardoreverexpecttohear.Ifounditphysically impossibletosititout,indeedmyfeetcarriedmeout,seeminglyoftheirownaccord,beforeitwashalf-waythrough. Yetthehallwasthrongedwithunemployedmen;theywould havesatthroughfarworsedrivelforthesakeofawarmplace toshelterin.

AttimesIhaveseenunmarriedmenonthedoleliving intheextremeofmisery.InonetownIrememberawhole colonyofthemwhoweresquatting,moreorlessillicitly,ina derelicthousewhichwaspracticallyfallingdown.Theyhad

collectedafewscrapsoffurniture,presumablyoffrefusetips,andIrememberthattheirsoletablewasanoldmarbletoppedwash-hand-stand.Butthiskindofthingisexceptional.Aworking-classbachelorisararity,andsolongasa manismarriedunemploymentmakescomparativelylittlealterationinhiswayoflife.Hishomeisimpoverishedbutitis stillahome,anditisnoticeableeverywherethattheanomalouspositioncreatedbyunemployment–themanbeingout ofworkwhilethewoman’sworkcontinuesasbefore–has notalteredtherelativestatusofthesexes.Inaworking-class homeitisthemanwhoisthemasterandnot,asinamiddleclasshome,thewomanorthebaby.Practicallynever,forinstance,inaworking-classhome,willyouseethemandoing astrokeofthehousework.Unemploymenthasnotchanged thisconvention,whichonthefaceofitseemsalittleunfair. Themanisidlefrommorningtonightbutthewomanisas busyasever–moreso,indeed,becauseshehastomanage withlessmoney.Yetsofarasmyexperiencegoesthewomen donotprotest.Ibelievethatthey,aswellasthemen,feelthat amanwouldlosehismanhoodif,merelybecausehewasout ofwork,hedevelopedintoa’MaryAnn’.

Butthereisnodoubtaboutthedeadening,debilitatingeffectofunemploymentuponeverybody,marriedorsingle, anduponmenmorethanuponwomen.Thebestintellects willnotstandupagainstit.Onceortwiceithashappened tometomeetunemployedmenofgenuineliteraryability; thereareotherswhomIhaven’tmetbutwhoseworkIoccasionallyseeinthemagazines.Nowandagain,atlongintervals,thesemenwillproduceanarticleorashortstory whichisquiteobviouslybetterthanmostofthestuffthat getswhoopedupbytheblurb-reviewers.Why,then,dothey makesolittleuseoftheirtalents?Theyhavealltheleisure intheworld;whydon’ttheysitdownandwritebooks?Be-

causetowritebooksyouneednotonlycomfortandsolitude–andsolitudeisnevereasytoattaininaworking-classhome–youalsoneedpeaceofmind.Youcan’tsettletoanything, youcan’tcommandthespiritofhopeinwhichanythinghas gottobecreated,withthatdullevilcloudofunemployment hangingoveryou.Still,anunemployedmanwhofeelsat homewithbookscanatanyrateoccupyhimselfbyreading. Butwhataboutthemanwhocannotreadwithoutdiscomfort?Takeaminer,forinstance,whohasworkedinthepit sincechildhoodandhasbeentrainedtobeaminerandnothingelse.Howthedevilishetoﬁlluptheemptydays?Itis absurdtosaythatheoughttobelookingforwork.Thereis noworktolookfor,andeverybodyknowsit.Youcan’tgoon lookingforworkeverydayforsevenyears.Thereareallotments,whichoccupythetimeandhelptofeedafamily,but inabigtownthereareonlyallotmentsforasmallproportion ofthepeople.Thentherearetheoccupationalcentreswhich werestartedafewyearsagotohelptheunemployed.Onthe wholethismovementhasbeenafailure,butsomeofthecentresarestillﬂourishing.Ihavevisitedoneortwoofthem. Thereareshelterswherethemencankeepwarmandthere areperiodicalclassesincarpentering,boot-making,leatherwork,handloom-weaving,basket-work,sea-grasswork,etc., etc.;theideabeingthatthemencanmakefurnitureandso forth,notforsalebutfortheirownhomes,gettingtoolsfree andmaterialscheaply.MostoftheSocialistsIhavetalkedto denouncethismovementastheydenouncetheproject–itis alwaysbeingtalkedaboutbutitnevercomestoanything–togivetheunemployedsmall-holdings.Theysaythatthe occupationalcentresaresimplyadevicetokeeptheunemployedquietandgivethemtheillusionthatsomethingisbeingdoneforthem.Undoubtedlythatistheunderlyingmotive.Keepamanbusymendingbootsandheislesslikelyto

readtheDailyWorker.AlsothereisanastyY.M.C.A.atmosphereabouttheseplaceswhichyoucanfeelassoonasyou goin.Theunemployedmenwhofrequentthemaremostlyof thecap-touchingtype–thetypewhotellsyouoililythatheis ’Temperance’andvotesConservative.Yetevenhereyoufeel yourselftornbothways.Forprobablyitisbetterthataman shouldwastehistimeevenwithsuchrubbishassea-grass workthanthatforyearsuponendheshoulddoabsolutely nothing.

Byfarthebestworkfortheunemployedisbeingdoneby theN.U.W.M.–NationalUnemployedWorkers’Movement. Thisisarevolutionaryorganizationintendedtoholdtheunemployedtogether,stopthemblackleggingduringstrikes, andgivethemlegaladviceagainsttheMeansTest.Itisa movementthathasbeenbuiltoutofnothingbythepennies andeffortsoftheunemployedthemselves.Ihaveseenagood dealoftheN.U.W.M.,andIgreatlyadmirethemen,ragged andunderfedliketheothers,whokeeptheorganizationgoing.StillmoreIadmirethetactandpatiencewithwhichthey doit;foritisnoteasytocoaxevenapenny-a-weeksubscriptionoutofthepocketsofpeopleontheP.A.C.AsIsaidearlier,theEnglishworkingclassdonotshowmuchcapacity forleadership,buttheyhaveawonderfultalentfororganization.Thewholetradeunionmovementtestiﬁestothis;so dotheexcellentworking-men’sclubs–reallyasortofgloriﬁedcooperativepub,andsplendidlyorganized–whichare socommoninYorkshire.InmanytownstheN.U.W.M.have sheltersandarrangespeechesbyCommunistspeakers.But evenatthesesheltersthemenwhogotheredonothingbutsit roundthestoveandoccasionallyplayagameofdominoes.If thismove-metcouldbecombinedwithsomethingalongthe linesoftheoccupationalcentres,itwouldbenearerwhatis needed.Itisadeadlythingtoseeaskilledmanrunningto

seed,yearafteryear,inutter,hopelessidleness.Itoughtnot tobeimpossibletogivehimthechanceofusinghishands andmakingfurnitureandsoforthforhisownhome,withoutturninghimintoaY.M.C.A.cocoa-drunkard.Wemayas wellfacethefactthatseveralmillionmeninEnglandwill–unlessanotherwarbreaksout–neverhavearealjobthisside thegrave.Onethingthatprobablycouldbedoneandcertainlyoughttobedoneasamatterofcourseistogiveevery unemployedmanapatchofgroundandfreetoolsifhechose toapplyforthem.Itisdisgracefulthatmenwhoareexpected tokeepaliveontheP.A.C.shouldnotevenhavethechance togrowvegetablesfortheirfamilies.

Tostudyunemploymentanditseffectsyouhavegottogo totheindustrialareas.IntheSouthunemploymentexists, butitisscatteredandqueerlyunobtrusive.Thereareplenty ofruraldistrictswhereamanoutofworkisalmostunheardof,andyoudon’tanywhereseethespectacleofwholeblocks ofcitieslivingonthedoleandtheP.A.C.Itisonlywhenyou lodgeinstreetswherenobodyhasajob,wheregettingajob seemsaboutasprobableasowninganaeroplaneandmuch lessprobablethanwinningﬁftypoundsintheFootballPool, thatyoubegintograspthechangesthatarebeingworked inourcivilization.Forachangeistakingplace,thereisno doubtaboutthat.Theattitudeofthesubmergedworking classisprofoundlydifferentfromwhatitwassevenoreight yearsago.

Ifirstbecameawareoftheunemploymentproblemin1928. AtthattimeIhadjustcomebackfromBurma,whereunemploymentwasonlyaword,andIhadgonetoBurmawhen Iwasstillaboyandthepost-warboomwasnotquiteover. WhenIfirstsawunemployedmenatclosequarters,thething thathorrifiedandamazedmewastofindthatmanyofthem wereashamedofbeingunemployed.Iwasveryignorant,

butnotsoignorantastoimaginethatwhenthelossofforeign marketspushestwomillionmenoutofwork,thosetwomillionareanymoretoblamethanthepeoplewhodrawblanks intheCalcuttaSweep.Butatthattimenobodycaredtoadmit thatunemploymentwasinevitable,becausethismeantadmittingthatitwouldprobablycontinue.Themiddleclasses werestilltalkingabout’lazyidleloafersonthedole’and sayingthat’thesemencouldallfindworkiftheywanted to’,andnaturallytheseopinionspercolatedtotheworking classthemselves.Iremembertheshockofastonishmentit gaveme,whenIfirstmingledwithtrampsandbeggars,to findthatafairproportion,perhapsaquarter,ofthesebeings whomIhadbeentaughttoregardascynicalparasites,were decentyoungminersandcotton-workersgazingattheirdestinywiththesamesortofdumbamazementasananimalin atrap.Theysimplycouldnotunderstandwhatwashappeningtothem.Theyhadbeenbroughtuptowork,andbehold! itseemedasiftheywerenevergoingtohavethechanceof workingagain.Intheircircumstancesitwasinevitable,at first,thattheyshouldbehauntedbyafeelingofpersonal degradation.Thatwastheattitudetowardsunemployment inthosedays:itwasadisasterwhichhappenedtoyouasan individualandforwhichyouweretoblame.

Whenaquarterofamillionminersareunemployed,itis partoftheorderofthingsthatAlfSmith,aminerlivingin thebackstreetsofNewcastle,shouldbeoutofwork.Alf Smithismerelyoneofthequartermillion,astatisticalunit. Butnohumanbeingﬁndsiteasytoregardhimselfasastatisticalunit.SolongasBertJonesacrossthestreetisstillat work,AlfSmithisboundtofeelhimselfdishonouredand afailure.Hencethatfrightfulfeelingofimpotenceanddespairwhichisalmosttheworstevilofunemployment–far worsethananyhardship,worsethanthedemoralizationof

enforcedidleness,andOnlylessbadthanthephysicaldegeneracyofAlfSmith’schildren,bornontheP.A.C.EveryonewhosawGreenwood’splayLoveontheDolemustrememberthatdreadfulmomentwhenthepoor,good,stupid workingmanbeatsonthetableandcriesout,’OGod,send mesomework!’Thiswasnotdramaticexaggeration,itwas atouchfromlife.Thatcrymusthavebeenuttered,inalmost thosewords,intensofthousands,perhapshundredsofthousandsofEnglishhomes,duringthepastﬁfteenyears.

But,Ithinknotagain–oratleast,notsooften.Thatisthe realpoint:peopleareceasingtokickagainstthepricks.Afterall,eventhemiddleclasses–yes,eventhebridgedubsin thecountrytowns–arebeginningtorealizethatthereissuch athingasunemployment.The’Mydear,Idon’tbelieveinall thisnonsenseaboutunemployment.Why,onlylastweekwe wantedamantoweedthegarden,andwesimplycouldn’t getone.Theydon’twanttowork,that’sallitis!’whichyou heardateverydecenttea-tableﬁveyearsago,isgrowingperceptiblylessfrequent.Asfortheworkingclassthemselves, theyhavegainedimmenselyineconomicknowledge.IbelievethattheDailyWorkerhasaccomplishedagreatdeal here:itsinﬂuenceisoutofallproportiontoitscirculation. Butinanycasetheyhavehadtheirlessonwellrubbedinto them,notonlybecauseunemploymentissowidespreadbut becauseithaslastedsolong.Whenpeopleliveonthedole foryearsatatimetheygrowusedtoit,anddrawingthedole, thoughitremainsunpleasant,ceasestobeshameful.Thus theold,independent,workhouse-fearingtraditionisundermined,justastheancientfearofdebtisunderminedbythe hire-purchasesystem.InthebackstreetsofWiganandBarnsleyIsaweverykindofprivation,butIprobablysawmuch lessconsciousmiserythanIshouldhaveseentenyearsago. Thepeoplehaveatanyrategraspedthatunemploymentisa

thingtheycannothelp.ItisnotonlyAlfSmithwhoisoutof worknow;BertJonesisoutofworkaswell,andbothofthem havebeen’out’foryears.Itmakesagreatdealofdifference whenthingsarethesameforeverybody.

Soyouhavewholepopulationssettlingdown,asitwere, toalifetimeontheP.A.C.AndwhatIthinkisadmirable,perhapsevenhopeful,isthattheyhavemanagedtodoitwithoutgoingspirituallytopieces.Aworkingmandoesnotdisintegrateunderthestrainofpovertyasamiddle-classpersondoes.Take,forinstance,thefactthattheworkingclass thinknothingofgettingmarriedonthedole.Itannoysthe oldladiesinBrighton,butitisaproofoftheiressentialgood sense;theyrealizethatlosingyourjobdoesnotmeanthat youceasetobeahumanbeing.Sothatinonewaythingsin thedistressedareasarenotasbadastheymightbe.Lifeis stillfairlynormal,morenormalthanonereallyhastheright toexpect.Familiesareimpoverished,butthefamily-system hasnotbrokenup.Thepeopleareineffectlivingareduced versionoftheirformerlives.Insteadofragingagainsttheir destinytheyhavemadethingstolerablebyloweringtheir standards.

Buttheydon’tnecessarilylowertheirstandardsbycutting Ioutluxuriesandconcentratingonnecessities;moreoftenit istheotherwayabout–themorenaturalway,ifyoucometo thinkofit.Hencethefactthatinadecadeofunparalleled depression,theconsumptionofallcheapluxurieshasincreased.Thetwothingsthathaveprobablymadethegreatestdifferenceofallarethemoviesandthemass-production ofcheapsmartclothessincethewar.Theyouthwholeaves schoolatfourteenandgetsablind-alleyjobisoutofwork attwenty,probablyforlife;butfortwopoundstenonthe hire-purchasehecanbuyhimselfasuitwhich,foralittle whileandatalittledistance,looksasthoughithadbeentai-

loredinSavileRow.Thegirlcanlooklikeafashionplateat anevenlowerprice.Youmayhavethreehalfpenceinyour pocketandnotaprospectintheworld,andonlythecorner ofaleakybedroomtogohometo;butinyournewclothes youcanstandonthestreetcorner,indulginginaprivate daydreamofyourselfasdarkGableorGretaGarbo,which compensatesyouforagreatdeal.Andevenathomethereis generallyacupofteagoing—a’nicecupoftea’–andFather, whohasbeenoutofworksince1929,istemporarilyhappy becausehehasasuretipfortheCesarewitch.

Tradesincethewarhashadtoadjustitselftomeetthedemandsofunderpaid,underfedpeople,withtheresultthat aluxuryisnowadaysalmostalwayscheaperthananecessity.Onepairofplainsolidshoescostsasmuchastwoultrasmartpairs.Forthepriceofonesquaremealyoucanget twopoundsofcheapsweets.Youcan’tgetmuchmeatfor threepence,butyoucangetalotoffish-and-chips.Milkcosts threepenceapintandeven’mild’beercostsfourpence,but aspirinsaresevenapennyandyoucanwringfortycupsof teaoutofaquarter-poundpacket.Andaboveallthereis gambling,thecheapestofallluxuries.Evenpeopleonthe vergeofstarvationcanbuyafewdays’hope(’Something tolivefor’,astheycallit)byhavingapennyonasweepstake.Organizedgamblinghasnowrisenalmosttothestatus ofamajorindustry.Consider,forinstance,aphenomenon liketheFootballPools,withaturnoverofaboutsixmillion poundsayear,almostallofitfromthepocketsofworkingclasspeople.IhappenedtobeinYorkshirewhenHitlerreoccupiedtheRhineland.Hitler,Locarno,Fascism,andthe threatofwararousedhardlyaflickerofinterestlocally,but thedecisionoftheFootballAssociationtostoppublishing theirfixturesinadvance(thiswasanattempttoquellthe FootballPools)flungallYorkshireintoastormoffury.And

thenthereisthequeerspectacleofmodernelectricalscience showeringmiraclesuponpeoplewithemptybellies.You mayshiverallnightforlackofbedclothes,butinthemorningyoucangotothepubliclibraryandreadthenewsthat hasbeentelegraphedforyourbeneﬁtfromSanFranciscoand Singapore.Twentymillionpeopleareunderfedbutliterally everyoneinEnglandhasaccesstoaradio.Whatwehave lostinfoodwehavegainedinelectricity.Wholesectionsof theworkingclasswhohavebeenplunderedofalltheyreallyneedarebeingcompensated,inpart,bycheapluxuries whichmitigatethesurfaceoflife.

Doyouconsiderallthisdesirable?No,Idon’t.Butitmay bethatthepsychologicaladjustmentwhichtheworkingclass arevisiblymakingisthebesttheycouldmakeinthecircumstances.Theyhaveneitherturnedrevolutionarynorlosttheir self-respect;merelytheyhavekepttheirtempersandsettled downtomakethebestofthingsonaﬁsh-and-chipstandard. ThealternativewouldbeGodknowswhatcontinuedagoniesofdespair;oritmightbeattemptedinsurrectionswhich, inastronglygovernedcountrylikeEngland,couldonlylead tofutilemassacresandaregimeofsavagerepression.

Ofcoursethepost-wardevelopmentofcheapluxuries hasbeenaveryfortunatethingforourrulers.Itisquite likelythatﬁsh-and-chips,art-silkstockings,tinnedsalmon, cut-pricechocolate(ﬁvetwo-ouncebarsforsixpence),the movies,theradio,strongtea,andtheFootballPoolshavebetweenthemavertedrevolution.Thereforewearesome-times toldthatthewholethingisanastutemanoeuvrebythegoverningclass–asortof’breadandcircuses’business–tohold theunemployeddown.WhatIhaveseenofourgoverning classdoesnotconvincemethattheyhavethatmuchintelligence.Thethinghashappened,butbyanun-conscious process–thequitenaturalinteractionbetweenthemanufac-

turer’sneedforamarketandtheneedofhalf-starvedpeople forcheappalliatives.

WHEN Iwasasmallboyatschoolalecturerusedtocome onceatermanddeliverexcellentlecturesonfamous battlesofthepast,suchasBlenheim,Austerlitz,etc.Hewas fondofquotingNapoleon’smaxim’Anarmymarchesonits stomach’,andattheendofhislecturehewouldsuddenly turntousanddemand,’What’sthemostimportantthingin theworld?’Wewereexpectedtoshout’Food!’andifwedid notdosohewasdisappointed.Obviouslyhewasrightin away.Ahumanbeingisprimarilyabagforputtingfood into;theotherfunctionsandfacultiesmaybemoregodlike, butinpointoftimetheycomeafterwards.Amandiesand isburied,andallhiswordsandactionsareforgotten,but thefoodhehaseatenlivesafterhiminthesoundorrotten bonesofhischildren.Ithinkitcouldbeplausiblyarguedthat changesofdietaremoreimportantthanchangesofdynasty orevenofreligion.TheGreatWar,forinstance,couldnever havehappenediftinnedfoodhadnotbeeninvented.And thehistoryofthepastfourhundredyearsinEnglandwould havebeenimmenselydifferentifithadnotbeenfortheintroductionofroot-cropsandvariousothervegetablesatthe endoftheMiddleAges,andalittlelatertheintroductionof non-alcoholicdrinks(tea,coffee,cocoa)andalsoofdistilled liquorstowhichthebeer-drinkingEnglishwerenotaccustomed.Yetitiscurioushowseldomtheall-importanceof foodisrecognized.Youseestatueseverywheretopoliticians, poets,bishops,butnonetocooksorbacon-curersormarketgardeners.TheEmperorCharlesVissaidtohaveerecteda

statuetotheinventorofbloaters,butthatistheonlycaseI canthinkofatthemoment.

Soperhapsthereallyimportantthingabouttheunemployed,thereallybasicthingifyoulooktothefuture,is thediettheyarelivingon.AsIsaidearlier,theaverageunemployedfamilylivesonanincomeofroundaboutthirty shillingsaweek,ofwhichatleastaquartergoesinrent.Itis worthconsideringinsomedetailhowtheremainingmoney isspent.Ihavehereabudgetwhichwasmadeoutforme byanunemployedminerandhiswife.Iaskedthemtomake alistwhichrepresentedasexactlyaspossibletheirexpenditureinatypicalweek.Thisman’sallowancewasthirtytwoshillingsaweek,andbesideshiswifehehadtwochildren,oneagedtwoyearsandﬁvemonthsandtheotherten months.Hereisthelist:

Jam071/2

Peasandcabbage06

Carrotsandonions04

Quakeroats041/2 Soap,powders,blue,etc.010

Total £1120

Inadditiontothis,threepacketsofdriedmilkweresuppliedweeklyforthebabybytheInfants’WelfareClinic. Oneortwocommentsareneededhere.Tobeginwiththe listleavesoutagreatdeal–blacking,pepper,salt,vinegar, matches,kindling-wood,raeorblades,replacementsofutensils,andwearandtearoffurnitureandbedding,toname theﬁrstfewthatcometomind.Anymoneyspentonthese wouldmeanreductiononsomeotheritem.Amoreserious chargeistobacco.Thismanhappenedtobeasmallsmoker, butevensohistobaccowouldhardlycostlessthanashilling aweek,meaningafurtherreductiononfood.The’clothing clubs’intowhichunemployedpeoplepaysomuchaweek arerunbybigdrapersinalltheindustrialtowns.Without themitwouldbeimpossibleforunemployedpeopletobuy newclothesatall.Idon’tknowwhetherornottheybuybeddingthroughtheseclubs.Thisparticularfamily,asIhappen toknow,possessednexttonobedding.

Intheabovelist,ifyouallowashillingfortobaccoand deductthisandtheothernon-fooditems,youareleftwith sixteenandﬁvepencehalfpenny.Callitsixteenshillingsand leavethebabyoutofaccount–forthebabywasgettingits weeklypacketsofmilkfromtheWelfareClinic.Thissixteen shillingshasgottoprovidetheentirenourishment,including

fuel,ofthreepersons,twoofthemadult.Thefirstquestion iswhetheritiseventheoreticallypossibleforthreepersons tobeproperlynourishedonsixteenshillingsaweek.When thedisputeovertheMeansTestwasinprogresstherewasa disgustingpublicwrangleabouttheminimumweeklysum onwhichahumanbeingcouldkeepalive.SofarasIremember,oneschoolofdietitiansworkeditoutatfiveand ninepence,whileanotherschool,moregenerous,putitatfive andninepencehalfpenny.Afterthistherewereletterstothe papersfromanumberofpeoplewhoclaimedtobefeeding themselvesonfourshillingsaweek.Hereisaweeklybudget (itwasprintedintheNewStatesmanandalsointheNews oftheWorld)whichIpickedoutfromamonganumberof others:

s.d.

3wholemealloaves10 1/2lb.margarine021/2 1/2lb.dripping03 1lb.cheese07 1lb.onions011/2 1lb.carrots011/2 1lb.brokenbiscuits04 2lb.dates06 1tinevaporatedmilk05 10oranges05 ------

Total3111/2

Pleasenoticethatthisbudgetcontainsnothingforfuel.In fact,thewriterexplicitlystatedthathecouldnotaffordto

buyfuelandateallhisfoodraw.Whethertheletterwasgenuineorahoaxdoesnotmatteratthemoment.WhatIthink willbeadmittedisthatthislistrepresentsaboutaswisean expenditureascouldbecontrived;ifyouhadtoliveonthree andelevenpencehalfpennyaweek,youcouldhardlyextract morefood-valuefromitthanthat.Soperhapsitispossible tofeedyourselfadequatelyontheP.A.C.allowanceifyou concentrateonessentialfoodstuffs;butnototherwise.

Nowcomparethislistwiththeunemployedminer’sbudgetthatIgaveearlier.Theminer’sfamilyspendonlytenpenceaweekongreenvegetablesandtenpencehalf-penny onmilk(rememberthatoneofthemisachildlessthanthree yearsold),andnothingonfruit;buttheyspendoneandnine onsugar(abouteightpoundsofsugar,thatis)andashilling ontea.Thehalf-crownspentonmeatmightrepresentasmall jointandthematerialsforastew;probablyasoftenasnotit wouldrepresentfourorﬁvetinsofbullybeef.Thebasisof theirdiet,therefore,iswhitebreadandmargarine,corned beef,sugaredtea,andpotatoes–anappallingdiet.Wouldit notbebetteriftheyspentmoremoneyonwholesomethings likeorangesandwholemealbreadoriftheyeven,likethe writerofthelettertotheNewStatesman,savedonfueland atetheircarrotsraw?Yes,itwould,butthepointisthat noordinaryhumanbeingisevergoingtodosuchathing. Theordinaryhumanbeingwouldsoonerstarvethanliveon brownbreadandrawcarrots.Andthepeculiarevilisthis, thatthelessmoneyyouhave,thelessinclinedyoufeelto spenditonwholesomefood.AmillionairemayenjoybreakfastingofforangejuiceandRyvitabiscuits;anunemployed mandoesn’t.HerethetendencyofwhichIspokeattheendof thelastchaptercomesintoplay.Whenyouareunemployed, whichistosaywhenyouareunderfed,harassed,bored, andmiserable,youdon’twanttoeatdullwholesomefood.

Youwantsomethingalittlebit’tasty’.Thereisalwayssome cheaplypleasantthingtotemptyou.Let’shavethreepennorthofchips!Runoutandbuyusatwopennyice-cream! Putthekettleonandwe’llallhaveanicecupoftea!That ishowyourmindworkswhenyouareattheP.A.C.level. Whitebread-and-margandsugaredteadon’tnourishyouto anyextent,buttheyarenicer(atleastmostpeoplethinkso) thanbrownbread-and-drippingandcoldwater.Unemploymentisanendlessmiserythathasgottobeconstantlypalliated,andespeciallywithtea,theEnglish-man’sopium.A cupofteaorevenanaspirinismuchbetterasatemporary stimulantthanacrustofbrownbread.

Theresultsofallthisarevisibleinaphysicaldegeneracy whichyoucanstudydirectly,byusingyoureyes,orinferentially,byhavingalookatthevitalstatistics.Thephysical averageintheindustrialtownsisterriblylow,lowereven thaninLondon.InShefﬁeldyouhavethefeelingofwalking amongapopulationoftroglodytes.Theminersaresplendid men,buttheyareusuallysmall,andthemerefactthattheir musclesaretoughenedbyconstantworkdoesnotmeanthat theirchildrenstartlifewithabetterphysique.Inanycase theminersarephysicallythepickofthepopulation.The mostobvioussignofunder-nourishmentisthebadnessof everybody’steeth.InLancashireyouwouldhavetolookfor alongtimebeforeyousawaworking-classpersonwithgood naturalteeth.Indeed,youseeveryfewpeoplewithnatural teethatall,apartfromthechildren;andeventhechildren’s teethhaveafrailbluishappearancewhichmeans,Isuppose, calciumdeﬁciency.Severaldentistshavetoldmethatinindustrialdistrictsapersonoverthirtywithanyofhisorher ownteethiscomingtobeanabnormality.InWiganvarious peoplegavemetheiropinionthatitisbesttogetshutofyour teethasearlyinlifeaspossible.’Teethisjustamisery,’one

womansaidtome.InonehousewhereIstayedtherewere, apartfrommyself,ﬁvepeople,theoldestbeingforty-three andtheyoungestaboyofﬁfteen.Ofthesetheboywasthe onlyonewhopossessedasingletoothofhisown,andhis teethwereobviouslynotgoingtolastlong.Asforthevital statistics,thefactthatinanylargeindustrialtownthedeath rateandinfantmortalityofthepoorestquartersarealways aboutdoublethoseofthewell-to-doresidentialquarters–a gooddealmorethandoubleinsomecases—hardlyneeds commentingon.

Ofcourseoneoughtnottoimaginethattheprevailingbad physiqueisduesolelytounemployment,foritisprobable thatthephysicalaveragehasbeendecliningalloverEngland foralongtimepast,andnotmerelyamongtheunemployed intheindustrialareas.Thiscannotbeprovedstatistically, butitisaconclusionthatisforceduponyouifyouuseyour eyes,eveninruralplacesandeveninaprosperoustownlike London.OnthedaywhenKingGeorgeV’sbodypassed throughLondononitswaytoWestminster,Ihappenedtobe caughtforanhourortwointhecrowdinTrafalgarSquare. Itwasimpossible,lookingaboutonethen,nottobestruck bythephysicaldegeneracyofmodernEngland.Thepeoplesurroundingmewerenotworking-classpeopleforthe mostpart;theyweretheshopkeeper–commercial-traveller type,withasprinklingofthewell-to-do.Butwhataset theylooked!Punylimbs,sicklyfaces,undertheweeping Londonsky!Hardlyawell-builtmanoradecent-looking woman,andnotafreshcomplexionanywhere.AstheKing’s cofﬁnwentby,thementookofftheirhats,andafriend whowasinthecrowdattheothersideoftheStrandsaid tomeafterwards,’Theonlytouchofcolouranywherewas thebaldheads.’EventheGuards,itseemedtome–there wasasquadofguardsmenmarchingbesidethecofﬁn–were

notwhattheyusedtobe.Wherearethemonstrousmen withchestslikebarrelsandmoustacheslikethewingsof eagleswhostrodeacrossmychild-hood’sgazetwentyor thirtyyearsago?Buried,Isuppose,intheFlandersmud. Intheirplacetherearethesepale-facedboyswhohavebeen pickedfortheirheightandconsequentlylooklikehop-poles inovercoats–thetruthbeingthatinmodernEnglandaman oversixfeethighisusuallyskinandboneandnotmuchelse. IftheEnglishphysiquehasdeclined,thisisnodoubtpartly duetothefactthattheGreatWarcarefullyselectedthemillionbestmeninEnglandandslaughteredthem,largelybeforetheyhadhadtimetobreed.Buttheprocessmusthave begunearlierthanthat,anditmustbedueultimatelytounhealthywaysofliving,i.e.toindustrialism.Idon’tmean ’thehabitoflivingintowns–probablythetownishealthier thanthecountry,inmanyways–butthemodernindustrial techniquewhichprovidesyouwithcheapsubstitutesforeverything.Wemayﬁndinthelongrunthattinnedfoodisa deadlierweaponthanthemachinegun.

ItisunfortunatethattheEnglishworkingclass–theEnglish nationgenerally,forthatmatter–areexception-allyignorant aboutandwastefuloffood.Ihavepointedoutelsewhere howcivilizedisaFrenchnavvy’sideaofamealcompared withanEnglishman’s,andIcannotbelievethatyouwould everseesuchwastageinaFrenchhouseasyouhabituallysee inEnglishones.Ofcourse,intheverypooresthomes,where everybodyisunemployed,youdon’tseemuchactualwaste, butthosewhocanaffordtowastefoodoftendoso.Icould givestartlinginstancesofthis.EventheNorthernhabitof bakingone’sownbreadisslightlywastefulinitself,because anoverworkedwomancannotbakemorethanonceor,at most,twiceaweekanditisimpossibletotellbeforehand howmuchbreadwillbewasted,sothatacertainamount

generallyhastobethrownaway.Theusualthingistobake sixlargeloavesandtwelvesmallonesatatime.Allthisis partoftheold,generousEnglishattitudetolife,anditisan amiablequality,butadisastrousoneatthepresentmoment.

Englishworkingpeopleeverywhere,sofarasIknow, refusebrownbread;itisusuallyimpossibletobuywholemealbreadinaworking-classdistrict.Theysometimesgive thereasonthatbrownbreadis’dirty’.Isuspecttherealreasonisthatinthepastbrownbreadhasbeenconfusedwith blackbread,whichistraditionallyassociatedwithPopery andwoodenshoes.(TheyhaveplentyofPoperyandwooden shoesinLancashire.Apitytheyhaven’ttheblackbreadas well!)ButtheEnglishpalate,especiallytheworking-class palate,nowrejectsgoodfoodalmostautomatically.The numberofpeoplewhoprefertinnedpeasandtinnedfish torealpeasandrealfishmustbeincreasingeveryyear,and plentyofpeoplewhocouldaffordrealmilkintheirteawould muchsoonerhavetinnedmilk–eventhatdreadfultinned milkwhichismadeofsugarandcorn-flourandhasUNFITFORBABIESonthetininhugeletters.Insomedistricts effortsarenowbeingmadetoteachtheunemployedmore aboutfood-valuesandmoreabouttheintelligentspending ofmoney.Whenyouhearofathinglikethisyoufeelyourselftornbothways.IhaveheardaCommunistspeakeron theplatformgrowveryangryaboutit.InLondon,hesaid, partiesofSocietydamesnowhavethecheektowalkintoEast Endhousesandgiveshopping-lessonstothewivesoftheunemployed.Hegavethisasaninstanceofthementalityofthe Englishgoverningclass.Firstyoucondemnafamilytolive onthirtyshillingsaweek,andthenyouhavethedamned impertinencetotellthemhowtheyaretospendtheirmoney. Hewasquiteright–Iagreeheartily.Yetallthesameitisapity that,merelyforthelackofapropertradition,peopleshould

pourmuckliketinnedmilkdowntheirthroatsandnoteven knowthatitisinferiortotheproductofthecow.

Idoubt,however,whethertheunemployedwouldultimatelybenefitiftheylearnedtospendtheirmoneymoreeconomically.Foritisonlythefactthattheyarenoteconomical thatkeepstheirallowancessohigh.AnEnglish-manonthe P.A.C.getsfifteenshillingsaweekbecausefifteenshillings isthesmallestsumonwhichhecanconceivablykeepalive. Ifhewere,say,anIndianorJapanesecoolie,whocanlive onriceandonions,hewouldn’tgetfifteenshillingsaweek–hewouldbeluckyifhegotfifteenshillingsamonth.Our unemploymentallowances,miser-ablethoughtheyare,are framedtosuitapopulationwithveryhighstandardsandnot muchnotionofeconomy.Iftheunemployedlearnedtobe bettermanagerstheywouldbevisiblybetteroff,andIfancy itwouldnotbelongbeforethedolewasdockedcorrespondingly.

Thereisonegreatmitigationofunemploymentinthe North,andthatisthecheapnessoffuel.Anywhereinthe coalareastheretailpriceofcoalisaboutoneandsixpence ahundredweight;intheSouthofEnglanditisabouthalfa crown.Moreover,minersinworkcanusuallybuycoaldirect fromthepitateightornineshillingsaton,andthosewho haveacellarintheirhomessometimesstoreatonandsellit (illicitly,Isuppose)tothosewhoareoutofwork.Butapart fromthisthereisimmenseandsystematicthievingofcoal bytheunemployed.Icallitthievingbecausetechnicallyit isthat,thoughitdoesnoharmtoanybody.Inthe’dirt’that issentupfromthepitsthereisacertainamountofbroken coal,andunemployedpeoplespendalotoftimeinpicking itoutoftheslag-heaps.Alldaylongoverthosestrangegrey mountainsyouseepeoplewanderingtoandfrowithsacks andbasketsacrossthesulphuroussmoke(manyslag-heaps

areonﬁreunderthesurface),prisingoutthetinynuggetsof coalwhichareburiedhereandthere.Youmeetmencoming away,wheelingstrangeandwonderfulhome-madebicycles–bicyclesmadeofrustypartspickedoffrefuse-tips,without saddles,withoutchainsandalmostalwayswithouttyres–acrosswhichareslungbagscontainingperhapshalfahundredweightofcoal,fruitofhalfaday’ssearching.Intimes ofstrikes,wheneverybodyisshortoffuel,theminersturn outwithpickandshovelandburrowintotheslag-heaps, whencethehummockyappearancewhichmostslag-heaps have.Duringlongstrikes,inplaceswherethereareoutcrops ofcoal,theyhavesunksurfaceminesandcarriedthemscores ofyardsintotheearth.

InWiganthecompetitionamongunemployedpeoplefor thewastecoalhasbecomesoﬁercethatithasledtoanextraordinarycustomcalled’scramblingforthecoal’,whichis wellworthseeing.IndeedIratherwonderthatithasnever beenﬁlmed.Anunemployedminertookmetoseeitone afternoon.Wegottotheplace,amountainrangeofancient slag-heapswitharailwayrunningthroughthevalleybelow. Acoupleofhundredraggedmen,eachwithasackandcoalhammerstrappedunderhiscoat-tails,werewaitingonthe ’broo’.Whenthedirtcomesup-fromthepititisloadedon totrucksandanenginerunsthesetothetopofanotherslagheapaquarterofamileawayandthereleavesthem.The processof’scramblingforthecoal’consistsingettingonto thetrainwhileitismoving;anytruckwhichyouhavesucceededinboardingwhileitisinmotioncountsas’your’ truck.Presentlythetrainhoveinsight.Withawildyell ahundredmendasheddowntheslopetocatchherasshe roundedthebend.Evenatthebendthetrainwasmaking twentymilesanhour.Themenhurledthemselvesuponit, caughtholdoftheringsattherearofthetrucksandhoisted

themselvesupbywayofthebumpers,fiveortenofthem oneachtruck.Thedrivertooknonotice,Hedroveuptothe topoftheslag-heap,uncoupledthetrucks,andrantheenginebacktothepit,presentlyreturningwithafreshstring oftrucks.Therewasthesamewildrushofraggedfiguresas before.Intheendonlyaboutfiftymenhadfailedtogetonto eithertrain.

Wewalkeduptothetopoftheslag-heap.Themenwere shovellingthedirtoutofthetrucks,whiledownbelowtheir wivesandchildrenwerekneeling,swiftlyscrabblingwith theirhandsinthedampdirtandpickingoutlumpsofcoal thesizeofaneggorsmaller.Youwouldseeawomanpounce onatinyfragmentofstuff,wipeitonherapron,scrutinizeit tomakesureitwascoal,andpopitjealouslyintohersack. Ofcourse,whenyouareboardingatruckyoudon’tknowbeforehandwhatisinit;itmaybeactual’dirt’fromtheroads oritmaymerelybeshalefromtherooﬁng.Ifitisashale trucktherewillbenocoalinit,butthereoccursamongthe shaleanotherinﬂammablerockcalledcannel,whichlooks verylikeordinaryshalebutisslightlydarkerandisknown bysplittinginparallellines,likeslate.Itmakestolerable fuel,notgoodenoughtobecommerciallyvaluable,butgood enoughtobeeagerlysoughtafterbytheunemployed.The minersontheshaletruckswerepickingoutthecanneland splittingitupwiththeirhammers.Downatthebottomof the’broo’thepeoplewhohadfailedtogetontoeithertrain weregleaningthetinychipsofcoalthatcamerollingdown fromabove–fragmentsnobiggerthanahazel-nut,these,but thepeopleweregladenoughtogetthem.

Westayedtheretillthetrainwasempty.Inacoupleof hoursthepeoplehadpickedthedirtovertothelastgrain. Theyslungtheirsacksovershoulderorbicycle,andstarted onthetwo-miletrudgebacktoWigan.Mostofthefamilies

hadgatheredabouthalfahundredweightofcoalorcarmel, sothatbetweenthemtheymusthavestolenfiveortentons offuel.ThisbusinessofrobbingthedirttrainstakesplaceeverydayinWigan,atanyrateinwinter,andatmorecollieries thanone.Itisofcourseextremelydangerous.Noonewas hurttheafternoonIwasthere,butamanhadhadbothhis legscutoffafewweeksearlier,andanothermanlostseveral fingersaweeklater.Technicallyitisstealingbut,aseverybodyknows,ifthecoalwerenotstolenitwouldsimplybe wasted.Nowandagain,forform’ssake,thecollierycompaniesprosecutesomebodyforcoal-picking,andinthatmorning’sissueofthelocalpapertherewasaparagraphsaying thattwomenhadbeenfinedtenshillings.Butnonoticeis takenoftheprosecutions–infact,oneofthemennamedin thepaperwastherethatafternoon–andthecoal-pickerssubscribeamongthemselvestopaythefines.Thethingistaken forgranted.Everyoneknowsthattheunemployedhavegot togetfuelsomehow.Soeveryafternoonseveralhundred menrisktheirnecksandseveralhundredwomenscrabble inthemudforhours–andallforhalfahundredweightofinferiorfuel,valueninepence.

Thatscenestaysinmymindasoneofmypicturesof Lancashire:thedumpy,shawledwomen,withtheirsacking apronsandtheirheavyblackclogs,kneelinginthecindery mudandthebitterwind,searchingeagerlyfortinychipsof coal.Theyaregladenoughtodoit.Inwintertheyaredesperateforfuel;itismoreimportantalmostthanfood.Meanwhileallround,asfarastheeyecansee,aretheslag-heaps andhoistinggearofcollieries,andnotoneofthosecollieries cansellallthecoalitiscapableofproducing.Thisoughtto appealtoMajorDouglas.

Asyoutravelnorthwardyoureye,accustomedtotheSouth orEast,doesnotnoticemuchdifferenceuntilyouarebeyond Birmingham.InCoventryyoumightaswellbeinFinsbury Park,andtheBullRinginBirminghamisnotunlikeNorwich Market,andbetweenallthetownsoftheMidlandsthere stretchesavilla-civilizationindistinguishablefromthatofthe South.Itisonlywhenyougetalittlefurthernorth,tothepotterytownsandbeyond,thatyoubegintoencounterthereal uglinessofindustrialism—anuglinesssofrightfulandsoarrestingthatyouareobliged,asitwere,tocometotermswith it.

Aslag-heapisatbestahideousthing,becauseitisso planlessandfunctionless.Itissomethingjustdumpedon theearth,liketheemptyingofagiant’sdust-bin.Onthe outskirtsoftheminingtownstherearefrightfullandscapes whereyourhorizonisringedcompletelyroundbyjagged greymountains,andunderfootismudandashesandoverheadthesteelcableswheretubsofdirttravelslowlyacross milesofcountry.Oftentheslag-heapsareonfire,andatnight youcanseetheredrivuletsoffirewindingthiswayandthat, andalsotheslow-movingblueflamesofsulphur,whichalwaysseemonthepointofexpiringandalwaysspringout again.Evenwhenaslag-heapsinks,asitdoesultimately, onlyanevilbrowngrassgrowsonit,anditretainsitshummockysurface.OneintheslumsofWigan,usedasaplayground,lookslikeachoppyseasuddenlyfrozen;’theflock mattress’,itiscalledlocally.Evencenturieshencewhenthe ploughdrivesovertheplaceswherecoalwasoncemined,the sitesofancientslag-heapswillstillbedistinguishablefrom anaeroplane.

Irememberawinterafternooninthedreadfulenvironsof Wigan.Allroundwasthelunarlandscapeofslag-heaps, andtothenorth,throughthepasses,asitwere,betweenthe mountainsofslag,youcouldseethefactorychimneyssendingouttheirplumesofsmoke.Thecanalpathwasamixture ofcindersandfrozenmud,criss-crossedbytheimprintsof innumerableclogs,andallround,asfarastheslag-heapsin thedistance,stretchedthe’flashes’–poolsofstagnantwater thathadseepedintothehollowscausedbythesubsidence ofancientpits.Itwashorriblycold.The’flashes’werecoveredwithicethecolourofrawumber,thebargemenwere muffledtotheeyesinsacks,thelockgatesworebeardsof ice.Itseemedaworldfromwhichvegetationhadbeenbanished;nothingexistedexceptsmoke,shale,ice,mud,ashes, andfoulwater.ButevenWiganisbeautifulcomparedwith Sheffield.Sheffield,Isuppose,couldjustlyclaimtobecalled theugliesttownintheOldWorld:itsinhabitants,whowant ittobepre-eminentineverything,verylikelydomakethat claimforit.IthasapopulationofhalfamillionanditcontainsfewerdecentbuildingsthantheaverageEastAnglian villageoffivehundred.Andthestench!Ifatraremoments youstopsmellingsulphuritisbecauseyouhavebegun smellinggas.Eventheshallowriverthatrunsthroughthe townis-usuallybrightyellowwithsomechemicalorother. OnceIhaltedinthestreetandcountedthefactorychimneys Icouldsee;therewerethirty-threeofthem,buttherewould havebeenfarmoreiftheairhadnotbeenobscuredbysmoke. Onesceneespeciallylingersinmymind.Afrightfulpatchof wasteground(somehow,upthere,apatchofwasteground attainsasqualorthatwouldbeimpossibleeveninLondon) trampledbareofgrassandlitteredwithnewspapersandold saucepans.Totherightanisolatedrowofgauntfour-roomed houses,darkred,blackenedbysmoke.Totheleftaninter-

minablevistaoffactorychimneys,chimneybeyondchimney, fadingawayintoadimblackishhaze.Behindmearailway embankmentmadeoftheslagfromfurnaces.Infront,across thepatchofwasteground,acubicalbuildingofredandyellowbrick,withthesign’ThomasGrocock,HaulageContractor’.

Atnight,whenyoucannotseethehideousshapesofthe housesandtheblacknessofeverything,atownlikeSheffield assumesakindofsinistermagnificence.Sometimesthedrifts ofsmokearerosywithsulphur,andserratedflames,likecircularsaws,squeezethemselvesoutfrombeneaththecowlsof thefoundrychimneys.Throughtheopendoorsoffoundries youseefieryserpentsofironbeinghauledtoandfrobyredlit boys,andyouhearthewhizzandthumpofsteamhammers andthescreamoftheironundertheblow.Thepotterytowns arealmostequallyuglyinapettierway.Rightinamongthe rowsoftinyblackenedhouses,partofthestreetasitwere, arethe’potbanks’–conicalbrickchimneyslikegiganticburgundybottlesburiedinthesoilandbelchingtheirsmokealmostinyourface.Youcomeuponmonstrousclaychasms hundredsoffeetacrossandalmostasdeep,withlittlerusty tubscreepingonchainrailwaysuponeside,andontheother workmenclinginglikesamphire-gatherersandcuttinginto thefaceofthecliffwiththeirpicks.Ipassedthatwayin snowyweather,andeventhesnowwasblack.Thebestthing onecansayforthepotterytownsisthattheyarefairlysmall andstopabruptly.Lessthantenmilesawayyoucanstandin un-defiledcountry,onthealmostnakedhills,andthepottery townsareonlyasmudgeinthedistance.

Whenyoucontemplatesuchuglinessasthis,therearetwo questionsthatstrikeyou.First,isitinevitable?Secondly, doesitmatter?

Idonotbelievethatthereisanythinginherentlyandunavoidablyuglyaboutindustrialism.Afactoryorevenagasworksisnotobligedofitsownnaturetobeugly,anymore thanapalaceoradog-kenneloracathedral.Italldependson thearchitecturaltraditionoftheperiod.Theindustrialtowns oftheNorthareuglybecausetheyhappentohavebeenbuilt atatimewhenmodemmethodsofsteel-constructionand smoke-abatementwereunknown,andwheneveryonewas toobusymakingmoneytothinkaboutanythingelse.They goonbeinguglylargelybecausetheNorthernershavegot usedtothatkindofthinganddonotnoticeit.Manyof thepeopleinSheffieldorManchester,iftheysmelledtheair alongtheCornishcliffs,wouldprobablydeclarethatithad notasteinit.Butsincethewar,industryhastendedtoshift southwardandindoingsohasgrownalmostcomely.The typicalpost-warfactoryisnotagauntbarrackoranawful chaosofblacknessandbelchingchimneys;itisaglittering whitestructureofconcrete,glass,andsteel,surroundedby greenlawnsandbedsoftulips.Lookatthefactoriesyou passasyoutraveloutofLondonontheG.W.R.;theymaynot beaesthetictriumphsbutcertainlytheyarenotuglyinthe samewayastheSheffieldgasworks.Butinanycase,though theuglinessofindustrialismisthemostobviousthingabout itandthethingeverynewcomerexclaimsagainst,Idoubt whetheritiscentrallyimportant.Andperhapsitisnoteven desirable,industrialismbeingwhatitis,thatitshouldleam todisguiseitselfassomethingelse.AsMrAldousHuxley hastrulyremarked,adarkSatanicmilloughttolooklikea darkSatanicmillandnotlikethetempleofmysteriousand splendidgods.Moreover,evenintheworstoftheindustrial townsoneseesagreatdealthatisnotuglyinthenarrow aestheticsense.Abelchingchimneyorastinkingslumis repulsivechieflybecauseitimplieswarpedlivesandailing

children.Lookatitfromapurelyaestheticstandpointand itmay,haveacertainmacabreappeal.Iﬁndthatanything outrageouslystrangegenerallyendsbyfascinatingmeeven whenIabominateit.ThelandscapesofBurma,which,when Iwasamongthem,soappalledmeastoassumethequalities ofnightmare,afterwardsstayedsohauntinglyinmymind thatIwasobligedtowriteanovelaboutthemtogetridof them.(InallnovelsabouttheEastthesceneryisthereal subject-matter.)Itwouldprobablybequiteeasytoextract asortofbeauty,asArnoldBennettdid,fromtheblacknessof theindustrialtowns;onecaneasilyimagineBaudelaire,for instance,writingapoemaboutaslag-heap.Butthebeautyor uglinessofindustrialismhardlymatters.Itsrealevilliesfar deeperandisquiteuneradicable.Itisimportanttorememberthis,becausethereisalwaysatemptationtothinkthat industrialismisharmlesssolongasitiscleanandorderly.

ButwhenyougototheindustrialNorthyouareconscious, quiteapartfromtheunfamiliarscenery,ofenteringastrange country.Thisispartlybecauseofcertainrealdifferences whichdoexist,butstillmorebecauseoftheNorth-Southantithesiswhichhasbeenrubbedintousforsuchalongtime past.ThereexistsinEnglandacuriouscultofNorthemness, sortofNorthernsnobbishness.AYorkshiremanintheSouth willalwaystakecaretoletyouknowthatheregardsyou asaninferior.Ifyouaskhimwhy,hewillexplainthatit isonlyintheNorththatlifeis’real’life,thattheindustrial workdoneintheNorthistheonly’real’work,thattheNorth isinhabitedby’real’people,theSouthmerelybyrentiers andtheirparasites.TheNorthernerhas’grit’,heisgrim, ’dour’,plucky,warm-hearted,anddemocratic;theSouthernerissnobbish,effeminate,andlazy–thatatanyrateisthe theory.HencetheSouthernergoesnorth,atanyrateforthe ﬁrsttime,withthevagueinferiority-complexofacivilized

manventuringamongsavages,whiletheYorkshireman,like theScotchman,comestoLondoninthespiritofabarbarian outforloot.Andfeelingsofthiskind,whicharetheresult oftradition,arenotaffectedbyvisiblefacts.JustasanEnglishmanﬁvefeetfourincheshighandtwenty-nineinches roundthechestfeelsthatasanEnglishmanheisthephysical superiorofCamera(CamerabeingaDago),soalsowiththe NorthernerandtheSoutherner.Irememberaweedylittle Yorkshireman,whowouldalmostcertainlyhaverunawayif afox-terrierhadsnappedathim,tellingmethatintheSouth ofEnglandhefelt’likeawildinvader’.Butthecultisoften adoptedbypeoplewhoarenotbybirthNorthernersthemselves.Ayearortwoagoafriendofmine,broughtupinthe SouthbutnowlivingintheNorth,wasdrivingmethrough Suffolkinacar.Wepassedthrougharatherbeautifulvillage. Heglanceddisapprovinglyatthecottagesandsaid:

’OfcoursemostofthevillagesinYorkshireare hideous;buttheYorkshiremenaresplendidchaps. Downhereit’sjusttheotherwayabout—beautiful villagesandrottenpeople.Allthepeopleinthose cottagesthereareworthless,absolutelyworthless.’

Icouldnothelpinquiringwhetherhehappenedtoknow anybodyinthatvillage.No,hedidnotknowthem;butbecausethiswasEastAngliatheywereobviouslyworthless. Anotherfriendofmine,againaSouthernerbybirth,loses noopportunityofpraisingtheNorthtothedetrimentofthe South.Hereisanextractfromoneofhisletterstome:

IaminClitheroe,Lanes....Ithinkrunningwaterismuch moreattractiveinmoorandmountaincountrythaninthefat andsluggishSouth.’ThesmugandsilverTrent,’Shakespeare says;andtheSouth-erthesmugger,Isay.

HereyouhaveaninterestingexampleoftheNortherncult. NotonlyareyouandIandeveryoneelseintheSouthofEnglandwrittenoffas’fatandsluggish’,butevenwaterwhen itgetsnorthofacertainlatitude,ceasestobeH2Oandbecomessomethingmysticallysuperior.Buttheinterestofthis passageisthatitswriterisanextremelyintelligentmanof ’advanced’opinionswhowouldhavenothingbutcon-tempt fornationalisminitsordinaryform.Puttohimsomesuch propositionas’OneBritisherisworththreeforeigners’,and hewouldrepudiateitwithhorror.Butwhenitisaquestion ofNorthversusSouth,heisquitereadytogeneralize.Allnationalisticdistinctions–allclaimstobebetterthansomebody elsebecauseyouhaveadifferent-shapedskullorspeakadifferentdialect—areentirelyspurious,buttheyareimportant solongaspeoplebelieveinthem.Thereisnodoubtabout theEnglishman’sinbredconvictionthatthosewholivetothe southofhimarehisinferiors;evenourforeignpolicyisgovernedbyittosomeextent.Ithink,therefore,thatitisworth pointingoutwhenandwhyitcameintobeing.

Whennationalismﬁrstbecameareligion,theEnglish lookedatthemap,and,noticingthattheirislandlayvery highintheNorthernHemisphere,evolvedthepleasingtheorythatthefurthernorthyoulivethemorevirtuousyoubecome.ThehistoriesIwasgivenwhenIwasalittleboygenerallystartedoffbyexplaininginthenaivestwaythatacold climatemadepeopleenergeticwhileahotonemadethem lazy,andhencethedefeatoftheSpanishArmada.ThisnonsenseaboutthesuperiorenergyoftheEnglish(actuallythe laziestpeopleinEurope)hasbeencurrentforatleastahundredyears.’Betterisitforus’,writesaQuarterlyReviewerof 1827,’tobecondemnedtolabourforourcountry’sgoodthan toluxuriateamidolives,vines,andvices.’’Olives,vines,and vices’sumsupthenormalEnglishattitudetowardstheLatin

races.InthemythologyofGarlyle,Creasey,etc.,theNortherner(’Teutonic’,later’Nordic’)ispicturedasahefty,vigorouschapwithblondmoustachesandpuremorals,whilethe Southernerissly,cowardly,andlicentious.Thistheorywas neverpushedtoitslogicalend,whichwouldhavemeantassumingthatthefinestpeopleintheworldweretheEskimos, butitdidinvolveadmittingthatthepeoplewholivedtothe northofusweresuperiortoourselves.Hence,partly,thecult ofScotlandandofScotchthingswhichhassodeeplymarked Englishlifeduringthepastfiftyyears.ButitwastheindustrializationoftheNorththatgavetheNorth-Southantithesisits peculiarslant.Untilcomparativelyrecentlythenorthernpart ofEnglandwasthebackwardandfeudalpart,andsuchindustryasexistedwasconcentratedinLondonandtheSouthEast.IntheCivilWarforinstance,roughlyspeakingawar ofmoneyversusfeudalism,theNorthandWestwereforthe KingandtheSouthandEastfortheParliament.Butwiththe increasinguseofcoalindustrypassedtotheNorth,andthere grewupanewtypeofman,theself-madeNorthernbusiness man–theMrRouncewellandMrBounderbyofDickens.The Northernbusinessman,withhishateful’getonorgetout’ philosophy,wasthedominantfigureofthenineteenthcentury,andasasortoftyrannicalcorpseherulesusstill.This isthetypeedifiedbyArnoldBennett–thetypewhostartsoff withhalfacrownandendsupwithfiftythousandpounds, andwhosechiefprideistobeanevengreaterboorafterhe hasmadehismoneythanbefore.Onanalysishissolevirtue turnsouttobeatalentformakingmoney.Wewerebidden toadmirehimbecausethoughhemightbenarrow-minded, sordid,ignorant,grasping,anduncouth,hehad’grit’,he’got on’;inotherwords,heknewhowtomakemoney.

Thiskindofcantisnowadaysapureanachronism,forthe Northernbusinessmanisnolongerprosperous.Buttradi-

tionsarenotkilledbyfacts,andthetraditionofNorthern’ grit’lingers.ItisstilldimlyfeltthataNorthernerwill’get on’,i.e.makemoney,whereaSouthernerwillfail.Atthe backofthemindofeveryYorkshiremanandeveryScotchmanwhocomestoLondonisasortofDickWhittingtonpictureofhimselfastheboywhostartsoffbysellingnewspapersandendsupasLordMayor.Andthat,really,isatthe bottomofhisbumptiousness.Butwhereonecanmakea greatmistakeisinimaginingthatthisfeelingextendstothe genuineworkingclass.WhenIﬁrstwenttoYorkshire,some yearsago,IimaginedthatIwasgoingtoacountryofboors.I wasusedtotheLondonYorkshiremanwithhisinterminable haranguesandhisprideinthesup-posedracinessofhisdialect(’"Astitchintimesavesnine",aswesayintheWest Riding’),andIexpectedtomeetwithagooddealofrudeness. ButImetwithnothingofthekind,andleastofallamongthe miners.IndeedtheLancashireandYorkshireminerstreated mewithakindnessandcourtesythatwereevenembarrassing;forifthereisonetypeofmantowhomIdofeelmyself inferior,itisacoal-miner.Certainlynooneshowedanysign ofdespisingmeforcomingfromadifferentpartofthecountry.Thishasitsimportancewhenoneremembersthatthe Englishregionalsnobberiesarenationalisminminiature;for itsuggeststhatplace-snobberyisnotaworking-classcharacteristic.

ThereisneverthelessarealdifferencebetweenNorthand South,andthereisatleastatingeoftruthinthatpictureof SouthernEnglandasoneenormousBrightoninhabitedby lounge-lizards.Forclimaticreasonstheparasiticdivi-denddrawingclasstendtosettleintheSouth.InaLancashire cotton-townyoucouldprobablygoformonthsonendwithoutoncehearingan’educated’accent,whereastherecan hardlybeatownintheSouthofEnglandwhereyoucould

throwabrickwithouthittingthenieceofabishop.Consequently,withnopettygentrytosetthepace,thebourgeoisiﬁcationoftheworkingclass,thoughitistakingplaceinthe North,istakingplacemoreslowly.AlltheNorthernaccents, forinstance,persiststrongly,whiletheSouthernonesarecollapsingbeforethemoviesandtheB.B.C.Henceyour’educated’accentstampsyouratherasaforeignerthanasachunk ofthepettygentry;andthisisanimmenseadvantage,forit makesitmucheasiertogetintocontactwiththeworking class.

Butisiteverpossibletobereallyintimatewiththeworking class?Ishallhavetodiscussthatlater;Iwillonlysayhere thatIdonotthinkitispossible.Butundoubtedlyitiseasier intheNorththanitwouldbeintheSouthtomeetworkingclasspeopleonapproximatelyequalterms.Itisfairlyeasyto liveinaminer’shouseandbeacceptedasoneofthefamily; with,say,afarmlabourerintheSoutherncountiesitprobably wouldbeimpossible.Ihaveseenjustenoughoftheworking classtoavoididealizingthem,butIdoknowthatyoucan leamagreatdealinaworking-classhome,ifonlyyoucan getthere.Theessentialpointisthatyourmiddle-classideals andprejudicesaretestedbycontactwithotherswhichare notnecessarilybetterbutarecertainlydifferent.

Takeforinstancethedifferentattitudetowardsthefamily. Aworking-classfamilyhangstogetherasamiddle-classone does,buttherelationshipisfarlesstyrannical.Aworking manhasnotthatdeadlyweightoffamilyprestigehanging roundhisnecklikeamillstone.Ihavepointedoutearlier thatamiddle-classpersongoesutterlytopiecesundertheinﬂuenceofpoverty;andthisisgenerallyduetothebehaviour ofhisfamily–tothefactthathehasscoresofrelationsnaggingandbadgeringhimnightanddayforfailingto’geton’. Thefactthattheworkingclassknowhowtocombineand

themiddleclassdon’tisprobablyduetotheirdifferentconceptionsoffamilyloyalty.Youcannothaveaneffectivetrade unionofmiddle-classworkers,be-causeintimesofstrikes almosteverymiddle-classwifewouldbeeggingherhusbandontoblacklegandgettheotherfellow’sjob.Another working-classcharacteristic,disconcertingatﬁrst,istheir plain-spokennesstowardsanyonetheyregardasanequal.If youofferaworkingmansomethinghedoesn’twant,hetells youthathedoesn’twantit;amiddle-classpersonwouldacceptittoavoidgivingoffence.Andagain,taketheworkingclassattitudetowards’education’.Howdifferentitisfrom ours,andhowimmenselysounder!Workingpeopleoften haveavaguereverenceforlearninginothers,butwhere’education’touchestheirownlivestheyseethroughitandreject itbyahealthyinstinct.ThetimewaswhenIusedtolament overquiteimaginarypicturesofladsoffourteendragged protestingfromtheirlessonsandsettoworkatdismaljobs. Itseemedtomedreadfulthatthedoomofa’job’shoulddescenduponanyoneatfourteen.OfcourseIknownowthat thereisnotoneworking-classboyinathousandwhodoes notpineforthedaywhenhewillleaveschool.Hewantsto bedoingrealwork,notwastinghistimeonridiculousrubbishlikehistoryandgeography.Totheworkingclass,thenotionofstayingatschooltillyouarenearlygrown-upseems merelycontemptibleandunmanly.Theideaofagreatbig boyofeighteen,whooughttobebringingapoundaweek hometohisparents,goingtoschoolinaridiculousuniform andevenbeingcanedfornotdoinghislessons!Justfancya working-classboyofeighteenallowinghimselftobecaned! Heisamanwhentheotherisstillababy.ErnestPontifex, inSamuelButler’sWayofAllFlesh,afterhehadhadafew glimpsesofreallife,lookedbackonhispublicschooland universityeducationandfoundita’sickly,debilitatingde-

bauch’.Thereismuchinmiddle-classlifethatlookssickly anddebilitatingwhenyouseeitfromaworking-classangle.

Inaworking-classhome–Iamnotthinkingatthemomentoftheunemployed,butofcomparativelyprosperous homes–youbreatheawarm,decent,deeplyhumanatmospherewhichitisnotsoeasytofindelsewhere.Ishouldsay thatamanualworker,ifheisinsteadyworkanddrawing goodwages–an’ifwhichgetsbiggerandbigger–hasabetter chanceofbeinghappythanan’educated’man.Hishomelife seemstofallmorenaturallyintoasaneandcomelyshape. Ihaveoftenbeenstruckbythepeculiareasycompleteness, theperfectsymmetryasitwere,ofaworking-classinterior atitsbest.Especiallyonwintereveningsaftertea,whenthe fireglowsintheopenrangeanddancesmirroredinthesteel fender,whenFather,inshirt-sleeves,sitsintherockingchair atonesideofthefirereadingtheracingfinals,andMother sitsontheotherwithhersewing,andthechildrenarehappy withapennorthofminthumbugs,andthedoglollsroasting himselfontheragmat–itisagoodplacetobein,provided thatyoucanbenotonlyinitbutsufficientlyofittobetaken forgranted.

ThissceneisstillreduplicatedinamajorityofEnglish homes,thoughnotinsomanyasbeforethewar.Itshappinessdependsmainlyupononequestion–whetherFatheris inwork.ButnoticethatthepictureIhavecalledup,ofa working-classfamilysittingroundthecoalﬁreafterkippers andstrongtea,belongsonlytoourownmomentoftimeand couldnotbelongeithertothefutureorthepast.Skipforward twohundredyearsintotheUtopianfuture,andthesceneis totallydifferent.HardlyoneofthethingsIhaveimagined willstillbethere.Inthatagewhenthereisnomanuallabour andeveryoneis’educated’,itishardlylikelythatFatherwill stillbearoughmanwithenlargedhandswholikestositin

shirt-sleevesandsays’Ahwurcoomin’oopstreet’.Andthere won’tbeacoalﬁreinthegrate,onlysomekindofinvisible heater.Thefurniturewillbemadeofrubber,glass,andsteel. Iftherearestillsuchthingsaseveningpaperstherewillcertainlybenoracingnewsinthem,forgamblingwillbemeaninglessinaworldwherethereisnopovertyandthehorse willhavevanishedfromthefaceoftheearth.Dogs,too,will havebeensupressedongroundsofhygiene.Andtherewon’t besomanychildren,either,ifthebirth-controllershavetheir way.ButmovebackwardsintotheMiddleAgesandyouare inaworldalmostequallyforeign.Awindowlesshut,awood ﬁrewhichsmokesinyourfacebecausethereisnochimney, mouldybread,’PoorJohn’,lice,scurvy,ayearlychild-birth andayearlychild-death,andthepriestterrifyingyouwith talesofHell.

Curiouslyenoughitisnotthetriumphsofmodemengineering,northeradio,northecinematograph,northeﬁve thousandnovelswhicharepublishedyearly,northecrowds atAscotandtheEtonandHarrowmatch,butthememoryofworking-classinteriors–especiallyasIsometimessaw theminmychildhoodbeforethewar,whenEnglandwasstill prosperous—thatremindsmethatouragehasnotbeenaltogetherabadonetolivein.

PARTTWO

THE roadfromMandalaytoWiganisalongoneandthe reasonsfortakingitarenotimmediatelyclear.Inthe earlierchaptersofthisbookIhavegivenaratherfragmentaryaccountofvariousthingsIsawinthecoalareasofLancashireandYorkshire.IwenttherepartlybecauseIwanted toseewhatmass-unemploymentislikeatitsworst,partly inordertoseethemosttypicalsectionoftheEnglishworkingclassatclosequarters.Thiswasnecessarytomeaspartof myapproachtoSocialism,forbeforeyoucanbesurewhether youaregenuinelyinfavourofSocialism,youhavegottodecidewhetherthingsatpresentaretolerableornottolerable, andyouhavegottotakeupadefiniteattitudeontheterriblydifficultissueofclass.HereIshallhavetodigressand explainhowmyownattitudetowardstheclassquestionwas developed.Obviouslythisinvolveswritingacertainamount ofautobiography,andIwouldnotdoitifIdidnotthinkthat Iamsufficientlytypicalofmyclass,orrathersub-caste,to haveacertainsymptomaticimportance.

Iwasbornintowhatyoumightdescribeasthelower-

upper-middleclass.Theupper-middleclass,whichhadits heydayintheeightiesandnineties,withKiplingasitspoet laureate,wasasortofmoundofwreckageleftbehindwhen thetideofVictorianprosperityreceded.Orperhapsitwould bebettertochangethemetaphoranddescribeitnotasa moundbutasalayer–thelayerofsocietylyingbetween£2000 and£300ayear:myownfamilywasnotfarfromthebottom.YounoticethatIdefineitintermsofmoney,because thatisalwaysthequickestwayofmakingyourselfunderstood.Nevertheless,theessentialpointabouttheEnglish class-systemisthatitisnotentirelyexplicableintermsof money.Roughlyspeakingitisamoney-stratification,butit isalsointerpenetratedbyasortofshadowycaste-system; ratherlikeajerrybuiltmodembungalowhauntedbymedievalghosts.Hencethefactthattheupper-middleclass extendsorextendedtoincomesaslowas£300ayear–toincomes,thatis,muchlowerthanthoseofmerelymiddle-class peoplewithnosocialpretensions.Probablytherearecountrieswhereyoucanpredictaman’sopinionsfromhisincome,butitisneverquitesafetodosoinEngland;youhave alwaysgottotakehistraditionsintoconsiderationaswell. Anavalofficerandhisgrocerverylikelyhavethesameincome,buttheyarenotequivalentpersonsandtheywould onlybeonthesamesideinverylargeissuessuchasawaror ageneralstrike–possiblynoteventhen.

Ofcourseitisobviousnowthattheupper-middleclassis donefor.IneverycountrytowninSouthernEngland,notto mentionthedrearywastesofKensingtonandEarl’sCourt, thosewhoknewitinthedaysofitsgloryaredying,vaguely embitteredbyaworldwhichhasnotbehavedasitought. IneveropenoneofKipling’sbooksorgointooneofthe hugedullshopswhichwereoncethefavouritehauntofthe upper-middleclass,withoutthinking’Changeanddecayin

allaroundIsee’.Butbeforethewartheupper-middleclass, thoughalreadynonetooprosperous,stillfeltsureofitself. Beforethewaryouwereeitheragentlemanornotagentleman,andifyouwereagentlemanyoustruggledtobehave assuch,whateveryourincomemightbe.Betweenthosewith £400ayearandthosewith£2000oreven£1000ayearthere wasagreatgulfﬁxed,butitwasagulfwhichthosewith£400 ayeardidtheirbesttoignore.Probablythedistinguishing markoftheupper-middleclasswasthatitstraditionswere nottoanyextentcommercial,butmainlymilitary,ofﬁcial, andprofessional.

Peopleinthisclassownednoland,buttheyfeltthatthey werelandownersinthesightofGodandkeptupasemiaristocraticoutlookbygoingintotheprofessionsandthe fightingservicesratherthanintotrade.Smallboysusedto counttheplumstonesontheirplatesandforetelltheirdestinybychanting,’Army,Navy,Church,Medicine,Law’;and evenofthese’Medicine’wasfaintlyinferiortotheothersand onlyputinforthesakeofsymmetry.Tobelongtothisclass whenyouwereatthe£400ayearlevelwasaqueerbusiness, foritmeantthatyourgentilitywasalmostpurelytheoretical. Youlived,sotospeak,attwolevelssimultaneously.Theoreticallyyouknewallaboutservantsandhowtotipthem, althoughinpracticeyouhadone,atmost,tworesidentservants.Theoreticallyyouknewhowtowearyourclothesand howtoorderadinner,althoughinpracticeyoucouldnever affordtogotoadecenttailororadecentrestaurant.Theoreticallyyouknewhowtoshootandride,althoughinpractice youhadnohorsestorideandnotaninchofgroundtoshoot over.ItwasthisthatexplainedtheattractionofIndia(more recentlyKenya,Nigeria,etc.)forthelower-upper-middle class.Thepeoplewhowentthereassoldiersandofficials didnotgotheretomakemoney,forasoldieroranofficial

doesnotwantmoney;theywenttherebecauseinIndia,with cheaphorses,freeshooting,andhordesofblackservants,it wassoeasytoplayatbeingagentleman.

Inthekindofshabby-genteelfamilythatIamtalking aboutthereisfarmoreconsciousnessofpovertythaninany working-classfamilyabovethelevelofthedole.Rentand clothesandschool-billsareanunendingnightmare,andeveryluxury,evenaglassofbeer,isanunwarrantableextravagance.Practicallythewholefamilyincomegoesinkeepingupappearances.Itisobviousthatpeopleofthiskind areinananomalousposition,andonemight’betemptedto writethemoffasmereexceptionsandthereforeunimportant. Actually,however,theyareorwerefairlynumerous.Most clergymenandschoolmasters,forinstance,nearlyallAngloIndianofﬁcials,asprinklingofsoldiersandsailors,andafair numberofprofessionalmenandartists,fallintothiscategory.Buttherealimportanceofthisclassisthattheyare theshock-absorbersofthebourgeoisie.Therealbourgeoisie, thoseinthe£2000ayearclassandover,havetheirmoneyasa thicklayerofpaddingbetweenthemselvesandtheclassthey plunder;insofarastheyareawareoftheLowerOrdersatall theyareawareofthemasemployees,servants,andtradesmen.Butitisquitedifferentforthepoordevilslowerdown whoarestrugglingtolivegenteellivesonwhatarevirtually working-classincomes.Theselastareforcedintocloseand, inasense,intimatecontactwiththeworkingclass,andIsuspectitisfromthemthatthetraditionalupper-classattitude towards’common’peopleisderived.

Andwhatisthisattitude?Anattitudeofsniggeringsuperioritypunctuatedbyburstsofvicioushatred.Lookatany numberofPunchduringthe.pastthirtyyears.Youwillﬁnd iteverywheretakenforgrantedthataworking-classperson, assuch,isaﬁgureoffun,exceptatoddmomentswhenhe

showssignsofbeingtooprosperous,whereuponheceases tobeaﬁgureoffunandbecomesademon.Itisnousewastingbreathindenouncingthisattitude.Itisbettertoconsider howithasarisen,andtodothatonehasgottorealizewhat theworkingclasseslookliketothosewholiveamongthem buthavedifferenthabitsandtraditions.

Ashabbygenteelfamilyisinmuchthesamepositionas afamilyof’poorwhites’livinginastreetwhereeveryone elseisaNegro.Insuchcircumstancesyouhavegottocling toyourgentilitybecauseitistheonlythingyouhave;and meanwhileyouarehatedforyourstuck-up-nessandforthe accentandmannerswhichstampyouasoneoftheboss class.Iwasveryyoung,notmuchmorethansix,whenI firstbecameawareofclass-distinctions.Beforethatagemy chiefheroeshadgenerallybeenworking-classpeople,becausetheyalwaysseemedtodosuchinterestingthings,such asbeingfishermenandblacksmithsandbricklayers.IrememberthefarmhandsonafarminCornwallwhousedto letmerideonthedrillwhentheyweresowingturnipsand wouldsometimescatchtheewesandmilkthemtogivemea drink;andtheworkmenbuildingthenewhousenextdoor, wholetmeplaywiththewetmortarandfromwhomIfirst learnedtheword’b—-’;andtheplumberuptheroadwith whosechildrenIusedtogooutbird-nesting.Butitwasnot longbeforeIwasforbiddentoplaywiththeplumber’schildren;theywere’common’andIwastoldtokeepawayfrom them.Thiswassnobbish,ifyoulike,butitwasalsonecessary,formiddle-classpeoplecan-notaffordtolettheirchildrengrowupwithvulgaraccents.So,veryearly,theworkingclassceasedtobearaceoffriendlyandwonderfulbeings andbecamearaceofenemies.Werealizedthattheyhatedus, butwecouldneverunderstandwhy,andnaturallywesetit downtopure,viciousmalignity.Tomeinmyearlyboyhood,

tonearlyallchildrenoffamilieslikemine,’common’people seemedalmostsub-human.Theyhadcoarsefaces,hideous accents,andgrossmanners,theyhatedeveryonewhowas notlikethemselves,andiftheygothalfachancetheywould insultyouinbrutalways.Thatwasourviewofthem,and thoughitwasfalseitwasunderstandable.ForonemustrememberthatbeforethewartherewasmuchmoreovertclasshatredinEnglandthanthereisnow.Inthosedaysyouwere quitelikelytobeinsultedsimplyforlookinglikeamember oftheupperclasses;nowadays,ontheotherhand,youare morelikelytobefawnedupon.Anyoneoverthirtycanrememberthetimewhenitwasimpossibleforawell-dressed persontowalkthroughaslumstreetwithoutbeinghooted at.Wholequartersofbigtownswereconsideredunsafebecauseof’hooligans’(nowalmostanextincttype),andthe Londongutter-boyeverywhere,withhisloudvoiceandlack ofintellectualscruples,couldmakelifeamiseryforpeople whoconsidereditbeneaththeirdignitytoanswerback.A recurrentterrorofmyholidays,whenIwasasmallboy,was thegangsof’cads’whowereliabletosetuponyouﬁveor tentoone.Intermtime,ontheotherhand,itwaswewho wereinthemajorityandthe’cads’whowereoppressed;Irememberacoupleofsavagemass-battlesinthecoldwinterof 1916-17.Andthistraditionofopenhostilitybetweenupper andlowerclasshadapparentlybeenthesameforatleasta centurypast.AtypicaljokeinPunchinthesixtiesisapictureofasmall,nervous-lookinggentlemanridingthrough aslumstreetandacrowdofstreet-boysclosinginonhim withshouts”Erecomesaswell!Let’sfrighten’is’oss!’Just fancythestreetboystryingtofrightenhishorsenow!They wouldbemuchlikeliertohangroundhiminvaguehopes ofatip.DuringthepastdozenyearstheEnglishworking classhavegrownservilewitharatherhorrifyingrapidity.

Itwasboundtohappen,forthefrightfulweaponofunemploymenthascowedthem.Beforethewartheireconomic positionwascomparativelystrong,forthoughtherewasno doletofallbackupon,therewasnotmuchunemployment, andthepowerofthebossclasswasnotsoobviousasitis now.Amandidnotseeruinstaringhiminthefaceevery timehecheekeda’toff’,andnaturallyhedidcheeka’toff’ wheneveritseemedsafetodoso.G.J.Renier,inhisbook onOscarWilde,pointsoutthatthestrange,obsceneburstof popularfurywhichfollowedtheWildetrialwasessentially socialincharacter.The’Londonmobhadcaughtamemberof theupperclassesonthehop,andtheytookcaretokeephim hopping.Allthiswasnaturalandevenproper.Ifyoutreat peopleastheEnglishworkingclasshavebeentreatedduring thepasttwocenturies,youmustexpectthemtoresentit.On theotherhandthechildrenofshabby-genteelfamiliescould notbeblamediftheygrewupwithahatredoftheworking class,typiﬁedforthembyprowlinggangsof’cads’.

Buttherewasanotherandmoreseriousdifﬁculty.Here youcometotherealsecretofclassdistinctionsintheWest–therealreasonwhyaEuropeanofbourgeoisupbringing, evenwhenhecallshimselfaCommunist,cannotwithouta hardeffortthinkofaworkingmanashisequal.Itissummed upinfourfrightfulwordswhichpeoplenowadaysarechary ofuttering,butwhichwerebandiedaboutquitefreelyinmy childhood.Thewordswere:Thelowerclassessmell.

Thatwaswhatweweretaught–thelowerclassessmell. Andhere,obviously,youareatanimpassablebarrier.For nofeelingoflikeordislikeisquitesofundamentalasa physicalfeeling.Race-hatred,religioushatred,differencesof education,oftemperament,ofintellect,evendifferencesof moralcode,canbegotover;butphysicalrepulsioncan-not. Youcanhaveanaffectionforamurdererorasodomite,but

youcannothaveanaffectionforamanwhosebreathstinks–habituallystinks,Imean.Howeverwellyoumaywishhim, howevermuchyoumayadmirehismindandcharacter,if hisbreathstinksheishorribleandinyourheartofhearts youwillhatehim.Itmaynotgreatlymatteriftheaverage middle-classpersonisbroughtuptobelievethattheworking classesareignorant,lazy,drunken,boorish,anddishonest;it iswhenheisbroughtuptobelievethattheyaredirtythat theharmisdone.Andinmychildhoodwewerebrought uptobelievethattheyweredirty.Veryearlyinlifeyouacquiredtheideathattherewassomethingsubtlyrepulsive aboutaworking-classbody;youwouldnotgetnearerto itthanyoucouldhelp.Youwatchedagreatsweatynavvy walkingdowntheroadwithhispickoverhisshoulder;you lookedathisdiscolouredshirtandhiscorduroytrousersstiff withthedirtofadecade;youthoughtofthosenestsandlayersofgreasyragsbelow,and,underall,theunwashedbody, brownallover(thatwashowIusedtoimagineit),withits strong,bacon-likereek.Youwatchedatramptakingoffhis bootsinaditch–ugh!Itdidnotseriouslyoccurtoyouthatthe trampmightnotenjoyhavingblackfeet.Andeven’lowerclass’peoplewhomyouknewtobequiteclean–servants,for instance–werefaintlyunappetizing.Thesmelloftheirsweat, theverytextureoftheirskins,weremysteriouslydifferent fromyours.

Everyonewhohasgrownuppronouncinghisaitchesand inahousewithabathroomandoneservantislikelytohave grownupwiththesefeelings;hencethechasmic,impassable qualityofclass-distinctionsintheWest.Itisqueerhowseldomthisisadmitted.AtthemomentIcanthinkofonlyone bookwhereitissetforthwithouthumbug,andthatisMr SomersetMaugham’sOnaChineseScreen.MrMaugham describesahighChineseofﬁcialarrivingatawaysideinn

andblusteringandcallingeverybodynamesinordertoimpressuponthemthatheisasupremedignitaryandthey areonlyworms.Fiveminuteslater,havingassertedhisdignityinthewayhethinksproper,heiseatinghisdinnerin perfectamitywiththebaggagecoolies.Asanofﬁcialhe feelsthathehasgottomakehispresencefelt,buthehasno feelingthatthecooliesareofdifferentclayfromhimself.I haveobservedcountlesssimilarscenesinBurma.Among Mongolians–amongallAsiatics,forallIknow–thereisasort ofnaturalequality,aneasyintimacybetweenmanandman, whichissimplyunthinkableintheWest.MrMaughamadds:

IntheWestwearedividedfromourfellowsby oursenseofsmell.Theworkingmanisourmaster,inclinedtoruleuswithanironhand,butit cannotbedeniedthathestinks:nonecanwonderatit,forabathinthedawnwhenyouhave tohurrytoyourworkbeforethefactorybellrings isnopleasantthing,nor’doesheavylabourtend tosweetness;andyoudonotchangeyourlinen morethanyoucanhelpwhentheweek’swashingmustbedonebyasharp-tonguedwife.Ido notblametheworkingmanbecausehestinks,but stinkhedoes.Itmakessocialintercoursedifﬁcult topersonsofsensitivenostril.Thematutinal tubdividestheclassesmoreeffectuallythanbirth, wealth,oreducation.

Meanwhile,dothe’lowerclasses’smell?Ofcourse,as awhole,theyaredirtierthantheupperclasses.Theyare boundtobe,consideringthecircumstancesinwhichthey live,forevenatthislatedatelessthanhalfthehousesinEnglandhavebathrooms.Besides,thehabitofwashingyourselfallovereverydayisaveryrecentoneinEurope,and

theworkingclassesaregenerallymoreconservativethanthe bourgeoisie.ButtheEnglisharegrowingvisiblycleaner,and wemayhopethatinahundredyearstheywillbealmost ascleanastheJapanese.Itisapitythatthosewhoidealizetheworkingclasssooftenthinkitnecessarytopraise everyworking-classcharacteristicandthereforetopretend thatdirtinessissomehowmeritoriousinitself.Here,curiouslyenough,theSocialistandthesentimentaldemocratic CatholicofthetypeofChestertonsometimesjoinhands;both willtellyouthatdirtinessishealthyand’natural’andcleanlinessisamerefadoratbestaluxury.[AccordingtoChesterton,dirtinessismerelyakindof’discomfort’andtherefore ranksasself-mortiﬁcation.Unfortunately,thediscomfortof dirtinessischieﬂysufferedbyotherpeople.Itisnotreally veryuncomfortabletobedirty–notnearlysouncomfortable ashavingacoldbathonawintermorning.]Theyseemnot toseethattheyaremerelygivingcolourtothenotionthat working-classpeoplearedirtyfromchoiceandnotfromnecessity.Actually,peoplewhohaveaccesstoabathwillgenerallyuseit.Buttheessentialthingisthatmiddle-classpeople believethattheworkingclassaredirty–youseefromthepassagequotedabovethatMrMaughamhimselfbelievesit–and, whatisworse,thattheyaresome-howinherentlydirty.Asa child,oneofthemostdreadfulthingsIcouldimaginewasto drinkoutofabottleafteranavvy.OncewhenIwasthirteen,I wasinatraincomingfromamarkettown,andthethird-class carriagewaspackedfullofshepherdsandpig-menwhohad beensellingtheirbeasts.Somebodyproducedaquartbottleofbeerandpasseditround;ittravelledfrommouthto mouthtomouth,everyonetakingaswig.Icannotdescribe thehorrorIfeltasthatbottleworkeditswaytowardsme.If Idrankfromitafterallthoselower-classmalemouthsIfelt certainIshouldvomit;ontheotherhand,iftheyofferedit

tomeIdarednotrefuseforfearofoffendingthem–yousee herehowthemiddle-classsqueamishnessworksbothways. Nowadays,thankGod,Ihavenofeelingsofthatkind.A workingman’sbody,assuch,isnomorerepulsivetomethan amillionaire’s.Istilldon’tlikedrinkingoutofacuporbottleafteranotherperson–anotherman,Imean;withwomen Idon’tmind–butat.leastthequestionofclassdoesnotenter.Itwasrubbingshoulderswiththetrampsthatcuredme ofit.TrampsarenotreallyverydirtyasEnglishpeoplego, buttheyhavethenameforbeingdirty,andwhenyouhave sharedabedwithatrampanddrunkteaoutofthesame snufftin,youfeelthatyouhaveseentheworstandtheworst hasnoterrorsforyou.

Ihavedweltonthesesubjectsbecausetheyarevitallyimportant.Togetridofclass-distinctionsyouhavegottostart byunderstandinghowoneclassappearswhenseenthrough theeyesofanother.Itisuselesstosaythatthemiddleclasses are’snobbish’andleaveitatthat.Yougetnofurtherifyou donotrealizethatsnobbishnessisboundupwithaspecies ofidealism.Itderivesfromtheearlytraininginwhicha middle-classchildistaughtalmostsimultaneouslytowash hisneck,tobereadytodieforhiscountry,andtodespisethe ’lowerclasses’.

HereIshallbeaccusedofbeingbehindthetimes,forIwas achildbeforeandduringthewaranditmaybeclaimedthat childrennowadaysarebroughtupwithmoreenlightened notions.Itisprobablytruethatclass-feelingisforthemomentaverylittlelessbitterthanitwas.Theworkingclass aresubmissivewheretheyusedtobeopenlyhostile,andthe post-warmanufactureofcheapclothesandthegeneralsofteningofmannershavetoneddownthesurfacedifferences betweenclassandclass.Butundoubtedlytheessentialfeelingisstillthere.Everymiddle-classpersonhasadormant

class-prejudicewhichneedsonlyasmallthingtoarouseit; andifheisoverfortyheprobablyhasafirmconvictionthat hisownclasshasbeensacrificedtotheclassbelow.Suggest totheaverageunthinkingpersonofgentlebirthwhoisstrugglingtokeepupappearancesonfourorfivehundredayear thatheisamemberofanexploitingparasiteclass,andhe willthinkyouaremad.Inperfectsincerityhewillpointout toyouadozenwaysinwhichheisworse-offthanaworkingman.Inhiseyestheworkersarenotasubmergedrace ofslaves,theyareasinisterfloodcreepingupwardstoengulfhimselfandhisfriendsandhisfamilyandtosweepall cultureandalldecencyoutofexistence.Hencethatqueer watchfulanxietylesttheworkingclassshallgrowtooprosperous.InanumberofPunchsoonafterthewar,whencoal wasstillfetchinghighprices,thereisapictureoffourorfive minerswithgrim,sinisterfacesridinginacheapmotor-car. Afriendtheyarepassingcallsoutandasksthemwherethey haveborrowedit.Theyanswer,’We’veboughtthething!’ This,yousee,is’goodenoughforPunch’;forminerstobuy amotor-car,evenonecarbetweenfourorfiveofthem,isa monstrosity,asortofcrimeagainstnature.Thatwastheattitudeofadozenyearsago,andIseenoevidenceofanyfundamentalchange.Thenotionthattheworkingclasshavebeen absurdlypampered,hopelesslydemoralizedbydoles,old agepensions,freeeducation,etc.,isstillwidelyheld;ithas merelybeenalittleshaken,perhaps,bytherecentrecognition thatunemploymentdoesexist.Forquantitiesofmiddle-class people,probablyforalargemajorityofthoseoverfifty,the typicalworkingmanstillridestotheLabourExchangeon amotor-bikeandkeepscoalinhisbath-tub:’And,ifyou’ll believeit,mydear,theyactuallygetmarriedon.thedole!’

Thereasonwhyclass-hatredseemstobediminishingis thatnowadaysittendsnottogetintoprint,partlyowingto

themealy-mouthedhabitsofourtime,partlybecausenewspapersandevenbooksnowhavetoappealtoaworkingclasspublic.Asaruleyoucanbeststudyitinprivateconversations.Butifyouwantsomeprintedexamples,itisworth havingalookattheobiterdictaofthelateProfessorSaintsbury.Saintsburywasaverylearnedmanandalongcertain linesajudiciousliterarycritic,butwhenhetalkedofpoliticaloreconomicmattersheonlydifferedfromtherestofhis classbythefactthathewastoothick-skinnedandhadbeen borntooearlytoseeanyreasonforpretendingtocommon decency.AccordingtoSaintsbury,unemploymentinsurance wassimply’contributingtothesupportoflazyne’er-doweels’,andthewholetradeunionmovementwasnomore thanakindoforganizedmendicancy:

’Pauper’isalmostactionablenow,isitnot,whenusedasa word?thoughtobepaupers,inthesenseofbeingwhollyor partlysupportedattheexpenseofotherpeople,istheardent, andtoaconsiderableextentachieved,aspirationofalarge proportionofourpopulation,andofanentirepoliticalparty.

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Itistobenoticed,however,thatSaintsburyrecognizesthat unemploymentisboundtoexist,and,infact,thinksthatit oughtto-.exist,solongastheunemployedaremadetosuffer asmuchaspossible:

Isnot’casual’labourtheverysecretandsafety-valveofa safeandsoundlabour-systemgenerally?

...Inacomplicatedindustrialandcommercialstateconstantemploymentatregularwagesisimpossible;whiledolesupportedunemployment,atanythinglikethewagesofemployment,isdemoralizingtobeginwithandruinousatits moreorlessquicklyarrivingend.

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Whatexactlyistohappentothe’casuallabourers’when nocasuallabourhappenstobeavailableisnotmadeclear. Presumably(Saintsburyspeaksapprovinglyof’goodPoor Laws’)theyaretogointothework-houseorsleepinthe streets.Astothenotionthateveryhumanbeingoughtas amatterofcoursetohavethechanceofearningatleasta tolerablelivelihood,Saintsburydismissesitwithcontempt:

Eventhe’righttolive’...extendsnofurtherthantheright toprotectionagainstmurder.Charitycertainlywill,morality possiblymay,andpublicutilityperhapsoughttoaddtothis protectionsupererogatoryprovisionforcontinuanceoflife; butitisquestionablewhetherstrictjusticedemandsit.

Asfortheinsanedoctrinethatbeingborninacountry givessomerighttothepossessionofthesoilofthatcountry, ithardlyrequiresnotice.

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Itisworthreﬂectingforamomentuponthebeautifulimplicationsofthislastpassage.Theinterestofpassageslike these(andtheyarescatteredallthroughSaintsbury’swork) liesintheirhavingbeenprintedatall.Mostpeoplearealittle shyofputtingthatkindofthingonpaper.ButwhatSaintsburyissayinghereiswhatanylittlewormwithafairlysafe ﬁvehundredayearthinks,andthereforeinawayonemust admirehimforsayingit.Ittakesalotofgutstobeopenly suchaskunkasthat.

Thisistheoutlookofaconfessedreactionary.Buthow aboutthemiddle-classpersonwhoseviewsarenotreactionarybut’advanced’?Beneathhisrevolutionarymask,is hereallysodifferentfromtheother?

Amiddle-classpersonembracesSocialismandperhaps evenjoinstheCommunistParty.Howmuchrealdifference doesitmake?Obviously,livingwithintheframeworkofcapitalistsociety,hehasgottogoonearninghisliving,andone cannotblamehimifheclingstohisbourgeoiseconomicstatus.Butisthereanychangeinhistastes,hishabits,hismanners,hisimaginativebackground–his’ideology’,inCommunistjargon?Isthereanychangeinhimexceptthathenow votesLabour,or,whenpossible,Communistattheelections? Itisnoticeablethathestillhabituallyassociateswithhisown class;heisvastlymoreathomewithamemberofhisown class,whothinkshimadangerousBolshie,thanwithamemberoftheworkingclasswhosupposedlyagreeswithhim;his tastesinfood,wine,clothes,books,pictures,music,ballet, arestillrecognizablybourgeoistastes;mostsigniﬁcantofall, heinvariablymarriesintohisownclass.LookatanybourgeoisSocialist.LookatComradeX,memberoftheC.P.G.B. andauthorofMarxismforInfants.ComradeX,itsohappens, isanoldEtonian.Hewouldbereadytodieonthebarricades, intheoryanyway,butyounoticethathestillleaveshisbottomwaistcoatbuttonundone.Heidealizestheproletariat, butitisremarkablehowlittlehishabitsresembletheirs.Perhapsonce,outofsheerbravado,hehassmokedacigarwith thebandon,butitwouldbealmostphysicallyimpossiblefor himtoputpiecesofcheeseintohismouthonthepointofhis knife,ortositindoorswithhiscapon,oreventodrinkhistea outofthesaucer.IhaveknownnumbersofbourgeoisSocialists,Ihavelistenedbythehourtotheirtiradesagainsttheir ownclass,andyetnever,notevenonce,haveImetonewho hadpickedupproletariantable-manners.Yet,afterall,why not?Whyshouldamanwhothinksallvirtueresidesinthe proletariatstilltakesuchpainstodrinkhissoupsilently?It canonlybebecauseinhishearthefeelsthatproletarianman-

nersaredisgusting.Soyouseeheisstillrespondingtothe trainingofhischildhood,whenhewastaughttohate,fear, anddespisetheworkingclass.

WHEN IwasfourteenorfifteenIwasanodiouslittlesnob, butnoworsethanotherboysofmyownageandclass. Isupposethereisnoplaceintheworldwheresnobberyis quitesoever-presentorwhereitiscultivatedinsuchrefined andsubtleformsasinanEnglishpublicschool.Hereatleast onecannotsaythatEnglish’education’failstodoitsjob.You forgetyourLatinandGreekwithinafewmonthsofleavingschool–IstudiedGreekforeightortenyears,andnow, atthirty-three,IcannotevenrepeattheGreekalphabet–but yoursnobbishness,unlessyoupersistentlyrootitoutlikethe bindweeditis,sticksbyyoutillyourgrave.AtschoolIwas inadifficultposition,forIwasamongboyswho,forthemost part,weremuchricherthanmyself,andIonlywenttoan expensivepublicschoolbecauseIhappenedtowinascholarship.Thisisthecommonexperienceofboysofthelowerupper-middleclass,thesonsofclergymen,Anglo-Indianofficials,etc.,andtheeffectsithadonmewereprobablythe usualones.Ontheonehanditmademeclingtighterthan evertomygentility;ontheotherhanditfilledmewithresentmentagainsttheboyswhoseparentswerericherthan mineandwhotookcaretoletmeknowit.Idespisedanyone whowasnotdescribableasa’gentleman’,butalsoIhatedthe hoggishlyrich,especiallythosewhohadgrownrichtoorecently.Thecorrectandelegantthing,Ifelt,wastobeofgentle birthbuttohavenomoney.Thisispartofthecredoofthe lower-upper-middleclass.Ithasaromantic,Jacobite-in-exile

feelingaboutitwhichisverycomforting.

Butthoseyears,duringandjustafterthewar,wereaqueer timetobeatschool,forEnglandwasnearerrevolutionthan shehasbeensinceorhadbeenforacenturyearlier.Throughoutalmostthewholenationtherewasrunningawaveofrevolutionaryfeelingwhichhassincebeenreversedandforgotten,butwhichhasleftvariousdepositsofsedimentbehind. Essentially,thoughofcourseonecouldnotthenseeitinperspective,itwasarevoltofyouthagainstage,resultingdirectlyfromthewar.Inthewartheyounghadbeensacrificed andtheoldhadbehavedinawaywhich,evenatthisdistance oftime,ishorribletocontemplate;theyhadbeensternlypatrioticinsafeplaceswhiletheirsonswentdownlikeswathes ofhaybeforetheGermanmachineguns.Moreover,thewar hadbeenconductedmainlybyoldmenandhadbeenconductedwithsupremeincompetence.By1918everyoneunderfortywasinabadtemperwithhiselders,andthemood ofanti-militarismwhichfollowednaturallyuponthefightingwasextendedintoageneralrevoltagainstorthodoxyand authority.Atthattimetherewas,amongtheyoung,acuriouscultofhatredof’oldmen’.Thedominanceof’oldmen’ washeldtoberesponsibleforeveryevilknowntohumanity,andeveryacceptedinstitutionfromScott’snovelstothe HouseofLordswasderidedmerelybecause’oldmen’were infavourofit.Forseveralyearsitwasallthefashionto bea’Bolshie’,aspeoplethencalledit.Englandwasfullof half-bakedantinomianopinions.Pacifism,internationalism, humanitarianismofallkinds,feminism,freelove,divorcereform,atheism,birth-control–thingsliketheseweregetting abetterhearingthantheywouldgetinnormaltimes.And ofcoursetherevolutionarymoodextendedtothosewhohad beentooyoungtofight,eventopublicschoolboys.Atthat timeweallthoughtofourselvesasenlightenedcreaturesof

anewage,castingofftheorthodoxythathadbeenforced uponusbythosedetested’oldmen’.Weretained,basically, thesnobbishoutlookofourclass,wetookitforgrantedthat wecouldcontinuetodrawourdividendsortumbleintosoft jobs,butalsoitseemednaturaltoustobe’agintheGovernment’.

WederidedtheO.T.C.,theChristianreligion,andperhaps evencompulsorygamesandtheRoyalFamily,andwedid notrealizethatweweremerelytakingpartinaworld-wide gestureofdistasteforwar.Twoincidentsstickinmymind asexamplesofthequeerrevolutionaryfeelingofthattime. OnedaythemasterwhotaughtusEnglishsetusakindof generalknowledgepaperofwhichoneofthequestionswas, ’Whomdoyouconsiderthetengreatestmennowliving?’Of sixteenboysintheclass(ouraverageagewasaboutseventeen)ﬁfteenincludedLeninintheirlist.Thiswasatasnobbishexpensivepublicschool,andthedatewas1920,when thehorrorsoftheRussianRevolutionwasstillfreshineveryone’smind.Alsothereweretheso-calledpeacecelebrations in1919.Oureldershaddecidedforusthatweshouldcelebratepeaceinthetraditionalmannerbywhoopingoverthe fallenfoe.Weweretomarchintotheschool-yard,carrying torches,andsingjingosongsofthetypeof’RuleBritannia’. Theboys–totheirhonour,Ithink–guyedthewholeproceedingandsangblasphemousandseditiouswordstothetunes provided.Idoubtwhetherthingswouldhappeninquitethat mannernow.CertainlythepublicschoolboysImeetnowadays,eventheintelligentones,aremuchmoreright-wing intheiropinionsthanIandmycontemporarieswereﬁfteen yearsago.

Hence,attheageofseventeenoreighteen,Iwasbotha snobandarevolutionary.Iwasagainstallauthority.Ihad readandre-readtheentirepublishedworksofShaw,Wells,

andGalsworthy(atthattimestillregardedasdangerously ’advanced’writers),andIlooselydescribedmyselfasaSocialist.ButIhadnotmuchgraspofwhatSocialismmeant, andnonotionthattheworkingclasswerehumanbeings. Atadistance,andthroughthemediumofbooks–JackLondon’sThePeopleoftheAbyss,forinstance–Icouldagonize overtheirsufferings,butIstillhatedthemanddespisedthem whenIcameanywherenearthem.Iwasstillrevoltedbytheir accentsandinfuriatedbytheirhabitualrudeness.Onemust rememberthatjustthen,immediatelyafterthewar,theEnglishworkingclasswereinaﬁghtingmood.Thatwasthe periodofthegreatcoalstrikes,whenaminerwasthoughtof asaﬁendincarnateandoldladieslookedundertheirbeds everynightlestRobertSmillieshouldbeconcealedthere.All throughthewarandforalittletimeafterwardstherehad beenhighwagesandabundantemployment;thingswere nowreturningtosomethingworsethannormal,andnaturallytheworkingclassresisted.Themenwhohadfought hadbeenluredintothearmybygaudypromises,andnow theywerecominghometoaworldwheretherewerenojobs andnotevenanyhouses.Moreover,theyhadbeenatwar andwerecominghomewiththesoldier’sattitudetolife, whichisfundamentally,inspiteofdiscipline,alawlessattitude.Therewasaturbulentfeelingintheair.Tothattime belongsthesongwiththememorablerefrain:

There’snothingsurebut Therichgetricherandthepoorgetchildren; Inthemeantime, Inbetweentime, Ain’twegotfun?

Peoplehadnotyetsettleddowntoalifetimeofunemploy-

mentmitigatedbyendlesscupsoftea.Theystillvaguely expectedtheUtopiaforwhichtheyhadfought,andeven morethanbeforetheywereopenlyhostiletotheaitchpronouncingclass.Sototheshock-absorbersofthebourgeoisie,suchasmyself,’commonpeople’stillappearedbrutalandrepulsive.Lookingbackuponthatperiod,Iseem tohavespenthalfthetimeindenouncingthecapitalistsystemandtheotherhalfinragingovertheinsolenceofbusconductors.

WhenIwasnotyettwentyIwenttoBurma,intheIndian ImperialPolice.Inan’outpostofEmpire’likeBurmathe class-questionappearedatﬁrstsighttohavebeenshelved. Therewasnoobviousclass-frictionhere,becausetheallimportantthingwasnotwhetheryouhadbeentooneofthe rightschoolsbutwhetheryourskinwastechnicallywhite. AsamatteroffactmostofthewhitemeninBurmawere notofthetypewhoinEnglandwouldbecalled’gentlemen’, butexceptforthecommonsoldiersandafewnondescripts theylivedlivesappropriateto’gentlemen’–hadservants,that is,andcalledtheireveningmeal’dinner’–andofﬁciallythey wereregardedasbeingallofthesameclass.Theywere ’whitemen’,incontradistinctiontotheotherandinferior class,the’natives’.Butonedidnotfeeltowardsthe’natives’ asonefeltto-wardsthe’lowerclasses’athome.Theessentialpointwasthatthe’natives’,atanyratetheBurmese,were notfelttobephysicallyrepulsive.Onelookeddownonthem as’natives’,butonewasquitereadytobephysicallyintimatewiththem;andthis,Inoticed,wasthecaseevenwith whitemenwhohadthemostviciouscolourprejudice.When youhavealotofservantsyousoongetintolazyhabits,and Ihabituallyallowedmyself,forinstance,tobedressedand undressedbymyBurmeseboy.Thiswasbecausehewasa Burmanandundisgusting;Icouldnothaveenduredtolet

anEnglishmanservanthandlemeinthatintimatemanner. IfelttowardsaBurmanalmostasIfelttowardsawoman. Likemostotherraces,theBurmesehaveadistinctivesmell–I cannotdescribeit:itisasmellthatmakesone’steethtingle –butthissmellneverdisgustedme.(Incidentally,Orientals saythatwesmell.TheChinese,Ibelieve,saythatawhite mansmellslikeacorpse.TheBurmesesaythesame–though noBurmanwaseverrudeenoughtosaysotome.)Andina waymyattitudewasdefensible,forifonefacesthefactone mustadmitthatmostMongolianshavemuchnicerbodies thanmostwhitemen.Comparetheﬁrm-knitsilkenskinof theBurman,whichdoesnotwrinkleatalltillheispastforty, andthenmerelywithersuplikeapieceofdryleather,with thecoarse-grained,ﬂabby,saggingskinofthewhiteman. Thewhitemanhaslankuglyhairgrowingdownhislegsand thebacksofhisarmsandinanuglypatchonhischest.The Burmanhasonlyatuftortwoofstiffblackhairattheappropriateplaces;fortherestheisquitehairlessandisusually beardlessaswell.Thewhitemanalmostalwaysgoesbald, theBurmanseldomornever.TheBurman’steethareperfect, thoughgenerallydiscolouredbybeteljuice,thewhiteman’s teethinvariablydecay.Thewhitemanisgenerallyill-shaped, andwhenhegrowsfathebulgesinimprobableplaces;the Mongolhasbeautifulbonesandinoldageheisalmostas shapelyasinyouth.Admittedlythewhiteracesthrowup afewindividualswhoforafewyearsaresupremelybeautiful;butonthewhole,saywhatyouwill,theyarefarless comelythanOrientals.ButitwasnotofthisthatIwasthinkingwhenIfoundtheEnglish’lowerclasses’somuchmore repellantthanBurmese’natives’.Iwasstillthinkinginterms ofmyearly-acquiredclass-prejudice.WhenIwasnotmuch pasttwentyIwasattachedforashorttimetoaBritishregiment.OfcourseIadmiredandlikedtheprivatesoldiers

asanyyouthoftwentywouldadmireandlikehefty,cheery youthsﬁveyearsolderthanhimselfwiththemedalsofthe GreatWarontheirchests.Andyet,afterall,theyfaintlyrepelledme;theywere’commonpeople’andIdidnotcareto betooclosetothem.Inthehotmorningswhenthecompany marcheddowntheroad,myselfintherearwithoneofthe juniorsubalterns,thesteamofthosehundredsweatingbodiesinfrontmademystomachturn.Andthis,youobserve, waspureprejudice.Forasoldierisprobablyasinoffensive, physically,asitispossibleforamalewhitepersontobe.He isgenerallyyoung,heisnearlyalwayshealthyfromfresh airandexercise,andarigorousdisciplinecompelshimtobe clean.ButIcouldnotseeitlikethat.AllIknewwasthatit waslower-classsweatthatIwassmelling,andthethoughtof itmademesick.

WhenlateronIgotridofmyclass-prejudice,orpartofit,it wasinaroundaboutwayandbyaprocessthattookseveral years.Thethingthatchangedmyattitudetotheclass-issue wassomethingonlyindirectlyconnectedwithit–something almostirrelevant.

IwasintheIndianPoliceﬁveyears,andbytheendofthat timeIhatedtheimperialismIwasservingwithabitterness whichIprobablycannotmakeclear.InthefreeairofEngland thatkindofthingisnotfullyintelligible.Inordertohateimperialismyouhavegottobepartofit.Seenfromtheoutside theBritishruleinIndiaappears–indeed,itis–benevolentand evennecessary;andsonodoubtaretheFrenchruleinMoroccoandtheDutchruleinBorneo,forpeopleusuallygovernforeignersbetterthantheygovernthemselves.Butitis notpossibletobeapartofsuchasystemwithoutrecognizingitasanunjustiﬁabletyranny.Eventhethickest-skinned Anglo-Indianisawareofthis.Every’native’faceheseesin thestreetbringshometohimhismonstrousintrusion.And

themajorityofAnglo-Indians,intermittentlyatleast,arenot nearlysocomplacentabouttheirpositionaspeopleinEnglandbelieve.Fromthemostunexpectedpeople,fromginpickledoldscoundrelshighupintheGovernmentservice,I haveheardsomesuchremarkas:’Ofcoursewe’venoright inthisblastedcountryatall.Onlynowwe’rehereforGod’s sakelet’sstayhere.’Thetruthisthatnomodemman,inhis heartofhearts,believesthatitisrighttoinvadeaforeign countryandholdthepopulationdownbyforce.Foreignoppressionisamuchmoreobvious,understandableevilthan economicoppression.ThusinEnglandwetamelyadmitto beingrobbedinordertokeephalfamillionworthlessidlers inluxury,butwewouldﬁghttothelastmansoonerthanbe rilledbyChinamen;similarly,peoplewholiveonunearned dividendswithoutasinglequalmofconscience,seeclearly enoughthatitiswrongtogoandlorditinaforeigncountry whereyouarenotwanted.TheresultisthateveryAngloIndianishauntedbyasenseofguiltwhichheusuallyconcealsasbesthecan,becausethereisnofreedomofspeech, andmerelytobeoverheardmakingaseditiousremarkmay damagehiscareer.AlloverIndiathereareEnglishmenwho secretlyloathethesystemofwhichtheyarepart;andjustoccasionally,whentheyarequitecertainofbeingintheright company,theirhiddenbitternessoverﬂows.Iremembera nightIspentonthetrainwithamanintheEducationalService,astrangertomyselfwhosenameIneverdiscovered.It wastoohottosleepandwespentthenightintalking.Half anhour’scautiousquestioningdecidedeachofusthatthe otherwas’safe’;andthenforhours,whilethetrainjolted slowlythroughthepitch-blacknight,sittingupinourbunks withbottlesofbeerhandy,wedamnedtheBritishEmpire–damneditfromtheinside,intelligentlyandintimately.Itdid usbothgood.Butwehadbeenspeakingforbiddenthings,

andinthehaggardmorninglightwhenthetraincrawledinto Mandalay,wepartedasguiltilyasanyadulterouscouple.

SofarasmyobservationgoesnearlyallAnglo-Indianofficialshavemomentswhentheirconsciencetroublesthem. Theexceptionsaremenwhoaredoingsomethingwhichis demonstrablyusefulandwouldstillhavetobedonewhether theBritishwereinIndiaornot:forestofficers,forinstance, anddoctorsandengineers.ButIwasinthepolice,whichis tosaythatIwaspartoftheactualmachineryofdespotism. Moreover,inthepoliceyouseethedirtyworkofEmpireat closequarters,andthereisanappreciabledifferencebetween doingdirtyworkandmerelyprofitingbyit.Mostpeople approveofcapitalpunishment,butmostpeoplewouldn’t dothehangman’sjob.EventheotherEuropeansinBurma slightlylookeddownonthepolicebecauseofthebrutalwork theyhadtodo.IrememberoncewhenIwasinspectingapolicestation,anAmericanmissionarywhomIknewfairlywell cameinforsomepurposeorother.LikemostNonconformist missionarieshewasacompleteassbutquiteagoodfellow. Oneofmynativesub-inspectorswasbullyingasuspect(IdescribedthissceneinBurmeseDays).TheAmericanwatched it,andthenturningtomesaidthoughtfully,’Iwouldn’tcare tohaveyourjob.’Itmademehorriblyashamed.Sothat wasthekindofjobIhad!EvenanassofanAmericanmissionary,ateetotalcock-virginfromtheMiddleWest,hadthe righttolookdownonmeandpityme!ButIshouldhave feltthesameshameeveniftherehadbeennoonetobringit hometome.Ihadbeguntohaveanindescribableloathing ofthewholemachineryofso-calledjustice.Saywhatyou will,purcriminallaw(farmorehumane,bytheway,inIndia thaninEngland)isahorriblething.Itneedsveryinsensitive peopletoadministerit.Thewretchedprisonerssquattingin thereekingcagesofthelock-ups,thegreycowedfacesofthe

long-termconvicts,thescarredbuttocksofthemenwhohad beenfloggedwithbamboos,thewomenandchildrenhowlingwhentheirmenfolkwereledawayunderarrest–things likethesearebeyondbearingwhenyouareinanywaydirectlyresponsibleforthem.Iwatchedamanhangedonce;it seemedtomeworsethanathousandmurders.Ineverwent intoajailwithoutfeeling(mostvisitorstojailsfeelthesame) thatmyplacewasontheothersideofthebars.Ithought then–Ithinknow,forthatmatter–thattheworstcriminalwho everwalkedismorallysuperiortoahangingjudge.Butof courseIhadtokeepthesenotionstomyself,becauseofthe almostuttersilencethatisimposedoneveryEnglishmanin theEast.IntheendIworkedoutananarchistictheorythat allgovernmentisevil,thatthepunishmentalwaysdoesmore harmthanthecrimeandthatpeoplecanbetrustedtobehave decentlyifonlyyouwillletthemalone.Thisofcoursewas sentimentalnonsense.IseenowasIdidnotseethen,thatit isalwaysnecessarytoprotectpeacefulpeoplefromviolence. Inanystateofsocietywherecrimecanbeprofitableyouhave gottohaveaharshcriminallawandadministeritruthlessly; thealternativeisAlCapone.Butthefeelingthatpunishment isevilarisesinescapablyinthosewhohavetoadministerit.I shouldexpecttofindthateveninEnglandmanypolicemen, judges,prisonwarders,andthelikearehauntedbyasecret horrorofwhattheydo.ButinBurmaitwasadoubleoppressionthatwewerecommitting.Notonlywerewehanging peopleandputtingtheminjailandsoforth;weweredoing itinthecapacityofunwantedforeigninvaders.TheBurmese themselvesneverreallyrecognizedourjurisdiction.Thethief whomweputinprisondidnotthinkofhimselfasacriminal justlypunished,hethoughtofhimselfasthevictimofaforeignconqueror.Thethingthatwasdonetohimwasmerely awantonmeaninglesscruelty.Hisface,behindthestoutteak

barsofthelock-upandtheironbarsofthejail,saidsoclearly. AndunfortunatelyIhadnottrainedmyselftobeindifferent totheexpressionofthehumanface.

WhenIcamehomeonleavein1927Iwasalreadyhalfdeterminedtothrowupmyjob,andonesniffofEnglishair decidedme.Iwasnotgoingbacktobeapartofthatevil despotism.ButIwantedmuchmorethanmerelytoescape frommyjob.ForfiveyearsIhadbeenpartofanoppressive system,andithadleftmewithabadconscience.Innumerablerememberedfaces–facesofprisonersinthedock,ofmen waitinginthecondemnedcells,ofsubordinatesIhadbullied andagedpeasantsIhadsnubbed,ofservantsandcooliesI hadhitwithmyfistinmomentsofrage(nearlyeveryone doesthesethingsintheEast,atanyrateoccasionally:Orientalscanbeveryprovoking)–hauntedmeintolerably.Iwas consciousofanimmenseweightofguiltthatIhadgottoexpiate.Isupposethatsoundsexaggerated;butifyoudofor fiveyearsajobthatyouthoroughlydisapproveof,youwill probablyfeelthesame.Ihadreducedeverythingtothesimpletheorythattheoppressedarealwaysrightandtheoppressorsarealwayswrong:amistakentheory,butthenaturalresultofbeingoneoftheoppressorsyourself.IfeltthatI hadgottoescapenotmerelyfromimperialismbutfromeveryformofman’sdominionoverman.Iwantedtosubmerge myself,togetrightdownamongtheoppressed,tobeoneof themandontheirsideagainsttheirtyrants.And,chieflybecauseIhadhadto.thinkeverythingoutinsolitude,Ihad carriedmyhatredofoppressiontoextraordinarylengths.At thattimefailureseemedtometobetheonlyvirtue.Every suspicionofself-advancement,evento’succeed’inlifetothe extentofmakingafewhundredsayear,seemedtomespirituallyugly,aspeciesofbullying.

ItwasinthiswaythatmythoughtsturnedtowardstheEn-

glishworkingclass.ItwastheﬁrsttimethatIhadeverbeen reallyawareoftheworkingclass,andtobeginwithitwas onlybecausetheysuppliedananalogy.Theywerethesymbolicvictimsofinjustice,playingthesamepartinEnglandas theBurmeseplayedinBurma.InBurmatheissuehadbeen quitesimple.Thewhiteswereupandtheblacksweredown, andthereforeasamatterofcourseone’ssympathywaswith theblacks.Inowrealizedthattherewasnoneedtogoasfar asBurmatoﬁndtyrannyandexploitation.HereinEngland, downunderone’sfeet,werethesubmergedworkingclass, sufferingmiserieswhichintheirdifferentwaywereasbad asanyanOrientaleverknows.Theword’unemployment’ wasoneveryone’slips.Thatwasmoreorlessnewtome, afterBurma,butthedriyelwhichthemiddleclasseswere stilltalking(’Theseunemployedareallunemployables’,etc., etc.)failedtodeceiveme.Ioftenwonderwhetherthatkind ofstuffdeceiveseventhefoolswhoutterit.Ontheother handIhadatthattimenointerestinSocialismoranyother economictheory.Itseemedtomethen–itsometimesseems tomenow,forthatmatter–thateconomicinjusticewillstop themomentwewantittostop,andnosooner,andifwegenuinelywantittostopthemethodadoptedhardlymatters.

ButIknewnothingaboutworking-classconditions.Ihad readtheunemploymentﬁguresbutIhadnonotionofwhat theyimplied;aboveall,Ididnotknowtheessentialfactthat ’respectable’povertyisalwaystheworst.Thefrightfuldoom ofadecentworkingmansuddenlythrownonthestreetsafteralifetimeofsteadywork,hisagonizedstrugglesagainst economiclawswhichhedoesnotunder-stand,thedisintegrationoffamilies,thecorrodingsenseofshame–allthis wasoutsidetherangeofmyexperience.WhenIthoughtof povertyIthoughtofitintermsofbrutestarvation.Therefore mymindturnedimmediatelytowardstheextremecases,the

socialoutcasts:tramps,beggars,criminals,prostitutes.These were’thelowestofthelow’,andthesewerethepeoplewith whomIwantedtogetincontact.WhatIprofoundlywanted, atthattime,wastoﬁndsomewayofgettingoutoftherespectableworldaltogether.Imeditateduponitagreatdeal, Ievenplannedpartsofitindetail;howonecouldselleverything,giveeverythingaway,changeone’snameandstart outwithnomoneyandnothingbuttheclothesonestood upin.Butinreallifenobodyeverdoesthatkindofthing; apartfromtherelativesandfriendswhohavetobeconsidered,itisdoubtfulwhetheraneducatedmancoulddoitif therewereanyothercourseopentohim.ButatleastIcould goamongthesepeople,seewhattheirliveswerelikeand feelmyselftemporarilypartoftheirworld.OnceIhadbeen amongthemandacceptedbythem,Ishouldhavetouched bottom,and–thisiswhatIfelt:Iwasawareeventhenthatit wasirrational–partofmyguiltwoulddropfromme.

IthoughtitoveranddecidedwhatIwoulddo.Iwouldgo suitablydisguisedtoLimehouseandWhitechapelandsuch placesandsleepincommonlodging-housesandpalupwith docklabourers,streethawkers,derelictpeople,beggars,and, ifpossible,criminals.AndIwouldﬁndoutabouttrampsand howyougotintouchwiththemandwhatwastheproper procedureforenteringthecasualward;andthen,whenIfelt thatIknewtheropeswellenough,Iwouldgoontheroad myself.

Atthestartitwasnoteasy.Itmeantmasqueradingand Ihavenotalentforacting.Icannot,forinstance,disguise myaccent,atanyratenotformorethanaveryfewminutes.Iimagined–noticethefrightfulclass-conscious-nessof theEnglishman–thatIshouldbespottedasa’gentleman’the momentIopenedmymouth;soIhadahardluckstoryready incaseIshouldbequestioned,Igotholdoftherightkindof

clothesanddirtiedtheminappropriateplaces.Iamadifﬁcultpersontodisguise,beingabnormallytall,butIdidat leastknowwhatatramplookslike.(Howfewpeopledo knowthis,bytheway!Lookatanypictureofatrampin Punch.Theyarealwaystwentyyearsoutofdate.)One evening,havingmadereadyatafriend’shouse,Isetoutand wanderedeastwardtillIlandedupatacommonlodginghouseinLimehouseCause-way.Itwasadark,dirty-looking place.Iknewitwasacommonlodging-housebythesign ’GoodBedsforSingleMen’inthewindow.Heavens,howI hadtoscrewupmycouragebeforeIwentin!Itseemsridiculousnow.ButyouseeIwasstillhalfafraidoftheworking class.Iwantedtogetintouchwiththem,Ievenwanted tobecomeoneofthem,butIstillthoughtofthemasalien anddangerous;goingintothedarkdoorwayofthatcommonlodging-houseseemedtomelikegoingdownintosome dreadfulsubterraneanplace–asewerfullofrats,forinstance. Iwentinfullyexpectingaﬁght.Thepeoplewouldspotthat IwasnotoneofthemselvesandimmediatelyinferthatIhad cometospyonthem;andthentheywouldsetuponmeand throwmeout–thatwaswhatIexpected.IfeltthatIhadgot todoit,butIdidnotenjoytheprospect.

Insidethedooramaninshirt-sleevesappearedfromsomewhereorother.Thiswasthe’deputy’,andItoldhimthatI wantedabedforthenight.Myaccentdidnotmakehim stare,Inoticed;hemerelydemandedninepenceandthen showedmethewaytoafrowsyﬁrelitkitchenunderground. Therewerestevedoresandnavviesandafewsailorssitting aboutandplayingdraughtsanddrinkingtea.Theybarely glancedatmeasIentered.ButthiswasSaturdaynightand aheftyyoungstevedorewasdrunkandwasreelingabout theroom.Heturned,sawme,andlurchedtowardsme withbroadredfacethrustoutandadangerous-lookingﬁshy

gleaminhiseyes.Istiffenedmyself.Sotheﬁghtwascomingalready!Thenextmomentthestevedorecollapsedonmy chestandﬂunghisarmsroundmyneck.”Aveacupoftea, chum!’hecriedtear-fully;”aveacupoftea!’

Ihadacupoftea.Itwasakindofbaptism.Afterthatmy fearsvanished.Nobodyquestionedme,nobodyshowedoffensivecuriosity;everybodywaspoliteandgentleandtook meutterlyforgranted.Istayedtwoorthreedaysinthatcommonlodging-house,andafewweekslater,havingpickedup acertainamountofinformationaboutthehabitsofdestitute people,Iwentontheroadfortheﬁrsttime.

IhavedescribedallthisinDownandOutinParisand London(nearlyalltheincidentsdescribedthereactuallyhappened,thoughtheyhavebeenrearranged)andIdonotwant torepeatit.LaterIwentontheroadformuchlongerperiods,sometimesfromchoice,sometimesfromnecessity.I havelivedincommonlodging-housesformonthstogether. Butitisthatﬁrstexpeditionthatsticksmostvividlyinmy mind,becauseofthestrangenessofit–thestrangenessofbeingatlastdownthereamong’thelowestofthelow’,andon termsofutterequalitywithworking-classpeople.Atramp, itistrue,isnotatypicalworking-classperson;still,whenyou areamongtrampsyouareatanyratemergedinonesection–onesub-caste–oftheworkingclass,athingwhichsofarasI knowcanhappentoyouinnootherway.ForseveraldaysI wanderedthroughthenorthernoutskirtsofLondonwithan Irishtramp.Iwashismate,temporarily.Wesharedthesame cellatnight,andhetoldmethehistoryofhislifeandItold himaﬁctitioushistoryofmine,andwetookitinturnstobeg atlikely-lookinghousesanddivideduptheproceeds.Iwas veryhappy.HereIwas;among’thelowestofthelow’,atthe bedrockoftheWesternworld!Theclass-barwasdown,or seemedtobedown.Anddownthereinthesqualidand,asa

matteroffact,horriblyboringsub-worldofthetrampIhad afeelingofrelease,ofadventure,whichseemsabsurdwhen Ilookback,butwhichwassufﬁcientlyvividatthetime.

BUT unfortunatelyyoudonotsolvetheclassproblemby makingfriendswithtramps.Atmostyougetridofsome ofyourownclass-prejudicebydoingso.Tramps,beggars, criminals,andsocialoutcastsgenerallyareveryexceptional beingsandnomoretypicaloftheworkingclassasawhole than,say,theliteraryintelligentsiaaretypicalofthebourgeoisie.Itisquiteeasytobeontermsofintimacywitha foreign’intellectual’,butitisnotatalleasytobeontermsof intimacywithanordinaryrespectableforeignerofthemiddleclass.HowmanyEnglishmenhaveseentheinsideofan ordinaryFrenchbourgeoisfamily,forinstance?Probablyit wouldbequiteimpossibletodoso,shortofmarryinginto it.AnditisrathersimilarwiththeEnglishworkingclass. Nothingiseasierthantobebosompalswithapickpocket,if youknowwheretolookforhim;butitisverydifﬁculttobe bosompalswithabricklayer.

Butwhyisitsoeasytobeonequaltermswithsocialoutcasts?Peoplehaveoftensaidtome,’Surelywhenyouare withthetrampstheydon’treallyacceptyouasoneofthemselves?Surelytheynoticethatyouaredifferent–noticethe differenceofaccent?’etc.,etc.Asamatteroffact,afair proportionoftramps,welloveraquarterIshouldsay,noticenothingofthekind.Tobeginwith,manypeoplehave noearforaccentandjudgeyouentirelybyyourclothes.I wasoftenstruckbythisfactwhenIwasbeggingatback doors.Somepeoplewereobviouslysurprisedbymy’edu-

cated’accent,otherscompletelyfailedtonoticeit;Iwasdirty andraggedandthatwasalltheysaw.Again,trampscome fromallpartsoftheBritishIslesandthevariationinEnglish accentsisenormous.Atrampisusedtohearingallkindsof accentsamonghismates,someofthemsostrangetohimthat hecanhardlyunderstandthem,andamanfrom,say,Cardiff orDurhamorDublindoesnotnecessarilyknowwhichofthe southEnglishaccentsisan’educated’one.Inanycasemen with’educated’accents,thoughrareamongtramps,arenot unknown.Butevenwhentrampsareawarethatyouareof differentoriginfromthemselves,itdoesnotnecessarilyalter theirattitude.Fromtheirpointofviewallthatmattersisthat you,likethemselves,are’onthebum’.Andinthatworlditis notdonetoasktoomanyquestions.Youcantellpeoplethe historyofyourlifeifyouchoose,andmosttrampsdosoon thesmallestprovocation,butyouareundernocompulsion totellitandwhateverstoryyoutellwillbeacceptedwithoutquestion.Evenabishopcouldbeathomeamongtramps ifheworetherightclothes;andeveniftheyknewhewasa bishopitmightnotmakeanydifference,providedthatthey alsokneworbelievedthathewasgenuinelydestitute.Once youareinthatworldandseeminglyofit,ithardlymatters whatyouhavebeeninthepast.Itisasortofworld-within-aworldwhereeveryoneisequal,asmallsqualiddemocracy— perhapsthenearestthingtoademocracythatexistsinEngland.

Butwhenyoucometothenormalworkingclassthepositionistotallydifferent.Tobeginwith,thereisnoshortcut intotheirmidst.Youcanbecomeatrampsimplybyputting ontherightclothesandgoingtothenearestcasualward,but youcan’tbecomeanavvyoracoal-miner.Youcouldn’tget ajobasanavvyoracoal-minerevenifyouwereequalto thework.ViaSocialistpoliticsyoucangetintouchwiththe

working-classintelligentsia,buttheyarehardlymoretypical thantrampsorburglars.Fortherestyoucanonlymingle withtheworkingclassbystayingintheirhousesasalodger, whichalwayshasadangerousresemblanceto’slumming’. ForsomemonthsIlivedentirelyincoal-miners’houses.I atemymealswiththefamily,Iwashedatthekitchensink,I sharedbedroomswithminers,drankbeerwiththem,played dartswiththem,talkedtothembythehourtogether.But thoughIwasamongthem,andIhopeandtrusttheydidnot findmeanuisance,Iwasnotoneofthem,andtheyknewit evenbetterthanIdid.Howevermuchyoulikethem,howeverinterestingyoufindtheirconversation,thereisalways thataccurseditchofclass-difference,likethepeaunderthe princess’smattress.Itisnotaquestionofdislikeordistaste, onlyofdifference,butitisenoughtomakerealintimacy impossible.Evenwithminerswhodescribedthemselvesas CommunistsIfoundthatitneededtactfulmanoeuvringsto preventthemfromcallingme’sir’;andallofthem,exceptin momentsofgreatanimation,softenedtheirnorthernaccents formybenefit.Ilikedthemandhopedtheylikedme;butI wentamongthemasaforeigner,andbothofuswereaware ofit.Whicheverwayyouturnthiscurseofclass-difference confrontsyoulikeawallofstone.Orratheritisnotsomuch likeastonewallastheplate-glasspaneofanaquarium;itis soeasytopretendthatitisn’tthere,andsoimpossibletoget throughit.

Unfortunatelyitisnowadaysthefashiontopretendthat theglassispenetrable.Ofcourseeveryoneknowsthatclassprejudiceexists,butatthesametimeeveryoneclaimsthathe, insomemysteriousway,isexemptfromit.Snob-bishnessis oneofthoseviceswhichwecandiscerninevery-oneelsebut’ neverinourselves.NotonlythecroyantetpratiquantSocialist,butevery’intellectual’takesitasamatterofcoursethat

heatleastisoutsidetheclass-racket;he,unlikehisneighbours,canseethroughtheabsurdityofwealth,ranks,titles, etc.,etc.’I’mnotasnob’isnowadaysakindofuniversal credo.WhoistherewhohasnotjeeredattheHouseofLords, themilitarycaste,theRoyalFamily,thepublicschools,the huntin’andshootin’people,theoldladiesinCheltenham boarding-houses,thehorrorsof’county’society,andthesocialhierarchygenerally?Todosohasbecomeanautomatic gesture.Younoticethisparticularlyinnovels.Everynovelistofseriouspretensionsadoptsanironicattitudetowards hisupper-classcharacters.Indeedwhenanovelisthasto putadeﬁnitelyupper-classperson–adukeorabaronetor whatnot–intooneofhisstoriesheguyshimmoreorlessinstinctively.Thereisanimportantsubsidiarycauseofthisin thepovertyofthemodernupper-classdialect.Thespeech of’educated’peopleisnowsolifelessandcharacterlessthat anovelistcandonothingwithit.Byfartheeasiestwayof makingitamusingistoburlesqueit,whichmeanspretendingthateveryupper-classpersonisanineffectualass.The trickisimitatedfromnovelisttonovelist,andintheendbecomesalmostareﬂexaction.

Andyetallthewhile,atthebottomofhisheart,everyoneknowsthatthisishumbug.Weallrailagainstclassdistinctions,butveryfewpeopleseriouslywanttoabolish them.Hereyoucomeupontheimportantfactthateveryrevolutionaryopiniondrawspartofitsstrengthfromasecret convictionthatnothingcanbechanged.

Ifyouwantagoodillustrationofthis,itisworthstudying thenovelsandplaysofJohnGalsworthy,keepingoneeye ontheirchronology.Galsworthyisaveryﬁnespecimenof thethin-skinned,tear-in-the-eye,pre-warhumanitarian.He startsoutwithamorbidpity-complexwhichextendsevento thinkingthateverymarriedwomanisanangelchainedto

asatyr.Heisinaperpetualquiverofindignationoverthe sufferingsofoverworkedclerks,ofunder-paidfarmhands, offallenwomen,ofcriminals,ofprostitutes,ofanimals.The world,asheseesitinhisearlierbooks(TheManofProperty, Justice,etc.),isdividedintooppressorsandoppressed,with theoppressorssittingontoplikesomemonstrousstoneidol whichallthedynamiteintheworldcannotoverthrow.Butis itsocertainthathereallywantsitoverthrown?Onthecontrary,inhisﬁghtagainstanimmovabletyrannyheisupheld bytheconsciousnessthatitisimmovable.Whenthingshappenunexpectedlyandtheworld-orderwhichhehasknown beginstocrumble,hefeelssomewhatdifferentlyaboutit.So, havingsetouttobethechampionoftheunderdogagainst tyrannyandinjustice,heendsbyadvocating(videTheSilver Spoon)thattheEnglishworkingclass,tocuretheireconomic ills,shallbedeportedtothecolonieslikebatchesofcattle.If hehadlivedtenyearslongerhewouldquiteprobablyhave arrivedatsomegenteelversionofFascism.Thisistheinevitablefateofthesentimentalist.Allhisopinionschange intotheiroppositesattheﬁrstbrushofreality.

Thesamestreakofsoggyhalf-bakedinsincerityruns throughall’advanced’opinion.Takethequestionofimperialism,forinstance.Everyleft-wing’intellectual’is,asa matterofcourse,ananti-imperialist.Heclaimstobeoutside theempire-racketasautomaticallyandself-righteouslyashe claimstobeoutsidetheclass-racket.Eventheright-wing’intellectual’,whoisnotdeﬁnitelyinrevoltagainstBritishimperialism,pretendstoregarditwithasortofamuseddetachment.ItissoeasytobewittyabouttheBritishEmpire.The WhiteMan’sBurdenand’Rule,Britannia’andKipling’snovelsandAnglo-Indianbores–whocouldevenmentionsuch thingswithoutasnigger?Andisthereanyculturedpersonwhohasnotatleastonceinhislifemadeajokeabout

thatoldIndianhavildarwhosaidthatiftheBritishleftIndiatherewouldnotbearupeeoravirginleftbetweenPeshawarandDelhi(orwhereveritwas)?Thatistheattitude ofthetypicalleft-wingertowardsimperialism,andathoroughlyﬂabby,bonelessattitudeitis.Forinthelastresort, theonlyimportantquestionis.DoyouwanttheBritishEmpiretoholdtogetherordoyouwantittodisintegrate?Andat thebottomofhisheartnoEnglishman,leastofallthekindof personwhoiswittyaboutAnglo-Indiancolonels,doeswant ittodisintegrate.For,apartfromanyotherconsideration, thehighstandardoflifeweenjoyinEnglanddependsupon ourkeepingatightholdontheEmpire,particularlythetropicalportionsofitsuchasIndiaandAfrica.Underthecapitalistsystem,inorderthatEnglandmayliveincomparative comfort,ahundredmillionIndiansmustliveontheverge ofstarvation–anevilstateofaffairs,butyouacquiesceinit everytimeyoustepintoataxioreataplateofstrawberries andcream.ThealternativeistothrowtheEmpireoverboard andreduceEnglandtoacoldandunimportantlittleisland whereweshouldallhavetoworkveryhardandlivemainly onherringsandpotatoes.Thatistheverylastthingthatany left-wingerwants.Yettheleft-wingercontinuestofeelthat hehasnomoralresponsibilityforimperialism.HeisperfectlyreadytoaccepttheproductsofEmpireandtosavehis soulbysneeringatthepeoplewhoholdtheEmpiretogether.

Itisatthispointthatonebeginstograsptheunrealityof mostpeople’sattitudetowardstheclassquestion.Solong asitismerelyaquestionofamelioratingtheworker’slot, everydecentpersonisagreed.Takeacoal-miner,forexample.Everyone,barringfoolsandscoundrels,wouldliketo seetheminerbetteroff.If,forinstance,theminercouldride tothecoalfaceinacomfortabletrolleyinsteadofcrawling onhishandsandknees,ifhecouldworkathree-hourshift

insteadofsevenandahalfhours,ifhecouldliveinadecenthousewithﬁvebedroomsandabath-roomandhaveten poundsaweekwages–splendid!Moreover,anyonewhouses hisbrainknowsperfectlywellthatthisiswithintherangeof possibility.Theworld,potentiallyatleast,isimmenselyrich; developitasitmightbedeveloped,andwecouldalllive likeprinces,supposingthatwewantedto.Andtoaverysuperﬁcialglancethesocialsideofthequestionlooksequally simple.Inasenseitistruethatalmosteveryonewouldlike toseeclass-distinctionsabolished.Obviouslythisperpetual uneasinessbetweenmanandman,fromwhichwesufferin modernEngland,isacurseandanuisance.Hencethetemptationfewscoutmasterishbellowsofgood-will.Stopcalling me’sir’,youchaps!Surelywe’reallmen?Let’spalupand getourshoulderstothewheelandrememberthatwe’reall equal,andwhatthedevildoesitmatterifIknowwhatkind oftiestowearandyoudon’t,andIdrinkmysoupcomparativelyquietlyandyoudrinkyourswiththenoiseofwater goingdownawaste-pipe–andsoonandsoonandsoon;all ofitthemostperniciousrubbish,butquitealluringwhenit issuitablyexpressed.

Butunfortunatelyyougetnofurtherbymerelywishing class-distinctionsaway.Moreexactly,itisnecessarytowish themaway,butyourwishhasnoefﬁcacyunlessyougrasp whatitinvolves.Thefactthathasgottobefacedisthat toabolishclass-distinctionsmeansabolishingapartofyourself.HereamI,atypicalmemberofthemiddleclass.Itis easyformetosaythatIwanttogetridofclass-distinctions, butnearlyeverythingIthinkanddoisaresultofclassdistinctions.Allmynotions–notionsofgoodandevil,of pleasantandunpleasant,offunnyandserious,ofuglyand beautiful–areessentiallymiddle-classnotions;mytastein booksandfoodandclothes,mysenseofhonour,mytable

manners,myturnsofspeech,myaccent,eventhecharacteristicmovementsofmybody,aretheproductsofaspecial kindofupbringingandaspecialnicheabouthalf-wayupthe socialhierarchy.WhenIgraspthisIgraspthatitisnouse clappingaproletarianonthebackandtellinghimthatheis asgoodamanasIam;ifIwantrealcontactwithhim,Ihave gottomakeaneffortforwhichverylikelyIamunprepared. Fortogetoutsidetheclass-racketIhavegottosuppressnot merelymyprivatesnobbishness,butmostofmyothertastes andprejudicesaswell.IhavegottoaltermyselfsocompletelythatattheendIshouldhardlyberecognizableasthe sameperson.Whatisinvolvedisnotmerelytheamelioration ofworking-classconditions,noranavoidanceofthemore stupidformsofsnobbery,butacompleteabandonmentofthe upper-classandmiddle-classattitudetolife.AndwhetherI sayYesorNoprobablydependsupontheextenttowhichI graspwhatisdemandedofme.

Manypeople,however,imaginethattheycanabolishclassdistinctionswithoutmakinganyuncomfortablechangein theirownhabitsand’ideology’.Hencetheeagerclassbreakingactivitieswhichonecanseeinprogressonallsides. Everywheretherearepeopleofgoodwillwhoquitehonestly believethattheyareworkingfortheoverthrowofclassdistinctions.Themiddle-classSocialistenthusesoverthe proletariatandruns’summerschools’wheretheproletarian andtherepentantbourgeoisaresupposedtofalluponone another’snecksandbebrothersforever;andthebourgeois visitorscomeawaysayinghowwonderfulandinspiringit hasallbeen(theproletarianonescomeawaysayingsomethingdifferent).Andthenthereistheouter-suburbancreepingJesus,ahangoverfromtheWilliamMorrisperiod,but stillsurprisinglycommon,whogoesaboutsaying’Whymust weleveldown?Whynotlevelup?’andproposestolevelthe

workingclass’up’(uptohisownstandard)bymeansofhygiene,fruit-juice,birth-control,poetry,etc.EventheDukeof York(nowKingGeorgeVI)runsayearlycampwherepublicschoolboysandboysfromtheslumsaresupposedtomixon exactlyequalterms,anddomixforthetimebeing,rather liketheanimalsinoneofthose’HappyFamily’cageswhere adog,acat,twoferrets,arabbit,andthreecanariespreserve anarmedtrucewhiletheshowman’seyeisonthem.

Allsuchdeliberate,consciouseffortsatclass-breakingare, Iamconvinced,averyseriousmistake.Sometimestheyare merelyfutile,butwheretheydoshowadefiniteresultitis usuallytointensifyclass-prejudice.This,ifyoucometothink ofit,isonlywhatmightbeexpected.Youhaveforcedthe paceandsetupanuneasy,unnaturalequalitybetweenclass andclass;theresultantfrictionbringstothesurfaceallkinds offeelingsthatmightother-wisehaveremainedburied,perhapsforever.AsIsaidaproposofGalsworthy,theopinionsofthesentimentalistchangeintotheiroppositesatthe firsttouchofreality.Scratchtheaveragepacifistandyou findajingo.Themiddle-classI.L.P.’erandthebeardedfruitjuicedrinkerareallforaclasslesssocietysolongastheysee theproletariatthroughthewrongendofthetelescope;force themintoanyrealcontactwithaproletarian–letthemget intoafightwithadrunkenfish-porteronSaturdaynight, forinstance–andtheyarecapableofswingingbacktothe mostordinarymiddle-classsnobbishness.Mostmiddle-class Socialists,however,areveryunlikelytogetintofightswith drunkenfish-porters;whentheydomakeagenuinecontact withtheworkingclass,itisusuallywiththeworking-class intelligentsia.Buttheworking-classintelligentsiaissharply divisibleintotwodifferenttypes.Thereisthetypewhoremainsworking-class–whogoesonworkingasamechanicor adock-labourerorwhateveritmaybeanddoesnotbother

tochangehisworking-classaccentandhabits,butwho’improveshismind’inhissparetimeandworksfortheI.L.P. ortheCommunistParty;andthereisthetypewhodoesalterhiswayoflife,atleastexternally,andwhobymeansof Statescholarshipssucceedsinclimbingintothemiddleclass. Theﬁrstisoneoftheﬁnesttypesofmanwehave.Ican thinkofsomeIhavemetwhomnoteventhemosthidebound Torycouldhelplikingandadmiring.Theothertype,with exceptions–D.H.Lawrence,forexample–islessadmirable.

Tobeginwith,itisapity,thoughitisanaturalresultofthe scholarshipsystem,thattheproletariatshouldtendtointerpenetratethemiddleclassviatheliteraryintelligentsia.For itisnoteasytocrashyourwayintotheliteraryintelligentsia ifyouhappentobeadecenthumanbeing.ThemodemEnglishliteraryworld,atanyratethehigh-browsectionofit,is asortofpoisonousjunglewhereonlyweedscanflourish.Itis justpossibletobealiterarygentandtokeepyourdecencyif youareadefinitelypopularwriter–awriterofdetectivestories,forinstance;buttobeahighbrow,withafootinginthe snootiermagazines,meansdeliveringyourselfovertohorriblecampaignsofwire-pullingandbackstairs-crawling.In thehighbrowworldyou’geton’,ifyou’geton’atall,notso muchbyyourliteraryabilityasbybeingthelifeandsoulof cocktailpartiesandkissingthebumsofverminouslittlelions.This,then,istheworldthatmostreadilyopensitsdoors totheproletarianwhoisclimbingoutofhisownclass.The ’clever’boyofaworking-classfamily,thesortofboywho winsscholarshipsandisobviouslynotfittedforalifeofmanuallabour,mayfindotherwaysofrisingintotheclassabove–aslightlydifferenttype,forinstance,risesviaLabourParty politics–buttheliterarywayisbyfarthemostusual.LiteraryLondonnowteemswithyoungmenwhoareofproletarianoriginandhavebeeneducatedbymeansofscholarships.

Manyofthemareverydisagreeablepeople,quiteunrepresentativeoftheirclass,anditismostunfortunatethatwhen apersonofbourgeoisorigindoessucceedinmeetingaproletarianfacetofaceonequalterms,thisisthetypehemost commonlymeets.Fortheresultistodrivethebourgeois, whohasidealizedtheproletariatsolongasheknewnothing aboutthem,backintofrenziesofsnobbishness.Theprocess issometimesverycomictowatch,ifyouhappentobewatchingitfromtheoutside.Thepoorwell-meaningbourgeois, eagertoembracehisproletarianbrother,leapsforwardwith openarms;andonlyalittlewhilelaterheisinretreat,minus aborrowedﬁvepoundsandexclaimingdolefully,’But,dash it,thefellow’snotagentleman!’

Thethingthatdisconcertsthebourgeoisinacontactofthis kindistoﬁndcertainofhisownprofessionsbeingtakenseriously.Ihavepointedoutthattheleft-wingopinionsofthe average’intellectual’aremainlyspurious.Frompureimitativenesshejeersatthingswhichinfacthebelievesin.As oneexampleoutofmany,takethepublic-schoolcodeofhonour,withits’teamspirit’and’Don’thitamanwhenhe’s down’,andalltherestofthatfamiliarbunkum.Whohasnot laughedatit?Who,callinghimselfan’intellectual’,would darenottolaughatit?Butitisabitdifferentwhenyou meetsomebodywholaughsatitfromtheoutside;justas wespendourlivesinabusingEnglandbutgrowveryangrywhenwehearaforeignersayingexactlythesamethings. Noonehasbeenmoreamusingaboutthepublicschoolsthan ’Beachcomber’oftheExpress.Helaughs,quiterightly,atthe ridiculouscodewhichmakescheatingatcardstheworstof allsins.Butwould’Beachcomber’likeitifoneofhisown friendswascaughtcheatingatcards?Idoubtit.Itisonly whenyoumeetsomeoneofadifferentculturefromyourself thatyoubegintorealizewhatyourownbeliefsreallyare.If

youareabourgeois’intellectual’youtooreadilyimaginethat youhavesomehowbecomeunbourgeoisbecauseyouﬁnd iteasytolaughatpatriotismandtheG.ofE.andtheOld SchoolTieandColonelBlimpandalltherestofit.Butfrom thepointofviewoftheproletarian’intellectual’,whoatleast byoriginisgenuinelyoutsidethebourgeoisculture,yourresemblancestoColonelBlimpmaybemoreimportantthan yourdifferences.VerylikelyhelooksuponyouandColonel Blimpaspracticallyequivalentpersons;andinawayheis right,thoughneitheryounorColonelBlimpwouldadmitit. Sothatthemeetingofproletarianandbourgeois,whenthey dosucceedinmeeting,isnotalwaystheembraceoflong-lost brothers;toooftenitistheclashofaliencultureswhichcan onlymeetinwar.

Ihavebeenlookingatthisfromthepointofviewof thebourgeoiswhofindshissecretbeliefschallengedandis drivenbacktoafrightenedconservatism.Butonehasalso gottoconsidertheantagonismthatisarousedintheproletarian’intellectual’.Byhisowneffortsandsometimeswith frightfulagonieshehasstruggledoutofhisownclassinto anotherwhereheexpectstofindawiderfreedomanda greaterintellectualrefinement;andallhefinds,veryoften, isasortofhollowness,adeadness,alackofanywarmhumanfeeling–ofanyreallifewhatever.Sometimesthebourgeoisieseemtohimjustdummieswithmoneyandwaterin theirveinsinsteadofblood.Thisatanyrateiswhathesays, andalmostanyyounghighbrowofproletarianoriginwill spinyouthislineoftalk.Hencethe’proletarian’cantfrom whichwenowsuffer.Everyoneknows,oroughttoknowby thistime,howitruns:thebourgeoisieare’dead’(afavourite wordofabusenowadaysandveryeffectivebe-causemeaningless),bourgeoiscultureisbankrupt,bourgeois’values’are despicable,andsoonandsoforth;ifyouwantexamples,see

anynumberoftheLeftRevieworanyoftheyoungerCommunistwriterssuchasAleeBrown,PhilipHenderson,etc. Thesincerityofmuchofthisissuspect,butD.H.Lawrence, whowassincere,whateverelsehemaynothavebeen,expressesthesamethoughtoverandoveragain.Itiscurious howheharpsuponthatideathattheEnglishbourgeoisieare alldead,oratleastgelded.Mellors,thegamekeeperinLady Chatterley’sLover(reallyLawrencehimself),hashadtheopportunitytogetoutofhisownclassanddoesnotparticularly wanttoreturntoit,becauseEnglishworkingpeoplehave various’disagree-ablehabits’;ontheotherhandthebourgeoisie,withwhomhehasalsomixedtosomeextent,seem tohimhalfdead,araceofeunuchs.LadyChatterley’shusband,symbolically,isimpotentintheactualphysicalsense. Andthenthereisthepoemabouttheyoungman(onceagain Lawrencehimself)who’gotuptothetopofthetree’but camedownsaying:

Ohyou’vegottobelikeamonkey ifyouclimbupthetree!

You’venomoreuseforthesolidearth andtheladyouusedtobe.

Yousitintheboughsandgibber withsuperiority.

Theyallgibberandgibberandchatter, andneverawordtheysay comesreallyoutoftheirguts,lad, theymakeituphalf-way...

Itellyousomething’sbeendoneto’em, tothepulletsupabove; there’snotacockbirdamong’em,etc.,etc.

Youcouldhardlyhaveitinplainertermsthanthat.Possiblybythepeopleat’thetopofthetree’Lawrenceonly meanstherealbourgeoisie,thoseinthe£2000ayearclassand over,butIdoubtit.Moreprobablyhemeanseveryonewho ismoreorlesswithinthebourgeoisculture–everyonewho wasbroughtupwithamincingaccentandinahousewhere therewereoneortwoservants.Andatthispointyourealizethedangerofthe’proletarian’cant–realize,Imean,the terribleantagonismthatitiscapableofarousing.Forwhen youcometosuchanaccusationasthis,youareupagainsta blankwall.LawrencetellsmethatbecauseIhavebeentoa publicschoolIamaeunuch.Well,whataboutit?Icanproducemedicalevidencetothecontrary,butwhatgoodwill thatdo?Lawrence’scondemnationremains.Ifyoutellme IamascoundrelImaymendmyways,butifyoutellmeI amaeunuchyouaretemptingmetohitbackinanywaythat seemsfeasible.Ifyouwanttomakeanenemyofaman,tell himthathisillsareincurable.

Thisthenisthenetresultofmostmeetingsbetweenproletarianandbourgeois:theylaybarearealantagonismwhich isintensiﬁedbythe’proletarian’cant,itselftheproductof forcedcontactsbetweenclassandclass.Theonlysensible procedureistogoslowandnotforcethepace.Ifyousecretly thinkofyourselfasagentlemanandassuchthesuperiorof thegreengrocer’serrandboy,itisfarbettertosaysothanto tellliesaboutit.Ultimatelyyouhavegottodropyoursnobbishness,butitisfataltopretendtodropitbeforeyouare reallyreadytodoso.

Meanwhileonecanobserveoneverysidethatdrearyphenomenon,themiddle-classpersonwhoisanardentSocialist attwenty-fiveandasniffishConservativeatthirty-five.Ina wayhisrecoilisnaturalenough–atanyrate,onecanseehow histhoughtsrun.Perhapsaclasslesssocietydoesn’tmeana

beatificstateofaffairsinwhichweshallallgoonbehaving exactlyasbeforeexceptthattherewillbenoclass-hatredand nosnobbishness;perhapsitmeansableakworldinwhichall ourideals,ourcodes,ourtastes–our’ideology’,infact–will havenomeaning.Perhapsthisclass-breakingbusinessisn’t sosimpleasitlooked!Onthecontrary,itisawildrideinto thedarkness,anditmaybethatattheendofitthesmilewill beonthefaceofthetiger.Withlovingthoughslightlypatronizingsmileswesetouttogreetourproletarianbrothers, andbehold!ourproletarianbrothers–insofarasweunderstandthem—arenotaskingforourgreetings,theyareasking ustocommitsuicide.Whenthebourgeoisseesitinthatform hetakestoflight,andifhisflightisrapidenoughitmaycarry himtoFascism.

11 MeanwhilewhataboutSocialism?

Ithardlyneedspointingoutthatatthismomentwearein averyseriousmess,soseriousthateventhedullest-witted peoplefinditdifficulttoremainunawareofit.Weareliving inaworldinwhichnobodyisfree,inwhichhardlyanybody issecure,inwhichitisalmostimpossibletobehonestandto remainalive.Forenormousblocksoftheworkingclassthe conditionsoflifearesuchasIhavedescribedintheopening chaptersofthisbook,andthereisnochanceofthoseconditionsshowinganyfundamentalimprovement.Theverybest theEnglish-workingclasscanhopeforisanoccasionaltemporarydecreaseinunemploymentwhenthisorthatindustry isartificiallystimulatedby,forinstance,rearmament.Even themiddleclasses,forthefirsttimeintheirhistory,arefeelingthepinch.Theyhavenotknownactualhungeryet,but

moreandmoreofthemﬁndthemselvesﬂounderinginasort ofdeadlynetoffrustrationinwhichitisharderandharder topersuadeyourselfthatyouareeitherhappy,active,oruseful.Eventheluckyonesatthetop,therealbourgeoisie,are hauntedperiodicallybyaconsciousnessofthemiseriesbelow,andstillmorebyfearsofthemenacingfuture.Andthis ismerelyapreliminarystage,inacountrystillrichwiththe lootofahundredyears.PresentlytheremaybecoiningGod knowswhathorrors—horrorsofwhich,inthisshelteredisland,wehavenotevenatraditionalknowledge.

Andallthewhileeveryonewhouseshisbrainknowsthat Socialism,asaworld-systemandwholeheartedlyapplied,is awayout.Itwouldatleastensureourgettingenoughtoeat evenifitdeprivedusofeverythingelse.Indeed,fromone pointofview,Socialismissuchelementarycommonsense thatIamsometimesamazedthatithasnotestablisheditself already.Theworldisaraftsailingthroughspacewith,potentially,plentyofprovisionsforeverybody;theideathatwe mustallcooperateandseetoitthatevery-onedoeshisfair shareoftheworkandgetshisfairshareoftheprovisions seemssoblatantlyobviousthatonewouldsaythatnoone couldpossiblyfailtoacceptitunlesshehadsomecorrupt motiveforclingingtothepresentsystem.Yetthefactthat wehavegottofaceisthatSocialismisnotestablishingitself. Insteadofgoingforward,thecauseofSocialismisvisiblygoingback.AtthismomentSocialistsalmosteverywherearein retreatbeforetheonslaughtofFascism,andeventsaremovingatterriblespeed.AsIwritethistheSpanishFascistforces arebombardingMadrid,anditisquitelikelythatbeforethe bookisprintedweshallhaveanotherFascistcountrytoadd tothelist,nottomentionaFascistcontroloftheMediterraneanwhichmayhavetheeffectofdeliveringBritishforeignpolicyintothehandsofMussolini.Idonot,however,

wantheretodiscussthewiderpoliticalissues.WhatIam concernedwithisthefactthatSocialismislosinggroundexactlywhereitoughttobegainingit.Withsomuchinits favour–foreveryemptybellyisanargumentforSocialism–theideaofSocialismislesswidelyacceptedthanitwasten yearsago.Theaveragethinkingpersonnowadaysisnot merelynotaSocialist,heisactivelyhostiletoSocialism.This mustbeduechieﬂytomistakenmethodsofpropaganda.It meansthatSocialism,intheformofwhichitisnowpresentedtous,hasaboutitsomethinginherentlydistasteful–somethingthatdrivesawaytheverypeoplewhooughttobe nockingtoitssupport.

Afewyearsagothismighthaveseemedunimportant. ItseemsonlyyesterdaythatSocialists,especiallyorthodox Marxists,weretellingmewithsuperiorsmilesthatSocialismwasgoingtoarriveofitsownaccordbysomemysteriousprocesscalled’historicnecessity’.Possiblythatbeliefstill lingers,butithasbeenshaken,tosaytheleastofit.Hence thesuddenattemptsofCommunistsinvariouscountriesto allythemselveswithdemocraticforceswhichtheyhavebeen sabotagingforyearspast.AtamomentlikethisitisdesperatelynecessarytodiscoverjustwhySocialismhasfailedin itsappeal.Anditisnousewritingoffthecurrentdistaste forSocialismastheproductofstupidityorcorruptmotives. Ifyouwanttoremovethatdistasteyouhavegottounderstandit,whichmeansgettinginsidethemindoftheordinary objectortoSocialism,oratleastregardinghisviewpointsympathetically.Nocaseisreallyanswereduntilithashadafair hearing.Therefore,ratherparadoxically,inordertodefend Socialismitisnecessarytostartbyattackingit.

InthelastthreechaptersItriedtoanalysethedifﬁcultiesthatareraisedbyouranachronisticclass-system;Ishall havetotouchonthatsubjectagain,becauseIbelievethat

thepresentintenselystupidhandlingoftheclass-issuemay stampedequantitiesofpotentialSocialistsintoFascism.In thechapterfollowingthisoneIwanttodiscusscertainunderlyingassumptionsthatalienatesensitivemindsfromSocialism.ButinthepresentchapterIammerelydealingwith theobvious,preliminaryobjections–thekindofthingthatthe personwhoisnotaSocialist(Idon’tmeanthe’Where’sthe moneytocomefrom?’type)alwaysstartsbysayingwhen youtaxhimonthesubject.Someoftheseobjectionsmay appearfrivolousorself-contradictory,butthatisbesidethe point;Iammerelydiscussingsymptoms.AnythingisrelevantwhichhelpstomakeclearwhySocialismisnotaccepted.AndpleasenoticethatIamarguingforSocialism, notagainstit.ButforthemomentIamadvocatusdiaboli.I ammakingoutacaseforthesortofpersonwhoisinsympathywiththefundamentalaimsofSocialism,whohasthe brainstoseethatSocialismwould’work’,butwhoinpractice alwaystakestoﬂightwhenSocialismismentioned.

Questionapersonofthistype,andyouwilloftengetthe semi-frivolousanswer:’Idon’tobjecttoSocialism,butIdo objecttoSocialists.’Logicallyitisapoorargument,butit carriesweightwithmanypeople.AswiththeChristianreligion,theworstadvertisementforSocialismisitsadherents.

Thefirstthingthatmuststrikeanyoutsideobserveris thatSocialism,initsdevelopedformisatheoryconfined entirelytothemiddleclasses.ThetypicalSocialistisnot, astremulousoldladiesimagine,aferocious-lookingworkingmanwithgreasyoverallsandaraucousvoice.Heiseitherayouthfulsnob-Bolshevikwhoinfiveyears’timewill quiteprobablyhavemadeawealthymarriageandbeenconvertedtoRomanCatholicism;or,stillmoretypically,aprim littlemanwithawhite-collarjob,usuallyasecretteetotaller andoftenwithvegetarianleanings,withahistoryofNon-

conformitybehindhim,and,aboveall,withasocialpositionwhichhehasnointentionofforfeiting.Thislasttype issurprisinglycommoninSocialistpartiesofeveryshade; ithasperhapsbeentakenoverenblocfrom.theoldLiberalParty.Inadditiontothisthereisthehorrible–thereallydisquieting–prevalenceofcrankswhereverSocialistsare gatheredtogether.Onesometimesgetstheimpressionthat themerewords’Socialism’and’Communism’drawtowards themwithmagneticforceeveryfruit-juicedrinker,nudist, sandal-wearer,sex-maniac,Quaker,’NatureCure’quack, paciﬁst,andfeministinEngland.OnedaythissummerI wasridingthroughLetchworthwhenthebusstoppedand twodreadful-lookingoldmengotontoit.Theywereboth aboutsixty,bothveryshort,pink,andchubby,andbothhatless.Oneofthemwasobscenelybald,theotherhadlonggrey hairbobbedintheLloydGeorgestyle.Theyweredressedin pistachio-colouredshirtsandkhakishortsintowhichtheir hugebottomswerecrammedsotightlythatyoucouldstudy everydimple.Theirappearancecreatedamildstirofhorror ontopofthebus.Themannexttome,acommercialtravellerIshouldsay,glancedatme,atthem,andbackagainat me,andmurmured’Socialists’,aswhoshouldsay,’RedIndians’.Hewasprobablyright–theI.L.P.wereholdingtheir summerschoolatLetchworth.Butthepointisthattohim, asanordinaryman,acrankmeantaSocialistandaSocialistmeantacrank.AnySocialist,heprobablyfelt,couldbe countedontohavesomethingeccentricabouthim.And somesuchnotionseemstoexistevenamongSocialiststhemselves.Forinstance,Ihavehereaprospectusfromanother summerschoolwhichstatesitstermsperweekandthenasks metosay’whethermydietisordinaryorvegetarian’.They takeitforgranted,yousee,thatitisnecessarytoaskthis question.Thiskindofthingisbyitselfsufﬁcienttoalienate

plentyofdecentpeople.Andtheirinstinctisperfectlysound, forthefood-crankisbydeﬁnitionapersonwillingtocuthimselfofffromhumansocietyinhopesofaddingﬁveyearson tothelifeofhiscarcase;thatis,apersonbutoftouchwith commonhumanity.

TothisyouhavegottoaddtheuglyfactthatmostmiddleclassSocialists,whiletheoreticallypiningforaclass-lesssociety,clinglikegluetotheirmiserablefragmentsofsocial prestige.IremembermysensationsofhorroronfirstattendinganI.L.P.branchmeetinginLondon.(Itmighthavebeen ratherdifferentintheNorth,wherethebourgeoisieareless thicklyscattered.)Arethesemingylittlebeasts,Ithought, thechampionsoftheworkingclass?Foreverypersonthere, maleandfemale,boretheworststigmataofsniffishmiddleclasssuperiority.Ifarealworkingman,aminerdirtyfrom thepit,forinstance,hadsuddenlywalkedintotheirmidst, theywouldhavebeenembarrassed,angry,anddisgusted; some,Ishouldthink,wouldhavefledholdingtheirnoses. YoucanseethesametendencyinSocialistliterature,which, evenwhenitisnotopenlywrittendehautenbos,isalways completelyremovedfromtheworkingclassinidiomand mannerofthought.TheColes,Webbs,Stracheys,etc.,are notexactlyproletarianwriters.Itisdoubtfulwhetheranythingdescribableasproletarianliteraturenowexists–even theDailyWorkeriswritteninstandardSouthEnglish–buta goodmusic-hallcomediancomesnearertoproducingitthan anySocialistwriterIcanthinkof.AsforthetechnicaljargonoftheCommunists,itisasfarremovedfromthecommonspeechasthelanguageofamathematicaltextbook.IrememberhearingaprofessionalCommunistspeakeraddress aworking-classaudience.Hisspeechwastheusualbookish stuff,fulloflongsentencesandparenthesesand’Notwithstanding’and’Bethatasitmay’,besidestheusualjargon

of’ideology’and’class-consciousness’and’proletariansolidarity’andalltherestofit.AfterhimaLancashireworking mangotupandspoketothecrowdintheirownbroadlingo. Therewasnotmuchdoubtwhichofthetwowasnearerto hisaudience,butIdonotsupposeforamomentthattheLancashireworkingmanwasanorthodoxCommunist.

Foritmustberememberedthataworkingman,solongas heremainsagenuineworkingman,isseldomorneveraSocialistinthecomplete,logicallyconsistentsense.Verylikely hevotesLabour,orevenCommunistifhegetsthechance, buthisconceptionofSocialismisquitedifferentfromthatof the,book-trainedSocialisthigherup.Totheordinaryworkingman,thesortyouwouldmeetinanypubonSaturday night,Socialismdoesnotmeanmuchmorethanbetterwages andshorter’hoursandnobodybossingyouabout.Tothe morerevolutionarytype,thetypewhoisahunger-marcher andisblacklistedbyemployers,thewordisasortofrallyingcryagainsttheforcesofoppression,avaguethreatoffuture violence.But,sofarasmyexperiencegoes,nogenuineworkingmangraspsthedeeperimplicationsofSocialism.Often,inmyopinion,heisatruerSocialistthantheorthodox Marxist,becausehedoesremember,whattheothersooften forgets,thatSocialismmeansjusticeandcommondecency. ButwhathedoesnotgraspisthatSocialismcannotbenarroweddowntomereeconomicjustice’andthatareformof thatmagnitudeisboundtoworkimmensechangesinour civilizationandhisownwayoflife.HisvisionoftheSocialistfutureisavisionofpresentsocietywiththeworstabuses leftout,andwithinterestcentringroundthesamethingsas atpresent—familylife,thepub,football,andlocalpolitics. AsforthephilosophicsideofMarxism,thepea-and-thimble trickwiththosethreemysteriousentities,thesis,antithesis, andsynthesis,Ihavenevermetaworkingmanwhohad

thefaintestinterestinit.Itisofcoursetruethatplentyof peopleofworking-classoriginareSocialistsofthetheoretical bookishtype.Buttheyareneverpeoplewhohaveremained workingmen;theydon’tworkwiththeirhands,thatis.They belongeithertothetypeImentionedinthelastchapter,the typewhosquirmsintothemiddleclassviatheliteraryintelligentsia,orthetypewhobecomesaLabourM.P.orahigh-up tradeunionofficial.Thislasttypeisoneofthemostdesolatingspectaclestheworldcontains.Hehasbeenpickedout tofightforhismates,andallitmeanstohimisasoftjob andthechanceof’bettering’himself.Notmerelywhilebut byfightingthebourgeoisiehebecomesabourgeoishimself. Andmeanwhileitisquitepossiblethathehasremainedan orthodoxMarxist.ButIhaveyettomeetaworkingminer, steel-worker,cotton-weaver,docker,navvy,orwhatnotwho was’ideologically’sound.

OneoftheanalogiesbetweenCommunismandRoman Catholicismisthatonlythe’educated’arecompletelyorthodox.ThemostimmediatelystrikingthingabouttheEnglish RomanCatholics–Idon’tmeantherealCatholics,Imeanthe converts:RonaldKnox,ArnoldLunnethocgenus–istheir intenseself-consciousness.Apparentlytheyneverthink,certainlytheyneverwrite,aboutanythingbutthefactthatthey areRomanCatholics;thissinglefactandtheself-praiseresultingfromitformtheentirestock-in-tradeoftheCatholic literaryman.Butthereallyinterestingthingaboutthesepeopleisthewayinwhichtheyhaveworkedoutthesupposed implicationsoforthodoxyuntilthetiniestdetailsoflifeare involved.Eventheliquidsyoudrink,apparently,canbe orthodoxorheretical;hencethecampaignsofChesterton, ’Beachcomber’,etc.,againstteaandinfavourofbeer.AccordingtoChesterton,tea-drinking’is’pagan’,whilebeerdrinkingis’Christian’,andcoffeeis’thepuritan’sopium’.It

isunfortunateforthistheorythatCatholicsaboundinthe ’Temperance’movementandthegreatesttea-boozersinthe worldaretheCatholicIrish;butwhatIaminterestedinhere istheattitudeofmindthatcanmakeevenfoodanddrinkan occasionforreligiousintolerance.Aworking-classCatholic wouldneverbesoabsurdlyconsistentasthat.Hedoesnot spendhistimeinbroodingonthefactthatheisaRoman Catholic,andheisnotparticularlyconsciousofbeingdifferentfromhisnon-Catholicneighbours.TellanIrishdocklabourerintheslumsofLiverpoolthathiscupofteais’pagan’,andhewillcallyouafool.Andeveninmoreserious mattersheIdoesnotalwaysgrasptheimplicationsofhis faith.IntheIRomanCatholichomesofLancashireyousee thecruciﬁxIonthewallandtheDailyWorkeronthetable.It isonlythe’educated’man,especiallytheliteraryman,who knowshowtobeabigot.And,mutatismutandis,itisthe samewithCommunism.Thecreedisneverfoundinitspure forminagenuineproletarian.

Itmaybesaid,however,thatevenifthetheoreticalbooktrainedSocialistisnotaworkingmanhimself,atleastheis actuatedbyaloveoftheworkingclass.Heisendeavouringtoshedhisbourgeoisstatusandﬁghtonthesideofthe proletariat–that,obviously,mustbehismotive.

Butisit?SometimesIlookataSocialist–theintellectual, tract-writingtypeofSocialist,withhispullover,hisfuzzy hair,andhisMarxianquotation–andwonderwhatthedevil hismotivereallyis.Itisoftendifﬁculttobelievethatit isaloveofanybody,especiallyoftheworkingclass,from whomheisofallpeoplethefurthestremoved.TheunderlyingmotiveofmanySocialists,Ibelieve,issimplyahypertrophiedsenseoforder.Thepresentstateofaffairsoffendsthemnotbecauseitcausesmisery,stilllessbecause itmakesfreedomimpossible,butbecauseitisuntidy;what

theydesire,basically,istoreducetheworldtosomethingresemblingachessboard.TaketheplaysofalifelongSocialist likeShaw.Howmuchunderstandingorevenawarenessof working-classlifedotheydisplay?Shawhimselfdeclares thatyoucanonlybringaworkingmanonthestage’asan objectofcompassion’;inpracticehedoesn’tbringhimon evenasthat,butmerelyasasortofW.W.Jacobsﬁgureof fun—theready-madecomicEastEnder,likethoseinMajor BarbaraandCaptainBrassbound’sConversion.Atbesthis attitudetotheworkingclassisthesniggeringPunchattitude, inmoreseriousmoments(consider,forinstance,theyoung manwhosymbolizesthedispossessedclassesinMisalliance) heﬁndsthemmerelycontemptibleanddisgusting.Poverty and,whatismore,thehabitsofmindcreatedbypoverty, aresomethingtobeabolishedfromabove,byviolenceif necessary;perhapsevenpreferablybyviolence.Hencehis worshipof’great’menandappetitefordictatorships,FascistorCommunist;fortohim,apparently(videhisremarks aproposoftheItalo-AbyssinianwarandtheStalin-Wellsconversations),StalinandMussoliniarealmostequivalentpersons.Yougetthesamethinginamoremealy-mouthedform inMrsSidneyWebb’sautobiography,whichgives,unconsciously,amostrevealingpictureofthehigh-mindedSocialistslum-visitor.Thetruthisthat,tomanypeoplecallingthemselvesSocialists,revolutiondoesnotmeanamovementofthemasseswithwhichtheyhopetoassociatethemselves;itmeansasetofreformswhich’we’,thecleverones, aregoingtoimposeupon’them’,theLowerOrders.Onthe otherhand,itwouldbeamistaketoregardthebook-trained Socialistasabloodlesscreatureentirelyincapableofemotion.Thoughseldomgivingmuchevidenceofaffectionfor theexploited,heisperfectlycapableofdisplayinghatred–asortofqueer,theoretical,invacuahatred–againsttheex-

ploiters.HencethegrandoldSocialistsportofdenouncing thebourgeoisie.ItisstrangehoweasilyalmostanySocialistwritercanlashhimselfintofrenziesofrageagainstthe classtowhich,bybirthorbyadoption,hehimselfinvariablybelongs.Sometimesthehatredofbourgeoishabitsand ’ideology’issofar-reachingthatitextendseventobourgeois charactersinbooks.AccordingtoHenriBarbusse,thecharactersinthenovelsofProust,Gide,etc.,are’characterswhom onewoulddearlylovetohaveattheothersideofabarricade’.’Abarricade’,youobserve.JudgingfromLeFeu,I shouldhavethoughtBarbusse’sexperienceofbarricadeshad lefthimwithadistasteforthem.Buttheimaginarybayonetingof’bourgeois’,whopresumablydon’thitback,isabit differentfromtherealarticle.

Thebestexampleofbourgeois-baitingliteraturethatIhave yetcomeacrossisMirsky’sIntelligentsiaofGreatBritain. Thisisaveryinterestingandably-writtenbook,anditshould bereadbyeveryonewhowantstounderstandtheriseof Fascism.Mirsky(formerlyPrinceMirsky)wasaWhiteRussianemigrewhocametoEnglandandwasforsomeyears alecturerinRussianliteratureatLondonUniversity.Later hewasconvertedtoCommunism,returnedtoRussia,and producedhisbookasasortof’show-up’oftheBritishintelligentsiafromaMarxiststandpoint.Itisaviciouslymalignant book,withanunmistakablenoteof’NowI’moutofyour reachIcansaywhatIlikeaboutyou’runningallthrough it,andapartfromageneraldistortionitcontainssomequite deﬁniteandprobablyintentionalmisrepresentation:as,for instance,whenConradisdeclaredtobe’nolessimperialistthanKipling’,andD.H.Lawrenceisdescribedaswriting ’bare-bodiedpornography’andashaving’succeededinerasingallcluestohisproletarianorigin’–asthoughLawrence hadbeenapork-butcherclimbingintotheHouseofLords!

Thiskindofthingisverydisquietingwhenoneremembers thatitisaddressedtoaRussianaudiencewhohavenomeans ofcheckingitsaccuracy.ButwhatIamthinkingofatthe momentistheeffectofsuchabookontheEnglishpublic. Hereyouhavealiterarymanofaristocraticextraction,aman whohadprobablyneverinhislifespokentoaworkingman onany-thingapproachingequalterms,utteringvenomous screamsoflibelagainsthis’bourgeois’colleagues.Why?So farasappearancesgo,frompuremalignity.Heisbattling againsttheBritishintelligentsia,butwhatishebattlingfor? Withinthebookitselfthereisnoindication.Hencethenet effectofbookslikethisistogiveoutsiderstheimpression thatthereisnothinginCommunismexcepthatred.Andhere onceagainyoucomeuponthatqueerresemblancebetween Communismand(convert)RomanCatholicism.Ifyouwant tofindabookasevil-spiritedasTheIntelligentsiaofGreat Britain,thelikeliestplacetolookisamongthepopularRomanCatholicapologists.Youwillfindtherethesamevenom andthesamedishonesty,though,todotheCatholicjustice, youwillnotusuallyfindthesamebadmanners.Queerthat ComradeMirsky’sspiritualbrothershouldbeFather—!The CommunistandtheCatholicarenotsayingthesamething, inasensetheyareevensayingoppositethings,andeach wouldgladlyboiltheotherinoilifcircumstancespermitted; butfromthepointofviewofanoutsidertheyareverymuch alike.

ThefactisthatSocialism,intheforminwhichitisnow presented,appealschieﬂytounsatisfactoryoreveninhuman types.Ontheonehandyouhavethewarm-heartedunthinkingSocialist,thetypicalworking-classSocialist,who onlywantstoabolishpovertyanddoesnotalwaysgrasp whatthisimplies.Ontheotherhand,youhavetheintellectual,book-trainedSocialist,whounderstandsthatitisnec-

essarytothrowourpresentcivilizationdownthesinkand isquitewillingtodoso.Andthistypeisdrawn,tobeginwith,entirelyfromthemiddleclass,andfromarootlesstown-bredsectionofthemiddleclassatthat.Stillmore unfortunately,itincludes–somuchsothattoanoutsiderit evenappearstobecomposedof–thekindofpeopleIhave beendiscussing;thefoamingdenouncersofthebourgeoisie, andthemore-water-iri-your-beerreformersofwhomShaw istheprototype,andtheastuteyoungsocial-literaryclimbers whoareCommunistsnow,astheywillbeFascistsfiveyears hence,becauseitisallthego,andallthatdrearytribeofhighminded’womenandsandal-wearersandbeardedfruit-juice drinkerswhocomenockingtowardsthesmellof’progress’ likebluebottlestoadeadcat.Theordinarydecentperson, whoisinsympathywiththeessentialaimsofSocialism,is giventheimpressionthatthereisnoroomforhiskindinany Socialistpartythatmeansbusiness.Worse,heisdrivento thecynicalconclusionthatSocialismisakindofdoomwhich isprobablycomingbutmustbestavedoffaslongaspossible.Ofcourse,asIhavesuggestedalready,itisnotstrictly fairtojudgeamovementbyitsadherents;butthepointis thatpeopleinvariablydoso,andthatthepopularconceptionofSocialismiscolouredbytheconceptionofaSocialist asadullordisagreeableperson.’Socialism’ispicturedasa stateofaffairsinwhichourmorevocalSocialistswouldfeel thoroughlyathome.Thisdoesgreatharmtothecause.The ordinarymanmaynotflinchfromadictatorshipoftheproletariat,ifyouofferittactfully;offerhimadictatorshipofthe prigs,andhegetsreadytofight.

Thereisawidespreadfeelingthatanycivilizationinwhich Socialismwasarealitywouldbearthesamerelationtoour ownasabrand-newbottleofcolonialburgundy,bearstoa fewspoonfulsofﬁrst-classBeaujolais.Welive,admittedly,

amidthewreckofacivilization,butithasbeenagreatcivilizationinitsday,andinpatchesitstillﬂourishesalmost undisturbed.Itstillhasitsbouquet,sotospeak;whereasthe imaginedSocialistfuture,likethecolonialburgundy,tastes onlyofironandwater.Hencethefact,whichisreallyadisastrousone,thatartistsofanyconsequencecanneverbepersuadedintotheSocialistfold.Thisisparticularlythecase withthewriterwhosepoliticalopinionsaremoredirectly andobviouslyconnectedwithhisworkthanthoseof,say, apainter.IfonefacesfactsonemustadmitthatnearlyeverythingdescribableasSocialistliteratureisdull,tasteless, andbad.ConsiderthesituationinEnglandatthepresent moment.Awholegenerationhasgrownupmoreorless infamiliaritywiththeideaofSocialism;andyetthehigherwatermark,sotospeak,ofSocialistliteratureisW.H.Auden,asortofgutlessKipling,[Orwellsomewhatretracted thisremarklater.See’InsidetheWhale’,EnglandYourEngland,p.120(Seeker&WarburgCollectedEdition).]and theevenfeeblerpoetswhoareassociatedwithhim.Every writerofconsequenceandeverybookworthreadingison theotherside.Iamwillingtobelievethatitisotherwisein Russia—aboutwhichIknownothing,however–forpresumablyinpost-revolutionaryRussiathemereviolenceofevents wouldtendtothrowupavigorousliteratureofsorts.But itiscertainthatinWesternEuropeSocialismhasproduced noliteratureworthhaving.Alittlewhileago,whentheissueswerelessclear,therewerewritersofsomevitalitywho calledthemselvesSocialists,buttheywereusingthewordas avaguelabel.Thus,ifIbsenandZoladescribedthemselves asSocialists,itdidnotmeanmuchmorethanthattheywere ’progressives’,whileinthecaseofAnatoleFranceitmeant merelythathewasananticlerical.TherealSocialistwriters,thepropagandistwriters,havealwaysbeendull,empty

windbags–Shaw,Barbusse,UptonSinclair,WilliamMorris, WaldoFrank,etc.,etc.Iamnot,ofcourse,suggestingthat Socialismistobecondemnedbecauseliterarygentsdon’t likeit;Iamnotevensuggestingthatitoughtnecessarilyto produceliteratureonitsownaccount,thoughIdothinkita badsignthatithasproducednosongsworthsinging.Iam. merelypointingtothefactthatwritersofgenuinetalentare usuallyindifferenttoSocialism,andsometimesactivelyand mischievouslyhostile.Andthisisadisaster,notonlyforthe writersthemselves,butforthecauseofSocialism,whichhas greatneedofthem.

This,then,isthesuperﬁcialaspectoftheordinaryman’s recoilfromSocialism.Iknowthewholedrearyargument verythoroughly,becauseIknowitfrombothsides.EverythingthatIsayhereIhavebothsaidtoardentSocialistswho weretryingtoconvertme,andhadsaidtomebyborednonSocialistswhomIwastryingtoconvert.Thewholething amountstoakindofmalaiseproducedbydislikeofindividualSocialists,especiallyofthecocksureMarx-quotingtype. Isitchildishtobeinﬂuencedbythatkindofthing?Isitsilly? Isitevencontemptible?Itisallthat,butthepointisthatit happens,andthereforeitisimportanttokeepitinmind. 12

HOWEVER, thereisamuchmoreseriousdifﬁcultythan thelocalandtemporaryobjectionswhichIdiscussedin thelastchapter.Facedbythefactthatintelligentpeopleare sooftenontheotherside,theSocialistisapttosetitdownto corruptmotives(consciousorunconscious),ortoanignorant beliefthatSocialismwouldnot’work’,ortoameredreadof thehorrorsanddiscomfortsoftherevolutionaryperiodbe-

foreSocialismisestablished.Undoubtedlyalltheseareimportant,butthereareplentyofpeoplewhoareinﬂuencedby noneofthemandareneverthelesshostiletoSocialism.Their reasonforrecoilingfromSocialismisspiritual,or’ideological’.Theyobjecttoitnotonthegroundthatitwouldnot ’work’,butpreciselybecauseitwould’work’toowell.What theyareafraidofisnotthethingsthataregoingtohappenin theirownlifetime,butthethingsthataregoingtohappenin aremotefuturewhenSocialismisareality.

IhaveveryseldommetaconvincedSocialistwhocould graspthatthinkingpeoplemayberepelledbytheobjective towardswhichSocialismappearstobemoving.TheMarxist,especially,dismissesthiskindofthingasbourgeoissentimentality.Marxistsasarulearenotverygoodatreadingthe mindsoftheiradversaries;iftheywere,thesituationinEuropemightbelessdesperatethanitisatpresent.Possessing atechniquewhichseemstoexplaineverything,theydonot oftenbothertodiscoverwhatisgoingoninsideotherpeople’sheads.Here,forinstance,isanillustrationofthekind ofthingImean.Discussingthewidelyheldtheory–whichin onesenseiscertainlytrue–thatFascismisaproductofCommunism,MrN.A.Holdaway,oneoftheablestMarxistwriterswepossess,writesasfollows:

ThehoarylegendofCommunismleadingtoFascism. ...Theelementoftruthinitisthis:thattheappearanceof Communistactivitywarnstherulingclassthatdemocratic LabourPartiesarenolongercapableofholdingtheworking classincheck,andthatcapitalistdictatorshipmustassume anotherformifitistosurvive.

Youseeherethedefectsofthemethod.Becausehehas detectedtheunderlyingeconomiccauseofFascism,hetacitlyassumesthatthespiritualsideofitisofnoimportance.

Fascismiswrittenoffasamanoeuvreofthe’rulingclass’, whichatbottomitis.Butthisinitselfwouldonlyexplain whyFascismappealstocapitalists.Whataboutthemillions whoarenotcapitalists,whoinamaterialsensehavenothing togainfromFascismandareoftenawareofit,andwho,nevertheless,areFascists?Obviouslytheirapproachhasbeen purelyalongtheideologicalline.TheycouldonlybestampededintoFascismbecauseCommunismattackedorseemed toattackcertainthings(patriotism,religion,etc.)whichlay deeperthantheeconomicmotive;andinthatsenseitisperfectlytruethatCommunismleadstoFascism.Itisapitythat Marxistsnearlyalwaysconcentrateonlettingeconomiccats outofideologicalbags;itdoesinonesenserevealthetruth, butwiththispenalty,thatmostoftheirpropagandamisses itsmark.ItisthespiritualrecoilfromSocialism,especiallyas itmanifestsitselfinsensitivepeople,thatIwanttodiscussin thischapter.Ishallhavetoanalyseitatsomelength,because itisverywidespread,verypowerful,and,amongSocialists, almostcompletelyignored.

TheﬁrstthingtonoticeisthattheideaofSocialismis boundup,moreorlessinextricably,withtheideaofmachineproduction.Socialismisessentiallyanurbancreed.Itgrew upmoreorlessconcurrentlywithindustrialism,ithasalwayshaditsrootsinthetownproletariatandthetownintellectual,anditisdoubtfulwhetheritcouldeverhavearisenin anybutanindustrialsociety.Grantedindustrialism,theidea ofSocialismpresentsitselfnaturally,becauseprivateownershipisonlytolerablewheneveryindividual(orfamilyor otherunit)isatleastmoderatelyself-supporting;buttheeffectofindustrialismistomakeitimpossibleforanyoneto beself-supportingevenforamoment.Industrialism,once itrisesaboveafairlylowlevel,mustleadtosomeformof collectivism.NotnecessarilytoSocialism,ofcourse;conceiv-

ablyitmightleadtotheSlave-StateofwhichFascismisa kindofprophecy.Andtheconverseisalsotrue.MachineproductionsuggestsSocialism,butSocialismasaworldsystemimpliesmachine-production,becauseitdemandscertainthingsnotcompatiblewithaprimitivewayoflife.It demands,forinstance,constantintercommunicationandexchangeofgoodsbetweenallpartsoftheearth;itdemands somedegreeofcentralizedcontrol;itdemandsanapproximatelyequalstandardoflifeforallhumanbeingsandprobablyacertainuniformityofeducation.Wemaytakeit,therefore,thatanyworldinwhichSocialismwasarealitywould beatleastashighlymechanizedastheUnitedStatesatthis moment,probablymuchmoreso.Inanycase,noSocialist wouldthinkofdenyingthis.TheSocialistworldisalways picturedasacompletelymechanized,immenselyorganized world,dependingonthemachineasthecivilizationsofantiquitydependontheslave.

Sofarsogood,orsobad.Many,perhapsamajority,of thinkingpeoplearenotinlovewithmachine-civilization,but everyonewhoisnotafoolknowsthatitisnonsensetotalkat thismomentaboutscrappingthemachine.ButtheunfortunatethingisthatSocialism,asusuallypresented,isboundup withtheideaofmechanicalprogress,notmerelyasanecessarydevelopmentbutasanendinitself,almostasakindof religion.Thisideaisimplicitin,forinstance,mostofthepropagandiststuffthatiswrittenabouttherapidmechanicaladvanceinSovietRussia(theDneiperdam,tractors,etc.,etc.). KarelCapekhitsitoffwellenoughinthehorribleendingof R.U.R.,whentheRobots,havingslaughteredthelasthuman being,announcetheirintentionto’buildmanyhouses’(just forthesakeofbuildinghouses,yousee).Thekindofperson whomostreadilyacceptsSocialismisalsothekindofperson whoviewsmechanicalprogress,assuch,withenthusiasm.

AndthisissomuchthecasethatSocialistsareoftenunable tograspthattheoppositeopinionexists.Asarulethemost persuasiveargumenttheycanthinkofistotellyouthatthe presentmechanizationoftheworldisasnothingtowhatwe shallseewhenSocialismisestablished.Wherethereisone aeroplanenow,inthosedaystherewillbeﬁfty!Allthework thatisnowdonebyhandwillthenbedonebymachinery: everythingthatisnowmadeofleather,wood,orstonewill bemadeofrubber,glass,orsteel;therewillbenodisorder, nolooseends,nowilder-nesses,nowildanimals,noweeds, nodisease,nopoverty,nopain–andsoonandsoforth.The Socialistworldistobeaboveallthingsanorderedworld,an efﬁcientworld.ButitispreciselyfromthatvisionofthefutureasasortofglitteringWells-worldthatsensitiveminds recoil.Pleasenoticethatthisessentiallyfat-belliedversion of’progress’isnotanintegralpartofSocialistdoctrine;but ithascometobethoughtofasone,withtheresultthatthe temperamentalconservatismwhichislatentinallkindsof peopleiseasilymobilizedagainstSocialism.

Everysensitivepersonhasmomentswhenheissuspicious ofmachineryandtosomeextentofphysicalscience.Butit isimportanttosortoutthevariousmotives,whichhavedifferedgreatlyatdifferenttimes,forhostilitytoscienceand machinery,andtodisregardthejealousyofthemodemliterarygentwhohatessciencebecausesciencehasstolenliterature’sthunder.Theearliestfull-lengthattackonscience andmachinerythatIamacquaintedwithisinthethirdpart ofGulliver’sTravels.ButSwift’sattack,thoughbrilliantasa tourdeforce,isirrelevantandevensilly,becauseitiswrittenfromthestandpoint—perhapsthisseemsaqueerthingto sayoftheauthorofGulliver’sTrawls–ofamanwholacked imagination.ToSwift,sciencewasmerelyakindoffutile muckrakingandthemachineswerenon-sensicalcontrap-

tionsthatwouldneverwork.Hisstandardwasthatofpracticalusefulness,andhelackedthevisiontoseethatanexperimentwhichisnotdemonstrablyusefulatthemomentmay yieldresultsinthefuture.Elsewhereinthebookhenamesit asthebestofallachievements’tomaketwobladesofgrass growwhereonegrewbefore’;not’seeing,apparently,that thisisjustwhatthemachinecando.Alittlelaterthedespisedmachinesbeganworking,physicalscienceincreased itsscope,andtherecamethecelebratedconflictbetweenreligionandsciencewhichagitatedourgrandfathers.Thatconflictisoverandbothsideshaveretreatedandclaimedavictory,butananti-scientificbiasstilllingersinthemindsof mostreligiousbelievers.Allthroughthenineteenthcentury protestingvoiceswereraisedagainstscienceandmachinery (seeDickens’sHardTimes,forinstance),butusuallyforthe rathershallowreasonthatindustrialisminitsfirststageswas cruelandugly.SamuelButler’sattackonthemachineinthe well-knownchapterofErewhonisadifferentmatter.But Butlerhimselflivesin’alessdesperateagethanourown, anageinwhichitwasstillpossibleforafirst-ratemantobe adilettantepartofthetime,andthereforethewholething appearedtohimasakindofintellectualexercise.Hesaw clearlyenoughourabjectdependenceonthemachine,butinsteadofbotheringtoworkoutitsconsequenceshepreferred toexaggerateitforthesakeofwhatwasnotmuchmorethan ajoke.Itisonlyinourownage,whenmechanizationhas finallytriumphed,thatwecanactuallyfeelthetendencyof themachinetomakeafullyhumanlifeimpossible.Thereis probablynoonecapableofthinkingandfeelingwhohasnot occasionallylookedatagas-pipechairandreflectedthatthe machineistheenemyoflife.Asarule,however,thisfeeling isinstinctiveratherthanreasoned.

Peopleknowthatinsomewayoranother’progress’isa

swindle,buttheyreachthisconclusionbyakindofmental shorthand;myjobhereistosupplythelogicalstepsthatare usuallyleftout.Butﬁrstonemustask,whatisthefunction ofthemachine?Obviouslyitsprimaryfunctionistosave work,andthetypeofpersontowhommachine-civilization isentirelyacceptableseldomseesanyreasonforlookingfurther.Hereforinstanceisapersonwhoclaims,orrather screams,thatheisthoroughlyathomeinthemodemmechanizedworld.IamquotingfromWorldWithoutFaith,byMr JohnBeevers.Thisiswhathesays:

Itisplainlunacytosaythattheaverage£210s.to£4aweek manoftodayisalowertypethananeighteenth-centuryfarm labourer.Orthanthelabourerorpeasantofanyexclusively agriculturalcommunitynoworinthepast.Itjustisn’ttrue. Itissodamnsillytocryoutaboutthecivilizingeffectsof workintheﬁeldsandfarmyardsasagainstthatdoneina biglocomotiveworksoranautomobilefactory.Workisa nuisance.Weworkbecausewehavetoandallworkisdone toprovideuswithleisureandthemeansofspendingthat leisureasenjoyablyaspossible.

Andagain:

Manisgoingtohavetimeenoughandpowerenoughto huntforhisownheavenonearthwithoutworryingabout thesuper-naturalone.Theearthwillbesopleasantaplace thatthepriestandtheparsonwon’tbeleftwithmuchofa taletotell.Halfthestufﬁngisknockedoutofthembyone neatblow.Etc.,etc.,etc.

Thereisawholechaptertothiseffect(Chapter4ofMr Beevers’sbook),anditisofsomeinterestasanexhibition ofmachine-worshipinitsmostcompletelyvulgar,ignorant, andhalf-bakedform.Itistheauthenticvoiceofalargesectionofthemodemworld.Everyaspirin-eaterintheouter

suburbswouldechoitfervently.Noticetheshrillwailof anger(’Itjustisn’ttroo-o-o!’,etc.)withwhichMrBeevers meetsthesuggestionthathisgrandfathermayhavebeena bettermanthanhimself;andthestillmorehorriblesuggestionthatifwereturnedtoasimplerwayoflifehemighthave totoughenhismuscleswithajobofwork.Work,yousee,is done’toprovideuswithleisure’.Leisureforwhat?Leisure tobecomemorelikeMrBeevers,presumably.Thoughasa matteroffact,fromthatlineoftalkabout’heavenonearth’, youcanmakeafairlygoodguessatwhathewouldlikecivilizationtobe;asortofLyonsComerHouselastinginsaecula saeculorumandgettingbiggerandnoisierallthetime.And inanybookbyanyonewhofeelsathomeinthemachineworld–inanybookbyH.G.Wells,forinstance–youwillfind passagesofthesamekind.Howoftenhavewenotheard it,thatglutinouslyupliftingstuffabout’themachines,our newraceofslaves,whichwillsethumanityfree’,etc.,etc., etc.Tothesepeople,apparently,theonlydangerofthemachineisitspossibleusefordestructivepurposes;as,forinstance,aero-planesareusedinwar.Barringwarsandunforeseendisasters,thefutureisenvisagedasanevermore rapidmarchofmechanicalprogress;machinestosavework, machinestosavethought,machinestosavepain,hygiene, efficiency,organization,morehygiene,moreefficiency,more organization,moremachines–untilfinallyyoulandupinthe bynowfamiliarWellsianUtopia,aptlycaricaturedbyHuxleyinBraveNewWorld,theparadiseoflittlefatmen.Of courseintheirday-dreamsofthefuturethelittlefatmenare neitherfatnorlittle;theyareMenLikeGods.Butwhyshould theybe?Allmechanicalprogressistowardsgreaterand greaterefficiency;ultimately,therefore,towardsaworldin whichnothinggoeswrong.Butinaworldinwhichnothing wentwrong,manyofthequalitieswhichMrWellsregardsas

’godlike’wouldbenomorevaluablethantheanimalfaculty ofmovingtheears.ThebeingsinMenLikeGodsandThe Dreamarerepresented,forexample,asbrave,generous,and physicallystrong.Butinaworldfromwhichphysicaldanger hadbeenbanished–andobviouslymechanicalprogresstends toeliminatedanger–wouldphysicalcouragebelikelytosurvive?Coulditsurvive?Andwhyshouldphysicalstrength surviveinaworldwheretherewasnevertheneedforphysicallabour?Asforsuchqualitiesasloyalty,generosity,etc.,in aworldwherenothingwentwrong,theywouldbenotonly irrelevantbutprobablyunimaginable.Thetruthisthatmany ofthequalitiesweadmireinhumanbeingscanonlyfunction inoppositiontosomekindofdisaster,pain,ordifficulty;but thetendencyofmechanicalprogressistoeliminatedisaster, pain,anddifficulty.InbookslikeTheDreamandMenLike Godsitisassumedthatsuchqualitiesasstrength,courage, generosity,etc.,willbekeptalivebecausetheyarecomely qualitiesandnecessaryattributesofafullhumanbeing.Presumably,forinstance,theinhabitantsofUtopiawouldcreateartificialdangersinordertoexercisetheircourage,and dodumb-bellexercisestohardenmuscleswhichtheywould neverbeobligedtouse.Andhereyouobservethehugecontradictionwhichisusuallypresentintheideaofprogress. Thetendencyofmechanicalprogressistomakeyourenvironmentsafeandsoft;andyetyouarestrivingtokeep yourselfbraveandhard.Youareatthesamemomentfuriouslypressingforwardanddesperatelyholdingback.Itisas thoughaLondonstockbrokershouldgotohisofficeinasuit ofchainmailandinsistontalkingmedievalLatin.Sointhe lastanalysisthechampionofprogressisalsothechampion ofanachronisms.

MeanwhileIamassumingthatthetendencyofmechanical progressistomakelifesafeandsoft.Thismaybedisputed,

becauseatanygivenmomenttheeffectofsomerecentmechanicalinventionmayappeartobetheopposite.Takeforinstancethetransitionfromhorsestomotorvehicles.Atafirst glanceonemightsay,consideringtheenormoustollofroad deaths,thatthemotor-cardoesnotexactlytendtomakelife safer.Moreoveritprobablyneedsasmuchtoughnesstobea first-ratedirt-trackriderastobeabroncho-busterortoride intheGrandNational.Neverthelessthetendencyofallmachineryistobecomesaferandeasiertohandle.Thedanger ofaccidentswoulddisappearifwechosetotackleourroadplanningproblemseriously,asweshalldosoonerorlater; andmeanwhilethemotor-carhasevolvedtoapointatwhich anyonewhoisnotblindorparalyticcandriveitafterafew lessons.Evennowitneedsfarlessnerveandskilltodrive acarordinarilywellthantorideahorseordinarilywell;in twentyyears’timeitmayneednonerveorskillatall.Therefore,onemustsaythat,takingsocietyasawhole,theresultof thetransitionfromhorsestocarshasbeenanincreaseinhumansoftness.Presentlysomebodycomesalongwithanother invention,theaeroplaneforinstance,whichdoesnotatfirst sightappeartomakelifesafer.Thefirstmenwhowentupin aeroplanesweresuperlativelybrave,andeventodayitmust needanexceptionallygoodnervetobeapilot.Butthesame tendencyasbeforeisatwork.Theaeroplane,likethemotorcar,willbemadefoolproof;amillionengineersareworking,almostunconsciously,inthatdirection.Finally–thisis theobjective,thoughitmayneverquitebereached–youwill getanaeroplanewhosepilotneedsnomoreskillorcourage thanababyneedsinitsperambulator.Andallmechanical progressisandmustbeinthisdirection.Amachineevolves bybecomingmoreefficient,thatis,morefoolproof;hencethe objectiveofmechanicalprogressisafoolproofworld–which mayormaynotmeanaworldinhabitedbyfools.MrWells

wouldprobablyretortthattheworldcanneverbecomefoolproof,because,howeverhighastandardofefficiencyyou havereached,thereisalwayssomegreaterdifficultyahead. Forexample(thisisMrWells’sfavouriteidea–hehasusedit ingoodnessknowshowmanyperorations),whenyouhave gotthisplanetofoursperfectlyintotrim,youstartuponthe enormoustaskofreachingandcolonizinganother.Butthis ismerelytopushtheobjectivefurtherintothefuture;theobjectiveitselfremainsthesame.Colonizeanotherplanet,and thegameofmechanicalprogressbeginsanew;forthefoolproofworldyouhavesubstitutedthefoolproofsolarsystem–thefoolproofuniverse.Intyingyourselftotheidealofmechanicalefficiency,youtieyourselftotheidealofsoftness. Butsoftnessisrepulsive;andthusallprogressisseentobe afranticstruggletowardsanobjectivewhichyouhopeand praywillneverbereached.Nowandagain,butnotoften, youmeetsomebodywhograspsthatwhatisusuallycalled progressalsoentailswhatisusuallycalleddegeneracy,and whoisneverthelessinfavourofprogress.Hencethefactthat inMrShaw’sUtopiaastatuewaserectedtoFalstaff,asthe firstmanwhoevermadeaspeechinfavourofcowardice.

Butthetroublegoesimmenselydeeperthanthis.Hitherto Ihaveonlypointedouttheabsurdityofaimingatmechanical progressandalsoatthepreservationofqualitieswhichmechanicalprogressmakesunnecessary.Thequestiononehas gottoconsideriswhetherthereisanyhumanactivitywhich wouldnotbemaimedbythedominanceofthemachine.

Thefunctionofthemachineistosavework.Inafully mechanizedworldallthedulldrudgerywillbedonebymachinery,leavingusfreeformoreinterestingpursuits.Soexpressed,thissoundssplendid.Itmakesonesicktoseehalf adozenmensweatingtheirgutsouttodigatrenchfora water-pipe,whensomeeasilydevisedmachinewouldscoop

theearthoutinacoupleofminutes.Whynotletthemachinedotheworkandthemengoanddosomethingelse. Butpresentlythequestionarises,whatelsearetheytodo? Supposedlytheyaresetfreefrom’work’inorderthatthey maydosomethingwhichisnot’work’.Butwhatiswork andwhatisnotwork?Isitworktodig,tocarpenter,to planttrees,tofelltrees,toride,tofish,tohunt,tofeedchickens,toplaythepiano,totakephotographs,tobuildahouse, tocook,tosew,totrimhats,tomendmotorbicycles?All ofthesethingsareworktosomebody,andallofthemare playtosomebody.Thereareinfactveryfewactivitieswhich cannotbeclassedeitherasworkorplayaccordingasyou choosetoregardthem.Thelabourersetfreefromdigging maywanttospendhisleisure,orpartofit,inplayingthe piano,whiletheprofessionalpianistmaybeonlytooglad togetoutanddigatthepotatopatch.Hencetheantithesisbetweenwork,assomethingintolerablytedious,andnotwork,assomethingdesirable,isfalse.Thetruthisthatwhen ahumanbeingisrioteating,drinking,sleeping,makinglove, talking,playinggames,ormerelyloungingabout–andthese thingswillnotfillupalifetime–heneedsworkandusually looksforit,thoughhemaynotcallitwork.Abovethelevelof athird-orfourth-grademoron,lifehasgottobelivedlargely intermsofeffort.Formanisnot,asthevulgarerhedonists seemtosuppose,akindofwalkingstomach;hehasalsogota hand,aneye,andabrain.Ceasetouseyourhands,andyou haveloppedoffahugechunkofyourconscious-ness.And nowconsideragainthosehalf-dozenmenwhoweredigging thetrenchforthewater-pipe.Amachinehassetthemfree fromdigging,andtheyaregoingtoamusethemselveswith somethingelse–carpentering,forinstance.Butwhateverthey wanttodo,theywillfindthatanothermachinehassetthem freefromthat.Forinafullymechanizedworldtherewould

benomoreneedtocarpenter,tocook,tomendmotorbicycles,etc.,thantherewouldbetodig.Thereisscarcely anything,fromcatchingawhaletocarvingacherrystone, thatcouldnotconceivablybedonebymachinery.Themachinewouldevenencroachupontheactivitieswenowclass as’art’;itisdoingsoalready,viathecameraandtheradio. Mechanizetheworldasfullyasitmightbemechanized,and whicheverwayyouturntherewillbesomemachinecutting youofffromthechanceofworking–thatis,ofliving.

Atafirstglancethismightnotseemtomatter.Whyshould younotgetonwithyour’creativework’anddisregardthe machinesthatwoulddoitforyou?Butitisnotsosimpleasit sounds.HereamI,workingeighthoursadayinaninsurance office;inmysparetimeIwanttodosomething’creative’,so Ichoosetodoabitofcarpentering–tomakemyselfatable, forinstance.Noticethatfromtheverystartthereisatouch ofartificialityaboutthewholebusiness,forthefactoriescan turnmeoutafarbettertablethanIcanmakeformyself.But evenwhenIgettoworkonmytable,itisnotpossiblefor metofeeltowardsitasthecabinet-makerofahundredyears agofelttowardshistable,stilllessasRobinsonCrusoefelt towardshis.ForbeforeIstart,mostoftheworkhasalready beendoneformebymachinery.ThetoolsIusedemandthe minimumofskill.Icanget,forinstance,planeswhichwill cutoutanymoulding;thecabinet-makerofahundredyears agowouldhavehadtodotheworkwithchiselandgouge, whichdemandedrealskillofeyeandhand.TheboardsI buyarereadyplanedandthelegsarereadyturnedbythe lathe.Icanevengotothewood-shopandbuyallthepartsof thetableready-madeandonlyneedingtobefittedtogether; myworkbeingreducedtodrivinginafewpegsandusinga pieceofsandpaper.Andifthisissoatpresent,inthemechanizedfutureitwillbeenormouslymoreso.Withthetools

andmaterialsavailablethen,therewillbenopossibilityof mistake,hencenoroomforskill.Makingatablewillbeeasieranddullerthanpeelingapotato.Insuchcircumstances itisnonsensetotalkof’creativework’.Inanycasethearts ofthehand(whichhavegottobetransmittedbyapprenticeship)wouldlongsincehavedisappeared.Someofthemhave disappearedalready,underthecompetitionofthemachine. Lookroundanycountrychurchyardandseewhetheryou canﬁndadecently-cuttombstonelaterthan1820.Theart,or ratherthecraft,ofstoneworkhasdiedoutsocompletelythat itwouldtakecenturiestoreviveit.

Butitmaybesaid,whynotretainthemachineandretain’creativework’?Whynotcultivateanachronismsasa spare-timehobby?Manypeoplehaveplayedwiththisidea; itseemstosolvewithsuchbeautifuleasetheproblemsset bythemachine.ThecitizenofUtopia,wearetold,cominghomefromhisdailytwohoursofturningahandlein thetomato-canningfactory,willdeliberatelyreverttoamore primitivewayoflifeandsolacehiscreativeinstinctswitha bitoffretwork,pottery-glazing,orhandloom-weaving.And whyisthispictureanabsurdity–asitis,ofcourse?Because ofaprinciplethatisnotalwaysrecognized,thoughalways actedupon:thatsolongasthemachineisthere,oneisunder anobligationtouseit.Noonedrawswaterfromthewell whenhecanturnonthetap.Oneseesagoodillustration ofthisinthematteroftravel.Everyonewhohastravelled byprimitivemethodsinanundevelopedcountryknowsthat thedifferencebetweenthatkindoftravelandmoderntravel intrains,cars,etc.,isthedifferencebetweenlifeanddeath. Thenomadwhowalksorrides,withhisbaggagestowedon acameloranox-cart,maysuffereverykindofdiscomfort, butatleastheislivingwhileheistravelling;whereasforthe passengerinanexpresstrainoraluxurylinerhisjourneyis

aninterregnum,akindoftemporarydeath.Andyetsolong astherailwaysexist,onehasgottotravelbytrain–orbycar oraeroplane.HereamI,fortymilesfromLondon.When IwanttogouptoLondonwhydoInotpackmyluggage ontoamuleandsetoutonfoot,makingatwodaysofit? Because,withtheGreenLinebuseswhizzingpastmeevery tenminutes,suchajourneywouldbeintolerablyirksome. Inorderthatonemayenjoyprimitivemethodsoftravel,it isnecessarythatnoothermethodshouldbeavailable.No humanbeingeverwantstodoanythinginamorecumbrous waythanisnecessary.Hencetheabsurdityofthatpictureof Utopianssavingtheirsoulswithfretwork.Inaworldwhere every-thingcouldbedonebymachinery,everythingwould bedonebymachinery.Deliberatelytoreverttoprimitive methodstousearchaictook,toputsillylittledifﬁcultiesin yourownway,wouldbeapieceofdilettantism,ofprettyprettyartyandcraftiness.Itwouldbelikesolemnlysitting downtoeatyourdinnerwithstoneimplements.Revertto handworkinamachineage,andyouarebackinYeOldeTea ShoppeortheTudorvillawiththeshambeamstackedtothe wall.

Thetendencyofmechanicalprogress,then,istofrustrate thehumanneedforeffortandcreation.Itmakesunnecessaryandevenimpossibletheactivitiesoftheeyeandthe hand.Theapostleof’progress’willsometimesdeclarethat thisdoesnotmatter,butyoucanusuallydrivehimintoa comerbypointingoutthehorriblelengthstowhichtheprocesscanbecarried.Why,forinstance,useyourhandsatall–whyusethemevenforblowingyournoseorsharpeninga pencil?Surelyyoucouldﬁxsomekindofsteelandrubber contraptiontoyourshouldersandletyourarmswitherinto stumpsofskinandbone?Andsowitheveryorganandevery faculty.Thereisreallynoreasonwhyahumanbeingshould

domorethaneat,drink,sleep,breathe,andprocreate;everythingelsecouldbedoneforhimbymachinery.Therefore thelogicalendofmechanicalprogressistoreducethehumanbeingtosomethingresemblingabraininabottle.That isthegoaltowardswhichwearealreadymoving,though, ofcourse,wehavenointentionofgettingthere;justasa manwhodrinksabottleofwhiskyadaydoesnotactually intendtogetcirrhosisoftheliver.Theimpliedobjectiveof ’progress’is–notexactly,perhaps,thebraininthebottle,but atanyratesomefrightfulsubhumandepthofsoftnessand helplessness.Andtheunfortunatethingisthatatpresent theword’progress’andtheword’Socialism’arelinkedinseparablyinalmosteveryone’smind.Thekindofperson whohatesmachineryalsotakesitforgrantedtohateSocialism;theSocialistisalwaysinfavourofmechanization,rationalization,modernization–oratleastthinksthatheoughtto beinfavourofthem.Quiterecently,forinstance,aprominentI.L.P.’erconfessedtomewithasortofwistfulshame–asthoughitweresomethingfaintlyimproper–thathewas ’fondofhorses’.Horses,yousee,belongtothevanishedagriculturalpast,andallsentimentforthepastcarrieswithita vaguesmellofheresy.Idonotbelievethatthisneednecessarilybeso,butundoubtedlyitisso.Andinitselfitisquite enoughtoexplainthealienationofdecentmindsfromSocialism.

Agenerationagoeveryintelligentpersonwasinsome sensearevolutionary;nowadaysitwouldbenearerthemark tosaythateveryintelligentpersonisareactionary.Inthis connexionitisworthcomparingH.G.Wells’sTheSleeper AwakeswithAldousHuxley’sBraveNewWorld,written thirtyyearslater.EachisapessimisticUtopia,avisionofa sortofprig’sparadiseinwhichallthedreamsofthe’progressive’personcometrue.Consideredmerelyasapieceofimag-

inativeconstructionTheSleeperAwakesis,Ithink,muchsuperior,butitsuffersfromvastcontradictionsbecauseofthe factthatWells,asthearch-priestof’progress’,cannotwrite withanyconvictionagainst’progress’.Hedrawsapicture ofaglittering,strangelysinisterworldinwhichtheprivilegedclasseslivealifeofshallowgutlesshedonism,andthe workers,reducedtoastateofutterslaveryandsub-human ignorance,toilliketroglodytesincavernsunderground.As soonasoneexaminesthisidea–itisfurtherdevelopedina splendidshortstoryinStoriesofSpaceandTime–oneseesits inconsistency.Forintheimmenselymechanizedworldthat Wellsisimagining,whyshouldtheworkershavetowork harderthanatpresent?Obviouslythetendencyofthemachineistoeliminatework,nottoincreaseit.Inthemachineworldtheworkersmightbeenslaved,ill-treated,andeven under-fed,buttheycertainlywouldnotbecondemnedto ceaselessmanualtoil;becauseinthatcasewhatwouldbe thefunctionofthemachine?Youcanhavemachinesdoing alltheworkorhumanbeingsdoingallthework,butyou can’thaveboth.Thosearmiesofundergroundworkers,with theirblueuniformsandtheirdebased,half-humanlanguage, areonlyputin’tomakeyourﬂeshcreep’.Wellswantsto suggestthat’progress’mighttakeawrongturning;butthe onlyevilhecarestoimagineisinequality–oneclassgrabbing allthewealthandpowerandoppressingtheothers,apparentlyoutofpurespite.Giveitquiteasmalltwist,heseems tosuggest,overthrowtheprivilegedclass–changeoverfrom world-capitalismtoSocialism,infact–andallwillbewell. Themachine-civilizationistocontinue,butitsproductsareto besharedoutequally.Thethoughthedarenotfaceisthatthe machineitselfmaybetheenemy.Soinhismorecharacteristic Utopias(TheDream,MenLikeGods,etc.),hereturnstooptimismandtoavisionofhumanity,’liberated’bythemachine,

asaraceofenlightenedsunbatherswhosesoletopicofconversationistheirownsuperioritytotheirancestors.Brave NewWorldbelongstoalatertimeandtoagenerationwhich hasseenthroughtheswindleof’progress’.Itcontainsitsown contradictions(themostimportantofthemispointedoutin MrJohnStrachey’sTheComingStruggleforPower),butitis atleastamemorableassaultonthemorefat-belliedtypeof perfectionism.Allowingfortheexaggerationsofcaricature, itprobablyexpresseswhatamajorityofthinkingpeoplefeel aboutmachine-civilization.

Thesensitiveperson’shostilitytothemachineisinone senseunrealistic,becauseoftheobviousfactthatthemachinehascometostay.Butasanattitudeofmindthereis agreatdealtobesaidforit.Themachinehasgottobe accepted,butitisprobablybettertoacceptitratherasone acceptsadrug–thatis,grudginglyandsuspiciously.Likea drug,themachineisuseful,dangerous,andhabit-forming. Theofteneronesurrenderstoitthetighteritsgripbecomes. Youhaveonlytolookaboutyouatthismomenttorealize withwhatsinisterspeedthemachineisgettingusintoits power.Tobeginwith,thereisthefrightfuldebaucheryof tastethathasalreadybeeneffectedbyacenturyofmechanization.Thisisalmosttooobviousandtoogenerallyadmittedtoneedpointingout.Butasasingleinstance,taketaste initsnarrowestsense–thetastefordecentfood.Inthehighly mechanizedcountries,thankstotinnedfood,coldstorage, syntheticﬂavouringmatters,etc.,thepalateisalmostadead organ.Asyoucanseebylookingatanygreengrocer’sshop, whatthemajorityofEnglishpeoplemeanbyanappleisa lumpofhighly-colouredcottonwoolfromAmericaorAustralia;theywilldevourthesethings,apparentlywithpleasure,andlettheEnglishapplesrotunderthetrees.Itisthe shiny,standardized,machine-madelookoftheAmericanap-

plethatappealstothem;thesuperiortasteoftheEnglishappleissomethingtheysimplydonotnotice.Orlookatthe factory-made,foil-wrappedcheeseand’blended’butterin anygrocer’s;lookatthehideousrowsoftinswhichusurp moreandmoreofthespaceinanyfood-shop,evenadairy; lookatasixpennySwissrolloratwopennyice-cream;look attheﬁlthychemicalby-productthatpeoplewillpourdown theirthroatsunderthenameofbeer.Whereveryoulookyou willseesomeslickmachine-madearticletriumphingoverthe old-fashionedarticlethatstilltastesofsomethingotherthan sawdust.Andwhatappliestofoodappliesalsotofurniture, houses,clothes,books,amusements,andeverythingelsethat makesupourenvironment.Therearenowmillionsofpeople,andtheyareincreasingeveryyear,towhomtheblaringofaradioisnotonlyamoreaccept-ablebutamorenormalbackgroundtotheirthoughtsthanthelowingofcattle orthesongofbirds.Themechanizationoftheworldcould neverproceedveryfarwhiletaste,eventhetaste-budsofthe tongue,remaineduncorrupted,be-causeinthatcasemostof theproductsofthemachinewouldbesimplyunwanted.In ahealthyworldtherewouldbenodemandfortinnedfoods, aspirins,gramophones,gaspipechairs,machineguns,daily newspapers,telephones,motor-cars,etc.,etc.;andonthe otherhandtherewouldbeaconstantdemandforthethings themachinecannotproduce.Butmeanwhilethemachineis here,anditscorruptingeffectsarealmostirresistible.Oneinveighsagainstit,butonegoesonusingit.Evenabare-arse savage,giventhechance,willlearnthevicesofcivilization withinafewmonths.Mechanizationleadstothedecayof taste,thedecayoftasteleadstothedemandformachinemadearticlesandhencetomoremechanization,andsoaviciouscircleisestablished.

Butinadditiontothisthereisatendencyforthemech-

anizationoftheworldtoproceedasitwereautomatically, whetherwewantitornot.Thisisduetothefactthatin modemWesternmanthefacultyofmechanicalinventionhas beenfedandstimulatedtillithasreachedalmostthestatusof aninstinct.Peopleinventnewmachinesandimproveexistingonesalmostunconsciously,ratherasasomnambulistwill goonworkinginhissleep.Inthepast,whenitwastaken forgrantedthatlifeonthisplanetisharshoratanyratelaborious,itSeemedthenaturalfatetogoonusingtheclumsy implementsofyourforefathers,andonlyafeweccentricpersons,centuriesapart,proposedinnovations;hencethroughoutenormousagessuchthingsastheox-cart,theplough, thesickle,etc.,remainedradicallyunchanged.Itisonrecord thatscrewshavebeeninusesinceremoteantiquityandyet thatitwasnottillthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythat anyonethoughtofmakingscrewswithpointsonthem,for severalthousandyearstheyremainedﬂat-endedandholes hadtobedrilledforthembeforetheycouldbeinserted.In ourownepochsuchathingwouldbeunthinkable.ForalmosteverymodemWesternmanhashisinventivefacultyto someextentdeveloped;theWesternmaninventsmachines asnaturallyasthePolynesianislanderswims.GiveaWesternmanajobofworkandheimmediatelybeginsdevisinga machinethatwoulddoitforhim;givehimamachineand hethinksofwaysofimprovingit.Iunderstandthistendencywellenough,forinanineffectualsortofwayIhave thattypeofmindmyself.Ihavenoteitherthepatienceor themechanicalskilltodeviseanymachinethatwouldwork, butIamperpetuallyseeing,asitwere,theghostsofpossiblemachinesthatmightsavemethetroubleofusingmy brainormuscles.Apersonwithamoredeﬁnitemechanicalturnwouldprobablyconstructsomeofthemandput themintooperation.Butunderourpresenteconomicsystem,

whetherheconstructedthem–orrather,whetheranyoneelse hadthebenefitofthem–woulddependuponwhetherthey werecommerciallyvaluable.TheSocialistsareright,therefore,whentheyclaimthattherateofmechanicalprogress willbemuchmorerapidonceSocialismisestablished.Given amechanicalcivilizationtheprocessofinventionandimprovementwillalwayscontinue,butthetendencyofcapitalismistoslowitdown,becauseundercapitalismanyinventionwhichdoesnotpromisefairlyimmediateprofitsis neglected;some,indeed,whichthreatentoreduceprofits aresuppressedalmostasruthlesslyastheflexibleglassmentionedbyPetronius.[Forexample:Someyearsagosomeone inventedagramophoneneedlethatwouldlastfordecades. Oneofthebiggramophonecompaniesboughtupthepatent rights,andthatwasthelastthatwaseverbeardofit.]EstablishSocialism–removetheprofitprinciple–andtheinventorwillhaveafreehand.Themechanizationoftheworld, alreadyrapidenough,wouldbeoratanyratecouldbeenormouslyaccelerated.

Andthisprospectisaslightlysinisterone,becauseitisobviousevennowthattheprocessofmechanizationisoutof control.Itishappeningmerelybecausehumanityhasgot thehabit.Achemistperfectsanewmethodofsynthesizingrubber,oramechanicdevisesanewpatternofgudgeonpin.Why?Notforanyclearlyunderstoodpurpose,but simplyfromtheimpulsetoinventandimprove,whichhas nowbecomeinstinctive.Putapaciﬁsttoworkinabombfactoryandintwomonthshewillbedevisinganewtype ofbomb.Hencetheappearanceofsuchdiabolicalthingsas poisongases,whicharenotexpectedevenbytheirinventorstobebeneﬁcialtohumanity.Ourattitudetowardssuch thingsaspoisongasesoughttobetheattitudeofthekingof Brobdingnagtowardsgunpowder;butbecauseweliveina

mechanicalandscientiﬁcageweareinfectedwiththenotion that,whateverelsehappens,’progress’mustcontinueand knowledgemustneverbesuppressed.Verbally,nodoubt, wewouldagreethatmachineryismadeformanandnotman formachinery;inpracticeanyattempttocheckthedevelopmentofthemachineappearstousanattackonknowledge andthereforeakindofblasphemy.Andevenifthewhole ofhumanitysuddenlyrevoltedagainstthemachineanddecidedtoescapetoasimplerwayoflife,theescapewould stillbeimmenselydifﬁcult.Itwouldnotdo,asinButler’s Erewhon,tosmasheverymachineinventedafteracertain date;weshouldalsohavetosmashthehabitofmindthat would,almostinvoluntarily,devisefreshmachinesassoon astheoldonesweresmashed.Andinallofusthereisat leastatingeofthathabitofmind.Ineverycountryinthe worldthelargearmyofscientistsandtechnicians,withthe restofuspantingattheirheels,aremarchingalongtheroad of’progress’withtheblindpersistenceofacolumnofants. Comparativelyfewpeoplewantittohappen,plentyofpeopleactivelywantitnottohappen,andyetitishappening. Theprocessofmechanizationhasitselfbecomeamachine,a hugeglitteringvehiclewhirlinguswearenotcertainwhere, butprobablytowardsthepaddedWells-worldandthebrain inthebottle.

This,then,isthecaseagainstthemachine.Whether itisasoundorunsoundcasehardlymatters.The pointisthattheseorverySimilarargumentswould beechoedbyeverypersonwhoishostiletomachinecivilization.Andunfortunately,becauseofthatnexus ofthought,’Socialism-progress-machinery-Russia-tractorhygiene-machinery-progress’,whichexistsinalmosteveryone’smind,itisusuallythesamepersonwhoishostileto Socialism.Thekindofpersonwhohatescentralheatingand

gaspipechairsisalsothekindofpersonwho,whenyoumentionSocialism,murmurssomethingabout’beehivestate’and movesawaywithapainedexpression.Sofarasmyobservationgoes,veryfewSocialistsgraspwhythisisso,oreven thatitisso.GetthemorevocaltypeofSocialistintoacomer, repeattohimthesubstanceofwhatIhavesaidinthischapter,andseewhatkindofansweryouget.Asamatteroffact youwillgetseveralanswers;Iamsofamiliarwiththemthat Iknowthemalmostbyheart.

Intheﬁrstplacehewilltellyouthatitisimpossibleto’go back’(orto’putbackthehandofprogress’–asthoughthe handofprogresshadn’tbeenprettyviolentlyputbackseveraltimesinhumanhistory!),andwillthenaccuseyouof beingamedievalistandbegintodescantuponthehorrors oftheMiddleAges,leprosy,theInquisition,etc.Asamatteroffact,mostattacksupontheMiddleAgesandthepast generallybyapologistsofmodernityarebesidethepoint,becausetheiressentialtrickistoprojectamodernman,with hissqueamishnessandhishighstandardsofcomfort,intoan agewhensuchthingswereunheardof.Butnoticethatinany casethisisnotananswer.Foradislikeofthemechanizedfuturedoesnotimplythesmallestreverenceforanyperiodof thepast.D.H.Lawrence,wiserthanthemedievalist,chose toidealizetheEtruscansaboutwhomweknowconveniently little.ButthereisnoneedtoidealizeeventheEtruscansor thePelasgians,ortheAztecs,ortheSumerians,oranyother vanishedandromanticpeople.Whenonepicturesadesirablecivilization,onepicturesitmerelyasanobjective;there isnoneedtopretendthatithaseverexistedinspaceand time.Pressthispointhome,explainthatyouwishtoaim atmakinglifesimplerandharderinsteadofsofterandmore complex,andtheSocialistwillusuallyassumethatyouwant toreverttoa’stateofnature’–meaningsomestinkingpalae-

olithiccave:asthoughtherewerenothingbetweenaﬂint scraperandthesteelmillsofShefﬁeld,orbetweenaskincoracleandtheQueenMary.

Finally,however,youwillgetananswerwhichisrather moretothepointandwhichrunsroughlyasfollows:’Yes, whatyouaresayingisallverywellinitsway.Nodoubt itwouldbeverynobletohardenourselvesanddowithout aspirinsandcentralheatingandsoforth.Butthepointis, yousee,thatnobodyseriouslywantsit.Itwouldmeangoing backtoanagriculturalwayoflife,whichmeansbeastlyhard workandisn’tatallthesamethingasplayingatgardening. Idon’twanthardwork,youdon’twanthardwork–nobody wantsitwhoknowswhatitmeans.Youonlytalkasyoudo becauseyou’veneverdoneaday’sworkinyourlife,’etc., etc.

Nowthisinasenseistrue.Itamountstosaying,’We’re soft–forGod’ssakelet’sstaysoft!’whichatleastisrealistic.AsIhavepointedoutalready,themachinehasgotusin itsgripandtoescapewillbeimmenselydifﬁcult.Neverthelessthisanswerisreallyanevasion,becauseitfailstomake dearwhatwemeanwhenwesaythatwe’want’thisorthat. Iamadegeneratemodemsemi-intellectualwhowoulddie ifIdidnotgetmyearlymorningcupofteaandmyNew StatesmaneveryFriday.ClearlyIdonot,inasense,’want’to returntoasimpler,harder,probablyagriculturalwayoflife. InthesamesenseIdon’t’want’tocutdownmydrinking,to paymydebts,totakeenoughexercise,tobefaithfultomy wife,etc.,etc.ButinanotherandmorepermanentsenseI dowantthesethings,andperhapsinthesamesenseIwant acivilizationinwhich’progress’isnotdeﬁnableasmaking theworldsafeforlittlefatmen.ThesethatIhaveoutlined arepracticallytheonlyargumentsthatIhavebeenableto getfromSocialists–thinking,book-trainedSocialists—whenI

havetriedtoexplaintothemjusthowtheyaredrivingaway possibleadherents.Ofcoursethereisalsotheoldargument thatSocialismisgoingtoarriveanyway,whetherpeoplelike itornot,becauseofthattrouble-savingthing,’historicnecessity’.But’historicnecessity’,orratherthebeliefinit,has failedtosurviveHitler.

Meanwhilethethinkingperson,byintellectusuallyleftwingbutbytemperamentoftenright-wing,hoversatthe gateoftheSocialistfold.Heisnodoubtawarethatheought tobeaSocialist.ButheobservesfirstthedullnessofindividualSocialists,thentheapparentflabbinessofSocialistideals, andveersaway.Tillquiterecentlyitwasnaturaltoveertowardsindinerentism.Tenyearsago,evenfiveyearsago,the typicalliterarygentwrotebooksonbaroquearchitectureand hadasoulabovepolitics.Butthatattitudeisbecomingdifficultandevenunfashionable.Thetimesaregrowingharsher, theissuesareclearer,thebeliefthatnothing,willeverchange (i.e.thatyourdividendswillalwaysbesafe)islessprevalent. Thefenceonwhichtheliterarygentsits,onceascomfortable astheplushcushionofacathedralstall,isnowpinchinghis bottomintolerably;moreandmoreheshowsadisposition todropoffononesideortheother.Itisinterestingtonoticehowmanyofourleadingwriters,whoadozenyearsago wereartforart’ssakingforalltheywereworthandwould haveconsideredittoovulgarforwordseventovoteatageneralelection,arenowtakingadefinitepoliticalstandpoint; whilemostoftheyoungerwriters,atleastthoseofthemwho arenotmerefootlers,havebeen’political’fromthestart.I believethatwhenthepinchcomesthereisaterribledanger thatthemainmovementoftheintelligentsiawillbetowards Fascism.Justhowsoonthepinchwillcomeitisdifficultto say;itdepends,probably,uponeventsinEurope;butitmay bethatwithintwoyearsorevenayearweshallhavereached

thedecisivemoment.Thatwillalsobethemomentwheneverypersonwithanybrainsoranydecencywillknowinhis bonesthatheoughttobeontheSocialistside.Buthewill notnecessarilycomethereofhisownaccord;therearetoo manyancientprejudicesstandingintheway.Hewillhaveto bepersuaded,andbymethodsthatimplyanunderstanding ofhisviewpoint.Socialistscannotaffordtowasteanymore timeinpreachingtotheconverted.Theirjobnowistomake Socialistsasrapidlyaspossible;insteadofwhich,alltoooften,theyaremakingFascists.

WhenIspeakofFascisminEngland,Iamnotnecessarily thinkingofMosleyandhispimpledfollowers.EnglishFascism,whenitarrives,islikelytobeofasedateandsubtle kind(presumably,atanyrateatﬁrst,itwon’tbecalledFascism),anditisdoubtfulwhetheraGilbertandSullivanheavy dragoonofMosley’sstampwouldeverbemuchmorethan ajoketothemajorityofEnglishpeople;thoughevenMosley willbearwatching,forexperienceshows(videthecareersof Hitler,NapoleonIII)thattoapoliticalclimberitissometimes anadvantagenottobetakentooseriouslyatthebeginning ofhiscareer.ButwhatIamthinkingofatthismomentisthe Fascistattitudeofmind,whichbeyondanydoubtisgaining groundamongpeoplewhooughttoknowbetter.Fascism asitappearsintheintellectualisasortofmirror-image–not actuallyofSocialismbutofaplausibletravestyofSocialism. ItboilsdowntoadeterminationtodotheoppositeofwhateverthemythicalSocialistdoes.IfyoupresentSocialismin abadandmisleadinglight–ifyouletpeopleimaginethatit doesnotmeanmuchmorethanpouringEuropeancivilizationdownthesinkatthecommandofMarxistprigs–yourisk drivingtheintellectualintoFascism.Youfrightenhimintoa sortofangrydefensiveattitudeinwhichhesimplyrefusesto listentotheSocialistcase.Somesuchattitudeisalreadyquite

clearlydiscernibleinwriterslikePound,WyndhamLewis, RoyGampbell,etc.,inmostoftheRomanCatholicwriters andmanyoftheDouglasCreditgroup,incertainpopular novelists,andeven,ifonelooksbelowthesurface,insosuperiorconservativehighbrowslikeEliotandhiscountless followers.Ifyouwantsomeunmistakableillustrationsofthe growthofFascistfeelinginEngland,havealookatsomeof theinnumerablelettersthatwerewrittentothePressduring theAbyssinianwar,approvingtheItalianaction,andalsothe howlofgleethatwentupfrom.bothCatholicandAnglican pulpits(seetheDailyMailof17August1936)overtheFascist risinginSpain.

InordertocombatFascismitisnecessarytounderstandit, whichinvolvesadmittingthatitcontainssomegoodaswell asmuchevil.Inpractice,ofcourse,itismerelyaninfamous tyranny,anditsmethodsofattainingandholdingpowerare suchthatevenitsmostardentapologistsprefertotalkabout somethingelse.ButtheunderlyingfeelingofFascism,the feelingthatﬁrstdrawspeopleintotheFascistcamp,maybe lesscontemptible.Itisnotalways,astheSaturdayReview wouldleadonetosuppose,asquealingterroroftheBolshevikbogey-man.Everyonewhohasgiventhemovementso muchasaglanceknowsthattherank-and-ﬁleFascistisoften quiteawell-meaningperson–quitegenuinelyanxious,forinstance,tobetterthelotoftheunemployed.ButmoreimportantthanthisisthefactthatFascismdrawsitsstrengthfrom thegoodaswellasthebadvarietiesofconservatism.Toanyonewithafeelingfortraditionandfordisciplineitcomes withitsappealready-made.Probablyitisveryeasy,when youhavehadabellyfulofthemoretactlesskindofSocialist propaganda,toseeFascismasthelastlinedefenceofallthat isgoodinEuropeancivilization.EventheFascistbullyathis symbolicworst,withrubbertruncheoninonehandandcas-

toroilbottleintheother,doesnotnecessarilyfeelhimselfa bully;moreprobablyhefeelslikeRolandinthepassatRoncevaux,defendingChristendomagainstthebarbarian.We havegottoadmitthatifFascismiseverywhereadvancing, thisislargelythefaultofSocialiststhemselves.Partlyitis duetothemistakenCommunisttacticofsabotagingdemocracy,i.e.sawingoffthebranchyouaresittingon;butstill moretothefactthatSocialistshave,sotospeak,presented theircasewrongsideforemost.Theyhavenevermadeit sufﬁcientlyclearthattheessentialaimsofSocialismarejusticeandliberty.Withtheireyesgluedtoeconomicfacts,they haveproceededontheassumptionthatmanhasnosoul,and explicitlyorimplicitlytheyhavesetupthegoalofamaterialisticUtopia.AsaresultFascismhasbeenabletoplayupon everyinstinctthatrevoltsagainsthedonismandacheapconceptionof’progress’.Ithasbeenabletoposeastheupholder oftheEuropeantradition,andtoappealtoChristianbelief, topatriotism,andtothemilitaryvirtues.Itisfarworsethan uselesstowriteFascismoffas’masssadism’,orsomeeasy phraseofthatkind.Ifyoupretendthatitismerelyanaberrationwhichwillpresentlypassoffofitsownaccord,youare dreamingadreamfromwhichyouwillawakewhensomebodycoshesyouwitharubbertruncheon.Theonlypossible courseistoexaminetheFascistcase,graspthatthereissomethingtobesaidforit,andthenmakeitcleartotheworldthat whatevergoodFascismcontainsisalsoimplicitinSocialism.

Atpresentthesituationisdesperate.Evenifnothingworse befallsus,therearetheconditionswhichIdescribedinthe earlierpartofthisbookandwhicharenotgoingtoimprove underourpresenteconomicsystem.Stillmoreurgentis thedangerofFascistdominationinEurope.AndunlessSocialistdoctrine,inaneffectiveform,canbediffusedwidely andveryquickly,thereisnocertaintythatFascismwillever

beoverthrown.ForSocialismistheonlyrealenemythat Fascismhastoface.Thecapitalist-imperialistgovernments, eventhoughtheythemselvesareabouttobeplundered,will notfightwithanyconvictionagainstFascismassuch.Our rulers,thoseofthemwhounderstandtheissue,wouldprobablyprefertohandovereverysquareinchoftheBritishEmpiretoItaly,Germany,andJapanthantoseeSocialismtriumphant.ItwaseasytolaughatFascismwhenweimaginedthatitwasbasedonhystericalnationalism,becauseit seemedobviousthattheFasciststates,eachregardingitself asthechosenpeopleandpatrioticcontramundum,would clashwithoneanother.Butnothingofthekindishappening. Fascismisnowaninternationalmovement,whichmeansnot onlythattheFascistnationscancombineforpurposesofloot, butthattheyaregroping,perhapsonlyhalfconsciouslyas yet,towardsaworld-system.Forthevisionofthetotalitarianstatethereisbeingsubstitutedthevisionofthetotalitarianworld.AsIpointedoutearlier,theadvanceofmachinetechniquemustleadultimatelytosomeformofcollectivism, butthatformneednotnecessarilybeequalitarian;thatis, itneednotbeSocialism.Pacetheeconomists,itisquite easytoimagineaworld-society,economicallycollectivist–thatis,withtheprofitprincipleeliminated–butwithallpolitical,military,andeducationalpowerinthehandsofasmall casteofrulersandtheirbravos.Thatorsomethinglikeitis theobjectiveofFascism.Andthat,ofcourse,istheslavestate,orrathertheslave-world;itwouldprobablybeastable formofsociety,andthechancesare,consideringtheenormouswealthoftheworldifscientificallyexploited,thatthe slaveswouldbewell-fedandcontented.Itisusualtospeak oftheFascistobjectiveasthe’beehivestate’,whichdoesa graveinjusticetobees.Aworldofrabbitsruledbystoats wouldbenearerthemark.Itisagainstthisbeastlypossibil-

itythatwehavegottocombine.

Theonlythingforwhichwecancombineistheunderlying idealofSocialism;justiceandliberty.Butitishardlystrong enoughtocallthisideal’underlying’.Itisalmostcompletely forgotten.Ithasbeenburiedbeneathlayerafterlayerofdoctrinairepriggishness,partysquabbles,andhalf-baked’progressivism’untilitislikeadiamondhiddenunderamountainofdung.ThejoboftheSocialististogetitoutagain.Justiceandliberty!Thosearethewordsthathavegottoringlike abugleacrosstheworld.Foralongtimepast,certainlyfor thelasttenyears,thedevilhashadallthebesttunes.Wehave reachedastagewhentheveryword’Socialism’callsup,on theonehand,apictureofaeroplanes,tractors,andhugeglitteringfactoriesofglassandconcrete;ontheother,apicture ofvegetarianswithwiltingbeards,ofBolshevikcommissars (halfgangster,halfgramophone),ofearnestladiesinsandals,shock-headedMarxistschewingpolysyllables,escaped Quakers,birth-controlfanatics,andLabourPartybackstairscrawlers.Socialism,atleastinthisisland,doesnotsmellany longerofrevolutionandtheoverthrowoftyrants;itsmellsof crankishness,machine-worship,andthestupidcultofRussia.Unlessyoucanremovethatsmell,andveryrapidly,Fascismmaywin.

Andﬁnally,isthereanythingonecandoaboutit?

IntheﬁrstpartofthisbookIillustrated,byafewbriefsidelights,thekindofmesswearein;inthissecondpartIhave beentryingtoexplainwhy,inmyopinion,somanynormal decentpeoplearerepelledbytheonlyremedy,namelyby Socialism.Obviouslythemosturgentneedofthenextfew

yearsistocapturethosenormaldecentonesbeforeFascism playsitstrumpcard.Idonotwanttoraiseherethequestionofpartiesandpoliticalexpedients.Moreimportantthan anypartylabel(thoughdoubtlessthemeremenaceofFascismwillpresentlybringsomekindofPopularFrontintoexistence)isthediffusionofSocialistdoctrineinaneffective form.PeoplehavegottobemadereadytoactasSocialists.Thereare,Ibelieve,countlesspeoplewho,withoutbeing awareofit,areinsympathywiththeessentialaimsofSocialism,andwhocouldbewonoveralmostwith-outastruggleif onlyonecouldﬁndthewordthatwouldmovethem.Everyonewhoknowsthemeaningofpoverty,everyonewhohas agenuinehatredoftyrannyandwar,isontheSocialistside, potentially.Myjobhere,therefore,istosuggest–necessarily inverygeneralterms–howareconciliationmightbeeffected betweenSocialismanditsmoreintelligentenemies.

First,astotheenemiesthemselves–Imeanallthosepeople whograspthatcapitalismisevilbutwhoareconsciousofa sortofqueasy,shudderingsensationwhenSocialismismentioned.AsIhavepointedout,thisistraceabletotwomain causes.OneisthepersonalinferiorityofmanyindividualSocialists;theotheristhefactthatSocialismistoooftencoupled withafat-bellied,godlessconceptionof’progress’whichrevoltsanyonewithafeelingfortraditionortherudimentsof anaestheticsense.Letmetakethesecondpointﬁrst.

Thedistastefor’progress’andmachine-civilizationwhich issocommonamongsensitivepeopleisonlydefensibleas anattitudeofmind.ItisnotvalidasareasonforrejectingSocialism,becauseitpresupposesanalternativewhich doesnotexist.Whenyousay,’Iobjecttomechanization andstandardization–thereforeIobjecttoSocialism’,youare sayingineffect,’IamfreetodowithoutthemachineifI choose’,whichisnonsense.Wearealldependentuponthe

machine,andifthemachinesstoppedworkingmostofus woulddie.Youmayhatethemachine-civilization,probably youarerighttohateit,butforthepresenttherecanbeno questionofacceptingorrejectingit.Themachine-civilization ishere,anditcanonlybecriticizedfromtheinside,because allofusareinsideit.Itisonlyromanticfoolswhonatter themselvesthattheyhaveescaped,liketheliterarygentin hisTudorcottagewithbathroomh.andc.,andthehe-man whogoesofftolivea’primitive’lifeinthejunglewitha Mannlicherriﬂeandfourwagon-loadsoftinnedfood.And almostcertainlythemachine-civilizationwillcontinuetotriumph.Thereisnoreasontothinkthatitwilldestroyitselfor stopfunctioningofitsownaccord.Forsometimepastithas beenfashionabletosaythatwarispresentlygoingto’wreck civilization’altogether;but,thoughthenextfull-sizedwar willcertainlybehorribleenoughtomakeallpreviousones seemajoke,itisimmenselyunlikelythatitwillputastopto mechanicalprogress.ItistruethataveryvulnerablecountrylikeEngland,andperhapsthewholeofwesternEurope, couldbereducedtochaosbyafewthousandwell-placed bombs,butnowarisatpresentthinkablewhichcouldwipe outindustrializationinallcountriessimultaneously.Wemay takeitthatthereturntoasimpler,free,lessmechanizedway oflife,howeverdesirableitmaybe,isnotgoingtohappen. Thisisnotfatalism,itismerelyacceptanceoffacts.ItismeaninglesstoopposeSocialismonthegroundthatyouobjectto thebeehiveState,forthebeehiveStateishere.Thechoice isnot,asyet,betweenahumanandaninhumanworld.Itis simplybetweenSocialismandFascism,whichatitsverybest isSocialismwiththevirtuesleftout.

Thejobofthethinkingperson,therefore,isnottoreject Socialismbuttomakeuphismindtohumanizeit.OnceSocialismisinawaytobeingestablished,thosewhocansee

throughtheswindleof’progress’willprobablyﬁndthemselvesresisting.Infact,itistheirspecialfunctiontodoso.In themachine-worldtheyhavegottobeasortofpermanent opposition,whichisnotthesamethingasbeinganobstructionistoratraitor.ButinthisIamspeakingofthefuture.For themomenttheonlypossiblecourseforanydecentperson, howevermuchofaToryorananarchistbytemperament,is toworkfortheestablishmentofSocialism.Nothingelsecan saveusfromthemiseryofthepresentorthenightmareofthe future.ToopposeSocialismnow,whentwentymillionEnglishmenareunderfedandFascismhasconqueredhalfEurope,issuicidal.ItislikestartingacivilwarwhentheGoths arecrossingthefrontier.

Thereforeitisallthemoreimportanttogetridofthatmere nervousprejudiceagainstSocialismwhichisnotfoundedon anyseriousobjection.AsIhavepointedoutalready,many peoplewhoarenotrepelledbySocialismarerepelledbySocialists.Socialism,asnowpresented,isunattractivelargely becauseitappears,atanyratefromtheoutside,tobethe playthingofcranks,doctrinaires,parlourBolsheviks,andso forth.Butitisworthrememberingthatthisisonlysobecausethecranks,doctrinaires,etc.,havebeenallowedtoget thereﬁrstJifthemovementwereinvadedbybetterbrains andmorecommondecency,theobjectionabletypeswould ceasetodominateit.Forthepresentonemustjustsetone’s teethandignorethem;theywillloommuchsmallerwhenthe movementhasbeenhumanized.Besides,theyareirrelevant. Wehavegottoﬁghtforjusticeandliberty,andSocialismdoes meanjusticeandlibertywhenthenonsenseisstrippedoffit. Itisonlytheessentialsthatareworthremembering.TorecoilfromSocialismbecausesomanyindividualSocialistsare inferiorpeopleisasabsurdasrefusingtotravelbytrainbecauseyoudisliketheticket-collector’sface.

Andsecondly,astotheSocialisthimself–moreespecially thevocal,tract-writingtypeofSocialist.

Weareatamomentwhenitisdesperatelynecessaryfor left-wingersofallcomplexionstodroptheirdifferencesand hangtogether.Indeedthisisalreadyhappeningtoasmall extent.Obviously,then,themoreintransigentkindofSocialisthasnowgottoallyhimselfwithpeoplewhoarenotin perfectagreementwithhim.Asaruleheisrightlyunwillingtodoso,becauseheseestheveryrealdangerofwatering thewholeSocialistmovementdowntosomekindofpalepinkhumbugevenmoreineffectualthantheparliamentary LabourParty.Atthemoment,forinstance,thereisgreatdangerthatthePopularFrontwhichFascismwillpresumably bringintoexistencewillnotbegenuinelySocialistincharacter,butwillsimplybeamanoeuvreagainstGermanand Italian(notEnglish)Fascism.Thustheneedtouniteagainst FascismmightdrawtheSocialistintoalliancewithhisvery worstenemies.Buttheprincipletogouponisthis:thatyou areneverindangerofallyingyourselfwiththewrongpeopleprovidedthatyoukeeptheessentialsofyourmovement intheforeground.AndwhataretheessentialsofSocialism? WhatisthemarkofarealSocialist?IsuggestthattherealSocialistisonewhowishes–notmerelyconceivesitasdesirable, butactivelywishes–toseetyrannyoverthrown.ButIfancy thatthemajorityoforthodoxMarxistswouldnotacceptthat deﬁnition,orwouldonlyacceptitverygrudgingly.Sometimes,whenIlistentothesepeopletalking,andstillmore whenIreadtheirbooks,Igettheimpressionthat,tothem,the wholeSocialistmovementisnomorethanakindofexciting heresy-hunt–aleapingtoandfrooffrenziedwitch-doctors tothebeatoftom-tomsandthetuneof’Feeﬁ,fo,fum,I smellthebloodofaright-wingdeviationist!’Itisbecause ofthiskindofthingthatitissomucheasiertofeelyour-

selfaSocialistwhenyouareamongworking-classpeople. Theworking-classSocialist,liketheworking-classCatholic, ’sweakondoctrineandcanhardlyopenhismouthwithoututteringaheresy,buthehastheheartofthematterin him.HedoesgraspthecentralfactthatSocialismmeansthe overthrowoftyranny,andthe’Marseillaise’,ifitweretranslatedforhisbeneﬁt,wouldappealtohimmoredeeplythan anylearnedtreatiseondialecticalmaterialism.AtthismomentitiswasteoftimetoinsistthatacceptanceofSocialism meansacceptanceofthephilosophicsideofMarxism,plus adulationofRussia.TheSocialistmovementhasnottime tobealeagueofdialecticalmaterialists;ithasgottobea leagueoftheoppressedagainsttheoppressors.Youhavegot toattractthemanwhomeansbusiness,andyouhavegotto driveawaythemealy-mouthedLiberalwhowantsforeign Fascismdestroyedinorderthathemaygoondrawinghis dividendspeacefully–thetypeofhum-bugwhopassesresolutions’againstFascismandCommunism’,i.e.againstrats andrat-poison.Socialismmeanstheoverthrowoftyranny,at homeaswellasabroad.Solongasyoukeepthatfactwell tothefront,youwillneverbeinmuchdoubtastowhoare yourrealsupporters.Asforminordifferences–andtheprofoundestphilosophicaldifferenceisunimportantcompared withsavingthetwentymillionEnglishmenwhosebonesare rottingfrommalnutrition–thetimetoargueaboutthemisafterwards.

IdonotthinktheSocialistneedmakeanysacriﬁceofessentials,butcertainlyhewillhavetomakeagreatsacriﬁceof externals.Itwouldhelpenormously,forinstance,ifthesmell ofcrankishnesswhichstillclingstotheSocialistmovement couldbedispelled.Ifonlythesandalsandthepistachiocolouredshirtscouldbeputinapileandburnt,andevery vegetarian,teetotaller,andcreepingJesussenthometoWel-

wynGardenCitytodohisyogaexercisesquietly!Butthat, Iamafraid,isnotgoingtohappen.Whatispossible,however,isforthemoreintelligentkindofSocialisttostopalienatingpossiblesupportersinsillyandquiteirrelevantways. Therearesomanyminorpriggishnesswhichcouldsoeasily bedropped.TakeforinstancethedrearyattitudeofthetypicalMarxisttowardsliterature.Outofthemanythatcome intomymind,Iwillgivejustoneexample.Itsoundstrivial, butitisn’t.IntheoldWorker’sWeekly(oneoftheforerunnersoftheDailyWorker)thereusedtobeacolumnofliterarychatofthe’BooksontheEditor’sTable’type.Forseveralweeksmimingtherehadbeenacertainamountoftalk aboutShakespeare;whereuponanincensedreaderwroteto say,’DearComrade,wedon’twanttohearaboutthesebourgeoiswriterslikeShakespeare.Can’tyougiveussomething abitmoreproletarian?’etc.,etc.Theeditor’sreplywassimple.’IfyouwillturntotheindexofMarx’sCapital,’hewrote, ’youwillﬁndthatShakespeareismentionedseveraltimes.’ Andpleasenoticethatthiswasenoughtosilencetheobjector.OnceShakespearehadreceivedthebenedictionofMarx, hebecamerespectable.ThatisthementalitythatdrivesordinarysensiblepeopleawayfromtheSocialistmovement.You donotneedtocareaboutShakespearetoberepelledbythat kindofthing.Again,thereisthehorriblejargonthatnearly allSocialiststhinkitnecessarytoemploy.Whentheordinary personhearsphraseslike’bourgeoisideology’and’proletariansolidarity’and’expropriationoftheexpropriators’,heis notinspiredbythem,heismerelydisgusted.Eventhesingleword’Comrade’hasdoneitsdirtylittlebittowardsdiscreditingtheSocialistmovement.Howmanyawavererhas haltedonthebrink,goneperhapstosomepublicmeeting andwatchedself-consciousSocialistsdutifullyaddressing oneanotheras’Comrade’,andthenslidaway,disillusioned,

intothenearestfour-alebar!Andhisinstinctissound;for whereisthesenseofstickingontoyourselfaridiculouslabel whichevenafterlongpracticecanhardlybementionedwithoutagulpofshame?Itisfataltolettheordinaryinquirerget awaywiththeideathatbeingaSocialistmeanswearingsandalsandburblingaboutdialecticalmaterialism.Youhavegot tomakeitclearthatthereisroomintheSocialistmovement forhumanbeings,orthegameisup.

Andthisraisesagreatdifﬁculty.Itmeansthattheissue ofclass,asdistinctfrommereeconomicstatus,hasgottobe facedmorerealisticallythanitisbeingfacedatpresent.

Idevotedthreechapterstodiscussingtheclass-difficulty. Theprincipalfactthatwillhaveemerged,Ithink,isthat thoughtheEnglishclass-systemhasoutliveditsusefulness, ithasoutliveditandshowsnosignsofdying.Itgreatly confusestheissuetoassume,astheorthodoxMarxistsooftendoes(seeforinstanceMrAleeBrown’sinsomeways interestingbook.TheFateoftheMiddleClasses),thatsocialstatusisdeterminedsolelybyincome.Economically, nodoubt,thereareonlytwoclasses,therichandthepoor, butsociallythereisawholehierarchyofclasses,andthe mannersandtraditionslearnedbyeachclassinchildhood arenotonlyverydifferentbut–thisistheessentialpoint–generallypersistfrombirthtodeath.’Hencetheanomalous individualsthatyoufindineveryclassofsociety.Youfind writerslikeWellsandBennettwhohavegrownimmensely richandhaveyetpreservedintacttheirlower-middle-class Nonconformistprejudices;youfindmillionaireswhocannot pronouncetheiraitches;youfindpettyshopkeeperswhose incomeisfarlowerthanthatofthebricklayerandwho, nevertheless,considerthemselves(andareconsidered)the bricklayer’ssocialsuperiors;youfindboard-schoolboysrulingIndianprovincesandpublic-schoolmentoutingvacuum

cleaners.Ifsocialstratificationcorrespondedpreciselytoeconomicstratification,thepublic-schoolmanwouldassumea cockneyaccentthedayhisincomedroppedbelow£200a year.Butdoeshe?Onthecontrary,heimmediatelybecomes twentytimesmorePublicSchoolthanbefore.Heclingsto theOldSchoolTieastoalife-line.Andeventheaitchless millionaire,thoughsometimeshegoestoanelocutionistand leamsaB.B.C.accent,seldomsucceedsindisguisinghimself ascompletelyashewouldliketo.Itisinfactverydifficult toescape,culturally,fromtheclassintowhichyouhavebeen born.

Asprosperitydeclines,socialanomaliesgrowcommoner. Youdon’tgetmoreaitchlessmillionaires,butyoudoget moreandmorepublic-schoolmentoutingvacuumcleaners andmoreandmoresmallshopkeepersdrivenintotheworkhouse.Largesectionsofthemiddleclassarebeinggradually proletarianized;buttheimportantpointisthattheydonot,at anyrateinthefirstgeneration,adoptaproletarianoutlook. HereamI,forinstance,withabourgeoisupbringinganda working-classincome.WhichclassdoIbelongto?EconomicallyIbelongtotheworkingclass,butitisalmostimpossibleformetothinkofmyselfasanythingbutamemberof thebourgeoisie.AndsupposingIhadtotakesides,whom shouldIsidewith,theupperclasswhichistryingtosqueeze meoutofexistence,ortheworkingclasswhosemannersare notmymanners?ItisprobablethatIpersonally,inanyimportantissue,wouldsidewiththeworkingclass.Butwhat aboutthetensorhundredsofthousandsofotherswhoare inapproximatelythesameposition?Andwhataboutthat farlargerclass,runningintomillionsthistime–theofficeworkersandblack-coatedemployeesofallkinds–whosetraditionsarelessdefinitelymiddleclassbutwhowouldcertainlynotthankyouifyoucalledthemproletarians?Allof

thesepeoplehavethesameinterestsandthesameenemies astheworkingclass.Allarebeingrobbedandbulliedbythe samesystem.Yethowmanyofthemrealizeit?Whenthe pinchcamenearlyallofthemwouldsidewiththeiroppressorsandagainstthosewhooughttobetheirallies.Itisquite easytoimagineamiddleclasscrusheddowntotheworst depthsofpovertyandstillremainingbitterlyanti-workingclassinsentiment;thisbeing,ofcourse,aready-madeFascist Party.

ObviouslytheSocialistmovementhasgottocapturethe exploitedmiddleclassbeforeitistoolate;aboveallitmust capturetheoffice-workers,whoaresonumerousand,ifthey knewhowtocombine,sopowerful.Equallyobviouslyit hassofarfailedtodoso.Theverylastpersoninwhom youcanhopetofindrevolutionaryopinionsisaclerkora commercialtraveller.Why?Verylargely,Ithink,because ofthe’proletarian’cantwithwhichSocialistpropagandais mixedup.Inordertosymbolizetheclasswar,therehasbeen setupthemoreorlessmythicalfigureofa’proletarian’,a muscularbutdowntroddenmaningreasyoveralls,incontradistinctiontoa’capitalist’,afat,wickedmaninatophat andfurcoat.Itistacitlyassumedthatthereisnooneinbetween;thetruthbeing,ofcourse,thatinacountrylikeEnglandaboutaquarterofthepopulationisinbetween.Ifyou aregoingtoharponthe’dictatorshipoftheproletariat’,it isanelementaryprecautiontostartbyexplainingwhothe proletariatare.ButbecauseoftheSocialisttendencytoidealizethemanualworkerassuch,thishasneverbeenmade sufficientlyclear.Howmanyofthewretchedshiveringarmy ofclerksandshopwalkers,whoinsomewaysareactually worseoffthanamineroradock-hand,thinkofthemselves asproletarians?Aproletarian–sotheyhavebeentaughtto think–meansamanwithoutacollar.Sothatwhenyoutryto

movethembytalkingabout’classwar’,youonlysucceedin scaringthem;theyforgettheirincomesandremembertheir accents,andﬂytothedefenceoftheclassthatisexploiting them.

Socialistshaveabigjobaheadofthemhere.Theyhavegot todemonstrate,beyondpossibilityofdoubt,justwherethe lineofcleavagebetweenexploiterandexploitedcomes.Once againitisaquestionofstickingtoessentials;andtheessentialpointhereisthatallpeoplewithsmall,insecureincomes areinthesameboatandoughttobeﬁghtingonthesame side.Probablywecoulddowithalittlelesstalkabout’capitalist’and’proletarian’andalittlemoreabouttherobbers andtherobbed.Butatanyratewemustdropthatmisleadinghabitofpretendingthattheonlyproletariansaremanual labourers.Ithasgottobebroughthometotheclerk,theengineer,thecommercialtraveller,themiddle-classmanwho has’comedownintheworld’,thevillagegrocer,thelowergradecivilservant,andallotherdoubtfulcasesthattheyare theproletariat,andthatSocialismmeansafairdealforthem aswellasforthenavvyandthefactory-hand.Theymustnot beallowedtothinkthatthebattleisbetweenthosewhopronouncetheiraitchesandthosewhodon’t;foriftheythink that,theywilljoininonthesideoftheaitches.

Iamimplyingthatdifferentclassesmustbepersuadedto acttogetherwithout,forthemoment,beingaskedtodrop theirclass-differences.Andthatsoundsdangerous.Itsounds rathertooliketheDukeofYork’ssummercampandthat dismallineoftalkaboutclass-cooperationandputtingour shoulderstothewheel,whichiseyewashorFascism,orboth. Therecanbenocooperationbetweenclasseswhoserealinterestsareopposed.Thecapitalistcannotcooperatewiththe proletarian.Thecatcannotcooperatewiththemouse;and ifthecatdoessuggestcooperationandthemouseisfool

enoughtoagree,inaverylittlewhilethemousewillbedisappearingdownthecat’sthroat.Butitisalwayspossible tocooperatesolongasitisuponabasisofcommoninterests.Thepeoplewhohavegottoacttogetherareallthose whocringetothebossandallthosewhoshudderwhenthey thinkoftherent.Thismeansthatthesmall-holderhasgotto allyhimselfwiththefactory-hand,thetypistwiththecoalminer,theschoolmasterwiththegaragemechanic.Thereis somehopeofgettingthemtodosoiftheycanbemadeto understandwheretheirinterestlies.Butthiswillnothappen iftheirsocialprejudices,whichinsomeofthemareatleast asstrongasanyeconomicconsideration,arcneedlesslyirritated.Thereis,afterall,arealdifferenceofmannersand traditionsbetweenabankclerkandadocklabourer,and thebankclerk’sfeelingofsuperiorityisverydeeplyrooted. Lateronhewillhavetogetridofit,butthisisnotagoodmomentforaskinghim.todoso.Thereforeitwouldbeavery greatadvantageifthatrathermeaninglessandmechanical bourgeois-baiting,whichisapartofnearlyallSocialistpropaganda,couldbedroppedforthetimebeing.Throughout left-wingthoughtandwriting–andthewholewaythrough it,fromtheleadingarticlesintheDailyWorkertothecomic columnsintheNewsChronicle–thererunsananti-genteel tradition,apersistentandoftenverystupidgibingatgenteel mannerismsandgenteelloyalties(or,inCommunistjargon, ’bourgeoisvalues’).Itislargelyhum-bug,comingasitdoes frombourgeois-baiterswhoarebourgeoisthemselves,butit doesgreatharm,becauseitallowsaminorissuetoblocka majorone.Itdirectsattentionawayfromthecentralfactthat povertyispoverty,whetherthetoolyouworkwithisapickaxeorafountain-pen.

Onceagain,hereamI,withmymiddle-classoriginsand myincomeofaboutthreepoundsaweekfromallsources.

ForwhatIamworthitwouldbebettertogetmeinonthe SocialistsidethantoturnmeintoaFascist.Butifyouare constantlybullyingmeaboutmy’bourgeoisideology’,ifyou givemetounderstandthatinsomesubtlewayI.amaninferiorpersonbecauseIhaveneverworkedwithmyhands, youwillonlysucceedinantagonizingme.Foryouaretelling meeitherthatIaminherentlyuselessorthatIoughttoaltermyselfinsomewaythatisbeyondmypower.Icannot proletarianizemyaccentorcertainofmytastesandbeliefs, andIwouldnotifIcould.WhyshouldI?Idon’taskanybodyelsetospeakmydialect;whyshouldanybodyelseask metospeakhis?Itwouldbefarbettertotakethosemiserableclass-stigmataforgrantedandemphasizethemaslittle aspossible.Theyarecomparabletoarace-difference,andexperienceshowsthatonecancooperatewithforeigners,even withforeignerswhomonedislikes,whenitisreallynecessary.Economically,Iaminthesameboatwiththeminer,the navvy,andthefarm-hand;remindmeofthatandIwillﬁght attheirside.ButculturallyIamdifferentfromtheminer, thenavvy,andthefarm-hand:laytheemphasisonthatand youmayarmmeagainstthem.IfIwereasolitaryanomalyI shouldnotmatter,butwhatistrueofmyselfistrueofcountlessothers.Everybankclerkdreamingofthesack,every shop-keeperteeteringonthebrinkofbankruptcy,isinessentiallythesameposition.Thesearethesinkingmiddleclass, andmostofthemareclingingtotheirgentilityundertheimpressionthatitkeepsthemaﬂoat.Itisnotgoodpolicytostart bytellingthemtothrowawaythelife-belt.Thereisaquite obviousdangerthatinthenextfewyearslargesectionsof themiddleclasswillmakeasuddenandviolentswingtothe Right.Indoingsotheymaybecomeformidable.Theweaknessofthemiddleclasshithertohaslaininthefactthatthey haveneverlearnedtocombine;butifyoufrightentheminto

combiningagainstyou,youmayﬁndthatyouhaveraised upadevil.Wehadabriefglimpseofthispossibilityinthe GeneralStrike.

Tosumup:Thereisnochanceofrightingtheconditions Idescribedintheearlierchaptersofthisbook,orofsaving EnglandfromFascism,unlesswecanbringaneffectiveSocialistpartyintoexistence.Itwillhavetobeapartywithgenuinelyrevolutionaryintentions,anditwillhavetobenumericallystrongenoughtoact.Wecanonlygetitifweofferan objectivewhichfairlyordinarypeoplewillrecognizeasdesirable.Beyondallelse,therefore,weneedintelligentpropaganda.Lessabout’classconsciousness’,’expropriationofthe expropriators’,’bourgeoisideology’,and’proletariansolidarity’,nottomentionthesacredsisters,thesis,antithesis,and synthesis;andmoreaboutjustice,liberty,andtheplightof theunemployed.Andlessaboutmechanicalprogress,tractors,theDnieperdam,andthelatestsalmon-canningfactory inMoscow;thatkindofthingisnotanintegralpartofSocialistdoctrine,anditdrivesawaymanypeoplewhomthe Socialistcauseneeds,includingmostofthosewhocanhold apen.Allthatisneededistohammertwofactshomeintothe publicconsciousness.One,thattheinterestsofallexploited peoplearethesame;theother,thatSocialismiscompatible withcommondecency.

Asfortheterriblydifﬁcultissueofclass-distinctions,the onlypossiblepolicyforthemomentistogoeasyandnot frightenmorepeoplethancanbehelped.Andaboveall,no moreofthosemuscular-curateeffortsatclass-breaking.If youbelongtothebourgeoisie,don’tbetooeagertobound forwardandembraceyourproletarianbrothers;theymay notlikeit,andiftheyshowthattheydon’tlikeityouwill probablyﬁndthatyourclass-prejudicesarenotsodeadas youimagined.Andifyoubelongtotheproletariat,bybirth

orinthesightofGod,don’tsneertooautomaticallyatthe OldSchoolTie;itcoversloyaltieswhichcanbeusefultoyou ifyouknowhowtohandlethem.

YetIbelievethereissomehopethatwhenSocialismisa livingissue,athingthatlargenumbersofEnglishmengenuinelycareabout,theclass-difﬁcultymaysolveitselfmore rapidlythannowseemsthinkable.Inthenextfewyearswe shalleithergetthateffectiveSocialistpartythatweneed,or weshallnotgetit.Ifwedonotgetit,thenFascismiscoming; probablyaslimyAnglicizedformofFascism,withcultured policemeninsteadofNazigorillasandthelionandtheunicorninsteadoftheswastika.Butifwedogetittherewill beastruggle,conceivablyaphysicalone,forourplutocracy willnotsitquietunderagenuinelyrevolutionarygovernment.Andwhenthewidelyseparateclasseswho,necessarily,wouldformanyrealSocialistpartyhavefoughtsideby side,theymayfeeldifferentlyaboutoneanother.Andthen perhapsthismiseryofclass-prejudicewillfadeaway,and weofthesinkingmiddleclass—theprivateschoolmaster, thehalf-starvedfree-lancejournalist,thecolonel’sspinster daughterwith£75ayear,thejoblessCambridgegraduate, theship’sofﬁcerwithoutaship,theclerks,thecivilservants, thecommercialtravellers,andthethrice-bankruptdrapersin thecountrytowns–maysinkwithoutfurtherstrugglesinto theworkingclasswherewebelong,andprobablywhenwe getthereitwillnotbesodreadfulaswefeared,for,afterall, wehavenothingtolosebutouraitches.