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Arch 523D · History of architecture in South America: a Corbusian perspective
WUSTL Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts Buenos Aires International Program | Fall 2015 L
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on Edge
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Margot Shafran
Introduction “When one has gone up in a plane for observation and glided like a bird over all the bays, has turned around all the peaks, when one has entered the intimacy of a city, when one has torn away in a single glance of the gliding bird all the secrets that it hid so easily from the poor terrestrial of his two feet, one has seen everything, understood everything;…when by plane, everything has become so clear, and you have learned this topography, this body so hilly and so complicated; when, having conquered difficulties, you have been seized with enthusiasm, you have felt ideas being born, you have entered into the body and the heart of the city, you have understood part of its destiny;” (Corbusier, 235).
This passage from Le Corbusier’s book Precisions, a chronical of his lectures and experiences while traveling through Latin America, is the one that has stayed with me throughout this semester. Corbusier is so clear in stating the profound experience of viewing the city aerially within its natural landscape. The sublime experience of flying over an urban centre is an extraction from everyday life that offers a sense of totality. While the clarity of this passage is inarguable, I nevertheless believe it to be partially false. Corbusier suggests that all hidden secrets of a city are exposed when viewing it from above. In part this is true: the city seen as a whole is complete – manageable, and ignites creativity. But what we cannot understand with such distance and disconnect are the complex spatial and personal characteristics of everyday life in a city. As a traveler, what is more crucial are the small encounters, subtle observations that provide insight into the genius loci – or spirit,
Aerial Image photographed over Santa Cruz Province traveling from El Calefate back to Buenos Aires. Novemeber 2015.
on Edge
of a place. It is my hypothesis that by looking more closely at the city and its connections to its natural elements and surrounding you can gain a more complete understanding of a city. Therefore, this travelogue documents my observations regarding one connection between a city and its natural elements; that is, the edge between urban fabric and watercourse. An edge can be defined as the outside limit of an area, but it can also be defined as the sharpened side of a blade. The dual meaning of the word enables both a conversation of the very physical and spatial limit between watercourse and urban settlement, and the more pressing implications and causes, the blades, of a limit’s existence. The initial urban structure of a city is often partly attributed to major geographical features of its territory. In many cases, a city is located in a particular place as a result of its connection to a major water source. Through
time, the connection between urban structure and water source is altered. In some cases, major geographical water resources such as lakes, rivers, and seafronts, participate in a city’s network of spaces, while in others they are merely an articulation of territory or perhaps they have been all but erased. Through my travels, I have looked at the connection between the urban life of a city and its relationship to the water’s edge. While I could most likely apply this topic to any city, to further understand the complexities of the link between water edge and urban fabric, I will focus on the South American condition by specifically analyzing Buenos Aires, Sao Paolo, and Rio de Janeiro. Through these cities we can observe three very different relationships cities can have with their water edges and many of the broader themes cities face historically and today.
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BUenos Aires
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
BUENOS AIRES “On my first impression of the city, stretching out on the banks of the river, I´ve built the city which Buenos Aires could be.” (…) “at a predestined place on the banks of the ‘Río de la Plata’, at the end of a giant estuary… a huge city is already stretching out, it's already kicking, the enormous head of a barely formed body.” (Le Corbusier, 1978] 226-7).
El Bajo, by Rudolf Carlsen (ca.1847) Paseo de la Alameda at the corner with Corrientes St. [Publicado en “La Raza Merino en la Argentina�]
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My interpretation of Colonnaed at River’s Edge in Buenos Aires (Centro, Buenos Aires, September 2015)
Rio de la Pla t a
Edge as Industrial Mechanism
Colonial Buenos Aires
Adapted from the Plano del Departamento de Obras Públicas de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 1904 Source: Gorelik, 2004, p. 25
Buenos Aires is situated at the drainage basin of the Rio de la Plata, a watershed which covers 3.2 million cubic kilometers of land reaching from central Brazil to south eastern Bolivia and down through all of Paraguay, northern Argentina and most of Uruguay (Evans, 1). The growth of Buenos Aires was initially dependent on its role as a port town along the river basin to help facilitate trade and transportation of agricultural products to the rest of Argentina and Brazil. This evident connection between river and city is still visible through the presence of a colonnade along the front edge of the city and now along Avenida Leandro N. Alem and Avenida Paseo Colon. At one time, this colonnade marked the entrance to the city and served as a “front porch” toward the water. This is an architectural ?? tradition that has remained and even new buildings that are no longer near the river edge, maintain this architectural typology along these streets.
In order to facilitate more efficient transportation, channels were cut into the shallow river to accommodate larger boats. In 1897 Puerto Madero was completed, dredging out an accessible canal forming a central city for the harbor. This act effectively shut off the waterfront in central Buenos Aires to its inhabitants, instead responding to the city’s economic interests. Unfortunately this investment in infrastructure to enable increased industry in the city center was unable to accommodate the demand by transportation vessels (Liernur, 2007, p. 3839) and was quickly considered obsolete and eventually fell into disrepair.
Edge as Evidence of Natural Disaster
While the Rio de la Plata continues to supply residents of Buenos Aires with drinking water, the World Wildlife fund has selected Rio de la Plata as one of the top 10 rivers at risk globally. In
BUENOS AIRES addition to being highly polluted and degraded of ecological resources, the Rio de la Plata is also a threat for flooding in Buenos Aires. Flooding is caused by two distinct phenomena in Buenos Aires: 1.exceptionally heavy or prolonged rainfall that exceeds the capacity of municipal storm drains, and 2. the sudestada winds from the southeast that thrust river water towards the city’s coast and prevents the normal drainage of water courses in the Rio de la Plata (Gentile & González, 2001, p. 5) causing inevitable flooding on the lowland in Buenos Aires. Throughout my time in Buenos Aires, I have also become familiar with the topic of the riochuelo in the neighbourhood of La Boca, where our studio site takes place. La Boca, or the mouth served as a natural harbor for the city, taking advantage
of is location at the entrance into the greater basin of the Rio de la Plata. Historically, due to its shallow position at the river edge, La Boca has suffered from flooding. The consistent challenge between habitants and the river has permeated into the culture of the neighbourhood and can be observed in the atypical relationship between ground floor level and street level. In La Boca, the ground level is raised about a meter to a meterand=a-half off from the street level. This was done in order to avoid the destruction of houses caused by flooding. While there is now a levee in place, and the neighbourhood is protected from flooding, the presence of the shift in ground level is still obvious within the area. And, even though the effects of storms and increased water levels are not a daily distraction, overall there is an industrial connection with the riverfront in this area of the city. While a boardwalk runs the length of the river, it is federally controlled and fenced off from the neighbourhood. It could be a
Bolivia
Brazil
Paraguay
Argentina
Uruguay
Buenos Aires
Rio de la Plata Watershed
Adapted from ‘Map of the Plata Basin’ ©WWF
space integrated into the city fabric that provides a cultural and ecological amenity, but instead it acts as a mausoleum of the area’s industrial past. While the connection between the river and the general population is limited, there are some places in the city where the river is celebrated, as in the more touristic area of La Boca at a swell in the river, where the port is claimed as civic space, such as in cobbled area in front of the PROA Foundation. There, there is a public plaza that acts as a viewing platform for tourists and portenos to view out onto the river. The greatest connection however, is experienced along the elevated highway that cuts through La Boca; the everyday commute is heightened with a passing visual connection with the city’s waterways.
Ramp leading to ground level entry in Industrial Building (La Boca, Buenos Aires, November 2015)
Views from PROA Foundation focused towards Riochuelo and Industrial water edge. (La Boca, Buenos Aires, August 2015)
BUENOS AIRES Edge as a Representation of Globalization
With the intention of rectifying the degraded relationship between the city and its coastline, the Puerto Madero waterfront redevelopment and Costanera Sur Ecological Reserve illustrate a great amount of investment by public and private enterprises in Buenos Aires city. My experience of the river edge while in Puerto Madero is very different from that of the coastline in La Boca. In Puerto Madero, the river and the city’s old industrial port have been glorified – the area is focused on the water with most commercial and cultural venues facing the port. Boardwalks flank the water’s edge and are crowded with portenos and tourists admiring the modern architecture integrated into an urban artifact.
Puerto Madero Waterfront Development (Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires, August 2015)
Avenida de Julio Plaza de Mayo
Puente de la Mujer Puerto Madero Reserva Ecologica Costanera Sur
As doumented in this map, there is no direct pedestrian path to the city’s center of Plaza de Mayo from Puerto Madero, nor are there any metro stops within the development. As such, the area is disconnected to the rest of the city. This indicates concerning fragmentation within the city, but also enhances the areas appeal as an escape from the city.
Accessability in Puerto Madero
Adapted from Google Maps 2015
BUENOS AIRES
Pedestrian Entry Leading to Puerto Madero (Buenos Aires, August 2015)
Edge Accessibility
That said, the edge is still clearly defined, with the boardwalk rising many meters above the water level with little access to the water below. I noticed some recreation in the river – kayakers and rowers, but overall, public access seemed limited. The waterfront’s limited accessibility is also impacted by the lack of public transit in the area. Another trait of limited access to this waterway’s edge is the lack of accessibility to the water. [This sentence feels out of place] Puerto Madero is poorly served by the city’s public transit system. In my experience, there are no public buses that service the port itself, but due to the complexity of the bus system, I am not entirely sure. It seems that you can take a bus to Avenida Alicia Moreau de Justo Omni and then walk the rest of the way. Yet, access to the area by pedestrians is limited and somewhat dangerous, having to cross abandoned railway tracks and two major avenues that separate the port from
A bridge leading from nothing to nothing Santiago Calatrava’s Pedestrian Bridge (Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires, August 2015)
the city center. The link is established through the iconic Puente de la Mujer designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. Its elegant form is iconic along this water edge; however, its actual location is indirect and inconvenient to use as a method for crossing the port. It does however, follow Avenida de Mayo and align with the National Congress of Argentina and the Pink House. At least from what I was able to observe, this connection is not visible, nor can you cross directly from the bridge into the urban city fabric, instead you must follow the length of the port about 400 meters north or south until you reach a vehicular road and street crossing. At least metaphorically, it is a nice alignment bridging the foundation of the city to the ports edge.
Edge as a Natural and Artificial condition:
While Puerto Madero is the face of the waterfront
BUENOS AIRES
edge, the actual edge of the river is past the port and can be experienced from within the Costanera Sur Ecological Reserve. While this land was previously a landfill – made from rubble of homes and streets that were demolished to accommodate the construction of highways through the city – in time, biological matter has taken root and ‘naturally’ developed into diverse ecosystems. This ecological attraction has created a sanctuary for fauna in the city that continues to diversify. Buenos Aires ecological reserve is an unanticipated outcome of decades of neglect by the city toward the coast. It is difficult to define the extent to which it is natural and what is artificial. The land was placed there by man, and unexpectedly, natural processes created a ‘natural’ space adjacent to the city’s downtown edge. ‘Beach’ at the Costanera Sur Ecological Reserve (Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires, September 2015)
Buenos Aires’s relationship with its river’s edge is multi-faceted. The edge is experienced both as a volatile living natural element in the landscape that causes flooding but also as an urban destination. While the edge is not well integrated into the urban fabric due to roadways as barriers and lack of public transit to locations most well connected to the waterways, the way edge plays an important role in creating ‘destinations’ within the city creates lovely daytrip locations for habitants of Buenos Aires.
Rio de Janeiro “Blue bays, sky and water, succeed each other far off in arcs, edged by white quays or pink beaches; where the coean beats directly, the waves roll in white billows; where the gulf enters into the land, water splashes.� (Le Corbusier, 233)
Bay of Rio de Janeiro, Eduard Hildebradt, 1844 Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
Rio de Janeiro
Edge as an Identity The city of Rio de Janeiro was first settled in 1565 by Portuguese explorers in an inlet of the coast in Guanabara Bay on the far western strip of Brazil’s Atlantic coast. Rio de Janeiro is the primary tourist attraction in South America in part due to its scenic geographic characteristics, but also because of its 80km of beach front. This is best expressed through the iconic Copacabana paves that have become an emblem to the city globally. While the scenic natural topography what makes Rio de Janeiro such an attractive city, it is the iconic paving pattern design by landscape architect Burle Marx that is found on t-shirt and paraphernalia all over the world to represent the experience of Rio.
Colonial Rio de Janeiro
Adapted from ‘Map of Rio De Janeiro’ Brazil likely from 1769 Source: brazilbrazil.com
Edge Accessibility
Unlike our other case studies, the water’s edge is accessible by most of the city. While the waterfront is characteristically upper-class, home to the famed Copacabana hotel and an attraction for tourists – the expanse of beaches provides a free, public amenity to the city. Further, while there are certainly higher quality properties or much higher expense on the coastal edge, due to the rugged topography even the most impoverished areas of the city have access to the coast through views. This was contrary to my expectations of Rio de Janeiro which I thought, like many other cities would be a resource only for the privileged. While I was in Rio de Janeiro, I had the opportunity to visit the city’s largest favela, Rocinha. From the top of the favela – the world is opened and the view of the coast is cradled by naturally forested mountains. Le Corbusier expresses what I personally witnessed in my own
Rio de Janeiro visit to Rocinha. He states: from “up in the favelas one always has a view of the sea, the harbors, the ports, the islands, the ocean, the mountains, the estuaries; the black sees all that; the wind reigns, useful in the tropics, there is pride in the eye of the black who sees all that; the eye of the man who seems wide horizons is prouder, wide horizons confer dignity� (Corbusier, 235). While the racial vernacular is grossly outdated, his main argument remains applicable. While you are up in the mountains of Rio de Janeiro, you cannot help feel this sense of pride, awe, humility at the view through the landscape toward the coastline. This edge is pronounced and available to urban habitants. Some beaches are clearly marked for use – with small kiosks at the edge of the beach housing restaurants and boardwalks with iconic paving. The sheer size of the coast line provides
predominance to the city that can be explored by anyone. If you search beyond the typical beach fronts of Ipanema and Copacabana you can find more secluded spots of wild edge, less catered to commercial society, but clean, celebrated, and used by locals citizens of all socio-economic classes.
(Images from Copoacabana Boardwalk in Rio de Janeiro October 2015)
Rio de Janeiro Airport Gloria Neighbourhood flamengo park Avenida Infante Dom Henrique flamengo neighbourhood Copacabana beach Ipanema beach
As doumented in this map, Flamengo park runs along the coastline briding between neighbourhoods and water’s edge. The park helps make this conenction by mediating between vehicular traffic lanesand coast by offereing pedestrian lanes, bike lanes, and bridges.
Accessability in Puerto Madero
Adapted from Google Maps 2015
Edge as a Cultural Amenity:
The importance of the coast to in Rio de Janeiro is exemplified by the Flamengo Park project. In the 1950’s acreage was reclaimed from the ocean at the water’s edge, and in 1961 a design team (made up of architects Affonso Reidy and Jorge Moreira, and landscape architect Burle Marx) was established to transform this land into a coastal park that would serve as a recreational and cultural amenity. This large scale landfill project utilized rubble from the destruction of Moro Castelo in downtown helps to improve traffic flow along the coast and avert flooding into the city caused by rough seas. This feat was obviously a challenge as one of Rio de Janeiro’s main thoroughfares Avenida Infante Dom Henrique runs parallel to the coastline. Pedestrian bridges throughout the park speak to this effort at linking the coastal edge to the city without decrementing vehicular transportation. The park attempts to connect the edge of the coast made
Paths in Flamengo Park mediating between coastal edge and urban fabric (source: Chroma Design Collective)
up of harbours to the urban neighbourhood of Gloria while also linking southern beaches from Ipanema through Copacabana beach to Flamengo towards the central city.
Iconic Sinusuidal Pattern of Copacabana beach mowed into the lawn by the Museum of Modern Art in Flamengo Park (October 2015)
submit itself to art to accompany the architecture to the sea. The rigid volume of the city would be morphed into undulating masses of vegetation along the along the traffic lanes, and would gradually be absorbed by the changing reflections As described by architectural historian Kenneth of the bay, right up to the shoreline. Along the Frampton, in Flamengo Park “nature would pedestrian walks, the bike lanes and the express
Rio de Janeiro
road itself, the city becomes landscape; the landscape becomes architecture” (Frampton, 67). This suggests a complementary role that coastal edges can have with their urban environment. The extent of this coastline is the focal point of the city – this is where cultural institutions such as the Modern Museum of Modern Art and the new Diller and Scofidio Museum of Image and Sound are located. Rio de Janeiro’s coastline is the life of the city drawing people from all over the world to experience it.
Ipanema Beach (Rio de Janeiro, October 2015)
SAo PAulo “There are distant origins for these roads that join in knots in the city... the urban diameter is extraordinarity extended: 45 kilometers. You build expressways; at the moment, as they stay glued to the ground, they suffer its constraints. (Le Corbusier, 241).
View of Sao Paulo, Eduard Hildebradt, 1844 Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
SAo PAulo Situated on a steep hill situated between two rivers, Sao Paulo’s origins date back to 1554. These rivers are now known as Rio Pinheiros and Rio Tietê. Like most other booming metropoles, these rivers were agents of opportunity, including transportation, food, and water. Rivers, however, also come with liabilities to any settlement, most significantly flood and drought. While at some point, these rivers probably provided habitants of Sao Paulo ecological richness, their present condition is one of illness. In fact, the presence of any water source went unnoticed in my recent trip to the city. Why and how has the presence of the rivers’ edges disappeared in this city? What does this indicate about urban development and the current state of Sao Paulo? How is this edge different than others I have greeted in my travels?
Adapted from Plata Genal de Capital Sao Paulo 1897 (Source: Franco, 64)
SAo PAulo Edge as a Contradiction between Visible and Hidden
The city of Sao Paulo is situated in borderland on a high plateau with running rivers traversing the land. Natural, free-flowing rivers act like living beings that meander and transform their landscapes. Along the middle and lower courses of a river, they form large floodplains. The flatness of the city was apparent, but the existence of a living river was not. This absence was a characteristic of the city I noticed immediately after traveling for a short time through central Sao Paulo. I was aware that the city was founded near a confluence of two rivers, and I was surprised when they were not obvious as part of the city’s urban condition. My impression was that the river had been swallowed by the city, by infrastructure, by exploitation. What I did not notice was that
currently, Sao Paulo is going through a period of drought. As it was raining during my visit, I did not recognize that notwithstanding this fact, the city could be suffering. This drought is a result of a myriad of factors, both climatic and political such as deforestation, inadequate sewage collection, and climate change. One indicator that I could have observed, if I had been attentive, was that water reservoirs are low. Further, this problem is camouflaged by the reduction in water pressure in city pipes as a means of conservation instead of the more traditional method of mandated household rationing. And while there are some on-going large scale hydrological projects to bridge watersheds in the area, historically, the city has had a lack of preparation for droughts. This is frustrating, because, as I observed there is water in the city. There are creeks and streams filled with visible water that network through the city at several stages of channelization. This water, however, is dirty and polluted. The iconic
Tietê River, which runs straight through most of the city, once curved through the landscape. Similarly, the Pinheiros River was locked and dammed in order to facilitate a navigation path for barges which was previously impossible due to its curvature. This made it cheaper and more efficient to carry goods through the country. Further, the rivers are polluted by industry and agriculture upstream. As already mentioned, one grave consequence of settlement near the banks of a river is the unavoidable flooding that occurs on a river’s floodplain during moments of high precipitation. In an effort to avoid flooding and move water out of the city as quickly as possible, rivers throughout Sao Paulo have been channelized.
Tietê River sandwhiched between SP-015 Source: "Margtiete" by Fernando Stankuns
SAo PAulo Edge Accessibility
Not only is the water’s edge of Tietê River is inaccessible within the city of Sao Paulo as an urban resource of recreation and culture, it is also absent of any wildlife or as a resource for fresh potable water. Ironically, the channelized Tietê River runs through most of the city, but it is physically inaccessible due to the Marginal Tietê, a highway more formally known as SP015, which braces both sides of the river. The river is accessible by car or public transit. In some parts of the city, the flooding of Tietê River has not been addressed by channelization. Flooding and course shifts along this area of the floodplain have caused problems for inhabitants. While Rain Barrels observed on a rooftop in Sao Paulo. An example of local citizens managing their own water resources. (October 2015)
“Every five minutes walking in São Paulo we pass over a channelized river.”
“Where is the river?”
Evidence of strained relationship between Sao Paulo and River (Source: © Nate Millington)
SAo PAulo officially, these areas were kept from the formal property market, they are informally occupied by lower income communities. Therefore, not only is the unapproachable edge of the river a symbol of environmental and urban degradation, it is also an indicator of longstanding inequality and informality. Large scale water management efforts such as park development along these flood plains would consequentially require eviction and removal of informal communities and comes with local backlash. Further, all of the water in Sao Paulo (rainwater and sewage etc.) ends up in the Tietê River, so in order to clean the water, which is presently highly polluted and not at all potable, there needs to be efforts to clean up both the man made (sewage system) and natural (creeks) tributaries that supply the Tietê River. There is an organization called Rivers
Proposal for adaptive reuse of Guarau Resevoir for landscaped park with recreational amenities by Architect Jorge Felix (2007)
and Roads working toward cleaning up the city’s rivers by calling attention to the city’s degraded waterways.
Edge reclaimed
Part of the conversation regarding the river’s edge in Sao Paulo is dependent on the topic of reservoirs. When channelization failed to cure the city of flooding and drought issues, reservoirs on the outskirts of the city were created. Often, ownership and management of these reservoirs is ambiguous. Many are filled with trash and sewage, which is a major source of complaints within the city. Some however are maintained by their local communities and used as parkland
when they are not saturated with water. Since the river’s natural quality has been taken away from the city, reservoirs offer the opportunity for reclaimed natural settings. Another example of edge reclamation is that of architect and designer Lina Bo Bardi who includes a river feature inside of one of the warehouse gallery spaces at SESC. By incorporating a ‘river’ - a body of water which the visitor can engage with - she effectively reminds us of the waterways that once covered this landscape, now hidden below.
SAo PAulo
In Sao Paulo, the natural water’s edge is invisible – swallowed by up infrastructural projects of roadways and channelization efforts. In Rio, the coastline is remarkably present. It is cherished by the city and helps to mark its identity as a coastal metropolis. The water’s edge is a sign of social inequality. In Sao Paolo, the areas of the river that have been left unchanneled – with the power to continue to flood, render it detrimental to the already impoverished communities that live at its edge.
Raindrops captured from roof at Hotel Unique (Sao Paulo, October 2015)
Conclusion By examining the relationship between waterway and city in each of these three prominent South American cities, it is clear that the characteristics of the edge conditions are representative of greater social, cultural, and environmental impacts. The continuous reconstruction of these edges have a significant effect on a city’s habitants, and the construction and reconstruction of society significantly effect’s the edge condition between waterway and urban settlement. From these case studies we can acknowledge the fundamental needs of urban citizens for safety, sanitation, ecological diversity and recreation. These edges are a crucial fragment of this equation of urban fulfillment. Further, it is essential to look at the needs of habitants
along the watercourse edge and determine how the adjacent land can more effectively act as a public green space for these communities and bridge the divide between city, pathway, infrastructure, ecology, industry, and culture. These waterways were the original lifeblood for these cities and it seems obvious that they should continue to be, by offering citizens enriching opportunities. In order to accomplish this, it is vital to the health of the rivers, oceans, and lakes that human interaction with them is increased so that there becomes a cultural dependence on the river. Only then will urban citizens begin to understand the significance of these edges within their city and the dynamic role they play in the health of the city. In time, a sense of unity with the river will orchestrate initiatives to maintain it as an ecosystem. Society needs the water that pours from watercourse banks; we need the diversity of its aquatic ecosystems to rebalance the relentlessly urban environment of a rapidly
growing metropoles. Coastlines can be a place for the recovery of green and recreation space in cities. They can be ordered with the dual responsibility to provide citizens with enriching cultural space, and also serve to meet ecological needs of our land. Many of the topics and dualities exposed on these pages deserve a more in depth analysis. I look forward to exploring those topics more as I progress through my career as a designer of our spatial environment and as a traveler.
“I draw a river. The purpose is definite: To go from one point to another: river or idea”. (Le Corbusier, 164).
Lake Argentina (El Calefate, December 2015)
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