The following document is a synthesis of the works developed during the MAS in Collective Housing from the UPM Madrid and ETH ZĂźrich that lasted from January 23rd till July 31st of 2017. A variety of architecture projects are presented, from the housing unit to the urban scale.
In 2006, the Polytechnic University of Madrid presented the first edition of the Masters Degree in Collective Housing, a postgraduate professional program of advanced architecture design, focused on housing, city and energy studies. The value of this unique program lies in its excellence and practiceoriented synthesis of design with integrated disciplines and theoretical issues. In 2016, UPM and ETH joined forces to offer the first UPM / ETH Diploma: “Master of Advanced Studies UPM/ETH in Collective Housing”. ETH Zurich, the most prestigious technology university in the world, signed an agreement with UPM that officially recognizes MCH as one of its MAS programs, validating this master with the same recognition than existing further postgraduate courses offered at ETH Zurich. From 2017 on, every year’s program is co-designed with UPM-ETH professors: a unique, excellent and comprehensive course of further education on the subject of Housing. Students of 2017 edition Marta Abril | Spain Daniel Alcalá | México Maria Estela Amado Mannise | Uruguay Arman Amin | Iran María Alejandra Arroyo Peláez | Colombia Natalia Ayumi Sato | Brasil Tais de Moraes Alves | Brasil María Eizayaga | Argentina Georges El-Hachem | Lebanon Oscar Gilbert | Ecuador Blanca Guillén | Honduras Gonzalo Lozano Arce | Spain Mauricio Méndez Wiesner | Colombia Oscar Rodriguez Perales | Venezuela Marcela Valerio | Nicaragua Riham Zawil | Lebanon
María Eizayaga Portfolio. September 2017
This book is composed with Adobe Caslon Pro and Brandon Grotesque typography. Printed in 130 gr/m2 and 300 gr/m2 matte paper.
Printed in Faster by Workcenter. Madrid, Spain. The introduction text for each workshop or specialty was taken from the MCH webpage www.mchmaster.com
PRAXIS 01 HIGH-RISE
05
02 BUILDING DEPTHS
13
03 CO-HOUSING
19
04 CLAY STORMING
27
05 SHAPE CORE SHELL
33
06 URBAN DESIGN
39
07 DUNKIRK
47
08 DISNEY SIDE
55
09 ENERGY & SUSTAINABILITY
67
10 CONSTRUCTION & TECHNOLOGY
77
11 CITY SCIENCES
82
12 SOCIOLOGY, ECONOMY & POLITICS
86
Patrick Gmür
Andrea Deplazes
Zaida Muxí & Josep María Montaner
Anna Heringer
Dietmar Eberle
Vittorio Magnago Lampugnani
Anne Lacaton
Hrvoje Njiriç
Javier García Germán
Ignacio Fernández Solla
Alejandro de Miguel
Jesús Leal
HIGH-RISE PATRICK GMĂœR
Workshop Assistant | Rosario Segado Guests | P.G., R.S. & Salvora Feliz Team | G. Lozano Arce Topic | Cost-effective Residential High Rise Building Duration | 5 days Being in the business of design requires building professionals to have a highly developed spatial awareness, and this ability is particularly important when it comes to creating costeffective residential high-rises. The objectives of this workshop are (i) to discuss requirements specific to cost-effective high-rise accommodation (such as optimised central services cores and economical floor plans for apartments), (ii) to design new and independent solutions, and (iii) to implement the municipal spatial planning programme sustainably and with a minimum of resources. After recognizing the current urban tissue in ZĂźrich, Switzerland, the main building was design to make a good dialogue with the pre-existing. From the north view a nonsurprising building can be perceived but from the interior of the community, the building morphology flourishes revealing a straight form, facing the urban and picturesque landscape. From a strong and efficient core centered with the plan, the dwellings configuration are shifted in favor of light, allowing it to enter directly in the east-west alignment. With all these adopted strategies the distribution corridor to the different units is being optimized generating in compensation a wide and luminous hallway altogether with laundry areas with the same positive characteristics than before and where a wide range of activities can be performed.
Site Plan
Model
06
Volume
Structure
High-Rise 07
08
Typology Schemes
09
Ground Floor | Structure
10
First Typical Floor
Second Typical Floor
Third Typical Floor
High-Rise 11
BUILDING DEPTHS ANDREA DEPLAZES
Workshop Assistant | Fernando Altozano Guests | A.D., F.A., & José María de Lapuerta Topic | 12m depth Team | Individual work Duration | 5 days What does it mean having a building depth of 6 metres? And what if they were 28 metres? How does a dwelling vary if it has different building depth but the same amount of squared metres? As if it was a typological catalogue, participants had to analise the implications that having one or another building depth would have for a dwelling. Which qualities regarding circulation, access, sunlight, ventilation, facilities location and intimacy has a dwelling according to its depth. Identifying the strengths of each case and its problems would be the first step to make in this laboratory, so that it is possible to propose a conceptual approach according to it, afterwards. Twelve metres depths was assigned for the housing project. A chamber distribution system dwelling is chosen with the kitchen as the “courtyard”. A loggia for each appartment works as a transition from the exterior to the interior personal world. The plot chosen is in the middle of the city surrounded with vegetation, the reason for designing a cross laminated timber construction.
Image: Comlongan Castle, Dumfries (Scotland GB), 15th century
Transverse Section
The Core as a Hinge
14
Ground Floor Plan
Regular Floor Plan
Building Depths 15
16
Building Depths 17
m2
IDELFONSO, 33
CHEL, 25
VLADIMIR, 6 AND MIKHAEL, 8
ESSICA 36, KIDS 5&6
SCAR ,4
LY (12TO 55)
SCAR ,37
MICHELLA, 45
3 bedroom 78m2 2UNITS
4/5 bedroom 124m2
15
18
JOSE, 50, ARANTIA, 50, ALONSO, 38, ROSARIO, 33, AND SERGIO 5
21 GAELLA, 22, ALBERTO, 19, GILBERTO, 21
CO-HOUSING
ZAIDA MUXI & JOSEP MARIA 36 MONTANER Workshop Assistant | Daniela Arias Jury | Z.M., D.A. & Juan Arana Team | T. de Moraes, G. El Hachem & O. Rodriguez Topic | Co-Housing for Gastronomy Enthusiasts Duration | 5 days
21
The aim of the course is reflecting and designing for the changing conditions of living in contemporary cities. Barcelona is changing the housing laws, including a new typology in Spain: Co�housing.
0-15
4
15-25 1
25-35
5 3
7
35-60 Particularly in this project, the aim is to join a multi-cultural
3 1
4 7
community with a culinary interest under one roof: combining 60+ different social groups and ages that can benefit from each other in an active manner creating a synergy for the better of the 6 individuals and the community: a permanent residency for a 3 3committed to create an example for the city of Barcelona in group sustainability and giving back to society. Creating the opportunity for gastronomy enthusiasts to live in a sustainable eco-system in the middle of a polluted city while enjoying their passion and contributing to society by doing community service. The residents of the system must be active and have to be involved in the activities starting from agriculture on the top of the building, moving to managing the meal plans in the central kitchen to selling the organic products, organizing cooking workshops and dealing with the restaurant’s requirements where they interact with the neighborhood residents.
4
20
Ground Floor Plan
Kitchen Floor Plan
Co-Housing 21
22
Mezzanine Floor Plan
Regular Floor Plan
Co-Housing 23
Co-Housing 25
CLAY STORMING ANNA HERINGER
Workshop Assistant | Belén Gesto Jury | A.H. & B.G. Team | M. Amado, M. A. Peláez & M. Valerio Duration | 5 days It is designed as an experimental workshop: less plans but lots of dirt. The method „Clay-storming“, developed with Martin Rauch, was used at MCH. This is a more intuitive approach to building and designing. It is often rather sad that all the great researches and analyses seem to end up in grids and blocks and same-looking facades, and although for sure those systems work well, not everybody can really embrace them with their hearts. Why design like that, while in our holidays we go to historic towns in Europe or vernacular villages in Africa or Asia? There must be a way to get this quality again in our designs. It is probably a lot the question of materiality and the process of building, that’s why a part of the workshop deals with earth architecture (how to build with earth), but a big part is an intuitive and emotional search for quality of spaces. It’s about avoiding the difference in designing for poor countries or for rich – since inhabitants in Europe or richer parts of the world have no rights to consume more resources than those living in poor countries, just because they can afford it. So it is about philosophical discussions around sustainability and housing, a training of common sense logic, but less analyzing. A site in Africa is chosen: Makeni, in Sierra Leona.
Manifesto
Here´s what I know for sure: work, home, beauty dignifies a person´s life. Work makes people feel integrated into society, increases self esteem and reflects a positive image of oneself. Home provides security, sense of belonging and calm above everything else. Beauty is harmony and captivates the human spirit. I believe process is as important as the outcome. We should integrate people in need with the building process of their own home. It creates work, provides education, technical skills and the very sense of ownership. The process should also involve technology, especially understood as the devices developed to improve productivity. These devices would probably be more effective and efficient if they create considering local society and environment scientific knwoledge.
“The instict to climb up to some high place, from which you can look down and survey your world, seems to be a fundamental human instict.” Alexander, C. (1977). 62 High Places. In A Pattern Language (1977 ed., Vol. 2, p. 316). New York: Oxford University Press.
“People need open places to go to; when they are close they use them. But if the greens are more than three minutes away, the distance overwhelms the need.” Alexander, C. (1977). 60 Accesible Green. In A Pattern Language (1977 ed., Vol. 2, p. 305). New York: Oxford University Press.
“Whenever there is action in a place, the spots which are the most inviting, are those high enough to give people a vantage point, and low enough to put them in action. In any public place where people loiter, add a few steps ate the edge where stairs come down or where there is a change of level. Make these raised areas inmediately accesible from below, so that people may congregate and sit to watch the goings on” Alexander, C. (1977). 125 Stairs Seat. In A Pattern Language (1977 ed., Vol. 2, p. 605). New York: Oxford University Press.
Clay Storming 29
“Arrange houses to form very rough, but identifiable clusters of 8 to 12 households around some common land and paths. Arrange the clusters so that enyone can wlak through them, without feeling a trespasser.” Alexander, C. (1977). 37 House Cluster. In A Pattern Language (1977 ed., Vol. 2, p. 202). New York: Oxford University Press.
“Sorround public gathering places with pockets of activity- small partly enclosed areas at the edges, which jut forward into the open space between the paths, and contain activities which make it natural for people to pause and get involved.” Alexander, C. (1977). 124 Activity Pockets. In A Pattern Language (1977 ed., Vol. 2, p. 602). New York: Oxford University Press.
Clay Storming 31
SHAPE CORE SHELL DIETMAR EBERLE
Workshop Assistant | Gustavo Rojas Jury | D.E. & G.R. Team | Individual Work Topic | Volume + Core | Structure + Shell Duration | 5 days How much does a building last? How much should it last? What would our building be when time passes by? Architecture is always public and that implies a responsibility that should make us think in a time horizon in which our buildings would change and their success would depend on the resilience it has. Thus arises a method to project that focuses on those elements that determine its later adaptations. These are: relationship with the surroundings; structure and core location; the envelope and its relationship with the street and the comfort it provides. Plaza Mayor surroundings in the city of Madrid is the where the chosen plot is. Volume, core and shell are worked as the main elements of the proposals. Giving specific responces to every case but keeping in mind that the flexibility and efficiency of the design are key points on every case.
Site Plan
Model | Volume 34
Surroundings
Ground Floor | Core and Structure
Regular Floor | Core and Structure
Shape Core Shell 35
36
Shape Core Shell
URBAN DESIGN
VITTORIO MAGNAGO LAMPUGNANI Specialty Assistant | Bernardo Ynzenga Guests | V.L., B.Y., GinĂŠs Garrido & Carmen Espegel Team | O. Gilbert & M. Valerio Topic | Siedlung in Madrid Duration | 4.5 ECTS Until the middle of the 19th century, cities have grown through the addition of new quarters to the old ones. Economic and cultural globalization and new, problematic urban models like the Siedlung or Levittown have blurred this process and led to amorphous urban extensions. Today, while suburbia is spreading around our cities and one state after the other is built, we seem to have lost the capability of creating new urban quarters with an own character. The plot is located in the southwest beyond the M30 of Madrid city limited by Casa de Campo, the railways and a purely medium-low density residential neighborhood. The project was developed on a 60 hectares area and shall work as a stitch between the existing; linking again the green areas of the surroundings.
40
Urban Design 41
In between buildings and street
42
In between buildings
Typology 1 | Elevation
Typology 1 | Regular Floor
Typology 1 | Ground Floor
43
44
Typology 2 | Elevation
Urban Design 45
DUNKIRK ANNE LACATON
Workshop Assistant | Diego García Setién Jury | A.L., D.G.S. & Ángela Ruiz Team | M. Abril & G. El Hachem Topic | Intervention in Dunkirk Duration | 5 days For the MCH’s 2017 edition, Anne Lacaton’s workshop will work around the FRAC’s neighborhood in Dunkirk’s harbor and surrounded by the sea. The huge site around the FRAC is a former industrial site which was mostly dismantled in the 80’s. The workshop will be hosted by the FRAC (Contemporary Art Center), designed by Lacaton & Vassal and built in 2013 after reusing a former assembly shed from an existing shipyard, were the final pieces of the boats where assembled together. A new residential master plan was designed for this area, lacking better attention to its very special location and its landscape qualities. Some housing buildings have already been built, but the development of this new neighborhood progresses slowly, and there are still large empty plots, on which some activity still remains. We will work to set a strategy of densification, providing a better use of the unused land, filling and infiltrating the voids, developing mixed-use programs and open structures that could offer spaces for housing and other activities for public use. As a sole given rule, we will assume that every existing building still in use or reusable, should be kept.
Urban Space Sequence
Dunkirk 49
Duplicating the existing
Longitudinal Section
Transverse Section
Dunkirk 51
Typology 1 | Regular Floor
52
Typology 2 | Regular Floor East-West
Typology 3 | Regular Floor North-South
Dunkirk 53
SPLIT ACTUM HRVOJE NJIRIÇ
Workshop Assistant | Nieves Mestre Jury | H.N., N.M., D. García Setién & Néstor Montenegro Team | M. Méndez Wiesner Topic | Temporary Housing in Split Diocletian Palace Duration | 5 days In the times when tourism strategies are reduced to attract visitors with shallow, banal and simple-minded agendas, topnotch destinations relate their efficiency to the extent of Disneyfied space they have to offer. The entire cities are turned into theme parks full of scenic imagery and artificial constructs – Venice, Dubrovnik, etc, you name it. «Show your Disney side» suggests instant amusement, benign playfulness, innocent morality, the disclosure of subliminal and surrender to the childish in you. The fantastic hidden side of Disney brings a strong concept of a binary-dual system. It shows continuous counterpoints of shameful and bold, the hidden figure and the openly celebrated with split-divided scenarios that are permanently exposed and exhibited. Disney reveals this ephemeral and airy fantasy performance, where anything is possible and reversible. Through this contradiction, we propose an architecture of the exhibitionist and voyeur dwellings facing each other. The first one materializing as the open stage revealing to the hidden mysterious observer, that sees everything without being seen. Emerges a tense link between them and flows directly to the public who chooses which character wants to play.
56
Split Actum 57
B
A
Ground Floor Plan
58
B
A
Typical Floor Plan
Split Actum 59
Section A
60
Split Actum 61
Section B
62
63
Exhibitionist Typology | Ground Floor
Exhibitionist Typology | First Floor
64
Exhibitionist Typology | Second Floor
Voyeur Typology | Typology 1
Voyeur Typology | Typology 2
Voyeur Typology | Typology 3
Split Actum 65
ENERGY & SUSTAINABILITY JAVIER GARCÍA GERMÁN Specialty Assistant | J.G.G. Jury | J.G.G., Almudena Ribot & Carolina González Vives Team | M. Alejandra Peláez Topic | Sustainable Building in New York Duration | 4.5 ECTS The module Thermodynamic Design Strategies explores the design opportunities which the field of thermodynamics and ecology is opening to architecture, and specifically to the field of collective housing. From a practical and project-oriented stand point, the module focuses on connecting thermodynamics and ecology to architecture with the objective of finding potential design strategies which bridge the void between quantitative and qualitative approaches. Contrary to current energy approaches to architecture which are based on quantitative analysis, the module bridges the gulf between energy and architecture, exploring those disciplinary parameters —such as spatial and material structure, program or perception— which are specifically connected to its material and atmospheric performativity. The project consisted of designing a 900m3 volume building located in the city of New York. The program of the project is formed by different typologies of housing units, common areas as a main condition of the exercise, working and commercial spaces.
Shaded windows.
Day. Roof extra
insulation and camera for ventilation.
Cross Ventilation.
Summer strategies
Double Pane Low-E windows.
Open configuration.
Increase surface/volume
Natural ventilation.
ratio.
Night. Camera for
Day. Thermal mass with night cooling.
Night. Thermanl mass.
ventilation.
Wind tower.
Vertical ventilation.
Solar Chimney.
Because summer temperatures are near the human comfort climate conditions, it is important to design a building that can avoid as much as possible the use of air conditioner. The most important strategies are designing an open configuration building with fully shaded and double pane low-e windows according to the sun altitude (maximum 72 degrees) and bearing angle (depending on the orientation and time of the day) and creating natural ventilation systems in line with the less warm winds and with de dominant wind. In case of Manhattan, the less warm winds come from the north-east and the dominant winds come from south-southeast. In regions with a relative humid over 50%, proper ventilation is indispensable for human boy cooling. The wind makes possible the evaporation of superficial skin water drops that are generated because of transpiration (physiological human method to lower internal temperature).
68
Maximize glass area to south for sun exposure.
Double Pane Low-E
in E, W & N windows. Not Low-E to South.
Double Pane Low-E glazing to N.
Inclose patios, sunny
Thermal mass and
Locate buffer zones
(green house) to extend
time spend inside the
garages) facing cold
and wind protected living areas.
low-mass depending on interior space.
Tight insulated
building to get internal heat gain.
(cores, corridors, wind.
Winter strategies
In winter season, temperatures are too far from the comfort zone so a central heating system is needed. In this case, the focus of strategies change. They are created in order to help the mechanical heating and make it more efficient. It is important to create a very tight compact building with the less infiltrations as possible. For this reason, an additional ventilation convection system is needed and is better to ventilate with natural air preheated (geothermal heating, Canadian system or air heating through a special program in the building-data centre) than with air coming directly from the exterior. Another strategy is to collect as much radiation as possible, so windows orientation is extremely important. Having thermal mass exposed to sun radiation will also help the heating system because of physiological human heat gain (around 60% is through radiation).
Energy & Sustainability 69
Summer Section and Plan Wind Flow
70
Winter Sections | Day and Night Temperature Flow
Energy & Sustainability 71
Typology One
Typology Two
First Floor
Third Floor
Fourth Floor
Eighth Floor
Energy & Sustainability 73
First Floor
Fifth Floor
Second Floor
Sixth Floor
Third Floor
Seventh Floor
Orchard Garden Common Space Data Center Dwellings
Gym Services / Lifts Laundry
Working Spaces / Offices Fourth Floor 74
Eighth Floor
Energy & Sustainability 75
CONSTRUCTION & TECHNOLOGY IGNACIO FERNÁNDEZ SOLLA
Workshop Lecturers | Archie Campbell, Diego García Setién & David Rutter Team | D. Alcalá & R. Zawil Topic | Redesigning a Parisian Building Duration | 4.5 ECTS Construction & Technology specialty develops housing projects with the current techniques for building structures, industrialization, construction details, and building systems. The aim of this module is to understand buildings as entities based on the interplay of three physical realms: structure, envelope and services, connected by one technique: industrialization. The original project by François Noël Architects is a compact housing building located in Rue Riquet, Paris. The MCH team selected Aguascalientes as the new location, a Mexican city of approximately 800,000 inhabitants. In order to adapt to the new location and climate, several design decisions have been done. A radical change in the façade design, as well as passive strategies, were taken into consideration in order to reduce the energy demand of the building. A key objective of the project is to develop an environmentally friendly building which deals with the harsh weather (very hot in summer and cold in winter) using high thermal inertia materials (rammed earth) along with a precast concrete structure. One collateral goal of using Rammed Earth is to build local knowledge in the design and construction strategies of more sustainable and affordable collective housing buildings in the region.
Paris Proposal by François NoÍl Architectes
Photovoltaic Skin
New Proposal
78
New Proposal
Rammed Earth Precast Walls
New Proposal
Precast Concrete Structure
Photovoltaic Skin
In response to climate, a double skin façade is proposed at the south and east. It will provide the building with a number of enhancing performance benefits. The proposed double skin is meant to integrate shading and natural ventilation as passive strategies to optimize the people´s thermal comfort. These dynamic skin collects external climate data and records environmental changes through sensors, and then rotates the panels in sun hours to maximize the use of PV.
Walls
Basic Precast Structure Proposal
Rammed Earth is used in a sandwich precast panel format. In order to maximize the insulation from the outside, a 100 mm thermal insulation is provided between two rammed earth layers. Note that the external rammed earth wall thickness is 105 mm, and the internal wall thickness will be 200 mm (the overall dimension of the wall is 405 mm). A low e-double glazing units system is proposed to increase performance.
Structure
In order to optimize construction time, precast concrete beams and columns have been chosen for the structure. There is no waiting for it to gain strength and the modularity of precast products makes the installation go quickly. The grid of the structure has been designed maximizing repetition to get a plenty of value from a mold and set-up. A concrete system also delays the spread of fire and is durable in time.
Basic Precast Structure Details
Construction & Technology 79
Faรงade Vertical Section
Plan Section A-A
CITY SCIENCES WHAT DOES “ACCESSIBLE” MEANS? By María Eizayaga
also enjoy cooking in such a customizable environment. Other examples like these are audio-books, automatic doors, electric toothbrushes, flexible drinking straw, low
According to the Oxford English dictionary, the
first main two definitions for accessible are, “able to be
floor buses, Velcro, trolley cases and washlets.
iOS products were the first to offer intuitive and need-
reached or entered” and “able to be easily obtained, used,
specific accessibility options for smart phones and tablets,
word is linked with people with different capabilities.
with disabilities and most of the general population.
be always used without making any distinction, especially
but for sure this brand made something different to
While it is not always easy to understand what accessible
voice recognition – realize Siri as the most simple case,
start thinking with accessibility in mind. In fact, any
dexterity to dial phone numbers or access items in the
from the designer who is conscious of making the end
So imagine having smooth, ground level entrances
understood or appreciate”. Nevertheless, nowadays this
so it is no coincidence they are favorites among people
However, the first explanation is more precise and can
Maybe because of its user-friendliness, or whatever,
when speaking about humans beings.
be able to capture people´s preferences. An example is
means, there are simple steps that designers can take to
widespread among everyone– allows users with limited
designer can create good design. Great design comes
device without tapping on any keys.
product aesthetically pleasing and inherently accessible
without stairs, surfaces that are stable, firm, and slip
movement whose core is about design in the means of
interior doors, hallways, and rooms. Components that
making lives better and tasks easier—no matter the
large flat panels rather than small toggle switches and
environments in such a way that they are usable by all
even ramp access in swimming pools –by the way easier
for adaptation or specialized design for particular users.
much more simple. Making a product or an environment
that were originally made for people with disabilities
others. For example, automatic door openers benefit
the mainstream, disability or not. For instance, text
benefit people carrying groceries and holding babies,
deaf. And as you know everybody loves text messaging.
to make sidewalks and streets accessible to those using
for ordinary people, often stumble upon solutions that are
parents with baby strollers, and delivery staff with carts.
design for the second group. This way of thinking can be
captioned, programming is accessible not only to people
to as many users as possible. ´Design for all´ is a strong
resistant –specially for rainy days. Wide and comfortable
transformative, flexible, intuitive and customizable,
require minimum force to operate; light switches with
audience. Universal design is designing products and
bright; appropriate lighting, particularly task lighting and
people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need
to build. Those small details certainly make everybody life
In accordance with this understanding, solutions
accessible to people with disabilities often benefits
ended up being picked up, embraced and loved by
individuals using walkers and wheelchairs but also
messaging was originally designed for people who are
as well as elderly citizens. Sidewalk curb cuts, designed
So this changed mind set, design for disability first, not
wheelchairs, are more often used by kids on skateboards,
not only inclusive but also are often better than when we
When television displays in airports and restaurants are
used as a force for creativity and innovation.
who are deaf but also to others who cannot hear the audio
Let me show you other examples, like the OXO potato
peeler. It was originally designed for people with arthritis,
in noisy areas.
One can think that most of the examples shown above
but it was so comfortable, everybody loved it. Kitchens,
are expensive and difficult to achieve, but I really do
disabilities associated with aging and yet look bright,
creativity, innovation and knowing where to put the
kitchen manufacturer Alno created a new kitchen for
create devices, cities, buildings and dwellings practicing
to the user, thus avoiding their having to bend over.
will increase and that is when you can take profit of
electronically based tracking system to allow cabinets,
by an increased level of production. Even more, in the
push of a button, the kitchen countertop can be raised
earning a huge amount of money in transactional costs
What is more, people of all ages – and heights – could
We can conclude saying that the intent of universal
for instance, can be made accessible to people with the
not believe so. I am convinced that is only a matter of
modern and welcoming. The design team of German
thinking strengths and priorities. But even more, if we
older customers by focusing on bringing kitchen units
universal design, the market will expand, hence, demand
The result is a fluid kitchen – My Way – that uses an
economies of scale, a proportionate saving in costs gained
appliances and even the sink to meet the user. With the
case of dwellings, designing whole life houses, means
or the stove top lowered to the height of a wheelchair.
when selling and buying again a new house.
82
design is to create products and environments usable by as many people as possible, including people with no disabilities at all. Using this way of thinking in cities, if we
take sight impaired as the prototypical city dwellers when designing the perfect cities, we will have a rich walkable
network of sidewalks with a dense array of options and
choices all available at the street level. With a blind mind, sidewalks will be predictable and will be generous. The space between buildings will be well-balanced between peoples and cars.
For instance, the future is about automotive cars,
shared cars. In this regard, I believe that we are on the right track. Automotive cars will be able to carry almost
everyone without making any distinction. Moreover, these shared automotive cars will probably be a solution
for congestions and pollution, an important problem in our cities nowadays.
REFERENCES [1] Designing for Everyone. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://uxmag.com/ articles/designing-for-everyone [2] Design for the Disabled. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.wipo. int/wipo_magazine/en/2009/05/article_0009.html [3] Malhotra, S. (2017, February 20). Architecture & Design for the dis- abled people. Retrieved from http://www.arch2o.com/architecture- design-disabled/ [4] Downey, C. (n.d.). Design with the blind in mind. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/chris_downey_design_with_the_ blind_ in_mind [5] Roy, E. (n.d.). When we design for disability, we all bene t. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/elise_roy_when_we_design_for_disability_we_all_bene t
WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF THE “SMART” IN THE ECONOMY OF A CITY? By María Eizayaga John is a very talented man who manufactures dainty
three-buttons suits excellently cut and stitched for
reputable men. He owns a tailor shop located in a
working-class neighbourhood in the very south of the
same. That´s the reason why I always choose you. Please add two suits to my account.”
and his father learned them from his father and so on. Their craft firm had kept the name for more than a
hundred years. He taught his personnel the most precise
work to the shoemaker thanks to John.
John was happy and satisfied. Of course, he had to
employees. For instance, he hired two more workers to
and demand also increased that he couldn´t afford for that bottleneck in his production chain. Not only all
these amazing things were happening to him, more than
that, he started to take Fridays afternoon for free to spend
It was a hot and cloudy summer afternoon, after he got
itself required labour to make it; so here, are jobs that
phone call from his main client.
“John”, he said in a worrisome tone. “We need to reduce
prices. Our competitor is taking our most loyal clients. We have to lower costs, otherwise, I will have to stop buying you”.
For John that was the most difficult task. How can he
reduce costs when he and his employees worked from sunrise till the sunset. He didn´t want eit to reduce the
quality of the textiles, that was one of his trademarks.
was sewing suits three times faster than him and was developing a more precise job. A suspicious atmosphere invaded the working space, their jobs were at risk. So, this is what John did. He called back to his main client.
“Good morning Mr. Smith”, John greeted eagerly. “Will
husband”, she said in heavily accented English. “I will
be very grateful if you can show me that one behind the old navy coloured one. I see that your suits are much less expensive than before and the quality really remains the
in any case, machines, inventions and discoveries improve the economy.
the construction of a new house or in the manufacture of jewels for his wife. In any case, he could have given indirectly as many jobs as he ceased to give directly.
But the thing does not end there. If John makes big
his example or he will begin to expand his business at machine manufacturers. Competition and production will then begin to reduce the price of suits. There will no longer be such great benefits for those who adopt the
new machines; and will be reduced or even disappear
for manufacturers that have not yet acquired machinery. Savings, in other words, will be transferred to the buyers of suits, that is, to consumers.
One of the most common economic errors is the belief
book, The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, the
“I´m looking for a new three-button suit for my
available at the same wage. Sometimes they get both. But
workers of other industries or those who take part in
twice the number of suits”.
walked unhurriedly to the front desk.
prices, they increase the volume of goods and services
the workers who construct the new machine or to the
that machinery and/or technology, in short, create
Mrs. Robinson, one of the most loyal clients of the store,
other words, they either increase salaries or, by reducing
to reduce the number of salaries, must indirectly go to
you please tell me which is the price of our competitor? I will give you 20% lower price. In return, you will buy me
because they increase the productivity of the workers. In
Every dollar saved in direct wages, for having been able
their expense, thereby providing more labour to the
job and everyone was able to use it. That strange object
the example of suits) or they do it by increasing salaries
his economies, has profits that he did not have before.
drastically man´s labour.
than he could imagine, the machine was making the
in one of two ways: goods cheaper for consumers (as in
would not otherwise have existed. John, because of
savings over his competitors, or either they will follow
Distrustful and annoyed he finally bought it and faster
production and raise the standard of living. This is done
glance like a clear loss of employment. But the machine
There was, in fact, only one solution. He had to buy one
of these new machines that were supposed to reduce
throw men out of work. What machines or everything
John was lucky because he didn´t have the need to drop
his labour force. If he had to do so, this looks at first
up from his routine half an hour nap when he received a
technological
them with his family.
techniques for loops, overcasting, eyelets and hems to create the most detailed and well-made suits of the city.
machines,
concerning to technology and/or ICT do, is to increase
money on some new shoes. Therefore, that meant more
cut the textiles because the machine was so productive
employees. He learned the sewing skills from his father,
with,
didn´t require the same thing. Instead, he spent the saved
Montgomery, another traditional client of the store,
aristocratic street.
middle aged man who really loves his job, as well as his
conclude
improvements in every sense and efficiency do not
pay and repay the new machine but he could keep his
Like most of the craftsmen, John is a very lucky
To
Mrs. Robinson finally decided to buy two suits but Mr.
city. His main client is a very prestigious, nicely and stylishly decorated store situated in the most elegant and
the way it did, neither population.
unemployment. In the first chapter of Adam´s Smith author tells us that a workman unfamiliar with the use of
machinery employed in pin making “could scarce make one pin a day, and certainly could not make twenty,” but
with the use of this machinery he can make 4.800 pins a
day. So in those times machinery had thrown from 240 to
4.800 pin makers out of work for everyone it kept. If that had not been done, technology wouldn´t have progressed
REFERENCES [1] Henry Hazlitt (1946). Economics in One Lesson. Harper and Brothers, New York. [2] 51° Coloquio Anual de IDEA - 5 El futuro del empleo. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/143327650 [3] Allen, K. (2015, August 18). Technology has created more jobs than it has destroyed, says 140 years of data. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/business/2015/aug/17/technology-created-more-jobs-than-destroyed-140-years-data-census
City Sciences Essays 83
build around 4,000 new plants to get up to current energy
remember what happened with the first oil price shock
Regarding transportation inside cities, electric mobility
but a few month later individuals reacted to this fact and
Fossil fuels derivatives are everywhere in our daily
are expected to cost the same and cities are already trying
the engine consumption compared to the ones we have
combustion engine vehicles, cars, motorcycles and some
that are done by airplanes and ships does not have a
and gas turbines (airplanes). Diesel or gasoil is used by
petroleum. But some new inventions are in process, like
the heaviest fuels, it is widely used as a fuel in electric
later.
ships and maritime vessels. Benzines are for manufacture
processes should occur first. As we well know, fossil fuels
bitumen and industrial cleaning products. Petroleum
shortage meanwhile we make use of it. This is when the
and greases. Asphalt is used for roads. Plastics, synthetic
As mentioned before, the new mining technologies
sealing products, cosmetics, perfumes, soaps, paraffin wax
those higher costs will translate directly to the oil price.
It is quite difficult to imagine the answer to this question
developing in favour of increased energy efficiency, less
situation. There are some authors that think that if we
will be for everyone. Hence, prices between both sources
fossil fuels –oil, coal and gas– in 2088. The truth is that
sense of use of energy, will use electricity coming from
sense that they will be exhausted. Oil, coal and natural
On the other hand, motors and devices that use energy
gone — surface coal and the most accessible oil reserves
more efficient in terms of energy management. That
mining technology can keep up with our desire. As long
electricity had been discovered. The energy consumed
So the question is, do we need to build a society without
consider these two points and the fact that developed
could be filled by renewable sources. But solar and wind
demand of electricity per person– tend to stabilise so
power sources; they couldn’t replace fossil fuels as we
non-developed countries –where population growth rate
2.5 watts per square meter that means if we wanted to
probably increase even more– are tropical countries with
from wind farms, we will need half the area of the UK
convert in one of the major energy producers and may
Solar panels, instead, deliver 5 watts per square meter of
contributes with their economic development.
need to cover 20 percent of the country. In the event of a
we run out of fossil fuels so easily. It is a complex process
would more likely turn to cheap, efficient nuclear energy
and cultural practices that mankind is doing from now
so simple at it looks like. In 2015, 443 nuclear plants
didn’t end because we ran out of stones. It ended because
world’s electricity. If we assume that nuclear plants could
With the oil era the same will happen, we will change
output of individual plants stays constant, we’d have to
world fossil fuels resources. As a clear example, we can
WHAT WILL HAPPEN WHEN WE RUN OUT OF FOSSIL FUELS?
consumption levels.
in 1973. The price of oil had approximately four-fold
is happening today. Electric cars and conventional cars
started to take care of it. Just remember how high where
life. Gasolines and naphtha are mainly use for internal
electric buses and trains. On the contrary, big distances
nowadays.
tractors. Kerosene is for domestic heating, jet engines
technology already well developed in order to replace
trucks and public transportation vehicles. Fueloil one of
hydrogen, and will probably give a solution sooner or
By María Eizayaga
power plants, in boilers and gas furnaces, as well as in
The fact is that before we run out of fossil fuels some
of certain solvents and as the diluent for inks, waxes,
are a non-renewable source that tend very slowly to
gas is used to produce butane gas. Oils are for lubricants
rules of demand and supply have a main role in the game.
fabrics, synthetic rubbers, synthetic latex, paintings,
needed to find new sources will get more expensive and
are also derivates from fossil fuels.
Simultaneously, renewable sources technology will be
without having a wide and clear panorama of the whole
money will be needed to produce it and more accessible it
keep doing things the way we do now, we will run out of
will get similar, they will tend to equate. Users, in the
fossil fuels probably will not run out, at least not in the
renewable sources to the detriment of non-renewables.
gas were here before us and will be here after we are
(industries, residences, etc) will probably start being
are already going or gone. Now the question is whether
is a fact because we can see it in the last decades since
as it does, we will have access to fossil fuels.
per capita will be drastically reduced. Therefore, if we
fossil fuels? It might be nice to imagine the energy gap
countries population –those that have the higher
power, for example, are relatively low-output, high-cost
will global consumption stabilise too. On the contrary,
consume them now. For example, wind power produces
increases within the years and energy requirements will
produce literally total energy consumption in all forms
huge amount of solar radiation. These countries may
to produce enough energy for the whole UK population.
be able to sell it to the rest of the world. This in turn
land area, so if we want to power the UK with them we
To conclude with, in my opinion it is highly unlikely that
catastrophic decrease in fossil fuel supplies, governments
of accommodation and assimilation of new technologies
which produce 1000 watts per square meter. But is not
and had already started some years ago. The Stone Age
worldwide were providing about 11 percent of the
we invented bronze tools, which were more productive.
be responsible for 100 percent of electricity and that the
our habits so we will probably have no need to finish with
84
REFERENCES [1] International Energy Agency. Final Consumption. Retrieved from http://www.iea.org/Sankey/#?c=World&s=Final consumption [2] Derivados del petróleo y su uso en la vida cotidiana. (2016, February 11). Retrieved from http://www.eadic.com/derivados-del-petroleo-y-su-uso-en-la-vida-cotidiana/ [3] Flinn, G. (2015, June 19). What if we ran out of fossil fuels? Retrieved from http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/ what-if/what-if-ran-out-fossil-fuels.htm [4] Araya, M. (n.d.). A small country with big ideas to get rid of fossil fuels. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/monica_araya_a_ small_country_with_big_ideas_to_get_rid_of_fossil_fuels#t-302330 [5] MacKay, D. (n.d.). A reality check on renewables. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/david_mackay_a_reality_check_on_renewables#t-1095812
HOW CAN ICT CHANGE URBAN PLANNING, ARCHITECTURE AND CITY?
THE
ICT stands for information, communication and
technology. Each aspect of the acronym can stand on
Includes “information” or “communication”
or “technology” but also includes “information and communications technology”.
This interpretation is
wider. A very good analogy of ICT, is the plumbing
analogy: a plumbing system is made up of storage tanks
and pipes. Water is stored in the storage tanks and flows through the pipes. ICT is made up of information technology
(storage
the better. As with everything in life, there is always a
driven, and data processing will be so fast and accurate,
amount of data threw up every day are all collected from
In the urban scale, public vehicles will be automotive
almost in real time, that they will rapidly adjust their
By María Eizayaga
its own.
different places, cities and even countries more frequently.
tanks)
and
communications
technology (pipes). Information (stored water) is stored
routes and frequency to what people need. The service
will be so easy going that people will prefer to travel by
public system instead of driving their own private cars. In
the regional and international scale, for example airlines, will have similar behaviour. They will predict which route is most demanded on short lead times. Almost all
airplanes will probably travel full of passengers, at least there will be less airplanes travelling with a few number of passengers, as if they were in heavy season all the year
find the need to settle in city centers. So, cities will be
every day by the interactions of billions of people using
computers, GPS devices, cell phones, and medical
devices2. Nowadays, with the increased automation of data collection3 and data-processing tools many things
can be predicted. With enough data, the numbers speak for themselves4.
A very interesting exercise can be imagining how
current problems in cities could be solved with the help
of ICT. In the past, buildings and infrastructure shunted the flow of people and goods in rigid, predetermined
get collapsed and public transport does not respond with good manners. In the near future, probably certain things
will change. The most predictable, and we are going down this path quite rapidly, is that technology would be
more established in every person’s daily life. There will be
less need for physically meeting on a normal daily basis because of the proper functioning of communication software. Nevertheless, this does not mean that people
family moments, exercise time, social activities and time
for every person’s desires. Because the trend is people moving towards densified cities, urban planners will
consider designing more green areas only three minutes walking time from dwellings. People will tend to meet more frequently.
Furthermore, lots of advantages thanks to ICT
One very important is that it is possible to see how
prioritise where to put resources in response6. Energy and
nonrenewable resources will be able to be used efficiently. Intelligent houses will adapt to household’s daily habits–
luminity and thermical needs¬, spaces suited to personal tastes. Supply and demand of products will be more
effective and efficient– equilibrium price will be reached in most products, quantity of goods supplied is likely to
equal to the quantity of goods demanded. This efficient use of resources–no producer´s surplus production– will
make a great impact in pollution and waste management. This kind of city-scale performance will one day fulfill
available are not going to be differentiated any more.
respond in real time to changing conditions at the very
they will comply with people demands and they will get distributed in order to reduce traveling times to the maximum. Because most of the people will not work on
a fixed place any more, probably they will start moving to
be an imminent awareness about its responsible use.
between personal and professional life. There will be more
the potential of building automation. Life in smarts cities
Surface and air transport will not have fixed routes,
deals with people intimacy and privacy. So there should
Human life will be more flexible, seeking harmony
will not travel any more. Public transport system will
respond to people daily demands. The variety of transport
developed with people’s personal information. These data
weekends ghost’s towns. Work will mix with leisure.
people are changing their behavior and it is possible to
their working places in the same time frame so streets
based researchers8. An enormous data market has been
commercial-residential buildings. No more night and
The cities of the future. Imagine them with no
congestions is commuting. Most people go and leave
for a fee; and others offer small data sets to university-
homogenously planned in terms of people density and
development can be listed and impact directly in cities.
more traffic jams. Nowadays, the main cause of daily
restrict access entirely; others sell the privilege of access
specially the commercial and financial ones, will not
ways. But smart cities can adapt to fly, feeding that data into software that can see the big picture5.
Presently that data is being managed by companies which
As commuting will not be a problem anymore, people
through communications technology (pipes)1.
era of the Data Revolution. A flood of data is created
consciousness, rationality and moral sense– human kind.
emissions and even better, ticket prices shall be cheaper.
will probably have more time for themselves. Some firms,
It is being said that the twentieth century is the
beings with a body with mind and soul characterized by
round. This optimisation of the supply will reduce carbon
using information technology (storage tanks) and a
communication (flowing water) reaches the recipient
but’. It is indispensable to understand that that huge
will be defined by these dynamic, adaptive systems that small and very large scale simultaneously. And as smart cities come to know us, they also will come to understand themselves7. Because cities are made for people by people, in the present and in the early future, ICT is
REFERENCES [1] Michalson. What Is ICT? What is the meaning or definition of ICT- Retrieved form https://www.michalsons.com/blog/what-isict/2525 [2] World Economic Forum. (2012). Big data, big impact: new possibilities for international development (p. 1). Cologny/ Geneva, Switzerland. [3] Boyd, D., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical Questions For Big Data. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 664-664. doi:1 0.1080/1369118x.2012.678878 [4] Boyd, D., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical Questions For Big Data. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 666-666. doi:1 0.1080/1369118x.2012.678878 [5] Townsend, A. M. (2013). Preface. In Smart Cities: big data, civic hackers, and the request for a new utopia (p. Xii). NY and London: WW Norton & Company. [6] World Economic Forum. (2012). Big data, big impact: new possibilities for international development (p. 5). Cologny/ Geneva, Switzerland. [7] Townsend, A. M. (2013). The $100 Billion Jackpot. In Smart Cities: big data, civic hackers, and the request for a new utopia (p. 29). NY and London: WW Norton & Company. [8] Boyd, D., & Crawford, K. (2012). Critical Questions For Big Data. Information, Communication & Society, 15(5), 673-673. doi:1 0.1080/1369118x.2012.678878
changing and will change cities, therefore societies, for City Sciences Essays 85
SOCIOLOGY, ECONOMY AND POLITICS WHAT DOES “ACCESSIBLE” MEANS? By María Eizayaga Como todo préstamo, estos implican una deuda, en
definitiva, que ha de ser reintegrada en algún momento. El crédito pone a disposición los fondos necesarios para
la adquisición de capital. Existen básicamente dos tipos de prestamistas, el privado y el estatal. El primero, por
ejemplo, en el caso de un banquero, arriesga sus propios fondos que otros le han confiado; pero si el dinero se
pierde, responde con su propio capital o bien desaparece del mundo de los negocios. Cuando la gente arriesga su
capital suele ser muy cuidadosa en investigar a quién y
cómo presta el dinero, presta especial atención en la capacidad y honestidad del prestatario. Si el estado
recurriese a los mismos tipos de cuidados, no habría
razón que justificase su existencia como prestamista ya que porqué habría de repetir lo que ya pueden realizar las empresas privadas. Debido a esto, el Estado, opera sobre
supuestos diferentes y se basa en que el poder público facilita los préstamos a quienes no lo consiguen por vía
privada. Esto es equivalente a decir que los prestamistas estatales asumen con dinero ajeno mayores riesgos que los
otra. En el caso particular de la construcción de viviendas
peligrosos debido a que ineludiblemente implican el
sucede es que, mediante el cobro de impuestos a familias
En el caso de la vivienda, los importantes aumentos de
para personas con menos recursos, lo que realmente de mayores ingresos, se obliga a éstos a subvencionar a las
familias económicamente más débiles. Sucede también que, al construir estas nuevas viviendas, no es cierto que se proporciona trabajo y que se crea una riqueza que en
otro supuesto sería inexistente. Los impuestos destinados a la construcción de viviendas destruyen tantos jornales
en otros sectores como crean en el de la vivienda. En este
sentido, nadie ve los jornales que se vieron destruidos debido al destino de estos fondos obtenidos del gravamen
fiscal. Por el contrario, solo se puede observar un lado del escenario donde el obrero trabaja temporalmente, hasta
que la obra culmine, para que luego quizás obtenga su propia casa, pero probablemente suceda que se quede luego sin trabajo debido a que la obra terminó. Lo que
no se observa aquí es que estos salarios destinados a todos los trabajadores que participaron en la construcción y el
confianza. Por otro lado, el dinero que el Estado presta
al ciudadano es previamente obtenido del ciudadano mismo ya que todos los fondos del Estado provienen
de las extracciones fiscales, es decir, del producto de los
impuestos. Este dinero es obtenido en todos los casos del gravamen de las empresas e individuos privados exitosos y
limitada. Con lo cual cuanto mayor sea lo destinado a
este caso, sin hacer ningún juicio de valor en cuanto a si el destino de los fondos es el más conveniente para la
mayoría de los ciudadanos. Por otro lado, cuanto menos tome el Estado del caudal de riqueza para su propio uso, para mantener activa la máquina, más dejará para
el servicio del pueblo, ya sea en una disminución de los impuestos, o para destinarlo a actividades productivas que beneficien al conjunto.
Varias teorías económicas han mencionado reiteradas
se destina la mayoría de las veces a salvar o a subvencionar
veces qué si el dinero se acumula y no se utiliza
Habiendo dicho esto se podría mencionar dos
beneficiarios, se quedan sin trabajo. Este mecanismo de
negocios privados no exitosos.
cuestiones relevantes, que los créditos estatales, en comparación con los privados, reducen la producción en lugar de aumentarla y que el gobierno no puede gastar
y gastar sin acudir a la imposición fiscal, generándose entonces una deuda con nosotros mismos. Viendo entonces el crédito estatal o el gasto público desde esta
perspectiva, las inversiones estatales terminan teniendo otro brillo. Es cierto que se debe incurrir a un mínimo
de gasto público para atender a ciertos servicios básicos
(calles, infraestructura, transporte, policía, bomberos,
directamente, parte
de
los
trabajadores, directos
pensamiento conduce a pensar que el ahorro es pecado y el derroche, por ende, una virtud. Por el contrario, el ahorro en la vida moderna, es solo una forma más de
gastar. La diferencia radica en dónde y cómo se destina el dinero transferido a otra persona para que lo invierta
en medios dedicados a incrementar la producción. El destino de la inversión del capital es crucial para poder finalmente diferenciar entre el derroche y el ahorro y, en conclusión, un futuro más acertado.
En conclusión, considero que la vivienda accesible
edificios públicos, etc) para proporcionar a la comunidad
no es posible gracias a la intervención del Estado.
obstante, siempre que sea crea una cosa, es a expensas de
estatales para los negocios o bienes son extremadamente
una riqueza que de otra forma no hubiese sucedido. No 86
segmentos de la población. Habiendo presentado todas las ideas anteriores, si imaginamos al Estado
como responsable de administrar y construir viviendas accesibles para la población económicamente más débil, no hará más de provocar efectos colaterales no deseados. Cabe reforzar la idea de que cada euro gastado por el Estado se traduce en un euro más que cobran de
impuestos y que cada euro destinado a una actividad particular es un euro menos que se deja de destinar a
otra actividad. Impulsar la construcción de viviendas va
evidentemente en detrimento de actividades productivas sostenibles.
Considero que el difícil acceso a la vivienda por parte
apropiadas que hagan posible su concreción, por el
Debido a que los recursos son siempre escasos, la
un bien u servicio, menor será lo destinado a otros, en
menos eficientes en lugar de los más capaces y dignos de
nueva como usada, resultase inaccesible para amplios
indefinidamente.
en otra actividad más productiva que genere trabajo
habrá un porcentaje mayor de insolventes que serán
Aquí, el dinero del estado ha ido a parar en manos de los
crédito dieron lugar a que la vivienda en general, tanto
de los jóvenes y por personas económicamente menos
capacidad productiva entonces del Estado es siempre
menos eficientes y por ende se malgastarán más recursos.
precios registrados en la fase expansiva del mercado del
dinero destinado a materiales se pudieron haber invertido
prestamistas privados. Con los préstamos así facilitados, salvo algunas excepciones, se perderá más dinero ya que
riesgo de provocar inflación o aumento de los precios.
Históricamente se ha demostrado que los créditos
solventes, no es debido a la falta de políticas estatales contrario, es justamente por abundancia de políticas pseudo-correctivas que intentan mejorar la riqueza de las personas. Analizándolo con atención, es poco
probable que los proyectos ejecutados por el Estado
proporcionen la misma suma de riqueza y el mismo
bienestar por euro gastado que los que proporcionarían los propios contribuyentes si, en lugar de verse obligado
a entregar parte de sus ingresos al Estado, los invirtieran
con acertada precisión a sus deseos. En otras palabras, que las personas coloquen los recursos de acuerdo a sus preferencias que que lo haga el estado de acuerdo a las
preferencias del gobernante. Por el contrario, las políticas del estado deberían acercarse más a las ideas de reducir al
mínimo posible los impuestos en conjunto con el gasto
público. Concentrarse en generar reglas claras de juego
para las inversiones privadas y fomentar el ahorro privado, del individuo, para luego ser destinado hacia inversión acertada con un futuro más seguro y próspero. La
riqueza creada por la inversión estatal nunca compensará plenamente la riqueza destruida por los impuestos percibidos y destinados al pago de aquellas inversiones.
REFERENCIAS [1] Rodríguez López, Julio (2016). Cuaderno de Relaciones Laborales. Las viviendas que pudieron hundir la economía española. La caída del mercado de la vivienda y sus consecuencias. Ediciones Complutense. [2] Leal Maldonado, Jesús; Martínez del Olmo, Almudena (2016). Cuaderno de Relaciones Laborales. Tendencias recientes de la política de vivienda en España. Ediciones Complutense. [3] Echaves García, Antonio (2016). Cuaderno de Relaciones Laborales. El difícil acceso de los jóvenes al mercado de vivienda en España: precios, regímenes de tenencia y esfuerzos. Ediciones Complutense. [4] Henry Hazlitt (1946). Economics in One Lesson. Harper and Brothers, New York.
Sociology, Economy & Politics 87
MARIA EIZAYAGA CIVIL ENGINEER
Buenos Aires, Argentina mariaeizayaga@gmail.com +54 9 11 6293 5798