Design With Type

CARL DAIR

CARL DAIR

University of Toronto Press 1967 Toronto and Buffalo Reprinted 1969, 1974.

Printed in the United States of America An earlier version containing part of the material in this book was published in 1952 by Pellegrini & Cudahy, New York ISBN 0-8020-1426-7 LC 66-23932

to CHARLES

It is difficult to cover all the developments and movements of typography in a short space. My separation of evolving technologies from the development of typefaces is an artificial one— designs and the technology used to create them are not truly separable—but perhaps it is conceptually useful.

Where names of typefaces are used, I attempt to use the original name: there are often clones with very similar names.

Many years have passed since the first writing of this book. The interval has been marked by an enormous increase of interest on the part of both professional and layman in the use of printing type as an active element of communication. This interest is reflected in the establishment and growth of societies devoted to typography, in the spread of exhibitions and conferences, and finally in the founding in New York in 1962 of the International Center for the Typographic Arts with a world-wide membership. The literature of typography has also been enormously augmented in this period.

The first edition of Design with Type has long been out of print. The new edition owes its existence to the persistence of Mr. Harold Kurschenska, who prevailed upon me to undertake the work of revision, and urged the University of Toronto Press to assume the responsibility of publication. I acknowledge my debt and gratitude.

For this second edition, several considerations have dictated changes. First among these was the very scholarly and kindly critical review in the influential magazine Print (vol. 7, No. 5) by Mr. M.J. Gladstone. A number of his criticisms have been taken to heart in this edition, and I thank Mr. Gladstone for drawing attention to some of my original sins; on other points we remain at bodkins drawn.

The assumption made in the first edition that the reader already knew the basic material of typography was unfair to many students of typography who had never held a composing stick. A new chapter in this edition rectifies that error.

The basic principles of design outlined in the original edition remain unchanged and reappear here. Much of the specimen material that accompanied that original outline quickly became dated. It has therefore been eliminated in this edition. In its place I have preferred to use examples of historic importance from both classic and the contemporary scene.

New influences have created great changes in typography in the time between editions, and I, along wit my colleagues, have been aware of them and I have responded to them.

I was necessary, therefore, to add new material attempting to assess these influences and their effects, and try to anticipate what ma influence us in the years ahead.

I owe much to many designers and typographers who helped in supplying specimen material; all of them are acknowledged with credit lines. My thanks to each is implicit in the credit.

Because of the special nature of their contributions, I must acknowledge here my thanks to Messrs W. J. H. B. Sandberg, Holland, Diter Rot, Iceland; Massin, France; Oldrich Hlavsa, Czechoslovakia, Victor Vasarely, France; and Giuseppe Capogrossi, Italy. A special acknowledgement to Mr. Vasarely is in order. I am convinced that his paintings challenge the typographer to explore movement on the surface that I have unashamedly accepted his influences in the design example of the frontis piece.

To Miss Francess Halpenny of the University of Toronto Press I am deeply indebted for her patience and thoroughness in editing the manuscript and helping me to express my ideas in English prose of greater clarity.

I repeat my original recognition of the influence of the work and wittings of Messr Moholy-Nagy, Mondrian, Kepes, Koffka, and Køhler. To these I must now add the personal influences of Messrs S. L. Hartz, Jan van Krimpen, Jan Tschihold, Maximilien Vox, and Hermann Zapf, and Professors Kapr, Schiller, Weidemann, and Wolter. Each in his own way has had an important part in molding my thinking and my work.

Toronto, Canada 1966 Carl Dair

ONE

G

IN T R A ST M FRO

is the raphy ral, or g o p y t t of t er, nume ark. feren emen tt of dif of them sic el racter–le ctuation m e a g b a t e Th cha mon re, each ese are pun e idual e the arts indiv amin ustrated h tter ‘a’. Th tudes of x –it st ep e e r t e s l e h u l l t i J e a d s d r e of s n multi d e a e aract ecognize ew of the today Som ht s not amental an letter, h e c o d f r g l r e i a l l a e d y t s l b u n t y i l a d a e u d l i f n rea avai m on p; s hav The m Without a m of indiv more tha ed fro which are acteristic the grou l t r y l f . o n u e f e a c r h n e r , i e a s e h t the h s e v h r t i r f c c o t e o a l c t e n l. now typef individua ces to oth e is sligh cter be eff ciatio not k a wal n c appre igner can who does an build uilds these resembla esemblan each chara s own s c b e r k no d ricklaye ual bric etter and inted h it mily ther the r ins that a f t, wit b l r d a i a t whe fact rem ts own righ nnerisms; h indiv ts with the nit of all p ation. u n b a f e o ma wit in i , th star sic u ommunic great rsonality rance and o invest it nd c raphy it is the ba g o e a e p t t a y p a e T ; inn each is a dual app ar as there ve an sitive o as f But while he letter i a g v i from h n d s e n r n v t i igne ey are se , the a ality. ns of ight e s ic des h we m nct person e specime itself, with o make graph tructure; t proportion face. i t s t d n e s e i i n h n t a d e s li f a rm etters a letter’s the subtle ourite typ taste one o these n and ing fo types v f , every n interest proportio e each of ous Most eciation o wn curve terize a fa cally good form f a m m o i s y t on n ‘a’ i l beauty e same appr well-dra h charac the basi ack good en . The ess an a h speci ctive, at t more or l her letters larger to the line whic imonial to s which l ic specim y t a a an of ce ph est it attr becomes ned with o lost in the unit grace standing t that typefa e. Typogra sualties. M sly s i u if a letter hen comb sonality is nonymous It is a ing houses e a long l th these c ceremonio itial it w dual per n is an a i n n av n i w nt u h i u r e n t n p h o e i w t f o be rso n tre on er div its in ust as a pe and d literally s ortion has ellbox aft f the desig t. h j e o b n r , a ’s a re ss c er unit owd. books alphabeti the print shallowne come appa r an in a c be into and the e s d h a t e h s p i r e t dum worn off t ual le make the ty has divid novel he in ability to f it. And t f o n o ciatio design, an lfillment s down; k appre fu If an pographic ter is the layer brea one row of ty e charac the brick he other, of his g n i n l t begin t of a sing nalogy of e beside repetition ill get mos ere the a bricks on notonous urges w ony mo lay onot ative is wh here e can only other, in a ile his cre eak that m tterned for h top of the e in a wh l try to br ur in a pa tirely on Onc d he wil her colo ver be en ore unit. n e m ot basic r of him a rick of an rge can n r; he has , lay u b te e t tte s e g e e r v n i b b u i t o c a e e th littl , of c e cre ther, trodu by in mation–th ter fares a n. He can low the o all e io in -w b t r k for a p w c n i o i e r th ag er fb . But er, on ce his ive im sort o stifled e for creat de the oth notonous o this, sin apes, scop one besi nt but mo have to d t sizes, sh and s letter e a pleasa he doesn’t y differen w around ous eat hy. But r man e can flo e hazard . c d an b ble in rap ing pac typog it is availa he open s that would bricklay t n in r u d e n n c i a n s a s, ba eight in a m and w his units h g throu

point focal ate a nusual e r aw c can su an dr letter size, or it isolation c nto a , f l s i e t y its design; i act of its e reader f this f ing b o h Stand pographic r the very ill swing t ere aware se o y w t w , r t s s i a i c e e i s n t b h u ven i u l scri e it in t cteris nd th chara on to it, a mediaeva d applied ometimes e s ti n atten ssage. Th f design a al letters, y e i ued b the m principle o oured init ting. ontin by hand, c s l n a o i c basi orative, c iature pa l letters w coloured . of dec ning a min ative initia had them ork today tter w i n r e k a e l o t t o l f c n o a o e o b i d c o e it on in se of s, wh he in , sinc The u rly printer still comm ting, too, t flexibility on by i a t e s n i i i r e s r o l m po lp om the e initia ercia fixed freed it has h and t ern comm t role, but ted into a text. The only t d f n o o n o In m importa ily regime f a body ws him n to the n o o r lays a t necessa first letter signer all in relation even a o e l n d e a i l h s t t i a i i form, e it c in g to b asing f the mmer havin ed the co position o itial of ple d accor rmine the elect an in ual e s divid to det ut also to the in hic b . f s o e r n i text, o s p he de tant functi of typogra ters t ter if r se let ost impo ocal point s well. Le s; terms a c r lowe ile the m se as a f nctions a ions for u cance h u t u But w can be its ny other f c connota d of signifi ome l c a li letter , it has m ed symbo ave a wor re they be ion of h r n t e desig ven acqui , OK, TV point wh r combina ing e e A have s UN, US tters, to th A letter, o effect strik o his t . a such lized by le hemselves n, used to ner, alive ate e o g t e symb n word in d have be inter-desi on, can cr e. The r u i n e t p a a k a , e v o c e v t p fi i b i s n l tials creat ident i s can mane letter rams. The ndividual rks of per readily in r’s i e g a mono need for es tradem dicate how e consum initials h s s t’s clien is type ca wn will in marks in t y his or it have o s h b from amples sh dentifying or a firm uch token ho w s i l x few e cepted as individua tion, and designer ill, of c e c w n e h a f a s f T l e a g . o r h a in ul symb rs and speec . Call pectf mind ken of res our daily letters and type lette ters to f t f f o o e t o o l s t ms is a e a par ion odifying mitat he for becom scious of t ond the li bing or m . y s m is con , move be uity in co nctivenes me e ti n s s e r i g u d n o i r , beco c e tition flexible, oy his s of great e l p p e r m e k , by It is very ape, e mar n also y. sh creat ter ca typograph f a given n in the t e l l a o u io n a t i d e c i t i r the na estr ndiv men The i rative ele a border, a he only r genuity of lore the T o p n . i a dec g itself as ckground ns is the gins to ex e n o offeri mplete ba applicati once he b endless. e o e ; b f c s l e o a e t h s or m ft m ter hi y see sity o diver er or prin tions, the a n desig le combin b possi

E

THRE

al ividu s ind ated a e s urpo is associ g me p n the sa perfume, 7 ve in ticki e, e v r e i s t m a c o n t e c e s f t f an of will sugge are also e er, and be f o n rals c s 5 Nume ; a figure . Numeral dical man t elements o s letter soft drink in a meth nd pleasan s a n with ling point nctional a l u ogatio off se mselves, f interr ed; e h t ism- stion ask , in the . mbol t n its sy ts the que tion poin te desig s a h a n ia n m e d o s i a e t l e m a c r m unctu kably rep ed. The ex ll have im ach of the p n e e a n d , Ev unmista mboliz a n k c r hy n; a ma y mark e doubt s aragraph ant positio d typograp p h it is t mma, the ven domin which goo i o the c cance if g nt around and e fi i m n e l g matic si e dra d such sign e e b d n a a is rc yiel for ilt. colou r often be bu run in ood type with a flai lift an s r e t c w n r a a f o r t c o i a s s h h ng case ize c whic ompo striki Overs lling. Old and the c up letters ry of the o , e comp haracters ften build the categ c o o large rules can of type int c raphi using ry setting typog hands f o t a i n un ordi usual. n the nd single n ties i r, the possibili for itself a ving and u e b m g u the n s unendin o loves it al. And ha he will h i a etter, , The l re thus h designer w asic mater , by itself ly in e y tu struc printer or st of his b effectivel it effectiv , in o t s e of the ake the m is elemen how to us ds, in line will m d to use th more fully ers: in wor e t learn nderstand other let h t u i o w s l n a inatio comb s. e s s ma

a+b Letters are like molecules when they combine with one another; each arrangement of the individual components in combination creates an entirely new result. Molecules of hydrogen and oxygen, for example, can combine with each other, and with other elements, to make a gas, a liquid, or a solid, each substance with characteristics all its own, unlike any other substance. In each case, the essential characteristics of the original elements are completely lost in the new product; when the gases hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the ratio of two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule the result is not a gas, but a liquid–water.

Precisely the same thing happens when letters combine to form words; the combination is an entirely new form with its own connotation, divorced from any meanings inherent in any of the units which comprise it. Here is a simple example, with two letters which, when their positions are reversed, convey entirely different meanings:

ah

ha

The individual ‘molecules’ of the word have lost their significance, a new form emerges from their combination, and new meanings are associated with the combination according to the sequence of the units.

The important point of this argument is that when a word is created, it takes a typographic form, which makes it instantly recognizable without reference to the phonetic structure symbolized by the separate characters, which form the word. The word is the picture of the thing, or the idea–a picture just as real as the pictures, which constituted primitive writing, even though they have now developed into abstractions.

But this word-picture which is a product of the arrangement of the letters can often be strengthened by the kind of type used to convey it. The type can, by its particular form, emphasize the quality of the meaning of the word, or approximate its sound. The soft sigh, ah, and the explosive burst, ha, might find typographical equivalents thus:

ah

HA

Human beings very readily associate sounds and emotional reactions with graphic forms. The great psychologist Wolfgang Khöler, experimented with two abstract linear shapes and two meaningless ‘words’ which subjects were asked to pair off; most people associated the correct pairs without hesitation–the words seemed to describe the forms and the forms seemed to be visual equivalents of the words.

Typographically, then, it is possible to convey the essence of a word through the proper choice of typefaces so as to get an emotional response to the word through its associations. Such a highly charged word can become a focal point of the common position in display printing. Of course it is not the printer’s task to choose such a word initially–that is the job of the copywriter. But it is the printer’s responsibility to be able to single out the interesting word from the typewritten copy for the title-page, jacket, or advertisement and recognize that here could be the solution to his typographic problem, the single element around which his whole composition could be built. The ability to read the copy, understand its meaning, and pounce on the key word or phrase for translation into typographic terms: this is what a client has a right to expect from his printing designer. When the material is complex the designer may, of course, confer with his client on matters of interpretation and emphasis.

An ability to recognize the appropriate word itself and to play on the particular letterforms which are used to make up the word, is the basis for every successful trade name.

Many famous brand and company names have relied on the repetition of a given type style, carefully thought out to convey the spirit of the enterprise or product, to create a typographic image, a visual pattern, that becomes identified with the product or firm.

Magazines attach particular importance to the type style used for the publication’s names; one has only to mention the names of Life, Time, the New Yorker, and so on, and an image of the kind of type used for these words will come to mind automatically.

N E V E S N E V E S N EVE

ENSEVENS

SEVEN SEVE N

the ty

pogra

EVENSEVE

The w o of des rd, used a s i and v gn, can ha a unit v a typog ried applic e many ra a ‘menu phy from tions in the si ’ on th ngle w fare to e cove o where the cover o r of a bill rd The w o o produ the name o f a catalogu f of its rd as a un ct dom f a firm e it own, c as ma i p an als with form n or ositiv ates n o hav e d i unit a y ways of h . There are r e comp e s ositio ctional val a the pr there are andling thi n ue. A d c y a n n a types s inter’s mic q a c q u faces ire a and th uality comp the w in if o treatm ere are ma osing-room a righ rd to be str , for instan n , e y t e c n s a d ts of t word horizo ngle to th sed is set e, he s ifferent w All of e con ntal p at repeti hen prope ingle v t a ositio nd go r t a new hese techn n. Jud entional o d t a set id ion of the c ly set. The i s f t g o t m e r e h a entica n re er hosen letters ype of imp ques acqu t area o l ire act wh in a v e, but the s called are re f colo ly. To creat word, b e i v l r n a e t g i c r le wor sed ag en the k grou u or to g e oppos cal posit d a n et pro r, to form a an f i d i i o n t o . r i s n ms o Her ta and in backg vide a eleme on to othe borde r domin f the lette e the inner r, n r intere ound, not n entire rs bec ant pa visual ts, can giv horizonta only m sting o i l e s ttern, me th liter design cours akes a space thrust with a strong e negat ally recogn and the wo e . in a g the m , also serve , but can of n ive, u i rd i T z v e h e d e n b ju e n subje can b ssage. A re to emphas ct is d printed wo y the in siz ggling of ty ize ecome r peate i l e d s e p , c n . e i u gth la T set ag d wor a shap size a n style, o that vari ter in ssed at gre his d a n es r the bo ater dimin in and aga e when it effect d style, ca in both ok. is in and ishing Takin n be h ive as g sizes. again devic ighly an att focal the word a e e in point s the skillfu if it is carr ntion-getti o comp n i ositio f typograp be cri lly. The res ed through g n hic e ticize u a i s l s t i s p est ro may e d as b but in ve in cap stratagem bably the e turing to em streng some insta ing illegib n attent ploy le, n t and h i the ve h of the pa ces the requir on and inte olding ttern ry fac li r e the re t recog s that the est: it ader t that it cha es in n d o dec l its sig ize the wor esigner ipher lenges n d it. On is solv possib ificance, e , apprecia ce te xplore as a s ed, it will b ilities e pecia , e s its a senti reme nd t lc letters into ty al meanin ranslate it , read onfiguratio mbered g s encou ily ide n of shoul pe. These d and feelin n d nev g e Elimi tered agai ntified whe v i c e er deg mere s n n n e t betwe ation of th . wande ricks to cap nerate into e e create n letters c space r t u i n r g eye e the they s a of t h once a special p n also essen ould be gr he reader; id a tial m ounde forgot entified, i ttern whic eanin thems s d in th h t g e of the en. This co not easily , config lves, so th s of the wo e mpres letters r a u latera sion can t mean ration tha t the speci ds l t eme ingful al pressi ly, with one ake place r t g t h ng ag o e l a s e t t it he tter is ainst or ver the id is a visual reader, so it t expos ea the stacke ically, with s neighbou i v t r w isuald one th ion of , ords above e words achie verbal link convey. Th the ot ving a The e is a h s e a r . w dema y nds a single con ay of a wor e can often n c t d eve o h r t r e e a e a t cogni word n whe of the ze itself. tive approa ion n l ch to simpl etters are portions missin y fills in a ty them g; it i p theref ographic n. Words d o bottom re be crop esign can p identi , or sides, ed at top, a fi reade ed. This a nd still be b r of wor to recogni ility of the z d to goo s has been e portions d effe ct for exploited adver ti s thrust sements w mall-space h adjoin themselves ich literall y ing (a nd un into the paid) space .

phica

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V NSEVENSE

w pu

zzle

ENSEVEN

f o ing

word

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o rs int h ente rds c i h w nit, rd, so wo arger l is a u o letter e call a w nits in the ut, e h t s B w u a . , e t e n l s c o p i u n t J m sente grega not me si the ag lves beco phrase or words do ip; e e l s h a s t u m n f tio h al vid the po r e indi w rela onshi relati letters, th in this ne f the gene o y e y unlik eir identit ge as part e, but the rough r n h lose t y, they me graphic li meaning th ce. o a ll visua of the typ attern and ords by sp n p r e n t t er w w h o t pa o r i e m th are fro retain eparation ctives s o obje create a w t t their a th we unit hand s seem ld thu on the one ous design tisfy the u o w t n a I s e flict— y ry to omog in con hich is a h hand, we t legibility b re r f w e o e h The t t . n o lin e n e o m i h t nt ara uire is and, o ental req word sep ere: what gh u m h te funda g adequa f balance in just eno here w o in allow btle point which lets apparent does y u e l s c e u t a b a a p i , s s s t i d ecise begin imme rd the pr to make it d the next ries of wo e white rd ends an ne into a s i o shing one w op up the l stabli e r o f h not c s? rules uld be; it ch o fixed a island can be no s space sh and with e ht, i g h i e e t r e c e h a h f h e x T uc e large ow m ch typ just h ry with ea ace with a more spac all f a m will v ze. A type , will need e with a s n a i e p a type s strated her s than a ty d more th ge e r as illu n the word ace will ne set in a la e f e n e e p e w e y d t t i w e t a w b e size, ace b tainly ght; a x-hei face. Cer ely less sp ery small v w v i o a t r a r t in na rel eeds e. uld se size n than it wo ill indicat w s word examples as the

ste

lwa l e w s hta

g

i youm ig

youm

aste

ellw htasw

e

ithm w e im

t your me h t i w e your tim

e r ’ u o e y b f nna io g if you

a n n o ’re g

. e r e be h

l pheicaare o s o l phi at w nd th will

igner arsy the sta r ic des ith this o h p p a r em ke typog pesetter w sure a nced Coonut ght ta perie ting his ty . If the me he x e e n t m o Th t r e a f l th h n b t co pro d, or ify

avoid f spacing will spec unjustifie t h o w the o l kind e short, he ay remain ustified rig r so l a j m e ould tyle and tb d e e i w s b g t u w d o x t e m e e t s t hand he type is he measur ight to ng of ce for the ld give tha . t i t h t g e i s t t e r wou text f spa deal d’. If ng ntain make The i amount o used, and ghout the ‘ragge ft, he will ine will co ithout sayi fore r d u g e e o l e n e r w v p i l b e h e o e s t t i r g d b e h p n an avera the uscrip f . It go be ac f type riatio at the s–or more d the man en words o size o without va l that can ed to leave s has h t e e t d a a n wor as examin obviously longer lin space is is an ide ter is allow uneven, e t a h g t at he his choice; will make y.

But th the typese f the settin .) h t f o h g ge tor only i and edge paragrap makin cal langua a child’s s d h is i , f t h t n g o h h n g s n i i c i utline t r te word prin at ons o b can n (done i n t e r i t n e d e d n h n e b tha t mo equires t d al co le of thum er: in r t, mos u speci f the general r typograph ld of fac printing, length, an ce o t l n l i a o e k a a h e , p t m h i s d t a In p ally boo shou e n s e W i e the pace i in th d in m guid espec s be set to variations line to the ly bove lished to 3-to-em s with latitu l a e a e , a , e tab e s s c d e e a z i p e all lin setter uses extend his ng can rar ill m b text s m word-s to help hi cannot i l o e w c t a p a n s y p m a t d r u s r r a m no ord ideal en wo or crafts maxim pesette n, it eaw betwe dth. So the gh a good ively wide be the d to the ty tions wher n be broke of a i u s s o a w e a d e c h l u w ful exc d, t e en ive l sit e a word allo es of hieve pecia t at th r r be ac the extrem w spacing. d with s ken. Whe to break i acing to ‘d o o g o y r l o p t e r s t n t b e e e t e avoid ively narr v b s i b nsi ble s xcess tainly ore co to ena exces is cer an to use e give m g enough ns evenly h n t a c e n o r .* lin ariati e is lo Take esette e line A typ g if the lin the space v parations. g out’ th n n e i i e t s t c t spa ribu r of word ositor se s o dist him t h a numbe le: a comp o the word the t p t g throu reme exam ure comes thought’ a he g l t s n a x a i c e e c i a m n h a rrow philosop th tight sp a n a y i on ar W mpor line. ‘conte ing of his : n h n c i mu beg n this gets i

NIN

e remov must sly not e h ’ al ‘t : obviou rd the fin wo ine uts in from the l divide the st of p e h e u t If c o m a n p he can es all th sible. He yphen. So rd to the is h o is perm ht” with a e whole w is first line g h “thou ity carry t space in h s e s h e t c d e n n ine, a next l ive: s exces

ord te a w he t ndica ol to i en word at tsymb h ctory een a brok en the rig rly atisfa ev tw la n uns ish be rupts the s particu u g een a ays b ils to distin ally, it dis nd become a a as alw su ines, rd; vi ts: it f hen h y hyp s two faul pound wo justified l yphens *The a m o c se of a o d in h . It h break a line and is the purp ve lines en f i end o dge which n success e e hand ionable wh t objec

. e r e h emp

Cont

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phi orary

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E

Having seen the prime importance of legibility of the line in copy intended to be read and absorbed, we can proceed with out discussion of the line as an element of design in typography.

In considering the design characteristics of the letter and the word we were primarily concerned with a study of their form. A new factor enters into the picture when we reach the line. Called ‘texture’, it results from the repetition of the dominant design characteristic of each individual letter. Texture is a word which has not had much currency in the printing trade except in respect to paper surfaces; it has been considered an ‘arty’ term applicable to the surface of old wood, textiles, pottery, rock, and so on.

But it is important to see its application to type if good typographic design is to be fully understood.

Typographic textures, like all other textures, can be very subtle or very obvious. To make the point clear, so that we understand exactly what is meant by texture, let us consider an obvious example. The dominant design characteristic of any single character of a script such as Bank Script is the heavy slanted stroke; all the rounded portions of the letters are light and unobtrusive. In a type line of this script the repetition of the strong slanted line of the characters creates a pattern of diagonals throughout the line of type; this pattern is the texture of the type. And to emphasize how accurate the word texture is in describing this effect, consider the similarity between this type pattern and the dominant diagonal pattern in a twill weave. We have no difficulty in using the term texture for the cloth; it is just as applicable to type.

This analogy between typography and weaving will bear further study since there are a number of parallels which can be drawn between the appearances of the finished products of both arts.

In the weaving of textiles, the texture of the finished cloth is affected by any differences in the thickness of the threads used in the warp and in the weft, and by any variation in the space that separates these threads, in one direction or the other. The resulting differences in texture will be obvious–it does not take an expert in textiles to see the difference between a piece of silk and a coarse tweed.

The preceding paragraph could be rewritten substituting the word ‘lines’ for threads and ‘composition’ for cloth, and we would have something like this: In the setting of type, the texture of the finished composition is affected by any differences in the thickness of the lines used in the vertical and the horizontal, and by any variation in the space that separates these lines, in one direction or the other. The resulting differences in texture will be obvious–it does not take an expert in typography to see the differences between a composition of Caslon and one of Futura Extrabold.

Basically this comparison means that if we use types which have very little contrast, or none, between their vertical and horizontal strokes, we will get a texture which can be compared to that of a plain weave; if we use a type which has a vertical emphasis, the texture of our typography will bear a resemblance of that of a corded fabric. A novelty typeface like Barnum, which has its dominant stroke on the horizontal of the letter, will create a texture which seems to carry a heavy horizontal thread. The relative coarseness of our typographic threads will thus affect the texture of our line in exactly the same way as in textiles; we can get a ‘silky’ line with Caslon Old Style and a ‘tweedy’ line with a Clarendon Bold.

Just as silk and tweed have different physical weight in the hand, so a typographic line will also have different visual weights–a light weight with Caslon and a heavy one with Clarendon Bold. But the weight of the line is something which depends rather on the heaviness of the strokes of individual letters and is independent of the textural relations. The Bodoni face has a very vertical emphasis; we can retain this texture and increase the weight by using the Bodoni Bold or even Ultra Bodoni. Similarly, we can retain the textual quality we get in the plain weaves of the monotone strokes of Futura, any yet have different weights.

The typographic line, then, has two basic attributes in design; texture and weight. But it has one more characteristic that is important: its shape gives it a directional value. The typographic line is always roughly a rectangle, long and narrow; the sharpness of the rectangle it creates depends on whether the letters are uniform in height and alignment, as in the case of a line of capitals, or whether there are descenders and ascenders breaking the edges of the visual unit.

In either case, there is a directional movement, a flow along the line; this direction, because of the nature of typographic materials and our reading habits derived from Greco-Roman origins, is usually from left to right in a horizontal direction. There are times, however, when the requirements of good design will suggest that the direction be changed and that the line depart at varying angels, up or down, from our conventional horizontal reading direction.

This change should only be made in display lines, where it can be accomplished without sacrificing legibility, where the matter so to be set is of secondary importance or, most important of all, where such a departure from the normal reinforces the sense of the copy.

The piling of letters one on top of the other should seldom, if ever, be used to create a vertical design. The varying widths of the letters ordinarily defy all attempts to create a clean rectangular shape; but even if that obstacle is successfully overcome the destruction of the normal horizontal word-pattern requires that the reader spell out the word to identify it.

This, then, is the typographic line, an element which has texture, weight, and direction; what texture, what weight, and what direction, will be determined by the nature of the subject and the over-all design concept in which the line is to be placed.

VERY VERTICAL EMPHASIS

Up to This i s t the ‘e his point w typog the point lemen w raphy e hav or agg e bee ts’ of p has d here conte a tterns n ty eparte r mpora w h visual egations o pography: discussing w i d r ch ha ork of f d cha from the c y t h e chara unit. The b forms, whi those form o r fi l a f assic r c s p t t r e i h s c ri n c a relatio ter, and wh asic eleme h cohere i , depar ting. Why lf millenni zed the be al n n st a e t n u t u n n a s m w r d h e i a t ente ips wi of in s the be eleme knew red th si n and u en affected what way h the art turn, t was crea other char into defin ngle n l a ? e d s t Our ersto terfo tha c a t i the m ombined i ed, the wo cters, a ne te type, rms and o od the refi predecess t r nto th ass. w ors f the t and th neme e line d. The wor e n t ey use o crea xture ts of , and ds, in o d t e f t a h h t a e h Each page depar ndsom ir kno e line of o t into consid f these ele throug from the p e books. W wledge ski m e r h h a e r y e c n c d in is tice th ts has enturi shoul llfully, studie T h e d ol es ey so answe r is no of fine pri establishe we qualit d for all th ation; they far been e n i t far t h d o seek ting? now c es and cha ir intrinsic ave been r o a . other. me to stud acteristics. nd individ y them ua T in rel he time ha l s ation to eac h

* This contributis not intended as an assessment of the comparative social io exp erience nthof the two forms. Knowing from fir st-hand e mea the co s largauthotr shchool te ger budgets avail able for xt bo ea as th d e p v r in erti come to oks in und ting of lo si so we n m g e conc rdeveloped bud lusi ge are t a o s s n . o s f unsy the w m orld; p a t hetic to

It lies the pr in the diffe r i of the nted word ence in the i o to ma ld master s put today uses to wh k . i p the lit e widely a rinters wa The conce ch v s r e of pri rature whi ailable the to print bo n n c o k few w ting, had b h, before t nowledge ks, he inv ho co e a e n t he mo uld af Printi ention nd fo n n and th g put book rd a hand opoly of th -w o the cl e task of se s within the ritten boo se a k t knowl ssics of lit ting to type reach of m . e e a works dge of acc rature, all and paper ny; the sc umula a o f S c ientifi ll riptur a stag ted ce e c g and c ering one and the le nturies, the in r g hundr aftsmen we which ma al codes, w r n e fine b d years of e engaged y scholars as o p f typog oks that st rinting. Th or the first raphic and to f e day a y designed ew art. s mod els of Books the part o are, of cou rse, st f toda y’s pr are pa i l l an i in r conte t only, not ting indus mportant m t t new d porary ind he whole. T ry, but they eman ustria ds on assoc l civil he rise of o ia p i u of the ted with th rinting, de zation has r m m highly steady stre e distribut ands that ade io a that m efficient in m of comm n and mar are k d same ust do this ustries pro odities that eting a k book s the print ind of job duce.* Prin our d i c an ad oes not ha ng which s annot look ting v u vertis emen e to deman its a book the is an .A td im d and a position o oes. An ad to be read tt – n treme ention, for a busy in vertisemen but d n t w centu dous amou hich there ividual’s ti r m n attrac y man is be t of compe is today a e tions– t s i i t e i o g n e d with . Twen conce movin r books ts, televisi g pictures, beckoning tiethon, ne , the l plays, wspap place ure of radio, s e printi –and into t the highwa rs, magazi ng en his ca y nes, and t differ r ent co ers to try to nival of at distant tr mmod s ities a ell him a t actions, h nd se rvices ousand .

first d the t face ding a h t s book rtable rea of the o nting of pri man comf ual hubbub e books in k s a t s a e i h v e trad emand t v e i to g with d in th es his pared s designed g wares w n he cloth must now m o c n e s e k i l h k b o l o o w e g o b s n s b printi ography of equate for gnizes thi ers’: such o sk of his ta e quiet typ e is not ad blisher rec e booksell t n n his a C h m h u t o T p t h a and o ? k rs oo on his s dem ttention to i h printe hours in modern b for attenti t h e e d wit tracting a and for leisur tplace. Th to compete ronte m t e t conf eans of a eet the de many s r fi mark s designed ast. s m w a m o a o o h t ers s h e t t a e l found tion to se re cu nter w jacke ought, at id ry pri and decora aments we emselves sage; type sitors outd ic b u e t b n e o h s c t t h n o e y r p p g a o h m a l n t r m p o d dis am teen r; co ypog ingle s an e nine d to strong ative type competed tting of a s r the reade roduce a t h t s a r s e p se co ter It w He turn owe only to to the hly de t; prin , overp skill. ssage. Hig d differen jammed in ize would type lines e n s e d a r b n e a d e l s h the m ing new u e es co that s ir rul th some nt type fac e, hoping isting the w p e t y r t e d f d f n i a d oo nding rge w lf up, cut la lves in be d itse o its e i e d s i t m the ng t has age. , too, by returni s. It has wreck raphy o Typog as done s ssical form that would h a but it ignified cl concepts chine. It d e r o d new of the ma er arts e m r e e ds on ist not pi new metho graphy’s s painting, : o fit the ed for typ ioneering eft p n l remai ertake the hitecture n visual c i d r s a n l i u d a o n r has t ure, a laze new t printing ls, its t p l u b m sc e i o r t h t e t n a a m io gy tradit tation. Fro e its own m of modern his or t t s n x e n u i s e pre d how to the cont ned to one ction of r e not al learn ements, in n has retu rian were he introdu ut mass s r e t to T . n o el ig e c b s i h n a t e Pri oration.

V t w D d o h ocrity oug itate ology. raphy from rian medi n h of dec nes had br at first im eded c e g o t c i t-Vict e typo mach tion which ip that pre ood and rescu ss and pos is the c h w u s n d e n i o d a n riefly, ts r t i e l s b t m p i g s t p y t r u a f r a a e d r v a e c it emen hand e skill of th as crudely ine, and

define diverse el problem o t h w , h c n a s T g g s e m la it. ong Desi ssemblin unit. Th y as it of the and g le am a h metal limitations a ready sa members art of organized typograp strial d n e d n n u i a d e n o i to th ults foun rchants a ing t m in e sa st re of s e just th manufactu hmaker mu nd the re wly rich m lass. Lack ople were s i e c a c e e t p l n s h a t a r e i e w a s s r n h t e e t he is i d ge tangular indus r hom ste, th cts. T gs an of the ial good ta ishing thei deur–but produ ble tiny co ular or rec ust n t n a n r r c , e u l r g r df ess nta assem s into a ci ufacturer m nsmission earlie name ing an a g n , r a n t e i , r g m build ation of an ts. The or r or the e a p r r s n l e it el sto the ca , engi in im oddy resu wood-carv er cannot case, ble wheels s, gears, fu g room in h v s e a h n e h u t i t t m s w v i es t a e y i i l r s w d b as o, tak appa ered With e han done ering ek upholst design, to them work nger or th machine. ision the e t s c a o sle zes phic ironm formed by arying pre mical into a . Typogra and organi rings us v r o b s tion lements i be pe teristic un most econ tion of o h t m pter: c c se e l unit. And ed this cha ations r e chara ne finds its the produ plicity v i d t a r e u r a s t n m i i i e i s v h l mach tistic use ructural s It is only into a o where we study of t t r s a . a t f e d f o c k o n a s e a rf bac ginning oditie achin ed su s. comm ornament are any m ith one of the be n element p n w , u m y h o ee t a d c u d w t r o o an t t t e s b y y i th dit sar neces ed commo ealize that nally being c r produ ars ago to wning, is fi e a fifty y slow in d h g u o th ted. accep

S P I SH

teen

.

The objective of typographic design is to organize all of the elements of communication into a harmonious and unified whole either by achieving a quiet uniformity of similar elements or by the visually exciting use of contrasting ones.

What determines the result is the way in which the diverse elements are organized in relation to each other, the contributions each makes to form, texture, and weight, and the effect of their relation with the space in which they exist.

We must ask then: what kind of elements are put together, where and in what way? These three questions are the basic ones in any discussion of relationships.

For simplicity, they may be broken down in this way:

What kind of elements?

Relationships of concord and contrast.

Where?

Relationships in space.

In what way?

Relationships of structure.

Concord does not necessarily imply a light tonal value. If the prevailing tone is struck by the use of a light roman face, then border or decorative material will certainly echo that tonal value, and white areas will be generous. Similarly the even gray texture of such a face would be repeated in the uniform lines and density of colour in the illustrations. But concord can be achieved using black-face types, provided again that the density of the type is picked up in the other elements in the composition, and that the white areas are in turn balanced off against it. A type like Bodoni has within itself an interplay of thick and thin lines; a border of parallel thick and thin lines or an illustration with thick and thin pen strokes will be in concord with the type.

Contrast is the opposite of concord; it is based on a unity of differences.

What do we mean by concord and contrast in the context of typography?

Concord is the result of he blending of typographic elements to give a uniform impression; colour, texture, size, proportions and affinity of the type faces combine to produce this effect. The traditional book form is the classic example of concord: it is found in both the uniform, tightly woven, dense pages of the conventional contemporary book set in roman types.

To achieve complete concord, all the elements must have the same characteristics; a single family of type must be used throughout (thought sizes may vary), and any borders and decorative material must match this type in tonal value. The relationships of the white areas must be carefully balanced; there must be proper proportion between the white spaces inside the block of type and those surrounding it, so that a harmony is achieved.

FIFTEEN

We understand the surroundings in which we live through contrast; all of our senses react to contrast. We understand shadow because we know about light; differences in qualities are measured by contrast; soft and hard, sweet and sour, rough and smooth, cold and warm, light and heavy. Our senses are trained to detect the differences between things in the world about us. The act of reading itself is possible because of contrast: the contrast between the colour of the paper and the colour of the ink, and if the contrasts are weakened through paper and ink being too close in colour, or through the characteristics of individual letters not being clearly defined, legibility is reduced. We depend on contrast for easy reading.

The basic form of the relationship between typographic elements is determined when the designer decides whether there is to be uniformity of appearance and form or a contrast of one element with another. Between complete concord and complete, stark contrast there are, of course, many intermediate stages, and an ability to achieve concord in general effect while introducing subtle contrasts in specific effects gives a designer his greatest opportunity for typographic variety.

relationships of concord & CONTRAST

Contrast to be effective must be sharp; timidity in employing contrast will defeat its whole purpose and will result only in conflict. It is a popular belief that matrimonial success depends on a complete contrast of personalities; that people of too similar temperaments will be involved sooner or later in a conflict of personalities. It can be left to the marriage counselors to determine the truth of the adage, but it is more certainly applicable in typography.

Two old-style roman types with only slight dissimilarities will be n conflict; they are not similar enough to establish concord, nor different enough to set up contrast. There can be no compromise between almost similar elements, but it is possible to interweave concord and contrast. It is possible, for example, to make use in a design of two letters of the same type face but of substantially different sizes: they are in contrast as to size, but their structures are in concord; the result is harmony.

Typography is an ART TYPOGRAPHY IS AN ART TYPOGRAPHY IS AN art At the top, Caslon roman capitals and lower case italic of the same face establish harmonious relationships. The line in centre is in a state of conflict between the old style Garamond caps and the modern Bodoni display. At the bottom the structures of the sans serif caps and the large old style italics are sufficiently differentiated to create a pleasant contrast.

Similarly, a roman type and a script type may have In common a structure based on thick and thin strokes–Bodoni and Bank Script provide an example. Their basic structures are in concord, but the vertical roman type and the strongly sloped and rounded forms of the script produce a contrast of them; the two faces are in complete harmony. One may carry this latter example a stage further. If the italic form of Bodoni were to be used with Bank Script type, the essential harmony would be destroyed; the two-sloped letter would be in conflict with each other, and neither concord nor contrast of form would be achieved, even though the concord of structure (thick and thin lines) was maintained.

a/ the dimension of size b/ the dimension of weight c/ the dimension of figure ground d/ the dimension of form e/ the dimension of colour f/ the dimension of serif g/ the dimension of direction ezis fo noisnemid eht /a thgiew fo noisnemid eht /b dnuorg erugfi fo noisnemid eht /c mrof fo noisnemid eht /d ruoloc fo noisnemid eht /e fires fo noisnemid eht /f noitcerid fo noisnemid eht /g

It will be useful at this point to establish all of the dimensions in which concord or contrast can be used with typographical material, and then discuss each of these dimensions individually in their practical application to the daily problems of the design of commercial printing. These dimensions are:

17 Like the seven notes of the musical scale, these seven dimensions of concord or contrast can form the basis of the most varied compositions.

The first five dimensions listed are those in which the basic letters can be contrasted to one another; the other two require larger units of words, lines, or masses. If we take just the first four, and study the chart which has been prepared of all the potential combinations of concord and contrast in these four dimensions (fourteen in all), we will see why an important principle of typographic design is embodied in the theory of concord and contrast and what new horizons of design are opened up to anyone who masters it.

The interplay of concord and contrast in the hands of imaginative designers is currently producing some of the most stimulating and visually appealing typography in the history of printing. The student or enthusiast who takes the trouble to analyze the works shown in current catalogues and typographic exhibitions can learn what concords and contrasts the designers employed to achieve their effects.

17

A

A BB A A Bd Ac dC B

contrast of weight

C

contrast of size

contrast of size + weight

contrast of size + structure

contrast of weight, structure + form

contrast of size, weight + structure

contrast of structure + form

CC Dd d A C B A A bcd contrast of structure

contrast of size, structure + form

contrast of size + form

contrast of size, weight, structure + form

contrast of weight + structure

cd

A d

contrast of form

contrast of size, structure + form

3

i f

CONTRAST IN

SIZE

As with contrast in all dimensions, contrast in size is only effective when used with discretion, Not that the differences in size should

i be slight–far from it; the caution

simply means that effects dependent on size cannot be achieved if there is too much large type; the

smaller, and contrasting, elements twill be unable to break through and contribute its share.

When we speak of the weight of a letter, we are speaking, of course, of the thickness of the lines that compose it; or, to put it another way of the relation between the printed areas and the white of the paper. If the printed area is much less than that of paper, which shows through and around it, the letter is considered light; on the other hand, if the area of ink which it deposits almost fills the total area it occupies, as a Futura Ultrabold letter does, it is considered heavy. Light and heavy are contrasts as effective as night and day, as highlight and shadow.

contrast in

Just as in the use of contrast of size, there is no real middle ground in the use of contrast of weight; it is black face against lightface, or it is ineffective. Fortunately, as in the human family, many members of our type families have their black brothers Bodoni has its Ultra Bodoni, the san serifs their extrabold versions, Egyptians have their heavy weight. Besides these members of regular type families, many other blackface types have been designed which will harmonize in structure with standard faces. A word of caution is in order here: the regular run of bold faces which have been cut as companions to some of the old classic faces do not effectively contrast with them; at the best they provide a slight emphasis, but more often than not they look as if they had illegitimately sprung from the classic parent face; they appear to be merely battered-down types used to long and ready for the hellbox.

Contrast of weight, by itself, has many applications, whose chief purpose it to give emphasis. Within a display line, a single word can be given prominence and importance by a change to blackface letters. An initial letter of a firm name or a product name can provide a hub for a signature if it is set in a black version while the rest of the name is in a light face, or vice versa.

9kQ

contrast F I G in

Q

GURE GROUND Figure/ground relationships shape visual

perception. A figure (form) is always seen in relation to what surrounds it (ground, or background)–letters to a page, a building to its site, a sculpture to the space within it and around it, the subject of a photograph to its setting and so on. A black shape on a black field is not visible; without separation and contrast, form disappears.

y?r j

N O C

r

A human being orients himself in vertical and horizontal terms; he is vertical in his waking hours, horizontal in sleep; he orients himself by the horizon (hence the word ‘horizontal’), and the things he erects on the earth’s surface are true verticals established by a plumb line. This being the established order of things, he is disturbed by anything that does not conform to it. He has a sense of insecurity when he looks at the Tower of Pisa. Conversely, when he himself is in an off-vertical position in the seat of a climbing train, the telephone poles that pass him, in the frame of his tilted window, appear to be learning forward—surely not he, but the outside world, has tipped dangerously!

To a lesser degree, the human sense of balance is disturbed by slanted lines of type or typographical elements; but a real focal point can be created by a direct, ninety-degree angle of intersection of two typographical units.

Fortunately for the typographical designer, his material lends itself readily to such vertical and horizontal contrasts; all typesetting is based on rectangular units. But this does not give blanket endorsement for all possible arrangements, such as piling individual letters of a line one above the other, or turning type on its side to make it run up or down. The former is a typographic taboo, since it makes a text illegible; the latter requires the exercise of discretion. No line of type

R T N

T S A

in

which is of vital importance to the total message should ever be turned to run against the grain of reading habits unless it is strongly dominant and legible.

Yet there are often cases when there is an obvious dominant main heading or title and a very subordinate piece of copy which could be run vertically and make an effective contrast, but which would not affect the total meaning if it chanced not to be read.

So much for the rules of lines of type; what about areas of text matter? We have seen in the discussion on texture that strong horizontal patterns can be created in body type by employing leading. Vertical patterns can also be created, by setting the body copy on a narrow measure and by justifying the line on either the right or the left side.

The alignment, which this justification will create, plus the vertical nature of the narrow column, will overcome the natural horizontal movement of type and create a visual vertical thrust.

Intersect this thrust at any point with a strong horizontal title line, and the type elements will be in visual collision at the point of intersection. Similarly, two masses of body type, either on the same page or on facing pages of a spread, can be made to move in opposite directions by the creation of one vertical column as described above, and one mass in which the horizontal movement is emphasized by heavy leading. Even though there is no actual point of intersection between these two, the direction of movement of the two type masses is in contrast, and a point of tension is established.

direction

n i t s a r t F I n R o c SE

’ ll , you faces th e e p y t m a ’ t f ro ining comb h a t a re n serif and d n e h t n a w a s , e e , l . e on nera , e tc mbin In ge to ch o o s tion. Co a script g up with d n t a c n n wa classifi serif a ime comi trast and t a e e n r r o e m c i o sa in th f, as er with - ser i uch e t prop sans have a m hat has ypefaces sible, bu t s t , l o l g ’ n p n n o u i i s o o t e n y r e b ina etim ombi s. Fo t a com ’t clash. C ion is som ideration differen e t s n zr a s n i a c e o n t c fi o d lassi e extra aces tha ely reco g ng c e sam are som d typef i a t al s o u si , med there ant to fin e y ’re im s, while tructures s h o ce you w h that t t typefa r moods, ether. T g g a n l o u or e i t f o r t m e n i e diff ve s tie them r best be cas a a h t e tha rs that r is you classifi a bl o o faces e type ther fact l and err the sam a i o n r i t h t i and xtent, e ce s w her. some g typefa ork toget n i w d fin hat can t tion

ek

d

2

2

The ability to perceive form, or to create from where it does not already exist, is one of the dominant traits of the human mind, which the science of psychology is just beginning to analyze and understand. Why, for example, did ancient man, staring up at the sky at night, group isolated stars together into forms until the whole sky was a procession of men and animals wheeling in their nocturnal paths night after night? Why does a child see pictures of familiar things in the clouds? Why is it that the three dots in the margin of this page immediately suggest a shape to you, and the other four dots suggest another shape? The answer lies in the tendency of the human mind to group elements into stable forms.

The whole basis of reading is, of course, this ability to recognize form, and so skilled is the human mind at remembering forms that even a child of three years can

CONTRAST in

form

be taught the rudiments of the abstract symbols that constitute our alphabet. At six or even earlier he can begin to recognize words, and long before he reaches maturity he can skim a line of these symbols, which are meaningless individually, and extract full meaning from them.

Form, to give it a definition, is the shape of a thing. The form of the letter ‘a’ is different from the form of ‘b’ and both are different from that of ‘c’ and so on. The most elementary contrast in typography is the contrast between the forms of letters; without that contrast, our alphabet would be able to convey nothing.

But when we speak of contrast of form in the context of design, we step from the elementary contrast that exists between letters of the alphabet to the contrast between different type families. At the beginning of this chapter it was noted that Bodoni and Bank Script were structurally the same, but that their different forms were different: one is a roman letter the other a script. This is the essence of contrast of form – the capital against the lower case, the roman against the italic or the script, the tall condensed letter against the squat, fat one.

k 8 n i st

Re

co

a r nt

C

i

k

It is sign ific printed b ant that the first ook, the Gutenbe provided rg b rectangu lar space ible, beginnin s at g of each chapter fo the insertion r the by hand o f ornamen ted initia coloured and ls; the se book, the cond M these init ainz Psalter, had ials printe d in red a blue. This nd tr ing colou adition of emplo yr as a con tr printed p ast on th e age was carr from the manuscri ied forward pt into pri from the nting, hand-ma de machine -made pro book into the duct.

Unfortun ately, the economy modern b of oo often allo k production doe sn w the use of colour ot books ex cept for sp in ecial edit and then io it is usua lly restric ns, title page ted to sa Childen’s nd an opening in itial. books are tion. Extr an excep av illustratio agance of colour and n is gene rall ered an in tegral pa y considrt of chil dren’s

COLOUR

publicati ons. With so books th e eleganc me trade e an colour in the introd d luxury of uctory pa will be c ges onsidere d ne spite the additiona cessary del cost. W additiona here lc enliven o olour is used to r illustrate a book fr cover to cov om is essenti er, careful plann ing al to obta in the gre effect at atest the cost. In th least increase in is connec tion it m be appro ight pria the secon te to mention tha t d colour in this bo ok is

the result of such p lanning. two-colo The ur pages were all together run as a 32-p age unit, cut apart then an the book d distributed thro u with the normal b gh and whit lack ep should fa ages. The designe miliarize r himself w the meth it ods used by printe h making u rs in p signatu res of 16 or 64 pag , 32, es. He sh ould disc how, by over inse tures or b rts into these sig nay ‘wrap-a rounds’, visual ex the citement of the bo can be en ok hanced w ith no gre addition at to the co st. these tec hniques, By knowing the desig can assis ne t his clie nt in orga r his materi nizing al for ma ximum e In genera ffect. lc and adve ommercial printi ng rtising th e u second c olour can se of a be visuall stimulati y ng effective and thus increase ness of th the e messag But its u e. se is a sp ecial cha to make llenge: sure that the extra the press run on that is re qu in a posi tive contr ired results ibution to appearan the ce piece and of the entire finis hed thus to th e tion of th e messag dramatizae.

It is not e no run a hea ugh just to decide ding in c to olo go at tha t; the desi ur and let it g n in mind th er must h av e used and specific colour to e the effec t he desire be create wit s to h it.

The who le subjec to too vast to be cov f colour is ered in th book, let is alo several fu ne this chapter, b ut ndamenta l be said to things ca n clarify w hat is involved in m a second aking the best use colour in o a printing f job.

multiplying CONTRAST The seven basic contrasts, which are possible with typographic material, have already been compared to the notes of the musical scale; if a designer knows how to use them, he can create music.

The comparison is not as fanciful as it may sound, for the effective use of typographical contrasts depends on the ability to strike chords. Individually the contrasts are perhaps visually interesting, but in combination they achieve heightened effects. Most basic contrasts need other contrasts to reinforce them; for example, contrast of size alone does not have the visual vigor of a combination, which includes contrasts of form and weight.

The latter example is cited at random; the permutations and combinations possible with the seven basic contrasts and an adequate range of type faces at his disposal give to the designer as wide a range of effects as the musical composer has at hand. But just as every musical score has its home key, in topography the contrast of size of the typographic elements is almost a prerequisite for all other contrasts. A strong contrast in the size of he elements is basic, and all other contrasts are extra effects introduced into the relationship.

It would be impossible to explore all the potential combinations in a lifetime. Each printer or designer, within the range of type styles and sizes at his disposal, will constantly find new and exciting combinations if he is looking for them. That, of course, is the crux of the problem; no amount of perusing sheets of type specimens will ever teach a designer to recognize his opportunity, or even to recognize what has made an effective contrast in a specimen of another’s work. A sharpening of his own visual faculties and his habits of perception will enable him to take a typescript, search out the core of the message, and give it visual expression through typography.

How can perception be trained? One means of stimulating ideas about the application of contrast in the average commercial printing job is the study of examples of typographic design shown in graphic exhibitions. Analysis of these at every opportunity will help the printer and designer to analyze any of his own jobs and learn what will make the result effective.

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A blank sheet of paper laying before the designer, defying him to make something out of it, is a space. Space is meaningless until something happens in it; anyone who has travelled through prairie country will vouch for the monotony of unbroken expanses of flat land stretching to the horizon; the most welcome sight is a tree.

Why? A tree serves to interrupt the space and give it meaning; there is a point of reference for the spectator; he is able to establish relative position in space by reference to the tree; the space has been ‘articulated’ by a division created in it.

The articulation of space is important to the human being from infancy. At first he lives in a void, conscious, perhaps, of no more than the weight of his own body on his back. But as the eyes develop, he is attracted by a bright object dangled before him; the space he inhabits has been given its first meaning. Before long he will try with clutching fingers to reach this object, but his knowledge of space is still so limited that he will not succeed.

From here on, his efforts will be directed towards the conquest of space, towards the co-ordination of eye and muscle in traversing the little world that surrounds him. As his world enlarges from his crib to the objects beyond, to the whole room, to the house, and then to the outdoors which is in his immediate neighborhood, he is constantly learning more about the space in which he moves, and new muscles are being brought into co-ordination.

From reaching for things with his arm he progresses to an attempt to move himself toward them, and he learns to crawl, to walk, and then to run, in order to conquer the space between himself and an external object in the shortest possible time.

Man never outgrows this urge. He is forever intrigued with the speed at which he can move, and now he has reached the stage where he can leave his voice behind him, can travel at speeds greater than sound. He will not be content: he must conquer the space between himself and the moon, and what is this but the adult version of the infant’s impulse to reach for a gaudy toy?

The visual conquest of space involves two functions, the perception of dis-

Graphic Design Lab Art + Design, SIUE ART 311, Typography, 2013 Professor Barbara JK Nwacha

typefaces:

Main Titles: Century Gothic Main Body: Bodoni Std Contrasts: Bodoni Std, Gill Sans, Futura, Lubalin Graph, Times New Roman, Century Gothic

printer:

MagCloud online magazine service

binding:

Perfect Bind

Back Cover

LRAC RIAD