Terra Incognita: a museum for the history of the Earth on the Moon

Terra Incognita [unknown earth]

Maria Vollas 2018-2019

Chris Perry - project advisor Christiana Bennett - project assessment committee

May 18, 2019 Bachelor of Architecture Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Terra Incognita [unknown earth]

Maria Vollas

Acknowledgements

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Questions & Thesis Statement

...8

Terra Incognita

Primary Analysis - Research

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Tradition or Technology: The debate between Aldo Rossi and Reyner Banham Holism or Object Oriented Ontology: Sanford Kwinter versus Graham Harman/Timothy Morton Design with Nature: from Iam McHarg to Space Ventures

Preliminary Design Concepts

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Terra Incognita as a Satellite

“History of the Earth” timeline

...40 ...54

Design Proposal Site of Marius Hills, Earth’s Moon Terra Incognita

Bibliography

...110

Image Sources

...113

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Acknowledgements

After a full year of working on my thesis project, there are surely many people that I would like to thank for their valuable contribution and help.

I would like to primarily thank my thesis advisor, Chris Perry, for his very valuable feedback and assistance primarily in the construction of the theoretical foundation and formation of my thesis. Under his guidance, I was able to uncover and explore many of my personal interests, views and ideologies, while responding to contemporary matters in the field of Architecture.

I would like to thank Christiana Bennett for always providing useful perspectives and references for my project, allowing me to understand the various paths I could follow in the development of my thesis.

Similarly, I would like to thank Cathryn Dwyre, who allowed me to better read, understand and translate my thesis through her critique in all the reviews.

I am very thankful to Lydia Kallipoliti, who, throughout my education at Rensselaer, has been very influential in my own thinking and development of ideas.

In fact, I am very grateful for all the faculty at Rensselaer and particularly some of my previous studio professors, such as David

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Bell, Gustavo Crembil, Yael Erel, Carla Leitao, Edwin Liu, Kyle Stover and William Virgil. Their support and guidance was truly significant in my personal development as a designer and thinker, and this can be traced in moments within my thesis that are often reflections of previous design work that grew in their studio courses.

Particularly for the construction of the physical model, I would like to thank James van Duyne for kindly assisting me in this process.

Ultimately, I am grateful for receiving so much support and encouragement from my classmates and friends at Rensselaer. I would like to thank Al-Jalil Gault for always motivating me to become more ambitious and trust my abilities. I would like to thank Courtney DeVeau, Kayla Hernstadt and the rest of my studio classmates for their valuable support and aid in the development of the work and the reviews.

Much of this work would not be possible without the contribution and help I have received from each one of these individuals. I would like to thank you all for all your kind interest in me!

How can architectural space contribute to a better understanding of our World, from the nature of the Earth to our relationship with the environment and to our contemporary reality?

Can the distancing from the Earth and the overview effect raise awareness regarding matters of Anthropocene and decay of the natural environment? Does that lead to a paradigm shift in our ideas and awareness of our surrounding environment?

How can we utilize extraterrestrial structures for cultural significance?

We’re in the verge of moving to outer space. What is the relationship of the “New World” to Mother Earth and how can we preserve our past history and civilization?

What is the future of the Earth? How can we view our World in the future and what is the potential narrative in the new century of 2100? How can the native extraterrestrial populations become educated for their Mother land/Earth?

Can a speculation for 2100 raise awareness for our current anthropocentric condition?

In case of destruction of the Earth’s natural environment, how can we save its history outside of this “burning” Planet?

*Terra Incognita is perceived to have a double meaning. It initially refers to our unawareness and ignorance to understand our World and our true position in the larger ecology of the Earth, where Terra=Earth is interpreted as something still unknown to us. As it migrates to the moon, it also reects this new unknown world outside of our planet, which is somewhat explored by technological and scientiďŹ c initiatives but untouched by pieces of Culture or Art.

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Terra Incognita [unknown earth]

Terra Incognita, Latin term meaning unknown earth/land, was originally introduced in Ptolemy’s Geography c. 150 AD to define regions of the world that have not yet been cartographically registered and therefore remain unknown or unexplored parts of the world.

comprehended and can only be visualized through their consequences and ramifications on the Earth’s surface.

Terra Incognita is situated on the Earth’s Moon, in the year 2100. Serving as a museum of the history of the Earth and of Life, it is raising awareness regarding our incapability to perceive ourselves within the larger ecology of the planet. Presenting the history of the Earth and the evolution of Life, it is uncovering our true and close connection to nature and our current derailment from its trajectory. While narrating the past, Terra Incognita also uses the network of the Earth’s satellites to project the current interactions and dynamic systems happening at the Earth’s surface. From a reflection of the past to a detailed description of the present, Terra Incognita uses perspectives of Culture and Science for a more holistic understanding of the World.

In the 21st century, under the surveillance and mapping of satellites and other monitoring and scanning devices, hardly anything can still remain unknown and unregistered in our encyclopedia of data.What remains a mystery isn’t so much anymore the static morphological features of our planet, but rather the dynamic interactions between humans and human-made environments of the Anthropocene with the rest of the animal populations and the natural landscape.

Complex phenomena such as climate change are, according to Timothy Morton, essences of “hyperobjects” that can difficultly be

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Terra Incognita is situated within the larger theoretical and architectural framework defined by the debate between Aldo Rossi and Reyner Banham on Tradition or Technology, Sanford Kwinter and Graham Harman/Timothy Morton’s opposition on Holism or OOO, Ian McHarg’s “Design with Nature”, Trevor Paglen’s artwork and the “2001:Space Odyssey”.

Tradition or Technology The debate between Aldo Rossi and Reyner Banham

A significant opposition of views that created a debate within the fields of the discipline of Architecture was that of Rossi and Banham. Continuity or Crisis?

Conservation of the architectural tradition and connection of the new and the old, or radical megastructures of architectural and infrastructural elements driven by the contemporary scientific and technological evolutions?

The origins of this debate can be traced back to the early 1960s, when Reyner Banham with his article “Neoliberty: The Italian Retreat from Modern Architecture” attacked an Aldo Rossi’s earlier article that was promoting traditional Italian dwelling concepts, characterizing that as an “abandonment of the achievements of modern movement”. Nevertheless, Aldo Rossi was never really against Modernism and was not only promoting a tradition of the past. He believed in an integration of the future modern to the older fabric of the architectural and urban environment. He very characteristically responded to Banham’s criticism stating that: “The Italian reality is different, much more difficult and even more dramatic than [Banham] elegantly writes.We believe that the Italy that came out of the war and the Resistance, has looked for new and original approaches. And that a political

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situation that is rather special has given rise to an intense debate.”

In particular, he was observing the outskirts of Italian cities, were post-war proliferation of transport networks and speculative housing resulted in growth of “vast peripheral clusters”, rendering the Italian urban condition in a state of crisis in social terms. Opposing to this condition, he was promoting that an “awareness of the bond between man and the surrounding society must be continually strengthened”, where the “commercial centres, universities, cultural centres, and public buildings will once again assume formal importance: they will be the monuments of a vaster metropolitan territory”. Public buildings, just like in the examples of the past, could continue to serve as singular monuments, putting forth a different kind of ordering system within the city. Such organization form has political impact in the Italian cities, where the central public areas become places of gathering and therefore holding political power.

Locomotica 2’ by Aldo Rossi, Gian Ugo Polesello and Luca Meda was one of the few architectural proposals of the 1960s that were not driven by the transportation and infrastructural systems of the city, but rather the existing historical uban environment of the historical Turin. The proposal puts forth Rossi’s oppositional view to his contemporary

“The awareness of the bond between man and the surrounding society must be continually strengthened. For this reason the commercial centres, universities, cultural centres, and public buildings will once again assume formal importance: they will be the monuments of a vaster metropolitan territory�

- Aldo Rossi

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Locomotiva 2 proposal by Aldo Rossi, designed in 1963.

[top] Aranya Housing by B.V. Doshi, constructed in 1989 in Indore, India. [middle] Säynätsalo Town Hall by Alvar Aalto, constructed in 1952 in Finland. [bottom] Boa Nova Tea House by Alvaro Siza, constructed in 1963 in Portugal.

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“Tradition means . . . the stock of general knowledge (including general scientific knowledge) which specialists assume as the ground of present practice and future progress Technology represents its converse, the method of exploring, by means of the instrument of science, a potential which may at any moment make nonsense of all existing general knowledge, and so of the ideas founded on it, even ‘basic’ ideas like house, city, building.

For the first time in history, the world of what is is suddenly torn by the discovery that what could be, is no longer dependent on what was.”

-Reyner Banham

trends, demonstrating the architecture’s potential to reveal a new political condition within the city fabric and accommodating Turin’s emerging administrative class.

Reyner Banham was in the other side of the argument, fascinated by the new emerging technologies and by the infrastructure-driven American cities. The automobile, according to him, was the new primary parameter in the design of cities, where the high-speed roads and highways, the rail systems and other forms of transportation infrastructure become the new form and essence of the cities. He was fascinated by Los Angeles and the role of the highways in the organization and growth of the city and promoted a new paradigm that had to be differentiated from past examples of urbanism and tradition. He was stating that “our towns and cities must be drastically modernized and one of the things that will often have to go is the urban texture”.

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The new urbanity will be based on new technological movements rather than the past traditions, where those will define the ordering systems and the ultimate form of the city. The political center established by Rossi is questioned here, where Banham states that: “the place where everybody has to go such as the centre of a New town . . . is a dead letter in the kind of highly mobile, highly, communicative society that is implicit in New Town planning . . .

The function of town-planning . . . must now be to ensure that only voluntary association takes place and that, when it does occur, there will be places where people will want to go to do it”.

In opposition to Rossi, Banham was praising the networks of transportation and the speculative housing in the periphery of the cities, where infrastructure rather than architecture was the determinant of city form.

He was looking at proposals such as Tenzo Tange’s Tokyo Bay, which he described as “the

greatest contribution to twentieth-century townplanning ideas”. The particular design was based on the road infrastructure of Tokyo, where all the elements were centered on the rectangular freeway loops and the residential buildings were simply attached to the larger megastructure of the infrastructure.

Although Banham initially supported that the integration of technology and pop in the architectural and urban design would lead to greater emancipation and freedom, he was criticized by students of the “evenements de Mai”. The permissive freedoms that were so largely celebrated by groups such as Archigram were in reality illusory and highly controlled by capital forces. Banham’s initial dream for megastructures was deconstructed, leading him to develop the theory of the “nonplan”.

Positioning himself even further away from Rossi, he promoted a form of urbanism that would be solely based on the population’s will rather than any preconceived large scale plans and imposed ordering systems. In our contemporary reality, such ideas could be

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possibly represented by the informal urbanism of the slum and favela areas that are largely controlled by the residents of the area.

The debate between Rossi and Banham was certainly of significant importance in the 1960s, creating two separate schools of thought within the discipline of Architecture.

Rossi’s position would be manifested by Postmodernism and Kenneth Frampton’s Critical Regionalism, where the architectural traditions of the past could be traced within the modern designs of such periods. In the meantime, Banham’s vision was performed by the technological innovations that would occur in the later years and that would dominate the contemporary urbanism. In 2018, matters of the relationship of technology/science and the individual/humanity remain unanswered and under continuous question and exploration.

[top] Dymaxion House by Buckmiinster Fuller, designed in 1927. [bottom] London rail and underground stationsĂŠ mapping drawn by Douglas MacPherson in 1926.

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CONTINUITY OR CRISIS?

ALDO ROSSI VS. REYNER BANHAM

PLAN Tokyo Plan, Tokyo, Japan [Kenzo Tange, 1960] The proposal responds to the continued expansion and internal regeneration of the city of Tokyo, imposing a new physical order based on the circulation network. The rapid population increase is dealt with the creation of a series of satellite cities and general decentralization. The plan is centered on the idea of the automobile, which has caused a shift in the perception of the urban scape, requiring the establishment of a different ordering system.

“In the past, people walked along streets until they came to their destination and then simply disappeared into the door. With automobiles on the street, however, everything is different. In the first place, it is necessary to divide pedestrians from vehicles, to create highways and streets that are for the exclusive use of vehicles. Thanks to the coming of the automobile, there is need for a new order in which a vehicle can move from afast highway to a slower one and then come to a stop at the destination.”

[Kenzo Tange, 1960]

Plug-in City [Peter Cook/Archigram, 1964]

NOPLAN

BANHAM

It is not in fact considered a city as much as a continuously evolving megastructure of residences, transportation and other essential services, which are all operated by movable giant cranes. Transportation and rapid change of the urban environment is integrated within the design, suggesting a flexible and liberal approach to urban configurations.

“A new generation of architecture must arise with forms and spaces which seem to reject the precepts of ‘Modern’ yet in fact retains those precepts. We have chosen to bypass the decaying Bauhaus image which is an insult to functionalism.” [David Greene, Archigram Issue 1961]

MEGASTRUCTURE

Diagram illustrating Aldo RossiÊs and Reyner BanhamÊs oppositional views.

Drawn by Kayla Hernstadt, Maria Vollas and Yiqi Song.

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Locomotiva 2, Turin [Aldo Rossi, 1962] The proposal relies on Turin’s structured roman grid, expanding it to a more monumental scale for the integration of courtyard spaces.Working with the existing types in Turin’s fabric, the new singular building becomes completely opposed to the open forms of the contemporary megastructure proposals. Locomotiva is taking a political and societal stance through the recognition and revelation of the newly emerging administrative class.

Chandigarh, Punjab, India [Le Corbusier & Pierre Jeanneret, 1960] Chandigarh was conceived as a post-war “garden city”, where the high rise buildings are ruled out, according to the socio-economic conditions of its residents. The city is organized in large blocks called “sectors”, divided by large boulevards running throughout the city in straight lines. Each sector becomes self-sufficient, including shops, schools and health centers. The city oscillates between planned and unplanned, where the positioning of the sectors and circulation paths is defined, leaving space to residents for customization of interior areas of the sectors.

Siena, Italy Siena is a precise and representative example of the Medieval City. The monumental Piazza del Campo becomes the main center of the city, surrounded by the totality of the infrastructure of the city as well as the intersection point of the main three major streets and the more subtle pathways and pedestrian routes. The buildings in planned and unplanned manners have been positioned to fit within the harmonic urban fabric of the city as well as the natural surrounding landscape.

Rosinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Favelas and slum areas have emerged in the edges and borderlines of multiple metropolis around the world. Situated next to the hyper-planned blocks of the contemporary urban fabric, the slums have no defined plan and they have been fully formed by the individual residents. In many cases (particularly in Latin American cities), the residents have been the builders of modernism and contemporary architecture, who then construct their own residences next to their workplace-cityscape. Nevertheless, the growth and evolution of the slums becomes an interesting study of the efficient use of space, the practice of recycling and reuse of materials and the creation of spaces and paths that are directly related and proportional to the human scale.

Nezahualcoyotl/Ciudad Neza, New Mexico It is one of the more densely populated areas of the city of New Mexico and a previous slum area that currently evolves and upgrades to a suburban region within the city.

An example of a sprawling residential area, it is an example of informal architecture, showcasing principles of emergence and their integration within a formal grid defined by the city’s ordering systems. The residential region rises from the layout of the street grid, designed to maximize the amount of sellable land and the repetition of limited housing typologies.

ROSSI

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HUMAN SCALE

Holism or Object Oriented Ontology Sanford Kwinter versus Graham Harman/Timothy Morton

In his “Soft Systems” article, Sanford Kwinter introduces us to this notion through the first photograph of the Earth, as taken from space. It appears to be a largely blue spherical object, fluid and liquid in its essence and quite dynamic in its surface interactions.

Positioned between stability and instability, it is largely dominated by complex dynamic systems that have the capacity to “handle and process movement, change, difference”, or more essentially, information that are received from the outer space as well as the internal interactions. He characterizes such system as “soft”, because of its ability to “move, to differentiate, to internally absorb, transform and exchange information with its surroundings, to develop complex interdependent sub- and supersystems”.

The temperature of the white clouds of the atmosphere is balanced between the cooler temperature of the outer space and the warmer conditions on the surface of the sun, providing calibrated conditions for life on earth, which is also in return regulated by the oceans and plant life. Such actions and reactions create a complex system of feedback loops, able to sustain fluid but stable conditions on the Earth’s surface. Such systems are not linear and straightforward but far more complicated, where they cannot be fully comprehended only by the analysis and understanding of their parts. That is because

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many of their characteristics are dependent on the interactions and relationships between the parts, rather than the nature of the individual units. The properties of the “soft systems” are emergent, controlled by the organization and form rather than the structure.

Our perception of the systems that dominate the Earth have been shifted, according to Kwinter, from the mechanical, static and predictable to the biological, where information rather than energy plays a more important role in their formation. From biology but more specifically the science of genetics, the “soft system” could be analyzed from two different sides of the same system.

Kwinter refers to Waddington’s Epigenetic Landscape, where “form emerges gradually but dynamically out of a formless or homogeneous environment or substrate”.

In this landscape, there are two sides drawn by Waddington that refer to the external and internal processes that take place. From above, a ball is thrown on the landscape which determines only its general pathway, whereas the specific pathways “can only be determined through real-time events, depending on environmental conditions, selection pressures, and perturbations encountered along the way.” From below, all the chemical reactions are illustrated, which at a distance define the formation of the landscape. Kwinter states

[top-left] Apollo 8, the first manned mission to the moon, entered lunar orbit on Christmas Eve, Dec. 24, 1968. Image credit: NASA [top-right] Tectonic Plates on EarthĂŠs surface. [bottom] Epigenetic Landscape, concept representing embryonic development.

Drawn by biologist C. H. Waddington, 1957

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“a type of world emerges whose material, technical, and architectural articulations-no longer simply objects, structures, or “buildings” but indeed electro-material environments at all scales-manifest themselves in a soft, perhaps insidiously holographic, manner, a world where everything flows seamlessly together in real time” “No one who ever took nature as an image for the design of form ever got it right. Nature represents a certain way that events are produced, a certain rhythm of emission, of contraction and dilation; it is a design engine responsible less for the matter it organizes than for the organizational forces it deploys.”

- Sanford Kwinter

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“the mesh of interconnected things is vast, perhaps immeasurably so. Each entity on the mesh looks strange. Nothing exists all by itself, and so nothing is fully ‘itself’. . . the mesh links together all objects that exist . . . the mesh does not reduce things to their interactions or intimacy with their neighbors . . . Morton’s ostensibly flat ontology is not flat at all, and the mesh is prevented from fusing into a holistic network only by those local black holes known as sentient organisms. Even when Morton tells us that “ the strange stranger lives within (and without) each and every being.”

- Graham Harman

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that in this system “if entire regions are blown out, the landscape will undergo deformation, but even this will not prevent the system’s inbuilt “flexible strategies” from finding a smooth and harmonious, even if a little monstrous, pathway through it”.

Such soft systems described by Sanford Kwinter can be integrated within the theoretical dimensions of holism, where parts and whole are interconnected and interdependent and where the parts cannot exist or be understood outside of the “blanket” of the whole. This perspective has been largely applied to ecological theories that begin to describe the particular living and non-living elements and their relationship to the complete ecological entity.

Timothy Morton begins from such perceptions and challenges their validity, introducing the new term of “Dark Ecology”.

Influenced by the Object Oriented Ontology ideology put forth by Graham Harman, he states that “The ecological crisis we face is so obvious that it becomes easy - for some. strangely or frighteningly easy- to join the dots and see that everything is interconnected. This is the ecological thought.”1 This interconnectivity, though, could be interpreted in two ways according to Graham Harman. There is the notion of the strong connectivity, where everything is dependent on everything else and there is no 1. Timothy Morton, The Ecological Thought Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2010

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Cover of Timothy MortonÊs book „Dark Ecology: For a Logic of Future Coexistence‰, published by Columbia University Press in 2016. Cover design by Julia Kushnirsky and cover illustration by Hannah Stouffer.

sense of independence or autonomy of the individual parts, which would be defined, as also previously stated, the theory of holism.

Harman also proposes the notion of “weak connectivity”, where “all objects belong to a single network, with no dualistic separation between mind and matter, spiritual and corporeal, or anything else of the sort.”

According to Morton, there is of course connectivity between all the parts within ecology and interactions and influences, and actually humans are not superior in that sense but simply objects among so many other trillions.

Morton describes that all the particular objects, or sometimes “hyperobjects” all lie in the fabric of the mesh, where the connectivity of the parts takes place. Each entity in the mesh is different and has individual identity and are not reduced by the interactions or intimacy with neighbors that occur within the mesh. As Morton states: “Interconnection implies separateness and difference. There would be no mesh if there were no strange strangers.The mesh isn’t a background against which the strange stranger appears. It is the entanglement of all strangers.”

Graham observes that Morton’s view refers to an “ostensibly flat ontology that is not flat at all. And the mesh is prevented from fusing

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into a holistic network only by those local black holes known as sentient organisms.”

Apart from the mesh of the living organisms, there exist the so-called “hyperobjects”.

According to Morton, some of these such as the Styrofoam have the ability to outlive our current biological or societal status, becoming quite unrelated to our own lifetime frames.

Phenomena such as climate change could also be read as hyperobjects, where they can very difficultly understood and can only be visualized and prove their existence through their ramifications on the Earth’s surface.

All that phenomena influence our vision of the mesh and the objects, introducing many individual variables that may not harmoniously live within the fabric of the mesh.

A new opposition merges in the views of holism and Sanford Kwinter’s view of the Soft Systems or the notion of Object Oriented Ontology and the relationship of the mesh and the strange stangers. Such perspectives radically change the way we read our environment and ecology, leading to alternative readings of the history, of the evolution, of the dynamic phenomena and interrelationships and the current climate change status of the Earth.

Design with Nature from Iam McHarg to Space Ventures

Iam McHarg has observed and further emphasized the problematic perception we as humans have for our environment, leading to a problematic artificial world and Anthropocene on the planet. He has largely elaborated on all the different aspects of this phenomenon in his book “Design with Nature” that deals with disharmonies occurring from the scale of the pollution to the house, to the city and the planet. Some of the chapters in the book include matters such as “City and Countryside”, “Sea and Survival”, “the Cast and the Capsule”, “Nature in the Metropolis” that deal with diverse scales of issues of Anthropocene. His view could be summarized in his following quote, where he states: “Our failure is that of the Western World and lies in prevailing values. Show me a man-oriented society in which it is believed that reality exists only because man can perceive it, that the cosmos is a structure erected to support man on its pinnacle, that man exclusively is divine and given dominion over all things, indeed that God is made in the image of man, and I will predict the nature of its cities and their landscapes. I need not look far for we have seen them-the hot-dog stands, the neon shill, the ticky-tacky houses, dysgenic city and mined landscapes. This is the image of the anthropomorphic, anthropocentric man; he seeks not unity with nature but conquest. Yet unity he finally finds, but only when his arrogance and

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ignorance are stilled and he lies dead under the greensward.We need this unity to survive.”

In a different segment of the book he talks about two extreme positions related to the viewports of man-nature. On the one side, there is the anthropocentric man who is characterized as ignorant of the evolutionary history and human’s dependence of the natural environment of the rest of the living organisms. On the other side, there is the man projected as a unique species that is different from the other living organisms because of its “unequaled gift of consciousness”. Although understanding his unity with nature, he proceeds with deference towards “his creative role”. In both cases, McHarg is reading both ignorance and arrogance.

This becomes a significant basis for the current thesis, beginning with the assumption that there is a disharmony and dysfunctional relationship between our artificial environment and the pre-existing natural conditions. The anthropocentric environment is in disharmony with the natural environment creating fields of war and tension on the Earth’s surface, with devastating ramifications on the living organisms and the quality of life, and of course leading to the so-called climate change. The pictures of the Earth from space become powerful, as we realize that we are indeed part of the larger

“Show me a man oriented society in which it is believed that reality exists only because man can perceive it, that the cosmos is a structure erected to support man on its pinnacle, that man exclusively is divine and given dominion over all things, indeed that God is made in the image of man, and I will predict the nature of its cities and their landscapes.

I need not look far for we have seen them- the hot-dog stands, the neon shill, the ticky-tacky houses, dysgenic city and mined landscapes.

This is the image of the anthopomorphic, antropocentric man; he seeks no unity with nature but conquest.�

- Ian McHarg, Design with Nature, Princeton Architectural Press, 1971

The First Photo of the Earth, 1966; On Aug. 23, 1966, the world received its first view of Earth taken by the Lunar Orbiter I from the vicinity of the Moon. NASA

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“Man in space is enabled to look upon the distant earth, a celestial orb, a revolving sphere. He sees it to be green, from the verdure on the land, algae greening the oceans, a green celestial fruit. Looking closely at the earth, he perceives blotches, black, brown, gray and from these extend dynamic tentacles upon the green epidermis. These blemishes he recognizes as the cities and works of man and asks, “Is man but a planetary disease?”

-Loren Eiseley - paraphrazed by Ian McHarg, The House we Live in, 1961

The Blue Marble‰ is a famous photograph of the Earth taken on December 7, 1972, by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft en route to the Moon at a distance of about 29,000 kilometres (18,000 mi). It shows Africa, Antarctica, and the Arabian Peninsula.

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[left] „The Other Night Sky‰ photograph by Trevor Paglen. [right] DMSP 5B/F4 From Pyramid Lake Indian Reservation (Military Meteorological Satellite; 1973-054A) by Trevor Paglen.

ecosystem of the Earth rather than separated in our own anthropocentric parallel reality.

We belong in this large blue liquid and fluid object, whether within Kwinter’s dynamic soft system and Morton’s mesh of strange strangers.

It is quite interesting though and significant to stay a bit in this domain and think about our position outside of the Earth.

From the 1960s on, we have expanded our horizons outside of the terrestrial atmosphere migrating to space realities. Since then, we have sent multiple satellites that are currently orbiting and monitoring the Earth’s surface. In 2018 there are 4,857 (https://www.pixalytics. com/sats-orbiting-the-earth-2018/) satellites that are populating our now inhabitable sky.

The artist and photographer Trevor Paglen has been very interested in observing satellites, documenting their trajectories through the use of photography. Using the stars as reference points, the camera is moving accordingly capturing the precise locations

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and movements of the satellites in the sky.

While the main purpose of his documentation is to expose the surveillance systems of the satellites above us, it is quite interesting to think of his work as also proposing this new future outside of the earth, where now the sky is populated with all these extraterrestrial pieces of infrastructure. We are no longer limited on the Earth’s surface, but have largely expanded to extraterrestrial territories and these photographs bring awareness of the new borders of our Anthropocene, as well as make us wonder about the possibilities of the future structures.

Another project of his called “Orbital Reflector” responds to this new territory by designing an art object that is to act as a satellite orbiting the Earth. With no particular role or function, the object is floating in the sky for purely purposes of artistic expression.

It becomes almost a monolith to be viewed from every single part of the Earth’s surface, from all of the different counties of the world.

“Orbital Reflector encourages all of us to look up at the night sky with a renewed sense of wonder, to consider our place in the universe, and to reimagine how we live together on this planet. It prompts us to ask the big questions. Who are we? Where did we come from? Where are we going?

What are we doing to the shared world in which we live?”

- Trevor Paglen

[left] The „Orbital Reflector‰ designed by Trevor Paglen. [right] Scenes from Stanley KubrickÊs film 2001: A Space Odyssey.

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Terra Incognita was initially conceived as a satellite that would continuously orbit the Earth. Serving as an observatory for the Earth, it would capture, monitor and map ramifications caused by climate change. From an overview viewpoint it was imagined to be a means to raise awareness for our disharmonious relationship to the planet.

Preliminary Design Concepts

Terra Incognita as an Artificial Satellite

In the preliminary stages of the project, “Terra Incognita” was envisioned to be an artificial satellite that would continuously orbit the Earth and monitor its conditions as it pertains to climate change.

The object “Terra Incognita” was conceived to be an object that, although artificial, is almost natural as a piece of the moon. In particular, considering the recent research and innovation on 3d printing with moon dust, it would use such techniques and be constructed on the moon before its propulsion to space.

The design concept reflects the idea of the “hyperobject”, as it is proposed by the theories developed by Timothy Morton in relation to Graham Harman’s “Object Oriented Ontology”. Similarly to the existing planets of our universe that exist for billions of years and have the ability to outlive us, Terra Incognita would orbit around the Earth and monitor its condition for an undetermined amount of time, possibly becoming independent of our human civilization back on Earth.

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The interiors of this artificial “asteroid” were conceived to become occupiable spaces that could be used by visitors to the “Terra Incognita” observatory, becoming educated for the actual climatic condition of the planet, and learning more about the effects of our actions on the Earth’s surface.

The use of technological means of mapping and representation of the gathered data and information reflects some of the ideas held by Reyner Banham regarding the importance of promotion of technology. It is also related to Aldo Rossi’s emphasis on the importance of tradition, where “Terra Incognita” is made solely from the ground and the soil of the moon and where the interior spaces propose a human-scaled environment.

|V| = 4.7 mi/h velocity

solar panel

satellite orbit

communications antenna

rocket motor

250 mi altitude

camera

research center

glaciers in Antartica

Terra Incognita in orbit around the Earth.

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solar panel

ice melting exhibition

camera

global warming exhibition

main observation hall

deforestation exhibition

air pollution exhibition

water pollution exhibition

satellite orbit

|V| = 4.7 mi/h velocity

Section drawing of Terra Incognita, revealing the interior exhibition spaces of the museum.

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Habitable volume: 13,824 sqf

3d print moon regulate with Earth-imported filament 24’

|V| = 4.7 mi/h velocity

24’ satellite orbit

communications antenna

250 mi altitude

ESA Concordia Station, Antarctica

View of Terra Incognita from ESAÊs Concordia Station in Antarctica and elevation drawing with dimensioning and volume information.

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The project evolves and the emphasis shifts from an observatory of the Earth to the creation of a Museum for the history of the Earth. Terra Incognita now reflects the planet’s whole history rather than only the present conditions. We begin with a visual exploration of the geological and biological changes that have occurred on Earth, from its Birth till now.

Timeline of the History of the Earth From the Birth of the Earth 5 billion years ago, to today’s Earth covered with landscapes of Anthropocene and surrounded by satellite networks, the timeline of the History of the Earth raises awareness for the story of our planet.

young planet called Theia moves towards Earth, since of Mars, travels 10 miles/sec, Theias gravity distorts the surface of the Earth

no sign of Earth yet, only newborn sun surrounded by dust

5 B.Y.A.

4.5 B.Y.A.

Planet was born from dust and rocks colliding newborn planet is a boiling ball of liquid rock

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over 1000 years, gravity of the Earth turns debris into rock dust that circles the planet, from this ring a ball forms over 2 miles wide, the birth of our moon much closer to Earth at 14,000 miles instead of quarter of million miles today

meteors attack the Earth debris leftover from solar system formation inside the meteors there are crystals like grains of salt, inside them there are droplets of water they could contain main ingredient for life on Earth

Earth looks familiar but is still a dangerous place: large winds more distructive than hurricanes today (by the planet's rapid rotation) moon very close to Earth, gravity is overwhelming

sun rises over a cooling Earth sets just 3h later Earth spins fast, entire day lasts 6h

3.9 B.Y.A.

after collision, blast wave races around the planet, both young planets turn to liquid, trillions of tons of debris blast out into space

bombard the Earth for over 20 million years, pools of water grow Earth surface cools down while core remains hot every drop of water is billions of years old

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over time the moon moves away, waves calm down, planet spins slower

Earth has now water and land looks like home but the atmosphere is still toxic temperature is scorching life is impossible

it is dark and close to freezing underwater chimneys spew hot liquid, collecting minerals and gas along the way potent mixture released back into the ocean chemicals came together somehow and created life

3.8 B.Y.A.

scattered throughout are tiny islands molten rock bursts through the Earth's crust through volcanoes

more complex life begins to emerge moulds grow at bottom of sea each is a colony of bacteria called stromatolites

3.5 B.Y.A.

meteorites attack earth, they carry not only water but release minerals, carbon and proteins-amino acids, from outer space to the bottom of the ocean thousands of feet below the waves

water full of microscopic organisms, single cell bacteria for hundreds of millions of years nothing changed

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they turn sunlight into food = photosynthesis transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose this releases byproduct gas=oxygen

there's still no complex life οver 400,000,000 years later supercontinent Rodinia is formed

atmosphere fills with oxygen

slowly fill oceans with oxygen

1.5 B.Y.A.

spin of Earth slows down days get longer lasting at least 16h slowly fill oceans with oxygen turns traces of iron into rough which fall to ocean floor to form iron rich rock mineral used in future for steel

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mysterious force rearranges islands on surface Earth's crust breaks into vast plates Earth's core pushes and pulls plates around the globe carrying oceans and islands with them

stromatolites work their magic for more that 2BY pumping oxygen into atmosphere

planet looks more like Mars than Earth force deep inside the planet rips the crust to pieces the world is breaking apart

1.1 B.Y.A.

750 M.Y.A.

Supercontinent Rodinia is formed

temperature 85 degrees days are 18h long

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pop carbon dioxide into the atmosphere carbon dioxide with water creates acid rain rocks absorb acid rain, carbon dioxide is absorbed out of the atmosphere

in few thousand years temperature goes to -60 degrees start of the Snowball Earth believed to be the longest, coldest, ice age vast wall of ice thousands of feet high the more ice, the more sunlight is reected away from the planet two mountains of ice grow and meet at the equator ice sheet up to 10,000 feet thick is covering the Earth

650 M.Y.A.

635 M.Y.A.

not enough carbon dioxide to trap sun's heat around the planet only one force powerful enough for this: heat escapes from Earth's molten core great supercontinent is splitting in two intense geological activity creates volcanic eruptions

volcanoes pop out of the iced surface emit billions of tons of carbon dioxide rocks are smothered in ice, they can't absorb the CO2

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temperatures begin to rise crust reappears as ice melts, more volcanoes appear

atmosphere is warmer like a summer day days 22h long with all the water - perfect recipe for life

600 M.Y.A.

ice has created oxygen, sun's ultraviolet reacted with water molecules produce hydrogen peroxide, chemical rich in oxygen, as ice melts it releases oxygen from the ice

Cambrian explosion worms, sponges, trilobites evolve (distant relatives of insects) had bone structures, were larger organisms

plates keep moving new continent exists: Gondwana

540 M.Y.A.

ocean full of oxygen primitive bacteria have evolved plants scattered on the sea multi-celled organisms

460 M.Y.A.

life in oceans blossoms from microscopic creatures to "monsters"- carnivorous animals picana: possible becomes the ďŹ rst organism with a spine

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90 degrees, oxygen levels similar to today sun blasts surface with deadly radiation, no life outside of water

seed carried by wind to grow miles from water - embryonic plant has its own water each tree and plant plumps even more oxygen environment very much like today dragony appears called meganeura, the insect’s size is that of an eagle 30 miles above ground: oxygen meets sun's radiation turns into ozone forms blanket and absorbs lethal radiation without this life on land would not exist

tetrapods and vertebrates exist on land evolve to dinosaurs, mammals and eventually humans mosses and ferns everywhere extending to 100 feet tall

375 M.Y.A.

360 M.Y.A.

creature hylonomous lays its eggs not in water but on land egg major evolutionary breakthrough allows animals to leave water behind and conquer land

300 M.Y.A.

creatures look like our insects today but they are big/monsters - world full of giants because the oxygen level much higher than it is today dead plants are covered by rocks and earth's core transforms them into coal which is what is burned today

life takes off shielded from radiation plants begin to appear on surface new species lives in the water swimming: tiktaalik rises its neck up and uses legs to move outside of water over 15 million years creatures like these evolve and spend time outside of the water

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in Siberian plains big life in oceans also comprocreatures begin to exist mised small lizards are now giant water turns pink, oceans were layers of rock bury and heat reptiles heated lost their oxygen the dead creatures in sea as some as herbivorous and only pink algae survived bottom some carnivorous relying on bubbles with methane gas ancient fish and plankton will hunting escape from beneath the sea become oil Earth's crust begins to break bed, worse greenhouse gas than everything produced with oil: lava spills into the air oil paint, plastic etc all entire landscape is filled with co2 (until now it was frozen but now it melts) produced by these organisms lava now almost 105 degrees North American plate moving 500,000 years since eruptions away began 95% of species are gone

250 M.Y.A.

200 M.Y.A.

190 M.Y.A.

180 M.Y.A.

just one supercontinent: Pangea stretches from pole to pole the planet heals, temperature stabilizes, acid rain neutralizes field opens for new species to emerge: lifeful paradise is now lifeless hell dinosaurs evolve from reptiles greatest mass extinction world has ever seen: that survive 15 feet tall - alamosaurus slow and Permian extinction vulnerable on the other side of the continent Gondwana dilophosaurus it is small and fast - hunts alamosaunothing has changed yet rus it is snowing but temperature is 70 degrees, it's dinosaurs repopulated the planet actually ash earth's crust breaks and shakes with ash burns and suffocates the animals earthquakes releasing lava, plates are on the move sulfur dioxide from the eruptions fills the Pangea tears apart atmosphere currents push nutrients to coasts/water attracting as it rains, it turns to sulfuric acid burning fish everything it falls on from local to global disaster increased levels of CO2 atmosphere gets hotter, water evaporates vegetation dies, life on land is being wiped out

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in the middle lies a volcano underwater the water here is hot lava forces its way out in the water this geological activity makes earth restless

145 M.Y.A.

new ocean forms as well as new continents United States breaks away from Africa the world as we know it takes place Atlantic Ocean is formed

inhabitants adapt and evolve underwater life in Atlantic changes pliosaurus faster better hunter, longer than bus and heavier than trunk once solid ground now Atlantic ocean dinosaur world appears invincible, as dominant as ever

space rock heads towards Earth an asteroid at least 6 miles across hits gulf of Mexico instantly vaporizes releasing energy of millions of nuclear weapons earthquakes shift the ground tsunamis battle the coasts heating Earth's surface to over 500 degrees smoke and dust block out sun's rays plants die and animals starve dinosaur's demise brings opportunities for mammals (living underground)

65 M.Y.A.

mammal ancestors are evolving darwinius masillae will evolve to monkeys, apes and eventually humans live in lakes in current Germany atmosphere much like today temperature 75 degrees day lasts just under 24 h

47 M.Y.A.

20 M.Y.A.

dinosaurs and mammal ancestors other mammals are evolving survived through darwinius millions of years masillae will hero shrew evolve to monkeys, becomes prey for apes and dinosaurs eventually they live in trees humans or underground live in lakes in they are no current Germany threat to dinosaurs

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planet looks exactly as we know it, except the existence of the human race

In Africa riff stretches growing 4000 miles mountains growing along its edge

4 M.Y.A.

a man and a child early species of humans homo erectus they leave for new places, human history begins to deviate from that moment

1.5 M.Y.A.

while humans head north, ice moves to south homo sapiens arrive to Europe only to ďŹ nd a world it's getting colder, entering Ice Age

70 T.Y.A.

ice retreats/melts ice became north america's great lakes retreats to Arctic and Antarctic

40 T.Y.A.

20 T.Y.A.

14 T.Y.A.

0

Earth will live for at least 4.5 BY sea levels formed gap between Africa and Saudi Arabia, it was smaller 8 miles Red Sea narrow and shallow for a small group to cross, they are a later species of humans, homo sapiens the rest of the world populated by these 200 individuals spread to India, Asia and Europe

sea levels fall, water trapped in ice strip of ice between Asia and America in Alaska takes humans from Asia to America

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Terra Incognita: a museum for the History of the Earth Terra Incognita is shifted from a pure observatory of the Earth to a museum for the Planet’s history.

Terra Incognita is also no longer a satellite orbiting the Earth, but it is located in an underground cave space, in a lava tube, in Marius Hills on the Earth’s Moon.

Montes Caucasus Mare Imbrium

Lorentz Rima Diophantus

Rimae Archimedes Rima Brayley Oceanus Procellarum

Montes Apenninus Rima Draper

Rima Marius

Montes Carpatus Sinus Aestuum

Rima Cardanus Mare Insularum

Mare Vaporum

Rimae Bode Rima Hyginus Sinus Medii

Rimae Riccioli Montes Cordillera 270 km

Dorsum Zirkel

Rima Agricola

Rima Diophantus

Rimae Aristarchus Dorsa Burnet Vallis Schroteri

Russell

Struve Rima Brayley

Eddington

Rima Euler

Oceanus Procellarum

Rima Draper Rima Marius Montes Carpatus Rima Galilaei Vasco da Gama P

Rima Cardanus

Olbers D Rima Milichius Rima Suess 110 km

Krafft

Rima Marius

Catena Krafft

Rima Galilaei

Rima Cardanus

Cavalerius D 55 km

Rima Marius

Rima Galilaei

Marius

27 km

Marius Hills Galilaei

Galilaei M

Rima Galilaei

16 km

Marius Hills 5 km

Map of a region of a Marius Hills, which illustrates the underground lava tube and its skylight, which is largely used in the project. Data retrieved from StarTrek, one of NASAĂŠs programs.

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65 m

60 m

20 m

65 m

60 m

20 m

370 m

Longitudinal [top] and transverse [bottom] section through Marius HillsĂŠ lava tube, illustrating the skylight dimensions and depth. Information retrieved from NASA and JAXA.

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Terra Incognita A Museum for the History of the Earth on the Earth’s Moon

Terra Incognita is a museum for the history of the Earth and of Life, located in Marius Hills on the Earth’s Moon and constructed in 2100. Terra Incognita has a series of galleries formed by cave-like structures that allows visitors to visualize different moments of the Earth’s history.

Considering the highly technological reality of the 2100, Terra Incognita also employs holographic projection systems,.

These are used for visualizing living organisms of various periods, meteorites as they fall on the planet’s surface, the globe in various geological states etc. Such elements are used as a superimposition to the cave spaces, enhancing the experience of the past.

In Terra Incognita, within the highly technological reality of 2100 that occupies the moon, you are traveling back to the caves reaching for the origins of the Earth and of life, back to the early humans as they begin to explore the Earth.

The project does not intend to necessarily become a realistic proposal for the construction of a museum and observatory in the 2100s on the moon. It is rather aimed to respond to various populations from various timelines, where all these cases become interesting conditions.

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For the present, it is aimed to raise awareness for our current stance regarding our relationship to the Earth and to climate change. The work and the drawings aim to create an emotional relationship between the individuals and the spaces created by the Earth, promoting an understanding of ourselves as part of the larger ecology of the planet.

For 2100 and for the even further future, the museum becomes almost a monument or archaeological site for the planet. In an era, where it is hypothesized that the Earth and life may decay, the museum is located in a protected territory outside of the globe, in an effort to preserve the past. For future humans who may not even be born on Earth or ever visit the Earth, this may be an opportunity to visualize their “Mother Earth”, the land from which they originate, understanding more about their past and their ancestors.

The possibilities for narratives are endless and this project aims to inspire and promote such stories, in hopes to cultivate a sense of love and care for Planet Earth.

Sectional physical model, cutting through the Marius HillsĂŠ skylight to the underground lava tube, illustrates some of the cave-like underground spaces of Terra Incognita.

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Museum Map From the Birth of the Earth and Moon till the Beginning of Mankind to today, through Terra Incognita you travel through separate galleries that explore different moments in the Planet’s history.

You enter and leave the underground museum by using the Apollo Lunar Module spacecraft.

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0,0 m.

33 m.

69 m.

105 m.

Birth of the Earth and Moon

21 m.

93 m.

1. Earth is created

4. Moon is born.

2. Earth is a burning Planet, liquid rock.

5. Meteors attack Earth, crystals inside them bring water.

3. Planet Theia crashes on Earth.

6. Earth looks familiar, but is toxic.

Gravity of the Moon is overwhelming.

7. Moon moves away, Earth calms down.

Planet spins slower, tiny islands of molten rock, atmosphere is toxic.

114 m.

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141 m.

177 m.

213 m.

Creation of Life

8. Meteorites attack Earth underwater minerals and lava spills lead to Creation of Life

9. Stromatolites are born in the oceans they fill the atmosphere with oxygen

10. Crust rearranges creation of Rodinia supercontinent planet looks like Mars

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249 m.

285 m.

321 m.

357 m.

from Desert to Snowball Earth

11. volcanoes errupt fill the atmosphere witl CO2 absorbed by rocks CO2 not enough to trap heat

12. SNOWBALL EARTH volcanoes pop out CO2 and ice melts

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393 m.

429 m.

465 m.

501 m.

Earthrise

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537 m.

573 m.

609 m.

645 m.

681 m.

Cambrian Explosion & Permian Extinction

13. atmosphere is warmer, perfect recipe for life ocean full of oxygen multi-celled organisms appear underwater CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION

14. Plates keep moving creation of new continent Gondwana no life outside of water ozone blanket created around Earth

15. Plants begin to appear on the surface tiktaalik rises its neck up spends time outside of water small creatures become big monsters (high levels of oxygen) dead plants become coal

-69-

16. Earth's crust breaks - lava spills lifeful paradise becomes lifeless hell PERMIAN EXTINCTION ash burns and suffocates animals life in water compromised pink algae survived, turning the water pink 95% of species gone

717 m.

753 m.

789 m.

Dinosaur World & Jurassic Extinction

17. North American plates move away from Europe/Asia Atlantic Ocean is formed beginning of DINOSAUR WORLD with dinosaurs and mammals

18. Space rock heads towards Earth and crashes on Gulf of Mexico tsunamis / earthquakes sky is a giant lamp plants die, animals starve JURASSIC EXTINCTION Dinosaur's demise is opportunity for mammals

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825 m.

861 m.

897 m.

933 m.

969 m.

Beginning of Mankind

19. Planet looks exactly as we know it, but without humans in Africa ape-like creatures begin to stand they pass through Saudi Arabia to the rest of the World

20. Ice Age: ice between Asia and America takes humans to the American continent

21. Earth will live for at least 4.5 BY

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1002 m.

Birth of Earth and the Moon The experience of the History of the Museum begins with the Birth of the Earth and the Moon. In this moment, debris begins to form into planets, which can be experienced through the formations of the cave spaces and the holographic projections.

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Creation of Life In this gallery, meteorites fall on the Earth’s surface. They release minerals in the water, which react with underwater lava chimneys and create life.

Single celled organisms are visualized as flowing holographic projections and evolve in larger more complex living beings.

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from Desert to Snowball Earth Volcanoes begin to erupt on the Earth’s surface releasing CO2. This becomes absorbed by the ground and slowly the temperature of the planet decreases.

Snowball Earth is created, where ice covers up the whole surface of the globe.

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Earthrise At this point you enter the Earthrise room.

You are taking a break from exploring the Earth’s history and timeline and you stop underneath the Marius Hills’ skylight to have a view of the Earth.

Now you have the opportunity to reflect back to the Planet’s history and its relation to its current state, understanding the relationship between past and present.

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Cambrian Explosion & Permian Extinction From the Earthrise room you are now able to continue exploring the Earth’s history beginning with the Cambrian Explosion.

The earlier microorganisms have now evolved and become large organisms that inhabit the underwater environment.

At some point, tiktaalik escapes the underwater and lives in exterior landscapes, which defines an important point in the history of Life.

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Dinosaur World & Jurassic Extinction After the Permian Extinction, a new point in the History of Life on Earth begins with the appearance of dinosaurs and mammals. They occupy both under and above water environments, where life flourishes.

An asteroid is a holograph visualized to crash on the Gulf of Mexico, bringing the Jurassic Extinction and providing new opportunities for mammals.

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Beginning of Mankind Mammals are flourishing. An ape-like creature leaves the trees and begins to walk on its two legs. Humans begin to appear. They leave Africa and begin to occupy other places of the World. In this room, you can stand next to the first cave paintings that were created by our ancestors and explore their evolution till our days.

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[front cover] Retrieved from NASA. Digitally edited by author. [p. 06] Image of the Moon. Retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. [p. 12-13] Image of the Earth. Retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. [p. 15] Retrieved from article “Locomotiva 2”, published in Casabella no. 278 in 1963. [p. 16] Top - left: Credit: Aga Khan Award for Architecture, MIT Library, http://hdl.handle. net/1721.3/47997. Digitally edited by author.

Top - right: Photo by John Paniker. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/ biography/Balkrishna-Doshi/media/2123490/233117/ Digitally edited by author.

Middle - left: Photo by Fernanda Castro. Retireved from https://www.archdaily. com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvaraalto/56e0651be58eceb7a000008f-ad-classics-saynatsalo-town-hall-alvaraalto-photo. Digitally edited by author.

Middle - right: Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/coinneach_ eoin/9493300733. Digitally edited by author.

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Bottom - right: Retrieved from London Transport Museum collection.

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[p. 20-21] Diagram drawn by Kayla Hendstadt, Maria Vollas and Yiqi Song. [p. 23] Top - left: Retrieved from NASA. Top - right: Retrieved from Science Photo Library.

Bottom – right: Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Waddingtons1957-depiction-of-his-epigenetic-landscape-reprinted-with-permission_ fig2_266382087/. Digitally edited by author. [p. 26] Columbia University Press. Retrieved from https://cup.columbia.edu/book/darkecology/9780231177528. [p. 29] Retrieved from NASA. [p. 30] Retrieved from NASA. [p. 31] Photographs by Trevor Paglen. [p. 32] Design work by Trevor Paglen. [p. 33] Scenes from film “2001: Space Odyssey”. [p. 34-35] Image of the Earth. Retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. Digitally edited by author. [p. 40-41] Image of the Moon. Retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. Digitally edited by author. [p. 42-53] Diagram drawn by author with images retrieved from documentary “The Story of Earth” by National Geographic. [p. 54-55] Image of the Earth. Retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. Digitally edited by author.

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[p. 56-57] Diagrams of Marius Hills on the Moon drawn by author. Base images of the Moon retrieved from Google Earth/NASA. [back cover] Photograph credit: Bart Declercq. *unless indicated, all other images are created by author.