Brief History of Architecture and Gentrification

Independent Study of 2021

ISSUE Nº1 INDEPENDENT STUDY

by Marion Kamara

THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND GENTRIFCATION

ISSUE Nº1 02 PURPOSE

02 Pre-Columbian Architecture 06 Colonial Architecture 12 Revivalism 15 Victorian Architecture 19 Art Deco and Art Nouvaue

23 The Making of Sky Scrapers 27 Making of the Suburbs 32 Gentrification and History of Gentrifcation in the US 37 What Can Be Done About It?

My independent study topic for the 2020-21 year will be architecture and its connection to gentrification. Architecture is all around us and is something that’s often overlooked in our day to day “People ignore lives. I’m planning on majordesign that ignores ing in architecture so this will people”. give me some insight on the

by Frank Chimero career. Nothing exists without a cultural background, so I will also research the cultural aspects of architecture. I believe that where people live should reflect them and their community as a whole and it breaks my heart to see the culture stripped of areas affected by gentrification. So, I believe learning the history of architecture can give me better insight as to design for the community and not around the community. Because this is such a broad topic, I’m aware that I won’t be able to cover all aspects of architecture and its history but I will try my best to include multiple movements and regions.

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PreColumbian Architecture Definition and Examples

This architectural era is often referred to as the Pre- Colombian era as its the time before Christopher Columbus began colonizing the Americas. This time spans from the Neolithic era all the way up tp 1492 and mainly included indigenous or primitive structures. However, the earliest Americans were hunter-gatherer societies that never had permanent homes so the true history of North American architecture starts in 1000 CE.

Mississippian Era ( 1000-1500 CE) At this time the US was completely inhabited by Native Americans and a few tribes had settled amid the Mississippi River. These tribes included the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez. and their most known for their ceremonial mounds pictured at left. These were usually flat topped pyramid shapes that were used as public ritual areas or built in someone’s honour. This same pyramidal shape can be seen in North American and Mesoamerican tribes across the continent.

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Pre-Columbian Architecture

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The Aztec ( 1300-1521) The Aztec people of middle and Southern México were especially skilled architects, building a wide array of sculptures, houses and most importantly, their temples. The most famous of which being the ruins Tenochtitlan. These famous temples were carved primarily of stone and loose rubble. Unfortunately The city was later conquered by Hernan Cortes.

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Urban Planning of Tenochtitlan & Spirituality of Aztec Cities Tenochtitlan (as mentioned before ) has many unique qualities, one of them being the its city planning. The temples were built to be the center of city-states with the community revolving around it, connecting to the temple by multiple straight avenues, intersecting at right angles. This orthogonal design was uncommon for most Mesoamerican societies. It’s been suggested that the Aztecs designed their communities this way for archaeoastronomical purposes, meaning they aligned their buildings with the position of celestial bodies for culture pracices and rituals.

Pre-Columbian Architecture

TEMPLE OF THE GREAT TENOCHITLAN

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Pueblo Housing

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The Pueblo were a popular tribe of southwestern US which is now known as New Mexico. Pueblo people were known for their distinctive architecture, specifically housing (pictured at right).These rectangular structures were usually built of adobe, which is a long-dried mudbrick.

Pre-Columbian Architecture

Tipis of the Great Plains

Another wildly populate Native American structure were tipis. Derived from theLakotawordfor“dwelling”,Tipisarelargetent-likehousesheldtogetherbylong poles and made of animal hide. These were mainly used by the nomadic tribes in the great plains such as the Lakota, the Blackfoot, The Omaha and the Comanche

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Colonial Architecture Definition and Examples

Colonial architecture can be described as an architectural style from a native country that has been incorporated into the buildings of settlements or colonies of said native country in other countries. As seen in the US colonial architecture is usually a product of British, French, Spanish, and Dutch colonization.

British Colonial Style British Colonial Style, like other European styles, was inspired by the Ancient Greek and Romans. However instead of the wide arches and intricate detail of the ancient times, the British colonial style focuses more on the conceptual parts of the Greeks and Romans art culture, particularly symmetry.

As seen at left, these colonial buildings are constructed of simple triangular and rectangular shapes and could be cut vertically at the center leaving two symmetrical sides. Beloware two morefamousexamplesof theBritishcolonialstyle.

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Colonial Architecture

French Colonial Architecture

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The French colonial style also inspired by the Greeks and Romans but has specific distinctions from the Britsih Colonial Style. Found mainly on the Canadian-American Border and in French colonized areas like Lousiana, the French Colonial style can be divided into 3 distinct subsets.

Chateauesque Style: Derived from the French word for Castle, the Chateauesque style is reminiscent of the 18th Century French castles with heavy adornments and details.

Huguenot Style: Designed for french protestants and made of stone in styles derived from past french architecture and dutch.

Creole Cottage: designed for more common folk and composed of wood in rectangular and triangular shapes with 4 rooms in each corner of the house and 2 main entrances.

Colonial Architecture

General French Colonial Characteristics The French colonial style, while having different subsets as discussed before, has many common internal and external aspects across these subsets.

Symmetry: Similar to the British colonial houses, French colonial homes value symmetry with equal number of windows on each sides that are equally spaced.

: The windows and doors on French colonial structures are known for this arched and elongated build .

Intricate Doors and Windows

Raised Stairs

:Along with a raised basement French colonial homes also

tended to have stairs in the exterior of their homes leading to the entrance

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Spanish Colonial Architecture

Spanish colonial architecture was most prevalent on the western American coasts (California, Arizona etc) and it can also be seen in warmer southern states like Florida and Texas. Spanish homes were often built up of thick walls of adobe brick to keep the insides cool.

Most spanish colonial structures had many features in common: 1. L- Shape Building: Many Spanish homes were L shaped with a main courtyard with side courts for gardens.

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2. Arched Windows and Passages were a staple in Spanish villas. lining the hallways, pathways and window frames.

Colonial Architecture

Spanish Colonial houses have arched wooden doors and outer walls of raw stone. These walls are coated with plaster, known as stucco, and with wooden beams. The walls and roofs are provided structural protection by these wooden beams. White stucco and red tiles are widely used construction materials in Spanish colonial architecture.

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Revivalist Movement Definition and Examples

Revivalist Movement

Architectural revivalism is the use of visual forms that deliberately echo the style of a previous architectural period or periods. During the mid-19th century, revivalism was extremely common in the US with architects like Benjamine Labtrobe and William Strickland, pulling inspiration from ancient greek architecture.

Greek Revivalism

Greek Revivalism is an architectural style that harkens back to the buildings of Ancient Greece. These building often featured doric, corinthian, ionic, tuscan and composite columns with symmetrical bodies. This style was prominent in the mid-1800s as the US tried to establish itself as a free and Democratic nation, similar to the greeks.

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Federal Architecture Federal-style architecture is the architecture designed in the newly formed United States between 1780 and 1830, and in particular from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with the period of the Federalist Era. U.S. Federal architecture generally uses flat surfaces with attenuated detail, commonly separated in tables, tablets and friezes. It also had a flatter, simpler façade and uncommon use of pilasters. It was most influenced by the understanding of ancient Roman architecture, popular since the discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The federal government’s traditional approach to construction and town planning has been expressed in federal lighthouse, harbor and hospital projects. It can be seen in the rationalizing, urbanistic style of the Washington Scheme for L’Enfant and the New York Plan for the Commissioners of 1811. Federalism is popular amongst government buildings however some people feel this style of architecture is a reminder of the history of colonialism and white supremacy in the US and elsewhere.

Revivalist Movement

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Gothic Revivalism Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that started in England in the late 1740s. Its popularity increased in the early nineteenth century, as more earnest and learned admirers of neo-Gothic styles tried to resurrect medieval Gothic architecture in contrast to the neoclassical styles that were common at the time. The origins of the Gothic Revival movement are profoundly theological trends aligned with Catholicism, as well as a reawakening of high church or Anglo-Catholic ideology. Gothic Revival architecture differed greatly in its fidelity to the medieval original’s ornamental form and construction principles, often consisting of little more than pointed window frames and a few touches of Gothic detailing on a structure with a wholly 19th-century design.

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Victorian Era Definition and Examples

Victorian Era

Victorian Style Architecture Victorian architecture generally refers to styles that were popular between 1860 and 1900. Second Empire (1855–85), Folk Victorian (1870–1910), Richardsonian Romanesque (1880–1900), and Shingle (1880–1900) are among the most common of these styles. The era is named Victorian because the style was popularized under the reign of Victoria, Queen of England.

Painted Ladies: Common Victorian House structure that can be seen San Francisco, California.

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The Fan District: A Victorian A district located in Richmond, VA near VCU.

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Late Victorian Style The US had entered the late Victorian era of architecture following the Civil war and up until the mid 20th century. This style can be defined as the revival of Victorianism with a mix of renaissance revivalism. In the mid 1800s, American Victorian style was coined as The Stick style which was comprised around an outer overlay of vertical which was used to mimic the look of a half exposed frame and implies an underlying grid structure as seen on the left.

The Victorian era was broken down into many different architectural styles.

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Italianate Style: Victorian Italianate buildings, with their low roofs, thick eaves, and intricately carved brackets, are reflective of an Italian Renaissance villa. Many houses also have a charming cupola on the roof.

Queen Anne Style: Conversely, the architecture has little to do with British royalty, and Queen Anne houses don’t really mimic buildings from the English Queen Anne’s medieval era. Curved towers, arches, and spacious porches lend a regal air to Queen Anne architecture.

Richardson Romanesque Style: Henry Hobson Richardson (1838–1886), a prominent American architect, is credited with not only reviving medieval Romanesque architecture but also translating these romantic structures into a mainstream American style. With their corner turrets and distinguishing arches, Romanesque Revival designs mimic miniature castles made of rusticated stone with rough surfaces. Large public buildings, such as libraries and courthouses, were frequently designed in the Richardson or Richardsonian Romanesque style, although some private residences were often built in the style.

Victorian Era

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Art Deco & Art Nouveau Definition and Examples

What is Art Deco?

Art Deco & Art Nouveau

Art Deco, which is also regarded as “style moderne”, was a fine arts and design movement that began in the 1920s and became a prominent style in Western Europe and north America during the 1930s. Its title comes from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, which was held in Paris in 1925 and was the first exhibition of the genre.

Stylistic Features of Art Deco

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The Art Deco style exemplified modernism as it evolved into popular apparel as seen mainly through women’s clothing. These commodities included both personally made luxury pieces and mass-produced goods, but the aim was always to create an elegant and anti-traditional beauty that personified privilege and refinement and sophistication. The style is distinguished by crisp, clean figures, though with a “structured” appearance.

This includes abstract or stylized decoration of subjects; and extraordinarily complex, often costly fabrics, which often involve man-made materials. A good example of this style is as presented in the 2013 film, The Great Gatsby.

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Art Deco & Art Nouveau

Art DEco In Architecture

The art deco style in architecture arrived from Paris to the US in 1920 with the first American art deco building being the American Radiator Building, pictured left. It was built in 1924 by architects Raymond Hood and André Fouilhoux and categorized as gothic art deco. .

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Art Deco styles use a variety of materials, both modern and traditional such as: stucco, terracotta, decorative glass, chrome, steel, and aluminum.

It also emphasizes ornamental details creating art deco motifs like chevrons, pyramids, zigzags and sunbursts Bold colors such as gold and black or red and green are used a lot in art deco designs. Gold and black is the most popular combination used to signify wealth To promote a sense of symmetry and give building a more eccentric look, the architects will add layered spires to the design. .

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Making Of Skyscrapers

Making Of Skyscrapers

Where did skyscrapers come from?

At the peak of the industrial revolution, Elisha Otis invented the first safe cable elevators which essentially allowed architects and builders to make structures that were higher than five stories--thus resulting in the birth of the skyscraper. After years of experimentation, the first official and modern was The Home Insurance Building, built in 1885 and located on the corner of Adams and LaSalle Streets in Chicago, Illinois.

The following is some of the most prominent buildings in the early development of skyscrapers as listed by Thought Co:

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Tacoma Building (Chicago): Constructed using a riveted iron and steel frame, the Tacoma Building was designed by the major architectural firm Holabird & Root.

Rand McNally Building (Chicago): The Rand McNally Building, completed in 1889, was the first skyscraper built with an all-steel frame.

The Masonic Temple Building (Chicago): Featuring commercial, office, and meeting spaces, the Masonic Temple was completed in 1892. For a time it was the tallest building in Chicago.

Tower Building (New York City): The Tower Building, completed in 1889, was the first skyscraper in New York City.

American Surety Building (New York City): At 300 feet tall, this 20-story building broke Chicago’s height record when it was completed in 1896.

New York World Building (New York City): This building was home to the New York World newspaper.

Wainwright Building (St. Louis): This skyscraper, designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, is famous for its terracotta facade and ornamentation.

Flatiron Building (New York City): The Flatiron Building is a triangular, steel-frame marvel that still stands in Manhattan today. In 1989, it was made a National Historic Landmark.

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Adrienne Brown and Black Skyscrapers The building of skyscrapers in became the marker of city life and progression. University of Chicago Assistant Professor Adrienne Brown describes the invention of the skyscraper as a symptom of an era of urban development, industrialization, and mass immigration to the US. She argues that the development of the skyscraper changed the way Americans viewed race because of the new distance between the passerbys and the occupants of the skyscraper. Prior to their existence the one drop rule was used as a means of racial identification, meaning if you had any meaningful fraction of black ancentry , then you were considered racially black, regardless of what you looked like. However, the distanced and intercommunal spaces of skycrapers made race more of a phenotypical social structure than a genetic one.

TITLE OF THE ARTWORK IN PREVIOUS SPREAD

Making Of Skyscrapers

Chrysler Building

The Chrysler building, built in the 1930s held the title of the largest skyscraper in the country until the empire state building in the late thrities. This building is a prime example of the American Art Deco style in the 20s and 30s- this style included decadent detailing and new figures that contrasted previous revitalist styles

Empire State Building 31

The 102-story skyscraper now in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, is a landmark in the city’s skyline. It was finished in 1931 and was the tallest building in the world for 40 years. It was the fifth tallest structure in the United States as of 2019. Visitors will enjoy an incredible view of Lower Manhattan from the observation decks on the 86th and 102nd floors. The Empire State Building has been a cultural landmark since its completion, featuring in films such as Godzilla. The American Society of Civil Engineers called it one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World, and it is now a city landmark.

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Functions of the Suburbs

Functions of the Suburbs

What is a Suburb?

The formal definition of a suburb is: the residential area surrounding the borders of a city of urban district. They rose in popularity as a result of the Industrial Revolution in the latter half of the nineteenth century, and with the introduction of mass transit commuting, they became much more popular.

Suburban areas have many characteristics including: 1. Low Density, Single Family Dwelling Homes: The proliferation of big-lot suburban housing projects that occupy large quantities of formerly unused or productive land is the most commonly cited characteristic of sprawl. In this context, density can be measured by median lot size, number of housing units per neighborhood, or single-family unit median floor area.

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2. Lack of Activity Centers: In most suburban areas, there is a sizable and sometimes very significant distance between the suburban lot and any downtown or urbanized commercial areas. This lack of activity areas contribute to anti-suburban sentiments amongst young people.

The function of the suburbs, as described by the Stanford Bay Initiative, is to be a compliment to the city and provide a buffer between urban life and rural life with a medial amount of activities and cheaper, bigegr housing.

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History of the Suburbs

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After 1945, mass relocation to the suburbs became a large chunk of American life. Prior to WWII, only 13% of Americans lived in the suburbs. Suburbia, on the other hand, has absorbed more than half of the US population by 2010.

The economy, politics, and culture in the United States all shifted to the suburbs in significant ways. Suburbia influenced vehicle reliance and driving behaviors, spending and saving practices, and interactions with race and taxation, electricity and environment, privacy and culture.

The suburbs of the United States became an equally important economic environment, with crucial high-tech industries, retailing, “logistics,” and office work. Furthermore, American politics is based on a suburban plurality, and suburbia has nurtured democratic agendas including grass-roots conservatism to centrist meritocratic individualism, environmentalism, populism, and social justice for many decades.

Functions of the Suburbs

Gentrified Architecture?

Gentrified architecture has been defined as homogenizing, lacking in creativity or personality, with a distinct detachment from the social histories and cultural contexts of the areas in which it occurs. This architecture is often contrasted to the architectural form that existed prior to the gentrification phase in a given area. The effect of this is that it turns areas previously seen as dangerous or rundown, into new and improves areas seen as attractive to young, affluent and usually white.

The systems in place that have allowed buildinings to fall into this monotonous style relay on finacial and political factors that allow the quick stadardization od homes to best turn a profit on housing.

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Gentrification History and Overview

Gentrification

What is Gentrification?

Though the phenomenon of gentrification has existed since the advent of the industrial revolution, the phrase gentrification was introduced by British sociologist Ruth Glass in 1964.

She described it as the bourgeoisie or upper-class individuals invading the proletariat also known as the working class, block by block, therefore displacing the previous occupants and permanently altering the sociocultural framework of the area. This process involves, as Glass states, “the character of a poor urban area being changed by wealthier people moving in, improving housing, and attracting new businesses’’.

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Gentrification is not to be confused with neighborhood revitalization, which occurs when a neighborhood facing extreme underdevelopment undergoes an infrastructure revitalization that does not displace the existing neighborhood residents.

According to a study done by the National Community Reinvestment Coalition, from 2002 to 2013, gentrification and displacement of long-time residents was most intense in the nation’s biggest cities, and rare in most other places

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History of Gentrification

Robert Moses and the Lower East Side: From 1961-1975, Urban Planner Robert Moses had razed hundreds of New York neighborhoods and moved them to the city outskirts, replacing them with less affordable new developments.

In protest to this, dozens of Lower East Side New Yorkers banded together creating plans stop this gentrification and better their neighborhood.

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These plans later became the Cooper Square Community Trust. Which then created the Cooper Square Mutual Housing Association (MHA) in 1991 to manage 303 units of multifamily housing

1978: What is: The Federal Historic Preservation Tax Credit ?

According to the NPS, The federal historic Preservation Tax Credit was implemented to incentivize private sector developer to invest in the re-use and redesign of historic building. From this developers could gain a 10 to 20% income tax credit.

While many believe this to be a good thing, the argument could be made incentivizing renovation of older building puts the US’s oldest, most dense cities at risk of gentrification.

In his 2019 paper, ‘Protecting Neighborhoods or Priming Them for Gentrification?

Historic Preservation, Housing, and Neighborhood Change’, Brian McCabe argued that since historic preservation raises the property value in urban neighborhoods, specific types of preservation can exacerbate the effects of gentrification

Gentrification

In 1985, California passes the Ellis Act which is described by the San Francisco Tenants Unions as, “ a state law which says that landlords have the unconditional right to evict tenants to “go out of business.”

In this act, under Section 37.9, the allowed reasons for tenant eviction are stated, including but not limited to: - For the use or occupancy of the landlords grandparents, grandchildren, parents, children, brother or sister. Or simply, the landlord seeks to recover possession in good faith, without ulterior reasons and with honest intent; These reasons aren’t inherently bad, but when exploited by large develop ers who seek only to replace existing rent controlled housing with luxury housing, this can be detrimental to a community.

This act is seen as the primary cause of mass evictions in the Los Angeles and San Francisco Area over the past 30 years According to the Anti-Eviction Mapping Project, the Ellis Act contributed to about 21,200 LA evictions from January 2001 to December 2016.

The tenants of these bigger cities have been protesting the Ellis act for years, creating the San Francisco Small Sites program in 2014 which gives small loans to affordable housing non-profits to buy property from landlords looking to go out of business, thus saving the tenants.

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The Ellis Act of 1985

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1994: Rudy Giuliani and How NYC Rent Got So High: In 1994, the New York City Council passed a vacancy decontrol bill which essentially allowed landlords to destabilize rent prices after a tenant moves out. Past Mayor of NYC, Rudy Giuliani, then signed it into law.

For the incoming tenants this meant paying much higher than what the previous tenants were paying, thus displacing those who did not have the money to rent.

From 1993 to now, about 152,000 houses have had their rent destabilized.

Similar laws exist in California cities, like Berkeley, which has lead to similar results

2005: Post Katrina Gentrification The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina left thousands of New Orleans residents ( a majority black and brown population) displaced with no homes to return to.

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The renovation of entire communities drove up rent and property values , thus solidifying the displacement of the poorer people.

Over the past ten years, the black population has dropped almost 100,000, which is about 8% since 2000

Gentrification

Modern Day Gentrification and The NCRC Report A study by the NCRC conducted from 2000-2013 and found that gentrification and displacement happened the most in the US’s largest cities. It also disproportionately affects black and hispanic people.

Washington, DC and Portland, Oregon saw a massive displacement of black people over the decade with DC displacing 20,000 and portland around 13 percent of their black population.

Nearly all the gentrification over the decade occured in these 7 cities: New York City, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Baltimore, San Diego and Chicago (this however doesn’t mean that other places were not negatively impacted).

Most low income neighborhoods (homes that were 40% te average value of their area) remied ungentrified, yet still impoverished and vulnerable to future displacement.

In most of these gentrified areas also went through a big cultural shift aptly named cultural gentrification.

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What Can be Done?

Misconceptions and Brief Solutions

What Can be Done?

A Systemic Issue Needs Systemic Change Solving the issue of gentrification can seem very paradoxical because while keeping neighborhoods impoverished and disinvested only worsens class divisions, reinvesting in them without accommodating for rising rent will leave the tenants displaced.

A common misconception is that gentrification is an individual problem and that it would stop if people stopped moving to low income neighborhoods. It wouldn’t.

While this is part of the issue, the root of it is vast, systemic and complex.

Brief Solutions

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1 .Advocate for freezes on property taxes: As property value goes up, so does property taxes and with tax freeze policies those in gentrified neighborhoods can defer their taxes until they are ready to sell their homes.

2. Advocate for stabilization vouchers: This is something community organizers have been trying to get established and its when the governments gives the long term residents of low income communities a voucher to stabilize their rent if gentrification becomes an issue.

3. Join a Mutual Aid Group: Mutual aid is when a community comes together to prioritize each others expenses (rent, bills, etc) creating a more stable increased income for all participants.

4. Support politicians who advocate for more affordable, rent stabilized housing.

5. Donate or buy from your local businesses: Gentrification is also a cultural phenomenon and one way to keep the culture of a neighborhood is to support its local businesses.

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Works Cited

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Caro, R. A., and Robert A. Caro. The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York. Alfred a Knopf Incorporated, 1974.

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What Can be Done?

Podkul, Marcelo Rochabrun, Cezary. “The Fateful Vote That Made New York City Rents So High — ProPublica.” ProPublica, ProPublica, 15 Dec. 2016, https://www.propublica.org/article/the-vote-that-made-new-york-city-rents-so-high..

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Silver, John. National Community Reinvestment Coalition, 2016, pp. 1–25, The Community Reinvestment Act: How CRA Can Promote Integration and Prevent Displacement in Gentrifying Neighborhoods.

Summers, Brandi Thompson. “Authenticity and ‘Post-Chocolate’ Cool in a Rapidly Gentrifying Washington, D.C. – Next City.” Next City – Inspiring Equitable Cities, Next City, 27 Apr. 2020, https://nextcity.org/features/view/ authenticity-and-post-chocolate-cool-in-rapidly-gentrifying-washington-dc.

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LaBorde, Lauren. “New Orleans Gentrification Report: Many Formerly Black Neighborhoods Are Now ‘Majority-White’ - Curbed New Orleans.” Curbed New Orleans, Curbed New Orleans, 6 Sept. 2016, https://nola.curbed. com/2016/9/6/12821038/new-orleans-gentrification-report.

West, Allyn. “Exploring the Architecture of Gentrification - The Texas Observer.” The Texas Observer, Texas Observer, 5 Mar. 2020, https://www.texasobserver.org/gentrification-architecture/.

Isaacs, Deanna. “How Skyscrapers Changed Our Perspective on Race | Feature | Chicago Reader.” Chicago Reader, Chicago Reader, 19 Oct. 2015, https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/adrienne-brown-humanities-festival-skyscrapers-race/ Content?oid=19533184.

Nicolaides, Becky, and Andrew Wiese. “Suburbanization in the United States after 1945.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. 26. Oxford University Press. Date of access 27 May. 2021, “Victorian Era American Architecture.” Victorian Era, https://www.facebook.com/Queen-Victoria-of-England-1697358617145863/, 2020, http://victorian-era.org/victorian-era-american-architecture.html.

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“Skyscraper.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/technology/skyscraper. Accessed 27 May 2021.