Inspire Magazine - Winter 2023 by Marlborough College

inspire Michaelmas 2023

Editorial This issue of Inspire (the magazine of the Marlborough academic scholars) marks a changing of the guard in the editorial team: there are four new Lower Sixth editors and we are excited to be presenting this magazine, which is now in its seventh year. We aim to provide some compelling essays, written by pupils in Shell and Remove as well as in our year. Inspire has always aimed to appeal to everyone’s interests with a range of topics spanning both humanities and sciences, and this issue is no exception. Indeed, our ambition is for this edition to set the example for what is to come throughout the year. The most important thing is to spark new areas of interest and inspire people to be active in their learning. With essays ranging from cosmetic surgery to the northern lights, we hope that there is a topic for everyone to enjoy.

Thank You Thank you to all scholars who keenly researched and produced these essays! Thank you too to Mrs Doxford, for helping with the printing, and Mrs Jordan for helping with the online version. We owe Mr Moule a great deal of thanks too; his guidance and inspiration is what stimulated a project like this to take off. And finally, thank you for taking the time to read this issue. We hope you enjoy it! Dani, Xanthe, Milly and Tilly.

Contents Can climate change possibly lead us towards another global pandemic? Amber D (L6)

Can food allergies be psychosomatic? Tabitha M (L6)

Motivation Tallulah B (Sh)

How to build a Dyson sphere Sebastian G (Re)

Imagism Idris S (L6)

What is the significance of the Northern Lights? Zara S J (Re)

When did the monarchy lose its power? Ed G (L6)

Sir Nicholas Winton Lottie J (L6)

How did the geographical position of Venice influence the art in the Renaissance? Tilly G (L6)

Should Cosmetic surgery be classed as a necessary procedure? Annie (Anabelle) R (L6)

Why do we forget? Lily I (Re)

Forging civilization: How fire has shaped humanity William F (Re)

Surely the news is a good thing? Carolina R (L6)

What is the Svalbard and why is it Important? Sasha B (L6)

Why do we have dreams and nightmares, and what do they mean? Sophia B (Sh)

Is it ethically justifiable to use persuasive techniques, such as behavioural nudges, to influence individual choices and behaviours in society? Tali (Talitha) S (Re)

Can climate change possibly lead us towards another global pandemic?

Amber D (L6)

Yes, you heard that right, we have all been through covid 19, but could climate change possibly lead us to have to face that all over again? This article will explore this effect of climate change in further detail and determine how this influx of new diseases may be arising.

habitats. This can lead to increased human-wildlife interactions, increasing the risk of zoonotic diseases (diseases transmitted from animals to humans). For example, deforestation and habitat loss can bring humans into closer contact with wildlife, potentially facilitating the transmission of diseases like Ebola and other emerging infectious diseases.

Many of you will have heard in the news how climate change is causing wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and heatwaves but I’m about to tell you about a much more silent killer. While these extreme events are proving disastrous for humans, they’re providing the perfect environment for many infectious diseases to thrive. Many infectious diseases are climate sensitive, and as climates have warmed. This may in turn affect the distribution of disease carrying insects such as tics and mosquitos, expanding the geographic range of diseases like malaria, dengue, and Zika which increases the potential for outbreaks in new areas.

As well as animals, climate change can force people to migrate due to environmental pressures, such as droughts, flooding, and sea-level rise. In more extreme conditions, displaced populations may face overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in refugee camps, increasing the risk of infectious disease outbreaks. However, it is important to note that several other factors, including ecological changes, human behavior, and the state of public health systems, also alter patterns of disease transmission. Additional studies are needed to confirm the linkages between climate, infectious diseases, and these other factors to better project the risks of infectious diseases outbreaks in a changing climate.

The extreme whether events mentioned before that are associated with climate change can also lead to more places reaching temperatures ideal for disease transmission, for example, a 1°C rise in temperature was associated with a twofold increase in cholera cases in Zanzibar. This is due to the temperature being ideal for the reproduction of this (Vibrio Cholerae) bacteria. High rainfall can increase the risk of wastewater contaminating either raw or treated water while low rainfall can increase the concentration of pathogens in water which can potentially lead to an increased risk of waterborne diseases.

In conclusion, climate change does seem to present a correlation to the spread of disease, and this is a concern for the future as we all know it is only getting worse with time. Whether this leads to another global pandemic, however, depends on many other, human dependent factors. For some infectious diseases, this may be true. Climate change appears to be changing where and when some infectious diseases occur. However, this is not the case for all infectious diseases. Several other factors – including ecological changes, human behavior, and the state of public health systems – also alter patterns of disease transmission. Additional studies are needed to firm up the linkages between climate, infectious diseases, and these other factors to better project the risks of infectious diseases outbreaks in a changing climate.

As rising temperatures affect vegetation, food sources, access to water and much more. Ecosystems may become uninhabitable for certain animals, forcing wildlife to migrate outside of their usual patterns in search of food and livable conditions. Therefore, climate change can disrupt ecosystems and alter the distribution of wildlife and their

Can food allergies be psychosomatic? Tabitha M (L6) An allergy is when a food is wrongly identified by the immune system as a dangerous substance. Therefore, the immune system makes antibodies to attack the allergen by releasing chemicals to destroy the microorganisms. One of these is a chemical called histamine, which in small amounts causes rashes and itchiness, but in large amounts can lead to the dilation of nearby blood vessels, causing the area to swell, which can cause the throat to close in an allergic reaction. But what if sometimes your body does not produce a rash due to the histamine but instead because of your body reacting to the stress of believing you have eaten a food you are allergic to?

allergen can make the allergy symptoms worse. This is because the mind can play a powerful role in the body’s reactions. A study in 2003 investigated the relationship between the body and the mind in a patient who believed they had an allergy to peanuts. This is because of an incident where the patient ingested peanut butter and experienced symptoms such as itching and breathing difficulties. The doctors conducted skin-pricking tests, but they were negative, so they decided to explore the psychological side of the believed allergy. They conducted a double-blind experiment, in which neither the patient nor the researchers knew whether the patient was exposed to peanuts or not. The patient showed no physical symptoms that they had experienced previously, and so the researchers concluded that his former reaction was psychosomatic.

The cause of this unnecessary stress is due to a false belief that a person has an allergy. Up to 35% of people self-diagnose a food allergy or intolerance or diagnose one in their child and self-manage it instead of seeking a clinical diagnosis. This therefore has led to many people misdiagnosing their or their child’s symptoms. However, even a clinical diagnosis can lead to the misconception of an allergy, as between 50 and 60 percent of blood and skin tests give false positives. This could still lead to anxiety surrounding certain foods.

Overall, the research has proven that in some cases allergic reactions are simply due to an incorrectly perceived allergy. I found it interesting that the mind can cause the body to have a false reaction about an allergen purely because it believed it was in danger.

The belief that you have an allergy may bring actual symptoms when you come into contact with the allergen. Firstly, some symptoms of an allergic reaction such as feeling like you can’t breathe, nausea, and dizziness are also common traits of a panic attack or anxiety. Therefore, when you think you have eaten something you are allergic to, the worry that you will have an allergic reaction could cause similar symptoms to a genuine immunological reaction, giving false confirmation of the allergy, when in reality it is psychosomatic. Secondly, you could have a reaction due to the nocebo effect. The nocebo is when a negative outcome occurs due to a belief that the intervention will cause harm. In this case, the negative expectation of the

Motivation Tallulah B (Sh) Motivation can be described as the ‘willingness to put effort into achieving a goal’, or as our internal motor that drives achievement. However, as much as you need it to complete everyday goals, motivation can start to run low, and that’s when procrastination takes over. What are the drivers of motivation, where does it come from, and why do we lack it?

expectations and standards. Research has proven that women who spend longer on social media are more motivated to do sports and achieve a healthy lifestyle. This is a result of comparing themselves to what they see on the internet, facilitating their self-promotion and self-presentation, therefore leading to them being motivated enough to change themselves. But possibly the most important of the three is our own personal motivation. This will drive us to flourish in our lives and become successful.

You have so much to get done, you know exactly what you should be doing, but instead you waste time. Being told to ‘just start doing it,’ is a common way to get people going, but is that going to help? What happens when you really can’t bring yourself to start a task, no matter how simple or hard it is? As the Marlborough Mindset states, ‘procrastination occurs when our brains prioritise short term satisfactions over long term benefits’.

Humans once thought that people are motivated principally by the desire to avoid unpleasant feelings, such as hunger and thirst. Robert G. Heath led research to prove that people aren’t motivated purely to avoid pain, but to enjoy the outcome. Now, it has been discovered that motivation comes from a neural system called the ‘reward system’, being a group of neural structures, which are accountable for incentive salience, which is the desire or want for a reward or motivation. This is where your motivation comes from because it fuels the want for a result or incentive.

Motivation is ‘biologically’, ‘socially’ or ‘personally’ driven.  Primarily, we are motivated to survive, through hunger, thirst, the need for oxygen as well as sleep, and the avoidance of pain. These motives are triggered when there is an imbalance in the body. Secondarily, we feel the need to conform with the social norm, through achievement, power and curiosity. This is learnt in social groups as the result of interaction with family and society. Finally, our personal motives include habits, goals, levels of aspirations, attitudes and interests. They determine our behaviour and how hard we push ourselves towards achieving our goals.

So, why do we lack personal motivation and the willingness to achieve our personal goals? Some say its laziness, but there are a variety of reasons aside from laziness that are putting up a barrier between you and success. Feeling overwhelmed is first. If anyone has a long to–do list, that is unclear, yet is detailed and complicated, they are just going to put it off. This is because our brains are wired to go one step at a time, don’t overwhelm yourself with a messy list, be organised. Secondly, fear of failure is a powerful force that very often drives procrastination. You are not always going to succeed, and even though you know that, being afraid of the consequences or self-doubt that you might experience after will often lead to putting off the task. Thirdly, being in a negative environment, mentally or physically will affect even the most

We don’t ignore our primary motives, they’re second nature to us, but we don’t think about them regularly. It’s how you breath without thinking about it, and how you feel the need to eat food or experience hunger at certain times in the day. I would say that social motivation, however, is the most relative to the world today. Social media, influencers, and the internet play a huge part in motivating us to meet certain social

motivated of people. An untidy desk at the start of prep can have a real impact on your productivity, as well as small things such as the weather or the act of an argument. We have looked deeper into motivation, what it is, where it comes from, and why we lack it; so, we can finally deduce how to gain it. Here are some simple steps that can spark up enough power to start your tasks. To stop a to–do list from overwhelming you, try break everything down. Make steps for your brain to follow so that once your off it’s much easier to carry on. It is easy to forget the feelings of happiness or even relief that you gain after completing a job. Revisit those previous success stories, recall the satisfaction and pride so that it can re-ignite the urge to do it all over again. Always chart your progress, the tiniest jobs ticked off your to do list can be the simple ways to earn dopamine hits and start the next task. Set realistic goals, and short deadlines. This way you know you won’t leave it to the last minute, and you can achieve what you set up for yourself. Lastly, by completing the harder tasks first, you have a fresher brain and are less likely to give up.

How to build a Dyson sphere Sebastian G (Re) The Dyson sphere, first proposed in 1960 by theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson, is a popular thought experiment that has permeated much of science fiction and has become a staple of the genre. However, with the rapid advancement of technology and the ever-greater need for abundant energy, many experts now view a Dyson sphere as a viable, or indeed a necessary step that humanity must take to accelerate itself into the future. A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that completely encloses a star and harvests its energy output. If built, such a macrostructure could have vast implications for a budding interstellar civilisation, as they would have access to nearly unlimited amounts of energy. Our own Sun, for instance, is roughly 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 times more powerful than even our most efficient nuclear reactor. Even if we could only harvest 1% of the Sun’s energy, our global energy output would increase by approximately 500 trillion times. This surplus of energy could potentially solve many of the

world’s energy problems, power interstellar travel, and enable us to embark upon energy intensive projects such as terraforming entire planets.

How to build a Dyson sphere A Dyson sphere, in the traditional sense, is both physically and pragmatically impossible. A solid, hollow sphere encapsulating an entire star is such an unfeasible notion that in 2013, Freeman Dyson stated that he had come to regret that the concept had been named after him. Firstly, the materials required for such a project would be astronomical. Assuming a radius equal to the Earth’s orbit, a Dyson sphere completely enveloping the sun would need to be roughly equivalent to the mass of Jupiter, or 318 Earths. Gathering such a vast amount of material would require multiple solar systems worth of natural resources, a feat that would be virtually impossible to undertake. Secondly the tensile strength of such a structure would be far too immense, and it would be susceptible to severe

drift, potentially crashing into the Sun. Finally, a conventional Dyson would completely block all sunlight, plunging the solar system into near-total darkness.

be completely dismantled in about four ten-year cycles, and a Dyson swarm set up around the Sun.

The difficulties with building a Dyson swarm

A much more realistic alternative to a Dyson sphere would be a Dyson swarm. Rather than a single rigid structure, a Dyson swarm would consist of a constellation of man-made satellites in orbit around a star. Each of these satellites would have solar panels to collect the Sun’s radiation and transmit this energy wirelessly back to Earth, where it would be intercepted and used.

While it is tempting to imagine a scenario where this plan goes smoothly and a Dyson swarm is constructed in a matter of decades, there are several significant obstacles that must be overcome. Firstly, while Mercury’s core is largely composed of iron, the majority of its crust instead consists of mainly silicates. This means that we will have to drill through the crust to reach the planet’s core. This presents our first problem; we will need to drill through roughly 550 kilometres of crust to reach the iron core. On Earth, the deepest humans have managed to dig is just over 12 kilometres, at the Kola Superdeep Borehole. Without current level of technology, reaching Mercury’s core would take decades, if not centuries. It is likely that we would need to develop new drilling technologies to that can withstand the extreme heat and pressure of Mercury’s crust. We would also need to find ways to power and cool the drilling equipment, and to transport the excavated material back to the surface.

While a Dyson swarm would greatly reduce the amount of material needed in its construction, it would still require a vast amount of resources. Assuming each satellite has an area of 1 km2, we would need around 30,000,000,000,000,000 (thirty quadrillion) to surround the sun. Even if they were built as lightly as possible, it would take nearly 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 (one hundred quintillion) tonnes of material. To get the materials necessary for a Dyson swarm, we will have to disassemble an entire planet. Of the planets available Mercury is the best candidate. Mercury has a massive iron core and is conveniently close to the sun, allowing us to cut down on travel time. In a 2012 lecture, Dr. Stuart Armstrong, a researcher at the University of Oxford’s Future of Humanity Institute, provided a highly abstract outline of how this could be achieved. He proposed that the entire building process should be carried out by automated, self-replicating robots. An army of these mechanical workers would be sent to Mercury to mine it for raw materials. Armstrong suggests that we break the project down into what he calls “ten-year surges.” Basically, we should take the first ten years to build the first array, and then, using the energy from that initial swarm, fuel the rest of the project. It would be too expensive to use rockets, so we must find a cheaper alternative that can be easily reused. One possibility proposed by Armstrong is a sort of railgun, a long, electromagnetic track that launches the satellites into space. This is possible due to Mercury’s low surface gravity and lack of atmosphere. Using such a schema, Mercury could

Secondly, there are several flaws in Armstrong’s proposal outlining the exponential increase in construction efficiency for a Dyson swarm. While it is nice to imagine that all the energy from the Dyson swarm could be reinvested back into itself, in reality, energy would not be the only limiting factor. Doubling the production speed with each launch of satellites would require doubling the amount of manufacturing equipment, which, while not necessarily impossible, would require the vast allocation of resources that could otherwise have been used in the production of satellites. Additionally, the structure of a Dyson swarm is inherently fragile. In a Dyson swarm, groups of satellites would be arranged into rings to prevent as many impacts as possible. However, the poles of the star, where the orbits cross, would be highly susceptible to collisions. Even a minor interference

such as an asteroid or a speck of space debris can slightly alter the orbit of a satellite and given enough time they will slightly desynchronise. This desynchronisation will only grow until multiple satellites inevitably collide. Such an event would have disastrous implications, with debris cascading into a chain reaction that would ultimately culminate in the phenomenon known as Kessler syndrome. This term pertains to the buildup of space debris around a celestial body, resulting in a self-sustaining cascade of further collisions. This would not only destroy our Dyson swarm and the power it provided, but also prevent the creation of a new Dyson swarm around the Sun effectively forever.

To conclude, while there are doubtless many obstacles and hurdles that must be overcome, the construction of a Dyson swarm is an intriguing prospect that could potentially revolutionise human civilisation. With access to virtually unlimited amounts of energy, we could solve many of the world’s most pressing problems, embark on ambitious interstellar missions, and terraform entire planets. Many scientists view the Dyson swarm as a realistic and achievable goal, with some even going as far as to claim it is an inevitable step Humanity must take. It is such a logical step for a starring civilisation to take, that many astronomers believe that there may already be many in our own galaxy. It’s far from certain that humanity will ever get to this point. Our attention is too often focused on short-term political gains and conflicts that will not matter in the long run, but if we overcome these challenges, it’s possible that we may one day be able to harness the power of a star.

Finally, while wireless transmission of energy is possible, currently we have only two known methods. The first is transmission via microwaves; the longest distance that energy has been sent via microwaves is roughly 150 kilometres, and just over 35% of the energy transmitted over that distance was also lost. The second method of transmission is through the use of lasers; however, this is even less effective, achieving a record distance of about one kilometre. Clearly, neither of these methods are suitable for our means, and until future science dictates otherwise, we have no way to transport the energy a Dyson sphere collects.

Imagism Idris S (L6) phrase, imbued with the rubato of Debussy or Janáček, rather than the immovable metre of the metronome (this last principle can be felt more in the first stanza than the last; however, the static end-stopping used by H.D. in the final stanza is in reaction to thematic context, rather than the unintended “false stopping” Pound describes in his 1913 manifesto).

“It is better to present one Image in a lifetime than to produce voluminous works.” Thus declared Ezra Pound in his manifesto for Imagism, A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste, published in Poetry in 1913. The essay feels more refined, perhaps more cynical, than his bold declaration for vorticism, VORTEX, published a year later in BLAST. Both Imagism and its slightly more exuberant successor, however, both pivot on certain central beliefs. The key axiom shared is this: that the image is the ultimate pigment of the poem, and should be presented clearly, without excess or abstraction. Pound defined the image as “that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time.” The image is not, then, merely sensory, and certainly not just visual. It consists of both empirical perception, and the emotional and philosophical reaction to that perception (but only as this reaction occurs in the moment, rather than reflectively). In presenting the image, Pound argues, we must abandon expression which “drag[s] itself out into mimicry”. The ideogrammic method, then, is favoured over metaphor or simile; instead of the image “in a state of flaccidity, of elaboration, of secondary implications”, we can express concepts both abstract and material through concrete images.

In Counterblast! (a manifesto for poetry), her final lecture as Professor of Poetry at Oxford University, Alice Oswald argues that it is grammar, rather than image, that lies at the crux of poetic expression, particularly epic poetry. She takes the “profusion of Homer”, that vast infrastructure of simile out of which emerges an “algorithm” for abundance, in order to demonstrate how it is the relationships between words, rather than the words themselves, which form the true vitality of a poem. Take this passage from Book XI of the Iliad, emblematic of the epic similes found throughout Homer’s work: Like the West Wind, when it demolishes white South Wind’s clouds, striking them with heavy squalls, while many waves roll on, massive and swollen, scattering spray high in the air, under the howling of the veering wind storm – that’s how thick and fast Hector destroyed those men.

The essence of Imagism can be felt in much of the early poetry of Hilda Doolittle, better known by her pseudonym, H.D., described as the “truest Imagist” by Harold Monro. Take the first stanza of her 1914 poem, Orion Dead: “[Artemis speaks] / The cornel-trees / uplift from the furrows, / the roots at their bases / strike lower through the barley-sprays.” And the final stanza: “I break a staff. / I break the tough branch. / I know no light in the woods. / I have lost pace with the winds.” The poem exhibits the three principles agreed upon by H.D. and Pound as central to the Imagist movement: the object is treated directly, the image is painted with clarity, and the rhythms are that of the musical

Here the tempest, the vehicle of the simile, gains a life of it own. It is not a fleeting thing, it inhabits and creates a whole glimpsed self, other, separate from the narrative until that last line, when storm and man meet in Hector. However, if it is the grammatical relationships between words, in this case the “like”s and “as”s and “that’s how”s that connect the correlative worlds of Homeric simile, that form an infrastructure out of which lyrical

profusion can occur, then it is the image that really grants life to this profusion. While this grammatical foundation is necessary for Homer’s language to take on such a blinding life of its own (what ancient critics called enargeia), it is the image that truly conducts the ephemeral worlds accessed through simile. How much less striking would Hector’s blood-rage be if it were not for the intensity of the imagery used by Homer, the brute clarity of the storm depicted as it ruptures the twin canvases of sky and sea? Even Oswald admits, in another lecture, that it is the lone image of Shakespeare’s Sonnet 87, the man metaphorically turned to king in slumber, that acts as the “gesture or action or living of the poem”. Again, however, this life depends on comparison, on the crafting of a second world, however temporary, to comprehend the first. This is still a far cry from Pound. Remember Pound’s distaste for poetry that “drag[s] itself out into mimicry”, the poetry of “secondary implications”, as he calls it.

verse, the “poetry of scarcity” and the “poetry of supply”, and it is epic poetry, rather than the lyric verse that Pound dealt in, that, Oswald argues, is so driven by the grammatical format of simile. And perhaps Pound’s obsession with a kind of ‘stripped down’ verse, void of any ornamentation, is only natural when you consider the historical context of Imagists like Pound and H.D., reacting, as they were, to what they considered the arid floridity of Romantic and Victorian verse. Much of the art of the 20th century has aimed, in great swathes, to propel itself away from excess. Take the blunt clarity of Hemingway, the form purification of Kandinsky or Rothko, the minimal cycles of Philip Glass, and of course, the myriad of minimalist architectural movements that emerged in the former half of the 20th century. Maybe it is only now, with the wry retrospection of the postmodern eye, that we can detach ourselves from the sensationalist, manifesto-ridden panic of the modernist voice, and understand that to attempt to establish a rulebook, a perfected mode of artistic expression, or to declare one form of art as essentially inferior to another, is folly, and does little but close the mind.

Perhaps Pound and Oswald’s visions are not really so irreconcilable. Oswald is always careful to articulate the difference between lyric and epic

What is the significance of the Northern Lights? Zara S J (Re) The Northern Lights are an incredible phenomenon which have fascinated and inspired people for centuries. Picture the night with these bright curtains of light reaching up to 620 miles above us; their vibrant colours and dancing appearance portray a huge significance to many tribes and people who know them. This has developed conspiracies and different beliefs about what they actually are and the significance they leave. Their name ‘Aurora Borealis’ comes from Greco-Roman mythology by the belief that the goddess of dawn Aurora rushes across the sky in a celestial chariot to her siblings; the sun and the moon, to tell them about the start of a new day. Boreas is the god of the north wind, so the Aurora Borealis was named, and now more commonly known as the northern lights.

Of course, there is the scientific reasoning behind the significance of the lights. This is that auroras occur when charged particles (electrons and protons) collide with gases in Earth’s upper atmosphere. Those collisions can’t hold the energy, so the particles release light and produce tiny flashes that produce this surreal artwork in the sky. This shows how specially designed and evolved our world is and the wonders that science can create, such as this beautiful and intense light show, which is one of the 7 natural wonders of our world. The lights also pose a huge significance to the northern tribes, such as the Innuit people, who are indigenous tribes living in the arctic areas of North America, Canada, Alaska, and Greenland.

They came up with many creative theories about what these lights they witness every night in winter actually meant. Some believed that the lights revealed their ancestors’ lost souls dancing across the sky. Some of these spirits were carrying torches, to guide those who needed help in this world, and others were the spirits of the dead playing a game with a walrus skull as a ball. Hence, they called the aurora ‘aksarnirq’ meaning ‘ball player’.

As well as good omens, some people were terrified of the Northern Lights, and assume they bring bad omens. For instance, The Great Plains Indians (in Northern America) imagined the lights were the reflection of large fires, made by an evil creator. Many Inuit tribes in Alaska also feared the Northern Lights and would guard themselves with knives to ward off the evil spirits. Rarely, the Northern Lights would be found more to the south, normally a reddish colour rather than green. For example, in the late 18th century, during the French revolution, a couple weeks before the monarchy was overthrown, a bright red aurora was seen over England and Scotland, and people reported hearing huge armies battling in the skies. Everyone believed it predicted upcoming war and death; did the aurora envision the future of the French revolution or was it just a huge coincidence?

Many tribes believe that the Northern Lights provide good luck or mark predictions for the future. For example, in Sweden, the traditional word used for the northern lights was ‘sillblixt’, meaning ‘herring flash’, and it was believed that it was caused by the reflection off the scales of huge schools of fish swimming in water nearby. Their presence brought good fortune, and luck for a good catch the next day. Some people in Iceland think that the northern lights show when a storm is coming, or it can be used to reduce the pain of childbirth. Similarly, people in Greenland say that children born under the northern lights are exceptionally gifted. However, it was important never to look at the lights directly, or their child would be born cross-eyed.

The indigenous Finno-Ugric people of northern Scandinavia, called the Sàmi, believe you shouldn’t talk about the Northern Lights, and if you caught their attention by clapping, whistling, singing, etc., they could grab you and carry you up into the night to be with the dead. They imagine that the lights were to be feared and respected equally, and they were a very bad omen. Even to this day, to be safe, many Sámi stay indoors when the Northern Lights are in the sky.

One of the most peculiar visions is the Finnish word for the aurora, ‘revontulet’, which translates to ‘fire foxes’, and is based on an old belief of how the lights originate. The Arctic fox would strike the surface of the snow with its tail, sweeping up snowflakes, and creating sparks that would be seen in the sky. Another cultural interpretation is in Norse mythology, where the lights were the reflection of the armour and shields of fallen warriors on their way to Valhalla, the final place of rest. The Vikings celebrated the lights, believing they were from their gods, and elements of these legends are still present today in Scandinavia. Many northern cultures think that the Northern Lights represented the animals that they hunted, but in Chinese culture it was thought that they were caused when dragons would breathe fire across the sky while fighting in a huge battle, and humans saw the fiery lights as the Northern Lights.

The Northern Lights symbolise all that is mystical and unknown about the world, maybe the aurora is telling us we’re not alone, and that there is more after this lifetime outside of this earth? But whether it represents good or bad omens, it brings across a powerful and impacting message, giving communities comfort and happiness, or dread and fear. Imagine the sky suddenly light up with these incredible curtains and ribbons of light; no wonder many cultures developed magical reasonings about this otherworldly phenomenon. Its rich and striking colours along with its dancelike movements, has hypnotized people in the past and still, to this day, it mesmerises the people lucky enough to witness this unreal display of natural beauty, the northern lights.

When did the Monarchy lose its power? Ed G (L6) The English monarch has long been England’s Head of State and has been a continual presence, except during a brief period between 1649 and 1660. In modern times, the monarchy has very little if not no actual power and its main purpose is one of symbolic purpose. However, this has not always been like the case as the monarch did at one point have absolute power over all affairs in England and no-one could say a bad thing about them. By power, I mean the influence and the ability to enact policies and laws. There are many major turning points in this power balance between the bornto-rule monarch and the elected parliament but for me, the most important ones which I shall be discussing are the signing of the Magna Carta and the Glorious Revolution. The Magna Carta was signed in 1215 in Runnymede, and it is a key moment in not just British history but world history as it also inspired documents such as the American Bill of Rights. It was created due to a feud between King John and the barons. This feud came about because King John was a very unpopular King as he lost Normandy to France in 1206 and was even excommunicated from the church by the Pope between 1209-1213. The spark of the troubles was the King’s demands for more tax which led to Archbishop Langton stirring up the barons’ anger and inciting a rebellion. After the rebels had taken London, King John was forced to sign this charter in order to prevent civil war. This was a key document for limiting the monarch’s power as it said that the monarch was not above the law and can be held accountable for his actions. This made the monarchy weaker as the monarchy was no longer absolute as some power was now with the barons – such as the act of taxation only being allowed by the barons’ consent. The barons eventually evolved into parliament in 1265. And while the Magna Carta was not initially successful, as civil war broke out within three months, there is no doubt about the

framework it set out. It laid out the basis for a separate legal system as well as the protection of the people and the need for consent of the people. It was used by parliament many times to check the monarch and overrule some of their policies and laws such as Mary I’s catholic crusade. Overall, the Magna Carta was very important in the monarchy losing its power. It was the beginning of that process and was the first action to limit royal power and place the Monarch under law and led to checks on their actions. While the Magna Carta may have been the framework to limiting the Monarch’s power, the monarchy still controlled the policy making. But the Glorious revolution and the

subsequent Bill of Rights was the actual action that made them lose their power and made the monarchy much closer to the one which we see today. The Glorious revolution of 1688 came about because the Catholic James II was on the throne and, after England had gone through so many religious and political changes over the past century, the people wanted no more change. This led to James II being very

unpopular as he had already started making England Catholic again such as replacing the generals in the army with bishops. Therefore, parliament had to get rid of him. This led to parliament inviting over the Protestant Dutch monarchs – William and Mary of Orange – to overthrow the Catholic King and to restore the protestant church in England. However, there was no bloodshed and James II abdicated peacefully thus the name of the Glorious Revolution. Parliament made William and Mary sign the Bill of Rights in 1689 which made England a constitutional monarchy. This limited the power

Overall, the Bill of Rights tipped the scales of power all the way to parliament and gave the monarch no real executive power – that now lay with the government. The purpose of the monarch was to pass laws but not make them. To conclude, since the Magna Carta, the power held by the monarch has dropped with each new monarch. When a monarch tried to gain that power back, for example Charles I and James II, parliament cut them down using the power it had gained from the Magna Carta. However, the monarch still made laws and influenced policies and religion, it was only after the Glorious revolution that the monarchy lost most of its power and became a far more apolitical body. While there were some attempts to gain back power after the Bill of rights from George III, the constitutional monarchy inspired by the Magna Carta and set up by the Glorious Revolution has remained firm and kept the monarch’s power to a minimum to this day.

of the monarchy considerably as the monarch could now only pass laws with parliament’s consent which essentially meant that parliament controlled the policy and laws. The legal system was now free from royal intervention which led to much more individual protection. Individual freedom was also increased as it allowed free speech against the monarch – this led to the monarchy no longer having a grip over what the country said. One of the most important clauses in the Bill of Rights was that the monarch had to be protestant. This meant that parliament could now control the religion of the monarch and therefore the religion of the country. Therefore, the monarch could no longer make religious changes and took away one of the monarch’s major powers, used many times such as by Mary I. The whole revolution also emphasised that parliament had control of the monarch and could appoint who they wanted, as they did again with the Hanoverians.

Sir Nicholas Winton Lottie J (L6) Sir Nicholas Winton led a full and inspiring life. During World War two, he was responsible for saving the lives of many facing persecution from the Nazis, being described as the “English Schindler”. He also benefitted people through sport, representing Great Britain as a fencer and setting up the Winton Cup, a fencing challenge that continues to bring different regions together in high-level, good-natured sport to this day.

making the journey impossible. Tragically, of the 250 children scheduled to flee on that train, only 2 survived to see the war end. But Winton’s work didn’t stop there. He tirelessly worked to raise money to pay for the children’s £50 deposit and to provide for them. He also looked for foster families and hostels that could house the children. In the summer of 1939, he put the kids’ photos in Picture Post to help find families and secured guarantees that individuals would house children when they came over, as shown in his list. He even wrote to US politicians like President Roosevelt to ask them to help and accept Jewish children at risk. Winton said that two thousand more children could be saved if the USA helped but sadly only Sweden would help and find homes for them. Thanks to Winton’s work, 669 children were saved from Nazi persecution and survived in Britain. Some notable people saved by Winton are Leslie Baruch Brent, who was an immunologist who made great advances in immune tolerance, Heini Halberstam, a mathematician famed for the Elliott-Halberstam conjecture, and Gerda Mayer, a poet.

Sir Winton’s work to help Jews at risk from Nazi persecution began just before Christmas 1938, when Marie Schmolka and Doren Warriner, humanitarians helping those in Czechoslovakia, called him to ask for his help. He quickly flew to Czechoslovakia and worked with the Czechoslovak Refugee Committee and other volunteers like himself to organise aid for Jewish children and families. Despite the risks, he didn’t leave Czechoslovakia until January 1939, just six weeks before the German occupation. However, his real impact came in November 1938, after Kristallnacht. Great Britain had announced that any refugees under seventeen from Nazi-occupied lands could enter as long as they had a place to stay and £50 to allow them to eventually return to their own country. This was achieved by children crossing through the Netherlands and taking the ferry at Hook of Holland. However, after the events of Kristallnacht, the Dutch government banned any Jewish refugees from crossing the border and the Royal Netherlands Marechaussee hunted down any Jewish refugees trying to flee through the Netherlands, returning them to face the horrors of Nazi persecution. Winton arranged for the children to travel by train from the Prague main railway station, across Germany and to the Atlantic Coast, where they could cross the English Channel and find safety despite these restrictions. Unfortunately, the last transport could never leave as it was scheduled for the 1st September 1939, when Hitler invaded Poland and the Second World War began,

Besides saving lives, Winton was also a passionate fencer, excelling in foil and epee. He represented Great Britain and was selected to fence at the 1940 Olympics but was stopped when they were cancelled due to the Second World War. To foster unity through sport and encourage a high level of competing, he, along with his brother Robert, founded the Winton Cup in 1950. This competition ranges from U17 up to Veterans and every weapon. It is fought between selected teams from every region in England, as well as a Welsh team, encouraging fencers to perform at their best to represent their region well and earn the overall cup. The competition spans two days, with fencers staying overnight at the venue, allowing people from all over Britain to socialise and form

connections, building the goodwill and respect lacking in Winton’s day through the sport he loved. It runs to this day in his memory.

founding of the Winton Cup. The full impact of his life wasn’t known until his wife Grete stumbled upon a scrapbook containing the children’s identities and realised his incredible secret.

In conclusion, Sir Nicholas Winton was an incredible humanitarian, investing his time and money in saving children with no other means of escaping the Nazis. He narrowly missed out on being an Olympic fencer but ensured that others wouldn’t miss out on high level sport and could build positive relations with others through the

Winton since received a letter of thanks from Ezer Weizman, once president of the State of Israel, was made an honorary citizen of Prague and received a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in 2003, all fitting commendations for such an amazing man.

How did the geographical position of Venice influence the art in the Renaissance? Tilly G (L6) The Renaissance was arguably the most important movement in the history of human art and philosophical thinking. It originated in Florence in the fifteenth century with a radical new approach to art led by artists such as Donatello (1385/6-1466), Masaccio (1401-1428), and Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) who proposed a return to classical principles which were originally developed by the Romans at the height of classical civilisation.

the area was a thin strip on the western side of the Byzantine Empire ultimately ruled by the Emperor in Constantinople. However, due to its isolation by being only connected to the rest of the empire by sea routes, the area benefitted from increasing autonomy culminating in the citizens electing their leader, known as the Doge, in the eighth century. This was the beginning of a long line of 117 Doges who justly and peacefully ruled Venice as a city state. Its strategic position in relation to the Mediterranean gradually allowed Venice not only to be the centre of trade in Italy but control trade between Europe and the Middle East and Asia. By the late 13th Century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe and a major imperial power in its own right. It was an important centre of commerce, especially silk, grain, spice and of art until the end of the 17th century. It is also considered to be the first international financial centre which made Venice a very wealthy city.

The Renaissance ideologies disseminated from Florence to the other Italian city-states and across Europe. There were various centres of learning which contributed their own interpretation of the main principles of the Renaissance. Venice, known as Venezia in Italian, was at the forefront of the movement, with the likes of the Bellinis, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto all leaving their own distinct mark on the renaissance. Venice’s unique geographical and topographical location meant that it was a world apart from the rest of Renaissance Italy. The philosopher-poet Francesco Petrarch (130474) called it ‘mundus alter’, meaning another world. Its singular setting on the north-eastern Italian peninsula on the Adriatic Sea in the wider Mediterranean, with the city consisting of a collection of 118 little islands linked by a labyrinth of bridges and canals in the vast Venetian lagoon. Life in Venice differed from those of other citystates such as Florence and Rome which lead to its Art developing unique characteristics.

Venice’s geography ensured it was ideally placed to not only learn the new ideas of the Renaissance at a very early stage, but it had plentiful resources to quickly establish itself as an important and individual centre of learning. This allowed Venice to further develop the ideas of Renaissance art which led to its own style called venezianità. This was known for its richness of colour, emphasis with light and space, interest in patterns and textures, love for detail and theme of traditional Venetian values. No matter what medium, that of paint, mosaic, stone, marble, wood, ceramic or glass, venezianità allowed Venetian art to stand out from that of others.

The lagoon was first settled possibly by Romans fleeing the Visigoths, who were attracted to the marshy area by the abundance of natural resources such as fresh fish and salt which they successfully traded. By the mid-sixth century

The Byzantine heritage, from Constantinople, of Venice influenced eastern traditions in renaissance art. The brilliant colours, texture, and

optical effect of light of Byzantine mosaics inspired renaissance artists. Coarsely woven canvas became the principal support of the Venetian school in the sixteenth century instead of smoothly sanded panels commonly used in Florence. Furthermore, the impasto brushwork on canvas reflected the texture of the mosaic medium. Venetian artists used rich colour and light similar to the nature of the Byzantine mosaics.

Venice was unique in its location being within an extensive marshland which provided the city with distinct atmospheric qualities such as the misty and damp nature of this natural environment. The public murals called frescos, which were painted on wet plaster, were one of the central forms of renaissance art across Italy. However, frescos did not survive in the damp climate of Venice. This led to the Venetian artist’s main medium being that of oil paint on canvas which could withstand the unique conditions. Furthermore, this everchanging quality in shape and colour by flickering light due to the local climate drove the Venetian’s fascination in light and air which is reflected in their art. The great expanse of the lagoon surrounding the city on the same day would be bright skied with water clear and glimmering like jewels; to the water no longer reflecting but absorbing light, consisting of a palette of greys, white, misty blues, and mottled greens. The play of light and air is repeated in their paintings, inspired by their surroundings.

Venice’s thriving trade economy due to its prestigious position as the heart of the trade in Europe, meant that Renaissance Venetian artists were inundated with a wide range of precious and exotic pigments, materials and ideas. They exploited the use of rich colour within their art, most noticeably in the works of Titian. The city’s historical global trading relations meant that muchprized ultramarine made from the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan, azurite or ‘German Blue’ was transported along ancient routes across the northern Alps and red lakes which are translucent pigments commonly used in the dyeing and textiles industry. These rich pigments resulted in the hues of Venetian art being more sumptuous than those of Florence or Rome.

Venice was built, ‘more divine than by human will’ commented the diarist Marin Sanudo (14661536), upon mud flats which was seen as a miracle of man. However, the unique foundations of the city meant that space was at a premium. As the city’s foundations were reliant on the deposition of silt from the flow of irregular tidal currents along the coastline. This meant that unlike other cities such as Florence, which was divided into quarters, Venice was unable to be evenly divided. Instead, there were 6 unequal sections called sestieri divisions. Each island self-contained unit with parish church at the centre surrounded by campo or piazza with houses and shops on the outside. These islands were connected with bridges crossing canals at odd angles. There was asymmetry within a labyrinth of canals and bridges as well as in the buildings such as Piazza San Marco which is trapezoid shaped. This is because the Venetians had to maximise the space offered by the mudflats. This characteristic was reflected in asymmetrical art and counterbalanced composition rooted in their physical surroundings, famously emphasised by Titian in his ‘Assuntia’ (1518).

The unique safety that the protective lagoon provided Venice, resulted in the political and religious stability that allowed rich artistic tradition to thrive. Unlike other cities Venice had no city walls as protection, as Pero Tafur, a Spaniard who visited Venice in the 1430s, stated “the city has no walls, nor any fortress”. Yet Venice’s encirclement of the lagoon and domination at sea meant that “if the whole world came against the city, the Venetians could sink a ship between the two castles and canal and be safe”. Even, mapmaker Benedetto Bordone (1450/55-1530) conveyed the safety of the protective lagoon in his perspective plan of Venice and the Lagoon, from the Isolario di Benedetto Bordone (Venice, 1528). As he surrounds Venice with imaginary circle formed from the mainland and outer islands of Lido. This metaphorically conveys Venice’s reassuring safety and strength. The security that Venice provided its people, consequently allowed Renaissance art to flourish.

The geography of Venice undoubtedly contributed to the overall body of renaissance study through its own unique factors. Ironically these same factors which were so critical in the formation of these ideas such as its location on the edge of a lagoon and being built on reclaimed land in marshland, now threaten the very legacy of some of the most important examples of Venetian renaissance art through the unfortunate combinations of rising sea levels coupled with land subsidence leading to ever more common episodes of flooding.

Should Cosmetic surgery be classed as a necessary procedure? Annie (Anabelle) R (L6) Cosmetic and Plastic surgery. What is it? How did it become so mainstream and what are the effects of this? Though they don’t sound very similar it is very easy to assume that they are the same thing. I am here to explain the differences between the two and the social and ethical issues related to both forms of reconstructive surgery.

Now, I know that this may sound trivial but cosmetic surgery’s main outcome or goal is to change the way someone looks for their own benefit. Social faces such as Kim Kardashian, Amy Shimer, Zac Efron, and many more have admitted to having such surgeries to enhance their appearance. So, why am I writing about this?

So, what really is Plastic surgery? Plastic surgery is “the process of reconstructing or repairing parts of the body by the transfer of tissue, in the treatment of injury”. Plastic surgery is focused on repairing, reconstructing, or restoring the form and function of damaged or abnormal body parts, often due to trauma, congenital conditions, cancer, or other medical issues. Plastic surgery is believed to be used for the benefit of a patient’s physical and mental health. Such as the repairing of a baby’s cleft pallet. Although some forms of plastic surgery will involve cosmetic procedures to restore appearance. Therefore, therefore is a slight overlap between the two. However, the overall causes of this form of surgery tend to vary.

This is because cosmetic surgery has been normalised in the media. Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, and many more social media platforms often promote images of people with seemingly perfect facial symmetry and effortless bodies, often using technology and filters to perfect their appearance. This can create unrealistic beauty standards, leading to body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem in both young and old women and men. For a younger more influential generation like us, the act of altering or modifying our bodies and our faces has become considered the usual today. The idea presented in the media of today’s ‘beauty standards’, has affected the way we as young adults may perceive ourselves and what ‘beauty’ is. Leading on from this Cosmetic surgery is not an essential procedure if it is used in a non-necessary medical way such as liposuction, breast augmentation or rhinoplasty. These common procedures which I have just listed have increased in popularity over the past decade from 1997 to 4 million in the US cosmetic procedures in the US. Fast forward to now in 2022 more than 15 million recorded cosmetic surgeries in the United States alone. That is absurd. Not only this but due to the increase in accessibility more and more ethical issues such as informed consent, body image, self-esteem and socioeconomic disparities arise due to it. This leads us to believe that the contributing factor to the abnormal increase in cosmetic surgery is the role of social media.

Cosmetic surgery, according to the Royal College of Surgeons can be defined as, “Where a person chooses to have an operation, or invasive medical procedure, to change their physical appearance for cosmetic rather than medical reasons.” This type of procedure arose more commonly in the late 1990s when more and more Hollywood actors and actresses became more informed about the use of aesthetic surgeries to enhance and alter their physical appearance. Therefore, as we can deduct from these summaries the main overall difference in whether a reformative surgery is considered cosmetic, or plastic is due to the overall cause and reason why the physical choice to change their appearance has occurred.

To conclude in an age where the digital realm has increasingly shaped our perception of beauty standards as well as the further development in our ability to technologically advance and our abilities to alter the way we are presented will ultimately shape the way we view ourselves as individuals. So, would you consider cosmetic surgery a detriment on our society? Or is it a necessity?

Why do we forget? Lily I (Re) To be able to forget we create memories. This is made by going through the process of acquisition. A memory will then get encoded into the brain. In order to remember the memory, we must recall it. Otherwise, we will lose that information in other words forget it.

can be stored. This uses the medial temporal lobe which contains structures that oversee emotional functions and the formation of memories and how one learns. Using this it believes that if you rehearse and study information it will become stronger and is less likely to fade away. In other words, if we do not revise something we will forget it.

Forgetting is a requisite part of us. We forget around half of what we have learnt within the hour which increases to 66% within the day. By the end of the week, we only remember 25% of what we have learnt. There are many theories on how we forget. We can forget certain information immediately after learning it and we can forget some over longer periods if we do not revisit the piece of information. We do not need to worry about this being a brain problem as it is a normal brain function. As well as that it is also normal to wane in memory as we age. There have been multiple to studies shown that this can even start to happen at 45 years old.

Even though we do not know a lot about forgetting and have a lot of theories we know certain things. Our short-term memory has a capacity. If you exceed it the memory gets displaced causing it to be lost. If we want to interfere with this process, we can put the information into long term memory. There are two ways to do this: proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive is where previously learned information does not allow a new memory to be formed and stored. Retroactive on the other hand is new information takes the place of previously learned data. This means we will forget something to make space for the new information. Sadly, if the memory is linked to a similar cue this is more likely to happen. This is because the brain can confuse the two memories easily causing the new one to be replaced.

There are many theories on how we forget. One theory on normal memory loss is the decay theory. It proposes that our memories fade over time. It is as if our memories are like traces and that they vanish after a while. This would suggest why we do not remember our first day at school. The problem with the decay theory is, that it is impossible to properly prove it. During studies it is not realistic to have people learning something new and then neither let them rehearse or distract them, this would cause an anomaly in the study. The brain also seems to be actively eliminating parts, which are not used in a process described as active forgetting.

There are special cases where a memory is not completely forgotten. Instead, it is not stored properly which leads to the memory never being added to the long-term memory from the beginning. In a study where people were being asked to distinguish between real and fake American pennies, the score was unexpectedly low. This is due to our tendency to be good at comparing and memorising differences between different coins (sizes, shapes…) but less trained in spotting smaller details within very similar coins. This is how the information is encoded in our brain and therefore we find it difficult to look at the same coin based on different criteria, which previously we had mostly ignored.

The consolidation theory is another theory. This theory suggests that memories depend on a (neural) network of brain regions. This is compared to when our brain encodes. That means our memories or thoughts get converted so that it

We can influence forgetting in many ways such as: drugs, alcohol, lack of sleep, depression, ageing and neurological illnesses. Sleep is important for remembering because we apprehend and revise memories when we are awake, the reorganisation of memories happens during sleep in a certain part of the brain, where long-term memories are stored. If we do not get enough sleep, we are not able to go through this process properly. That is why we need to aim for 7-9 hours of sleep a night. Alcohol and drugs interfere with the process of forming longterm memories. The more the worse the outcome and ability to do this it can lead to blackouts if one consumes a lot. In conclusion, we do not know everything about forgetting. We today still have many theories on how and why we forget but we do know partially what causes it. Our brain is a very complicated organ making it challenging to know why and how it does certain things. We fortunately do know what worsens it and we can explain why our memory might not be working as it would on another day.

Forging civilization: How fire has shaped humanity? William F (Re) Humanity’s unique ability to manipulate fire is arguably the most defining human quality that has separated us from all other known life forms. Although we still don’t know the exact origins of our control over fire, it has been scientifically proven that our brain structure has evolved to best utilize the benefits of fire and therefore left us dependent on the properties of fire. However, our extensive use of fire comes at a devastating cost of mass destruction, forest fires have eradicated vast areas of the globe whilst taking hundreds of lives each year. Yet fire is not only a tool for destruction, both fire and its uses in combustion have fueled the worlds innovation and industry for the last 200 hundred years. So, if we have unlocked all the various advantages and uses of fire then surely, we all know exactly what is going on within the dancing flame?

stars vary in colour with increasing and decreasing surface temperatures. However, the most common yellow flame is actually caused through incomplete combustion, therefore not all the carbon is oxidized hence smoke is produced as an unreacted by product. Smoke is a result of incomplete combustion and is similar to soot, it is formed when the vaporized fuel rises with the heat of the fire yet is not oxidized; this means that smoke is mostly only hydrocarbons, not CO2, whilst also explaining why a candle can be relit by putting a match to a whisp of smoke. The flame glows yellow when the unreacted soot (carbon) heats to temperatures of around 1100 degrees Celsius, this causes an ‘atomic electron transition’ which is when electrons absorb energy (heat) then jump up to an outer energy level, the transition to return to its original energy level then emits light which is the bright orange flame of a candle. Flames rise due to heated convection currents, this means that the hot gasses produced are more buoyant than the surrounding colder gasses, hence causing the hotter gases to rise, therefore sucking the cooler gases from the bottom of the wick into the flame where they react and heat up, this constant flow or air is what keeps flames alight and flickering. However, in microgravity environments (ISS), gravitational convection currents don’t apply to the flame, therefore causing the flame to form a small hollow sphere of complete combustion. Furthermore, all flames are hollow, although looking solid it is because the oxygen is only able to react with the edges of a flame, this is also why flames are symmetrical cone shapes.

Despite fire having played such a crucial role for humans throughout almost all our existence, even today many people remain perplexed by the chemistry behind fire. Although many of us are familiar with the fire triangle and the chemical equation for combustion, this is only the recipe for fire, and it ‘only explains as much as a recipe explains what a cake will taste like’. Using a candle as an example, the initial heat from a match vaporizes the hydrocarbons that make up the wax, this fuel source has now been broken down enough to react when it collides with oxygen atoms. A blue flame is then produced just above the wick if there is complete combustion (where all carbon and hydrogen is oxidized) and therefore is the hottest part of the flame. The flame burns blue because the combustion reactions to make these two compounds are exothermic, and with complete combustion the flame is hot enough to emit a blue light. This is shown through blackbody radiation curves, and this is the same reason that

Although fire has been such a crucial component for humans throughout most of our existence, even today the rough period of time in which humans began manipulating fire remains

a mystery. Of the few ancient human relatives to have been discovered only a small handful have shown any traces of controlling fire, however across some archeological sites charred animal bones have been found near to the archaic human remnants. Although unlikely due to the time distortion of fossils, these could potentially reveal signs of cooking and be the start of a complex human evolution towards not only manipulating fire but our whole environment as we do now. Some anthropologists and biologists believe that fire was one of the main factors to have kickstarted our route to becoming the planets apex species through the revolutionary advantages it has if used properly. Cooking food immensely benefits humans as it partially breaks down both meat and vegetables as it breaks down cell walls and denaturing proteins, therefore making meals easier to digest. Furthermore, cooking also increases nutrients availability whilst simultaneously destroying harmful microbes; hence meaning that human digestion required less energy whilst extracting more nutrients for each meal. These extra calorie benefits were primarily used for development and usage of the brain. This mental and physical boost

therefore gave humans more time and energy for inventing or making tools, socializing and other productive activities. After tens of thousands of years of humans reaping the benefits of cooking, our bodies have evolved to be able to efficiently digest cooked food, however many of these adaptations have made raw meat no longer a viable meal option as we simply have lost the capability to effectively digest it. With fire being vital to humans for so many years and in so many ways, the mystical properties of the complex natural phenomenon were bound to attract religions and mythical tales in order to explain the vastly incomprehensible science behind combustion. Fire was perceived by many religions as a unique gift from the supernatural gods as humans are the only living beings to poses the power to manipulate fire. Flames are so incredibly perplexing yet beautiful in a world of sticks and stones that a greater power was the only explanation for such a phenomenon. Fire’s abilities to be manipulated in countless ways made it a super tool for people as it massively increased the efficiency of so many tasks, therefore it is easy to understand why fire

was seen as a supernatural gift from deities in so many differing societies and religions. Faiths such as Zoroastrianism from Iran believe that fire is the holy link between the heavens and the earth. Within these various religions fire plays a key role within ceremonies, funerals, celebration and worship, this also links to the huge psychological benefits as it brings brought by a hearth. Ceremonial fires would have been used as they give security, calming and a sense of empowerment to many, whilst also create strong smells such as incense which fill the room with warmth and a sense of holiness. Within survival lighting a fire is one of the most important steps to staying alive as it is such a useful tool for cooking, disinfecting and defending yourself whilst giving an incredible mental boost of confidence and strength.

The importance of fire has not only been overlooked by humanity but also misunderstood. Our incredible modern civilization was forged by flame as it has been the ultimate tool for our success, we have manipulated it for ourselves whilst it has also molded us and enabled the regular species of homo sapiens to become a global hyperpower. Fire controls our world and will change the earth long after we are gone, for such a simple chemical equation it has forged some of the most complex innovations on our planet. It is an injustice to not understand complete physics inside a flame for it is like not looking at who is feeding you with the silver spoon, the importance of combustion should be known by every human which walks this modern earth as it is arguably the reason we continue to walk today. So, to conclude, in my opinion our first ancestor who rubbed two sticks together to create the world’s first flame was not only a worldchanging genius but the father of all mankind.

The innovation brought by fire from the bronze age to the present, has allowed us to become the powerful species in which we are now. This however has led to a dependency on combustion, almost every single manufacturing industry is powered through combustion, from transport and heating to welding and construction, everything artificial can be directly linked to the fire and our usage of combustion. Although fire has been our greatest tool for efficiency and innovation, we have begun to overuse and abuse our privilege and therefore we will soon have to pay the price for our modern success. With fire having given humanity access to so many resources, it is equally able to destroy all of our hard work. Forest fires have become an increasingly relevant problem for many countries such as America, Australia and Canada where millions of acres are being scorched each year. Last year alone the size of Thailand was left barren by raging forest fires, the figure of 23 million acres last year is only set to rise by 4% annually, that is an increase of 568,000 acres each year. With wildfires becoming even more potent each year, it seems as if the phenomenon that built human civilization might also lead to the downfall of humanity as the destruction of global warming grows evermore present.

Surely the news is a good thing Carolina R (L6) Yes, it is. It has never been easier to get informed and we are able to collect information about any piece of news easier and faster than ever before. The news is available through mainstream and alternative media on TV, on the radio, in newspapers, online, through social media, in print, on computers, tablets and phones, at any time.

place in an area, incidents of muggings in another, which allows you to stay alert and safe. So, yes news is good for you but it’s also bad for you! News is bad for you. It is. No news may in actual fact be good news. You know about fake news on social media. Sensational news stories blown out of proportion, misinformation, propaganda, breaking the internet. You know about news outlets like TikTok making people crave to read the very latest news all the time; you want more, and you spend too much time reading too many things.

The various platforms available give voice to journalists and to those who did not have one but wish to engage. News stories can connect us with others and provide a great service to the community. For us as individuals’ news is crucial to stay well-informed, up-to-date and aware of developments and situations close to us and far from us. We learn a lot from news, we grow, we expand our knowledge and intellect. It informs our actions, we do the small things we can do in order to address big problems like e.g., climate change, which we learn about through news.

But your attention span for each news story is getting shorter. Because of the bombardment of fast-paced information we digest every day, the physical structure of our brains has changed, and we have lost the capability to read and digest long articles, we get bored after a few pages, and we lose concentration if what we’re reading isn’t as stirring and shocking as the headlines and short stories on the news we have become used to. Including actual, serious, journalistic, researched and verified news on mainstream media, like the BBC and The Times. This is also bad for you. Because news can make you feel depressed, anxious and scared and more.

It helps us understand the world better and allows us to have informed opinions about many matters, which we can exchange and discuss with others. It provides understanding and connects us with others. Reading the news improves our language skills, vocabulary and comprehension skills, which is good practice for pupils and students.

News channels and newspapers include bias towards negative news, a focus on bad things. There is of course actual negative news to report on, but there is an exaggeration there too as it engages readers more. People don’t always identify this negativity bias and take to heart everything they read and hear. The news focus on bad things like crises, natural disasters, wars, deaths etc influences your brain to also focus on the bad things in life. Your brain gets primed for negativity, and this can lead to fear, anxiety and depression.

Reading newspapers over breakfast on weekend mornings with family is a good routine, which gives structure to the start of the day, allows opportunity to discuss topical subjects and related information. This practice may lead to other good habits being incorporated in your day. Being well-informed also keeps you aware of potential danger, e.g., protests or marches taking

When reading or watching the news, you are constantly triggering the limbic system, which consists of the part of our brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses. When reading shocking, appalling stories on the news cortisol is secreted, a steroid hormone. High levels of this, also known as glucocorticoid levels, stops the release of growth hormones, causing a lack of growth for all cells, including hair and bone, and can lead to nervousness and indigestion. Apart from all these effects, learning about just the negative aspects of something or some place through the news might lead to flawed thinking and biased opinions, if you don’t do your own research about all other aspects of it. You may decide to avoid visiting an entire country because of negative news stories published from that country which in actual fact don’t at all relate to the country as a whole. Ask yourself: Am I spending too much time reading or watching the news or flicking through social media news stories? Is news making me sad, scared or anxious? Stop watching, reading and listening to so much news all the time. Do it in moderation, not every day. Remind yourself of the negativity bias and look at all the positive aspects of everything, too.

What is the Svalbard and why is it Important? Sasha B (L6) Svalbard is a Norwegian archipelago, a tiny island 4 times smaller than the UK (area of 24.5km squared) in the Arctic Ocean. It is one of the world’s northernmost inhabited islands, located between Norway, Greenland, and the North Pole, as well as a breeding ground for many sea birds, home to the Artic fox, various marine mammals, polar bears, and reindeer. It is probably best known for its global seed vault, a gene bank for the world’s seeds. Recent figures show that Svalbard has around 2900 residents, primarily Norwegians but also Russians and Ukrainians, who have settled there to work in the mining industry, which is the only significant commercial activity that has survived the harsh land and weather.

and absolute sovereignty’ over the island, there are misconceptions that it is a ‘shared space,’ and seen as an ‘international common land’. The Svalbard Treaty gives up to 47 nations the right to establish a “non-warlike” presence on the island, and it is also an entirely visa-free zone. So why is Svalbard important and why is it currently attracting the attention of many nations? Interestingly, it has the fastest global internet connection and is home to the largest satellite station in the world. The Svalbard Ground Station, known as SvalSat, is recognised as the best-located and most important polar ground station ever developed. The SvalSat site consists of more than 100 satellite antennas vital for orbiting satellites and it is one of the only stations in the world that can download

The question of, who owns Svalbard, is somewhat ambiguous. Despite Norway having ‘full

data from them on each of the earth’s rotations, making it an incredibly valuable asset.

Interestingly, in February 2022, just after British Airways announced that they had suspended all flights to Moscow, they suffered a major IT failure, or cyber event, causing the company to cancel large numbers of flights. The satellite communications that control this information all come via Svalbard. Could this just have been a coincidence or perhaps a retaliatory action?

Svalbard is subsequently ‘plugged-in’ to the rest of world via two fibre optic cables that run along the seabed to Norway, linking nearly all the commercial and military satellites to earth, including the International Space station. These cables are significantly shorter than those that travel above ground and lie incredibly deep on the seabed making them less vulnerable to interruption or damage. It is this connection that feeds into our day to day lives, without us realising it. Every time we order Uber Eats, use sat nav or track our Amazon delivery, this information flows through Svalbard. More importantly GPS through this connection is integral to NATO’s missile defence systems.

In conclusion, Svalbard is a vital conduit for supporting our day to day lives in terms of internet connectivity. It is also particularly important from a geopolitical perspective, as we are seeing Russia and China militarily align their interests, together with an increasing northern presence, is likely to become a serious strategic threat to NATO countries, especially since both these nations have nuclear weapons. This new form of threat, where countries are vying for dominance over the worlds satellite communication network, makes this seemingly unimportant and unknown island in the Arctic Ocean, a place that many people should be watching closely.

As well as the highly advanced and vital SvalSat, Svalbard occupies an incredibly important strategic location. Given its proximity to Russia, Europe, and the US, and with its rich resources, the superpowers are now fighting for its gas, oil, minerals, huge fish stocks, and data capabilities. Due to global warming, Svalbard‘s ice cap is melting at a record pace, meaning it will soon become easier and cheaper to extract and access these valuable assets. In addition, the melting ice will facilitate more shipping routes, making it easier for not only Russia and China, but also the US, Britain, and the rest of NATO, to manoeuvre their naval vessels and submarines around the North Atlantic Sea. This is making for a higher concentration of global superpowers all showing a keen interest in Svalbard. Perhaps we are now starting to see this power struggle manifest itself on the world stage. For example, on 7thJanuary 2022 one of the undersea cables connecting Svalbard to the mainland was severed. It has been determined by the Norwegian authorities that the cable was in fact cut deliberately, and in two different places, with a 4km section going missing. Russia appears to have been the main suspect in this act of sabotage, with the UK Head of Defence announcing that this was “an act of war”.

Why do we have dreams and nightmares, and what do they mean? Sophia B (Sh) We live for approximately 4000 weeks, sleep for 1200 weeks, and dream for 300 weeks. Therefore, your dreams, mental imagery that occur when asleep, are a large part of your life, often not remembered and rarely interpreted. Why do we dream, what causes nightmares, and is there really any meaning to either of these?

drinking alcohol, psychological disorders, and medication. Nightmares linked to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, are likely to be experienced by people re-experiencing their trauma in a dream. Physiological disorders, such as depression and anxiety, can be causes of nightmares too. One way to stop these, and get better sleep, is for people to have medication, which is designed to decrease the amount of REM sleep you have. Unfortunately, when patients withdraw from this there is a significant increase of REM sleep, thus creating a situation where nightmares may become more likely.

There are different stages of sleep, the two main ones are Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep. Non-REM sleep is the deepest part of sleep, and the REM part is the lighter stage of sleep, where you are more easily woken up. You are most likely to have dreams in your REM sleep. Although your dreams occur here especially, it is a myth to suggest that dreams can only occur in REM sleep.

A perennial question is whether dreams, and nightmares, actually mean anything. There are many different theories of dream interpretation. For example, Sigmund Freud wrote about the interpretation of dreams in 1899. He believed that dreams were picture puzzles and though they may appear nonsensical and worthless on the surface, through the process of interpretation they can form a “poetical phrase of the greatest beauty and significance.” Freud believed that there were three main links from dreams to real life: Sex, Aggression and Escape. He proposed that dreams are often driven by emotions.

Many experts still do not know why we dream; the leading theory is that it is to support, and improve, cognitive brain functioning. This includes analysis and consolidation of memories from activities and thoughts experienced in the past, particularly during recent days. Other theories of why we have dreams include emotional processing. It is hard to scientifically prove what dreams are about because they are only experienced by the subject - the person who dreams. However, some areas of the brain, and the associated brain activity can be measured. For example, the areas of the brain that are associated with emotions are 30% more active in REM sleep than when awake.

The interpretation of dreams is subjective and varies depending on the environment and culture of the dreamer; and to some extent that of the interpreter, or psychologist, themselves. A dreamer’s beliefs, including religion, also provides a filter to interpretations.

A dream that is perceived as negative or upsetting, a nightmare, is generated in similar ways to a normal dream in sleep. Nevertheless, research suggests that when you are stressed, you are much more likely to have nightmares. Experiencing nightmares is also linked to many other causes including : PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder),

For example, people dreaming about teeth falling out is a re-occurring common dream. Some interpretations suggest that this corresponds to the dreamer losing something valuable, others

that anxiety, stress, or ageing are impacting the subconscious mind. Re-occurring dreams may happen due to reinforcing your neural pathways; meaning if you talk about a dream that you have had it is more likely to occur again. Importantly, from a scientific perspective there is not yet any proven link between dreams and what they mean. In conclusion, most people experience two hours of dreams every day, nearly six years of our total lives, even if we do not remember them. Dreams improve our brains’ cognitive function, consolidating memories and processing emotions. Whether we remember them, in a positive or negative way, and then have them interpreted is perhaps less important than our need for sleep and allowing dreams to support and improve our subconscious brains.

Is it ethically justifiable to use persuasive techniques, such as behavioural nudges, to influence individual choices and behaviours in society? Tali (Talitha) S (Re) In our modern world, using subtle tactics, known as behavioural nudges, to influence how people make choices is a controversial topic. This essay dives into the ethics behind nudging, weighing individual freedom, societal good, and potential unintended outcomes. But just how much influence is fair in this age and what responsibilities come with this power to subtly shape how people choose and act?

many people who don’t take the time and trouble to research and understand the situation will opt in rather than opt out as that is the easier, and default, option. Have you ever wondered why you choose to buy certain products over others? At a first glance this may seem to be just random, but when you investigate it, you find another form of nudging, product placement, has most likely influenced your decisions. Product placement is a marketing technique in which a product or service gains exposure by paying to be showcased in some form of media, such as television shows, movies, social media platforms, or even ads for other products. For example, if an actor was drinking a can of Coca Cola rather than Pepsi, this can influence you to later buy the former over the latter.

A nudge is a way of influencing people’s judgment, choice or behaviour in a predictable way that is motivated because of cognitive boundaries, biases, routines, and habits in individuals and their social decision-making processes, creating barriers to people thinking rationally and with uninfluenced minds. Firstly, I want to look at some examples of behavioural nudging and the impacts they have had. One of the most common uses of nudging in society is bribery. A task or request that at first will seem tedious, becomes far more appealing when a reward is offered in exchange. This is a form of nudging as although once the reward has been offered you still have free choice, you now are motivated to do the task meaning your decision has been influenced by external factors.

Another similar form of nudging is often known as ‘eye level is buy level’ which is used by many supermarket strategists to ensure that certain products are picked up and bought over other products. This is done by placing more expensive or popular products in primary positions on the shelves. A recent study on consumer attention revealed that buyers are more likely to give attention to items on their right side and between 47-62 inches from the ground, when going through an aisle.

Another form of nudging is changing the default position of a policy or situation. For example, in many countries, including England as of 2021, rather than having to opt in for organ donation, you have to opt out. This means that

So, you can see that although you still feel like you have free choice, in a society where these factors are present the truth is that your decisions are being

influenced without you even realising. But is it ethically right for us to be manipulated in this way?

contribute to shared objectives and progress, rather than being used to advance of improve the life of one individual or group of people, without the lives and beliefs of others in mind.

Although on first consideration behavioural nudging may seem like an ethical issue and a morally wrong action, when used in the correct ways, the potential benefits and positive outcomes that can arise from the strategic application of these persuasive techniques are huge. When techniques allow decisions to be made in alignment with personal belief, but still with a bias to benefit a whole society, it can be worth using nudges in many situations.

The use of behavioural nudges to influence individual choices and behaviours, while potentially beneficial, is not without its ethical concerns. Many people believe that these persuasive techniques do not align with principles of fairness, independence, and respect for diversity, and can be a violation of what we believe to be ethically and morally correct in society.

Supporters of behavioural nudges believe that their use can be ethically justifiable when the primary goal is to enhance the overall well-being of individuals and society. Nudges, in this context, serve as tools to encourage and promote positive behaviours, ranging from healthier lifestyles to responsible financial decisions. The ethical belief has the intention to contribute to the greater good by steering individuals toward choices that align with their best interests and the welfare of the community rather than against them.

One major ethical concern revolves around the potential infringement on individual independence. Critics argue that behavioural nudges, by subtly shaping choices, may compromise the fundamental right of individuals to make decisions freely. The lack of transparency in the use of these persuasive techniques raises questions about the voluntariness of the decisions influenced by nudges. It is important that the people behind the use of the nudges know the line between guiding choices for the better and inadvertently undermining the freedom of individuals.

Another significant ethical argument in favour of behavioural nudges revolves around the concept of “informed paternalism.” This perspective suggests that nudges can be justifiable when they guide choices in a manner that individuals would likely make for themselves if they were fully informed and rational, but in their current state do not have the capacity to make the decision for themselves. In this light, nudging is seen as a supportive mechanism that guides, rather than restrains, individual decision-making by acting on what is believed to be the best decision for the person, if they don’t have the ability to decide for themself.

Another ethical dilemma centres around the risk of manipulation inherent in behavioural nudging, particularly when used by powerful bodies such as governments or corporations. If nudges are implemented to benefit the “nudger” rather than the well-being of the individual or the society, ethical concerns about manipulation and coercion come to the forefront, as the population as a whole are no longer able to make a fairly judged and uninfluenced decision about the ruling of their country. The final ethical concern involves the potential lack of cultural sensitivity in the design and application of behavioural nudges. Cultural variations can mean people have different values and beliefs, and the decision-making processes may overlook these differences, leading to the enforcement of biased choices within diverse populations. Ethical considerations require that

Lastly, ethical justifiability is often linked to the alignment of nudges with legitimate public policy goals. When nudges are used to tackle social issues like improving public health or safety, they are seen as ethical tools aligned with an aim to benefit all of society. The ethical belief here rests on the fact that nudges positively affect society’s well-being and

those using nudges carefully consider and account for cultural differences to avoid inadvertently reinforcing existing inequalities or promoting values that may not be universally appropriate. In conclusion, the ethical justifiability of using persuasive techniques like behavioural nudges hinges on a delicate balance. While nudges can be a force for societal good, promoting positive behaviours and well-being, their implementation raises concerns about individual freedom, potential manipulation, and cultural sensitivity. The challenge lies in navigating this ethical terrain, ensuring transparency, and aligning nudges with legitimate public policy goals. Striking the right balance requires an approach that acknowledges the potential benefits of nudging while safeguarding fundamental principles of fairness, independence, and respect for diversity in our ever-influential society. Personally, I believe that it can be ethically justifiable to use these persuasive techniques, but only when they are employed in the correct way and are used to benefit all of society, but they should not be used for personal gain or without transparency and adjustability towards people of different beliefs or values.

Marlborough College, Wiltshire SN8 1PA www.marlboroughcollege.org