Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement

Jessica Hughes (SU L6)

Solitary confinement has been a form of punishment for centuries and one that has been a hot topic of debate by human rights activists in the media in recent years. Whilst some regard it as inhumane torture, others actively advocate it, viewing it as an efficient and powerful corrective tool. The dominant argument against it is that there are numerous negative psychological effects associated with it, which I will discuss in this article.

The first known example of solitary confinement as a formal corrective is associated with a 19th century Quaker practice originating in Pennsylvania as a substitute for public punishments. It then gradually spread throughout America and consequently the rest of the world, where it is now a commonplace punishment in several countries. The cell in which prisoners face solitary confinement is often referred to as ‘the hole’ by fellow prisoners, due to its small, claustrophobic and often dingy nature. For the majority of the 20th century, prisoners would simply stay in solitary confinement for a day or two; however, in more recent times prisoners are finding themselves in ‘the hole’ for an increasing amount of time – even years. Thus, they are locked in a small 6x9-foot cell for up to 23 or even in drastic cases 24 hours a day. In America, in particular, this form of punishment seems to be becoming more commonplace.

It’s important to distinguish between the two forms of solitary confinement in use today, which include administrative segregation and disciplinary segregation. Disciplinary segregation is solitary confinement for breaking prison rules, whereas administrative segregation is used when an inmate presents a continuous threat to themselves and others.

Many have referred to it as a soul-crushing experience which has irreversibly drastic effects on a prisoner’s mental health; however, one could argue that the vast majority of prisoners admitted already have severe mental health problems, making them a danger to others and themselves, hence the reason for their confinement. Nevertheless, research has found that solitary confinement exacerbates their symptoms and often engenders its own. According to one report these can include ‘anxiety, depression, anger, cognitive disturbances, perceptual distortions, obsessive thoughts, paranoia, and psychosis.’1. O’Keefe estimated that in 2005 mental illness was 35% more prevalent in administrative segregation compared with only 25% in the general prison population. 2 It also hinders the possibility of recovery for inmates with mental health issues: as a result of lack of human contact and sensory deprivation, inmates who have faced a considerable amount of time in ‘the hole’ often find they struggle in later life to socialise.

There is a direct correlation with the period of time in solitary confinement and the worsening or heightening of mental health issues through the loss of the stimulus of meaningful social contact, something that is essential for human development. These can often have lasting effects on prisoners.

This lasting effect is evident in Robert King, an inmate of Angolan jails, who was in solitary confinement for 29 years: when he got out, he is said to have had extreme trouble with recognising people’s faces and ultimately was forced to retrain his eye to detect faces. His social skills outside of the cell also completely evaporated and he struggled to follow simple directions as he navigated himself around a city. Robert King essentially had to start from scratch, and retrain himself to be a functioning member of society after the harsh and permanent effects solitary confinement gave him.

New research has also found solitary confinement can actually physically change the brain as psychologists have recently discovered it can lead to a loss of hippocampal plasticity – meaning memory, learning and spatial awareness decreases – exemplified by Robert King’s experience. Whilst the hippocampal plasticity decreases, the amygdala increases; this results in a significant increase in fear and anxiety.

Suicide and self-harm often run rife among inmates in solitary confinement, due to the overwhelming sense of hopelessness and depression they report feeling. They often resort to cutting and banging their heads against the cell wall, and even in extreme cases self-amputations. One statistic reports self-harm was up to seven times

higher among inmates when 7% were in solitary confinement. A fairly recent study shows ‘inmates ever assigned to solitary confinement were 3.2 times as likely to commit an act of self-harm per 1,000 days at some time during their incarceration as those never assigned to solitary.’. 3 Self-harm seems to be an epidemic among prisoners in solitary confinement.

In conclusion, it’s clear there are lasting and intense psychological effects on inmates and the inmates facing solitary confinement are often the most vulnerable in the whole prison. Which raises the question: is it really ethical to force our most vulnerable prisoners, many of whom have mental health issues to face a punishment that many have described as ‘worse than torture’?

Notes: 1 Jeffrey L. Metzner, Jamie Fellner

Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online (March 2010) 2 Maureen L. O’keefe MA, Administrative Segregation for Mentally Ill Inmates, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation (22nd September 2008) 3 Kaba, Fatos, solitary confinement and the risk of self-harm among jail inmates (March 2014)

April 2020 by Mr E.F.J. Twohig