URBANISM
2
Australian Southeast Coastline
A-1
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
This seminar surveys contemporary theories and methods of urbanism as a lens for critically engaging in urban design discourse and practice. Urbanization makes cities and their larger serving territories simultaneously participants in, and resultants of, systems of economy, culture, and power. Accordingly, we can interrogate different urbanization dynamics to reveal embedded relationships between urban space and form, policy and design, public(s) and their representation, cultural and environmental specificities, socioeconomic and political regimes. This course presents an interdisciplinary cross-section of theories of urbanization, drawing from architecture, landscape, planning, urban design, cultural theory, geography, sociology, political science, and ecology, in order to critically examine cities and the methods that have been used in urban design practice globally.
CONTENTS
096
182
South Africa
Former Yugoslavia
132
Ruhr Metropolis
Orlando Towers Ponte City Bo Kaap Zeitz MOCCA District 6
Block 02 Begrade Laginjia Street Zagreb Block 29 Belgrade Zenica Town Skopje Master Plan
Duisburg Nord Landscape Park Renewal of the Deninghauser Stream The Ruhr Museum Ruhr University West Ruhr Network Metropolis
310
350
390
Australian Coastline
Jing Jinji Region
Mediterranean Sea
The Good Line
Beijing Finance Street Xiong An New District Huaming Town of Tianjin Fendi Next Master Plan Micro- Space Design of Tuan Jinhu
Pro-ject (MRC) Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Greenhouse Farming in El Ejido Jefaira Seafront Masterplan New Haifa Waterfront Plan
Sydney Park Howard Smith Whaves RMIT New Acedemic Street The 200 km City
562
602
650
Pearl River Delta
Prague - Bratislava
New York Metropolitan Area
Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge
The Old Jewish Cemetery Franciscan Garden Market activities of Bratislava
Resiliency plan of South long island
High Education Mega Center Liede Village Resettlement Downtown Macao Renovation of Nantou Old Town
Prague ForCity Alfa tram System Vltava Waterfront Project
A-4
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
BIG U Tri-state trail network Brooklyn Navy Yard Triboro Line
006 Collective Map 008
Introduction
210
014
056
Korean Peninsula
Mekong River Basin
Sewoon Sangga Paju Book City Yonsan Garrison Kim II - Sung Square Bukchon Hanok Village
Kompong Phluk Nam Ngum Dam Chiang Khong - Huay Xai Border Can Tho 2030 Master Plan Sa Dec City
252
282
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Dutch Waterline
Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt
Crawford Market Lower Parel Worli Koliwada Palava City, Dombivali Eastern Waterfront
Pampus Expansion Planning Utrecht Central Station The Dafne Schippers Bridge
Transoceanic Highway
428
Plaza de Tres Cultures Xochimilco Park Los Faros Unam Ciudad Universitaria
DIKES+SPATIAL Quality Markthal
514
476
Indonesia
Singapore
Greater Tokyo Area
The Green Manhattan Kampung Pelangi Bandung Pluit City (Aceh)
Intelligent Nation 2025 Punggol 21-Plus Punggol New Town Growth Triangle Underground Space Development
A Plan for Tokyo 1960 Super Levees Yokohoma International Terminal 2020 Olympic Games Planning Sorado Farm
678
744
714
Greater São Paulo
Mississippi River Basin
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
Vale do Anhangabaú Jardim Floresta & Imbuias I Favelas Centro de Acçao Social por Música SESC Fabrica Pompéia Várzea do Tietê Park Project
Mississippi River Levee Model Harbor Town Chouteau Greenway Vieux Carre Baton Rouge to New Orleans
Early Soviet Town Planning Sotsgorod/Magnitogorsk/CIAM Warsaw Palace of Culture and Science Berlin Wall German Rural Town Planning
Australian Southeast Coastline
A-5
Mediterranean Sea
Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey
Former Yugoslavia
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
South Africa: Cape Town & Johannesburg South Africa
Mumbai Metropolitan Region India
Singapore Singapore
Australia Southeast Coastline Australia
Indonesia Indonesia
Mekong River Basin
Cambodia, China, The Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
Jing JinJi China
Pearl River Delta China
The Ruhr Metropolis Germany
Prague and Bratislava Czech Republic
New York Metropolitan Area United States
Greater SĂŁo Paulo Brazil
The Dutch Waterline The Netherlands
Russia and The Eastern Bloc Russia, Germany, Poland, Croatia
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt United States
Mississippi River Basin United States
Tokyo Metropolitan Area Japan
Korean Peninsula
South Korea, North Korea
Territory
Description
Korean Peninsula
The Korean peninsula is a place of oddity and peculiarity urbanistically. Its superblocks are an entire order of magnitude larger than those of Manhattan and Melbourne. Its streets are characterized by an erratic, opaque logic. Over half of the land is mountainous, yet one of the world's megacities resides here. Additionally, half of its land is largely off-limits to foreigners. The peninsula has mostly been discussed from a historical perspective. With recent geopolitical tensions, the global prominence of Hallyu, and emergence of other cultural oddities, the conversation has slowly shifted to a cultural and geopolitical perspective. However, urban aspects of the peninsula are still largely undiscussed. Some urbanistic scholarship exists but the peninsula is still largely portrayed as a foreign object rather than an urban object. This study challenges the prevailing Occidental paradigm of which territories can contribute to Urban Theory.
Mekong River Basin
Mekong River Basin ventures into the unchartered territory of urban research for its intimate relationship between water and urban, rapid growth in the rural area, and its trans-boundary cooperation. This territory is significant for the study of urbanism study firstly as it examines the indispensable influence of water on the region, translated in the manifestation of unique housing typologies, urban transport systems, production, cultural activity and lifestyles. The seasonal change of water flow and interrelated ecological system requires the holistic examination of the territory. As one of the least urbanized regions of the world, the fast urbanization process, with her distinctive territory, paves the way for the exploration of novel urban research methodologies and experimental practices.
South Africa
South Africa offers a platform to observe different theories and methods of urban design. Cape Town and Johannesburg, the two most populous cities, are formed out of drastically different circumstances. They are united by a checkered past juxtaposed with a complex present that is affected by a host of extractive economy activities. The various influence of African nations, colonialist powers, and current globalization pressures have resulted in distinctive expressions of built environment, rarely found in the “Global North�. South Africa is not immune to global trends or capitalist influences, and these global trends have given birth to many unexpected outcomes that are further discussed in this section.
Former Yugoslavia
The urban research undertaking of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is significant. Undergoing an extensive transformation in the economic and social structure from 1948 to 1992, architectural design and urban planning were thrusted into a new stage and achieve incredible infrastructural achievements that deserve to be examined. As the funding system for urban development immensely differed from the capitalist system in most of western countries that we are familiar with, the paper seeks to explore the political impacts on urbanism within the context of this government-controlled system, formerly adopted by Former Soviet Union.
Ruhr Metropolis
The Ruhr Metropolis is one of the paradigmatic cases of post-industrial urbanism in the North-Hemisphere. The scale and ambitions of the projects have transformed the region, changing the negative image of pollution legacy into a robust proposal stewarding the industrial heritage as a key cultural component in the region. Integrating landscape, housing, education, and art, different initiatives have transformed formerly industrial sites into new places of opportunity for the future. Learning from the Ruhr Metropolis would enable us to draw and extract lessons from the successful transition of these deindustrialized regions during the period.
A-8
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Case Study
Urbanism
Sewoon Sangga
Post-Industrial
Paju Book City
Post-City
Yongsan Garrison
Post-Colonial
Kim Il-Sung Square
Juche
Bukchon Hanok Village
Post-Imaginary
Kompong Phluk
Ephemeral
Nam Ngum Dam
Infrastructural
Chiang Khong - Huay Xai border
Cross-Border
Can Tho 2030 Master Plan
Post-Colonial
Sa Dec City
Productive
Orlando Towers
Informal
Ponte City
Utopian
Bo Kaap
Post-Colonial
Zeitz MOCAA
Post-Industrial
District 6
Crisis
Block 02 Belgrade
Social
Residential building in Laginjina Street Zagreb
Social
Block 29 Belgrade
Social
Zenica Town
Industrial
Skopje Master Plan
Utopian
Duisburg Nord Landscape Park
Landscape
Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream
Ecological
The Ruhr Museum
Post-Industrial
Ruhr University West
Social
Ruhr Network Metropolis
Network
A-9
Territory
Description
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
The Mumbai Metropolitan Region(MMR) is one of the largest and fastest growing metropolitan regions in the World. Urban landscapes in India are transforming rapidly, forming secluded bubbles that are disconnected from the surrounding topography and natural condition. These processes adopted by MMR in her city making through reclamation and ecological manufacturing has dualistic effects on the urban environment: a cohesively integrated or a completely disintegration social and infrastructural fabric. The MMR transformation renders a constant flux of “kinetic” and “static” forces – due to its geography, boundaries, topography and demography. This constant state of conflict between the fluid and permanent, the rich and poor, the local and migrant, the majority and minority, creates a fertile ground for urban experimentation.
Dutch Waterline
The Dutch Waterline area exemplifies the unique Dutch urbanistic tradition of integrating water and land. As a complex water management system, the waterline shows the use of the controlled inundation, a Dutch innovation enabling the integration of urban and rural areas. The national revitalization project of the New Dutch Waterline demonstrates the technical expertise of the Dutch in water management technologies, contributing to urban development and urban landscape in the national context. In addition to the landscape value, large cities along the waterline are popular amongst residents and migrants due to ample job opportunities presented in a vibrant domestic market and opportunities for a healthier lifestyle. The ecological, social, and infrastructural conditions of the waterline area facilitate capital accumulation, which posits the exploration of urban design and planning for collective uses and the common capital.
TransMexican Volcanic Belt
Stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of California, the Transvolcanic Belt is a region of high volcanic activity, featuring a physiographically complex series of mountainous peaks. Straddled with a rich history, the region exhales a palpable palimpsest of rich mesoamerican culture, tumultuous colonization, and rapid urbanization that has left its mark on the urban fabric. Peeking into the strata of these complex layers has the potential to provide clarity into the relationships between the vast urban systems present in modern-day Mexico City, it’s urban periphery, and the transoceanic networks that connect into the broader global ecosystem.
Australia Southeast Coastline
With most of Australia’s major cities aggregating along the Australia Southeast Coastline, the region offers an riveting glimpse of the large urbanization dynamics at the continental scale. The Australian Southeast Coastline, an urban continuum that extends over 2100 kilometers, has dense historical ties with its historic rail reserves and rural utilities development from its colonial era. Australia’s urban form is changing significantly while undergoing the processes of deindustrialization. The legacy of its former industrial uses is still present in the landscapes: environmental damage and water pollution lead most efforts of recovery in these areas. The territory reveals how urban form has responded to the confluence of historical, landscape and environmental challenges.
Jing Jinji Region
Beijing, Tian Jin, He Bei are three important provinces in the northeast China witnessing important urban transformations and home to 90 million people. Despite the status-quo of unbalanced development, the government has decided on cooperative planning and development, leveraging on the strengths of each city while focusing on the capital Beijing. According to the latest policy of Chinese government, Xiong An New district in Baoding, Hebei will relieve the non-core capital functions of Beijing and foster a closer relationship between rural and city areas. Moreover, Beijing plays as political, cultural, international communication and technology innovation center. This territory provides a diverse range of urbanistic interventions in this metropolitan group centered on the redistribution of urban functions and control of unbalanced growth.
A-10
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Case Study
Urbanism
Crawford Market
Everyday | Productive
Lower Parel
Post-Colonial
Worli Koliwada
Informal
Palava City, Dombivali
Smart City
Eastern Waterfront
Post-Industrial
Pampus Expansion Planning
Utopian
Utrecht Central Station
Infrastructure
The Dafne Schippers Bridge
Landscape
DIKES+SPATIAL Quality
Ecological
Markthal
Productive
Transoceanic Highway
Network/Infrastructure
Plaza de Tres Cultures
Post-City
Xochimilco Park
Ecological
Los Faros
Social
Unam Ciudad Universitaria
Institutional
The Good Line
Post-Industrial
Sydney Park
Infrastructure
Howard Smith Whaves
Memorial
RMIT New Acedemic Street
Social
The 200 km City
Tourist
Beijing Finance Street
Productive
Xiong an New District Urban Planning
Empirical
Huaming Town of Tianjin
New
Fendi Next C Master Plan
Smart City
Micro-space Design of Tuan Jinhu Community
Everyday
A-11
Territory
Description
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean coast has become intensively urbanized in the last decades. However, a closer examination reveals an urban contrast, characterized by the rapid development of cities and decline of the hinterlands. These diverging trajectories of urban development have converged as a result of the establishment of African-European strategic relationships. The investigation examines the three phenomena on Mediterranean coastlines: coastal cities that grow faster than interior cities, coastal cities that grow as a slower pace in comparison to the interior cities, and coastal belts that are either empty or showing intermittent prosperity due to tourism. Five case studies will be discussed to exemplify each of them.
Indonesia
Indonesia, located in Southeast Asia, the fourth most populous country in the world, consists of thousands of islands and hundreds of ethnic groups. While rapid urbanization brings convenience and prosperity, the inadvertent result of problems such as social inequity, environmental degradation, lack of infrastructure even violence, are detrimental. The investigation seeks to explore urban methodologies of cohesive design that activate communities through integrative planning. planning policies can be better implemented into the space, and residents can have access to participate in the design process to make it more transparent and humanized. Besides, urban design can not only shape the urban material environment, but more importantly, optimize and integrate urban social, economic, and political environments to better promote urban development in ecological way.
Singapore
The sui generis nature of Singapore presents a noteworthy opportunity of studying the urban interventions and theoretical methods dealing with resource shortage and overpopulation. Confronting common First-World problems, Singapore is a pertinent example of a world-leading city with its extensive social programs and policies aimed at benefiting citizens and the underprivileged. In a constant search of solutions to the shortage of water and land resource issues, Singapore has developed cutting-edge technologies, such as large water storage plan, seawater desalination, recycling technology. Singapore’s transformation from a fishing village to a First-World country of today requires a dutiful examination of her deliberate and strategic urban policies, planning and design.
Greater Tokyo Area
As the most populous metropolitan region in the world, the Tokyo Metropolitan Area has experienced rapid rebuilding and growth after the second world war with limited land, which is a breeding ground of urban innovation. The Tokyo Bay Area surrounded by the Tokyo Metropolitan Area have experienced radical transformation through reclamation, facing the challenges of global climate change. By studying the Tokyo Metropolitan Area, we can learn of how high-density urban centers can address different urban issues. A study of Greater Tokyo Area’s geography of water bodies and islands will strengthen our understanding of the relationship between city and water.
Pearl River Delta
Pearl River Delta has been one of the fastest urbanizing regions in China. Its booming economy nurtures a great deal of innovative urban practices on the delta base with plenty of historical heritage, which contributes to the urban design methods through various types of urban projects and experimental cases. Sufficient investments, both domestic and foreign, have been enabling these various urban projects to happen in Pearl River Delta. Among the foreign investment attracted by the Pearl River Delta, Hong Kong, Macao and overseas Chinese accounts for the vast majority, which plays a leading role in the rapid urbanization in the Pearl River Delta.
A-12
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Case Study
Urbanism
The Spanish Mediterranean Corridor Project
Infrastructural & Network
Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation
Social
Greenhouse Farming in the Area of El Ejido
Agrarian
Jefaira Seafront Masterplan
Productive
New Haifa Waterfront Plan
Post-Industrial
The Green Manhattan
Ecological
The Transformation of Kampung Pelangi
Informal
Bandung
Smart City
Pluit City
Landscape
Community Rehabilitation & Reconstruction Project
Emergency
Intelligent Nation 2025
Smart City
Punggol 21-plus
New
Punggol New Town
Landscape
Growth Triangle
Splintering
Underground Space Development
Infrastructure
A Plan for Tokyo 1960
Utopian
Super Levees
Infrastructure
Yokohama International Terminal
Landscaoe
2020 Olympic Games Planning
Ephemeral
Sorado Farm
Agrarian
Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge and Portal
Infrastructural & Network
High Education Mega Center
Productive & Institutional
Liede Village Resettlement and Renewal
Social
Downtown Macao (St. Anthony Parish)
New/Lean
Renovation of Nantou Old Town
Ephemeral
A-13
Territory
Description
Prague Bratislava
“The research establishes a comparative analysis between two capital cities, Prague and Bratislava, and examines their entangled histories and contemporary urbanisms. The two cities used to belong to the same country, Czechoslovakia, but due to the baptism of political division and violent war, plus the original different geographical conditions, they developed into completely different political and economic systems. Moreover, the two cities have a long-term antagonism with river problems, such as sewage treatment, flood issue, waterfront tourism resources, and so on. By a closer look at these two cities offers an interesting window to the historic transformation and conservation of Central European territories and the development of national identities.”
New York Metropolitan Area
New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most ethnically-diversed and religiously varied regions. However, its urban center is facing upcoming climate challenges. The requirement of Metropolitan area is not only to create beautiful urban spaces, but to make a coastal region shows how to adapt and make an easier, healthier and more affordable place to live and work in this fast-paced, expensive metropolis. In this context, a lot of proposals and projects has popped up, there are conflicts between existing regional planning and emerging projects, conflicts between urbanisms and thoughts, which is a perfect place to study for urbanists, not only because the completeness and well designing of these projects, but they also consider more about social, ecology and economic elements in such a complex environment.
Greater São Paulo
The Greater São Paulo region is a relevant case study to assess the impact of dynamic and progressive urban policies responding to the unpredictable and fluid nature of contemporary urbanization in the Latin Global South region. Its unprecedented urban-rural migration growth, exacerbated by strong urbanization and lack of proper planning, has created social conflict and inequality, characterized by the contrast of high-rise office towers close to poor informal settlements. The drastic income and social inequality, characterized by a majority living in precarious urban conditions, highlights the necessity for a progressive urban policy that can challenge for reconstruction of a re-distributive and inclusive urban order. The case studies seek to explore critical urbanism and its related urban interventions in response to its urban-rural relations.
Mississippi River Basin
Man’s exploitation of this river with industries and urbanization has caused the river cities and towns highly prone to flooding. This issue was temporarily resolved with the infrastructural interventions (levees, canals, dams, bridges) to control the river but failed time and again due to the outdated technology and poor political attention to these issues. In addition to the natural causes, the intentional exploitation of these industries has also caused the banks and waters to be polluted. From oil spills in the 70s, constant expulsion of toxic gases and large-scale agricultural practices have left the cities air, soil and water to be the most toxic in the country.
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
Russia has a particularly violent and ideologically pervasive history, shown best during its transitory periods. The first transition was from an empire, the Tsardom of Russia, to a socialist nation following the Russian Revolution of 1917. The second transition was the collapse of the United Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 and the transformation into the current Russia Federation. This period of history from 1917 to 1991 was marked by conflict and strife, with two major World Wars and several other, smaller wars as the power balances shifted and settled across the globe. Because of this, the time between the Russian Revolution and the collapse of the USSR is the major focus of this body of research.
A-14
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Case Study
Urbanism
The Old Jewish Cemetery
Memorial
Paju Book City
Landscape
Market Activities of Bratislava
Everyday
Prague ForCity Alfa tram System
Infrastructure
Vltava Waterfront Project
Social
Resiliency plan of South Long Island shoreline
Ecological
BIG U
Landscape
Tri-state Trail Wetwork
Network
Kim Il-Sung Square
Industrial
Triboro Line
Infrastructural
Vale do Anhangabaú
Infrastructure
Jardim Floresta & Imbuias I Favelas Upgrading
Informal
Centro de Acçao Social por Música
Informal
SESC Fάbrica Pompéia
Social
Várzea do Tietê Park Project
Water
French Quarter - New Orleans
Infrastructure
Chouteau Greenway - St Louis Upgrading
Informal
Harbor Town - Memphis por Música
Informal
Levee System along Mississippi River
Social
Cancer Alley - Baton Rouge to New Orleans
Anthropocene
Early Soviet Town Planning
Infrastructure
Sotsgorod | Magnitogorsk Upgrading
Utopian & Infrastructure
CIAM and Team Ten Meetings
Utopian
Warsaw Palace of Culture and Science
Post-Colonial
Berlin Wall
Crisis
German Rural Town Planning
Post-Imaginary Urbanism
A-15
THE KOREAN PENINSULA
KOREAN PENINSULA
Korean Peninsula
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
The Korean peninsula is, urbanistically speaking, a strange place. Its superblocks are an order of magnitude larger than those of Manhattan and Melbourne.1 Its street networks leave urban observers in suspense as to whether they possess an obscured, intricate logic or complete irrationality. Intersecting roads may share a name. Signage is everywhere.2 On top of all this, half of its land is largely off-limits to foreign study. The peninsula has mostly been discussed and studied from a historical perspective. With recent provocations between North Korea and the United States, the global prominence of Hallyu, and other cultural oddities (e.g., bballi bballi culture), the perspective has slowly shifted to a cultural and geopolitical perspective.3 However, urban aspects of the peninsula are still somewhat of an unturned stone. Some urbanistic scholarship does exist (i.e., Park and Hong, Yim, Yun) but these works still tend to position the peninsula as a foreign object rather than an urban object. In response to Ananya Roy’s call for “new geographies of imagination and epistemology in the production of urban and regional theory,”4 this chapter reviews existing literature and urban phenomena to examine how the Korean peninsula can create urban theory and challenge Theory. The goal here is not to provide answers or urban dogma but rather to reframe the peninsula’s urban phenomena and shape future conversations.
1. Jung, Inha. 2013. Architecture and Urbanism in Modern Korea. University of Hawai’i Press. 2. Paek, Seung, Seung. Paek, Seung. Paek, Ohio State University. History of Art., and Ohio State University. History of Art. 2014. Urbanism, Signs, and the Everyday in Contemporary South Korean Cities. 312 p. vols. 312 p. Ann Arbor : ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. 3. Romano, Aja. 2018. “How K-Pop Became a Global Phenomenon - Vox.” February 26, 2018. https://www.vox.com/ culture/2018/2/16/16915672/what-is-kpophistory-explained. 4. Roy, Ananya. 2013. “THE 21ST CENTURY METROPOLIS: NEW GEOGRAPHIES OF THEORY.” Andamios: Revista de Investigacion Social 10 (22): 149–82.
Architecture and
Urbanism in Modern Korea
02 Geographic Framework: Culture, Economy, and Sociopolitical Thematics One of the fundamental shaping factors for the Korean peninsula is its geopolitical value. The peninsula is connected by land to China and a relatively short distance across the East Sea to Japan. Historically, Korea has acted as a buffer against Japan from the Chinese perspective or a bridge to China from the
A-18
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Inha Jung
Figure 1. Architecture and Urbanism in Modern Korea Inha Jung (2013)
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2018 2014
Dongdaemun Design Plaza opens Seoul Urban Regeneration Project begins
2010
Seoul becomes a UNESCO Design City Seoul Housing Crisis ends
2005
Cheonggyecheon opens
2010
2000 1997
1997 Asian IMF Financial Crisis
1987
Sixth Republic of Korea Established (Roh Tae-woo) Ryugyong Hotel construction starts Gwangju Massacre Assassination of Park Chung Hee Fifth Republic of Korea Established (Chun Doo Hwan)
1980 1979
1960
Sewoon Sangga opens Current U.S Chancery opens Third Republic of Korea established (Park Chung Hee) Seoul Housing Crisis begins Second Republic of Korea established (Yun Bo-seon & Chang Myon)
Area: 219,155 km2
1953
Korean War ends
Population: 77 million (approx.)
1948 1945
First Republic of Korea established (Syngman Rhee) Korean War begins Japan unconditionally surrenders to Allied forces Japanese colonial occupation ends
[Critical DATA]
1966 1962 1961
Countries: North Korea, South Korea Social Indicators Population Density: 351 people/km2 Environmental Indicators Time Zone: UTC+9 63% of all terrain is mountainous Economic Indicators Total GDP: $1.7 Trillion USD GDP per capita: $22,000 USD Currencies: North Korean Won, South Korean Won
1926
1980
1960
1940
Japanese General Government Building completed 1920
1910
Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty: Japan formally colonizes Korea
1905
1905 Protectorate Treaty: Korea becomes a protectorate of Japan
1897 1895
“Korean Empire” begins, Joseon Dynasty ends Treaty of Shimonoseki grants Korea complete independence
1900
1800 1700 1600 1500
1392
1400
Joseon Dynasty begins
1300 Korean Peninsula
A-19
CHINA
Sinuiju
NORTH KOREA Wonsan
Pyongyang
Kim Il-Sung Square The Demilitarized Zone
Seoul
Paju Book City
Bukchon Hanok Village
SOUTH KOREA
Incheon
Yongsan Garrison Sewoon Sangga
Daejeon
Gwangju
Busan
JAPAN 0 150 km A-20
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
5. Crawford, Matt C. 2018. “South Korea’s Unstoppable Taste for Haste.” July 8, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20180708south-koreas-unstoppable-taste-for-haste. 6. Murphy, Ray. 2015. “Out of the Ordinary: Korean Architecture under the Spotlight.” Http://Www.Port-Magazine.Com (blog). February 7, 2015. https://www.port-magazine. com/architecture/out-of-the-ordinarycontemporary-korean-architecture-under-thespotlight/. 7. Yim, Dongwoo. 2016. [UN] Precedented Pyongyang. Edited by Jelena Prokopljevic and Rafael Luna. Actar Publishers.
Japanese perspective. After World War II, Korea occupied a similar connecting role between communism and capitalism, which came to a head in the Korean War. In recent history, the peninsula acts as a border condition between the Chinese and United States spheres of (military) influence. This strategic value and tension between entities on opposite longitudinal sides of the peninsula has exposed the peninsula to a long history of colonial and post-colonial experiences. This geopolitical strategic value has urbanistically affected the peninsula in two major ways. First, the political division of the peninsula between North and South, reinforced by the DMZ, has created two distinct societies and sets of urbanisms. Second, between Chinese, Russian, Japanese, and American occupation, the peninsula’s urbanisms and urban fabric have adapted to multiple external influences. Another shaping factor at play on the peninsula is Bballi Bballi culture.5 Bballi Bballi culture speaks to the cultural premium placed on speed over efficiency. In North Korea, it is encapsulated in regime slogans of Chollima speed and Mallima speed. Chollima speed refers to a mythical horse that flies 400 kilometers a day. Mallima speed refers to a mythical horse that flies ten times faster. In South Korea, Bballi Bballi culture is credited for the Miracle on the Han River, the explosive economic growth that resulted in an approximate tenfold increase in GDP per capita that occurred after the end of the Korean War. The atmosphere of the construction industry at its fever pitch has been described as “build first, think later”.6
Figure 2. [UN] Precedented Pyongyang Dongwoo Yim (2016)
But lately, globalization has been at the forefront of the peninsula’s focus. South Korea, which has historically seen globalization as the sole means of becoming world-class economy and country, has lately begun to reflect upon the costs of its fervent pursuit of globalization and whether its national attitude needs to change. On the other side of the DMZ, despite erratic statements and actions regarding North Korea’s future plans for its nuclear program and related foreign policy, questions and speculations have arisen regarding the opening to
Korean Peninsula
A-21
Figure 3. Seoul’s growth over time
foreign investment.7 On the peninsula, the biggest questions revolve around reunification. When might it happen? What will it look like? What are those people on the other side like?
03
Urban Dynamics
One cannot have a conversation about Korean urbanity without addressing the terrain. Roughly 63% of the peninsula is mountainous, or at least considered to be so.8 The term “Mountainous” has been scrutinized because 63% is likely an underestimate of significantly steep land. Seoulites frequently live and build on terrain that most Americans would consider prohibitively steep. This is not to say that elevation has no effect on construction, just that buildable land, even from a Korean perspective, is scarce. Buildable land is in fact so scarce that the value of a building is often not included in land value, instead the Floor Area Ratio factors strongly into the land’s value.9 A plot in Downtown Seoul recently sold for $80,000 USD per square meter, or about $7,400 USD per square foot. Manhattan real estate averages under $1,800 USD per square foot. Land is money, buildable floor area is land. In Seoul especially, high land values compound with historically-rewarded speculation. From 1963–1979, Seoul land prices north of the Han River, the city’s historic center, increased by a modest 2,500%. In the popular borough of Gangnam, land prices increased between 80,000 and 13,000%.10 These astronomical value gains have warped the real estate market in Seoul to the point where apartments in decrepit-looking buildings can sell for a higher price than comparable apartments in a newer building: older looking buildings are more likely to be bought out and redeveloped.11
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
8. Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. 9. Kim, Sung Hong, Eungee Cinn, Keehyun Ahn, Seungbum Kim, Isak Chung, Da Eun Jeong, and Richard Enos, eds. 2016. The Far Game: Constraints Sparking Creativity. SPACE Books. 10. Marshall, Colin. 2017. “Lacking Seoul? Why South Korea’s Thriving Capital Is Having an Identity Crisis.” The Guardian, July 18, 2017, sec. Cities. https://www.theguardian.com/ cities/2017/jul/18/seoul-south-korea-identitycrisis-brand-psy-gangnam-style.
Figure 4. The FAR Game Sung Hong Kim, et. al. (2016)
Population
in millions
Land Area
in km2
Figure 5. Seoul’s subway development from 1974 to 2009
Figure 6, 7. South Korea’s population in 2007, South Korea’s land area in 2007
Figure 8. South Korea’s population density in 2000 (people per km2)
Figure 9. An illustration of how Korea’s form has historically responded to its topography
Korean Peninsula
Figure 10. Korea’s mountainous terrain in blue
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Figure 11. South Korean soldiers watch a North Korean administration building at the Joint Security Area at the Korean Demilitarized Zone
Other urban issues discussed in the following essays include the future of Seoul’s aging industrial megaprojects, the United States’ military infrastructure and colonial shadow, South Korea’s attempts to break Seoul’s regional hegemony, North Korea’s fledgling free-market systems, and the peninsula’s future imaginaries
04
Selected Urban Projects
This study examines five urban phenomena as examples of and starting points for each of the five selected urbanisms: Sewoon Sangga for Post-Industrial urbanism, Paju Book City for Post-City urbanism, Yongsan Garrison for PostColonial urbanism, Kim Il-Sung Square for North Korean urbanism, and Bukchon Hanok Village for Post-Imaginary urbanism. The term “phenomena” is used rather than “project” to reflect products of culture, society, and urban life, not just of a designer or developer. Originally envisioned as a mixed-use, self-sustaining complex, Sewoon Sangga eventually became a predominantly industrial site. Filled with numerous small-scale industrial manufacturers and craftsman and extending more than a kilometer (three-quarters of a mile), Sewoon Sangga is jokingly said to sell everything necessary to build a nuclear submarine.12 However, the complex has deteriorated since its construction in the nineteen-sixties, both structurally and commercially, leading to extensive professional and public conversations regarding its post-industrial future. The two states of the Korean peninsula, North Korea and South Korea, are separated by the world’s most fortified border condition: the Korean Demilitarized Zone, often known as the DMZ, running 250 kilometers in length
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11. Lab, ANCB The Aedes Metropolitan. 2014. Public Debate. Seoul: Towards a Meta-City - 29/08/2014. https://vimeo. com/105102290. 12. Wainwright, Oliver. 2017. “The ‘spaces between Buildings’ – Seoul’s First Architecture Biennale.” The Guardian, November 1, 2017, sec. Art and design. https://www.theguardian. com/artanddesign/2017/nov/01/seoul-southkorea-architecture-biennale-sewoon-sanggaskygarden.
Figure 12. Sewoon Sangga in its urban context
and four kilometers in width. On the southern side of the DMZ, the city of Paju has historically housed military bases and civilian tours of the DMZ. However, since the 1990s, large city-scale projects have been developed in the small border town, Paju Book City being one of them. Until recently, the Yongsan Garrison in Seoul, South Korea served as the United States Military’s headquarters for South Korean operations. Originally constructed by the Japanese colonial government prior to their occupation from 1910 to 1945, the garrison has long been a strong symbol of colonialism on the peninsula. In 2004, the U.S. and South Korean governments agreed to a plan to relocate U.S. military operations from the Yongsan Garrison to Camp Humphreys. Although the relocation has stalled at almost every step along the way and is still ongoing, the prospect of a vacated Yongsan Garrison presents an opportunity for post-colonial reflection and speculation. Though it accounts for half of the peninsula, not much is known about the urbanisms of the isolated, socialist state of North Korea. In the capital city of Pyongyang, sitting on the Taedong river and along a monumental axis with Juche Tower and the Grand People’s Study House, Kim Il-Sung Square is the notorious stage for the Kim regime’s parades and shows of power. In this study, it is used to frame discussion on North Korea’s urbanism. Finally, after Joseon, Japanese occupation, the war, the Miracle on the Han River, Hallyu, and other nationally-defining moments, what describes Korea or Korean, for that matter, today? Sanitized revisionism, aspirations of globalization, and questions of who the audience and inhabitants of Seoul’s present and future urbanisms all converge into the Bukchon Hanok Village, which frames a reflection on the urban consequences of understanding national identity and understanding of its absence.
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SEWOON SANGGA [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] One of the many things the Korean peninsula is known for in the past century is rapid industrialization. The Park Chung-Hee regime is the epitome or exemplar, depending on perspective, of this period. After the Korean War, through his Five Year plans, Park Chung-Hee heavily promoted construction and industrial development. Though this was not without its consequences (e.g., environmental and equity/dislocation), these developments and policies are often credited with South Korea’s unexpected economic rise: the Miracle on the Han River1. Amidst the wave of build first, think later development of the time, Sewoon Sangga (also romanized as Seun Sangga) stands out as an especially post-industrial phenomenon. Designed by Korea’s famous modernist architect, Kim Swoo-Geun, Sewoon Sangga is an eight-building complex stretching 1.2 kilometers. Originally envisioned as a self-sustaining, mixed-use “city within a city” connecting the UNESCO recognized world heritage site of Jongmyo shrine to Nam mountain, the site eventually regressed into a complex of small-scale industrial producers and vendors as the apartments dilapidated2.
[Location] [Date of Construction, Exact or estimated] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built / Ephemeral / Demolished] [Footprint] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant Actors] [Key Concepts and Themes] [Programs] [Funding Streams]
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1. Tudor, Daniel. 2018. Korea: The Impossible Country. 2nd ed. Tuttle Publishing. 2. Marshall, Colin. 2016. “Finding a New Seoul in the Old Buildings of Kim Swoo-Geun, Architect of MOdern Korea.” Blog of Los Angelese Review of Books. October 30, 2016. http://blog. lareviewofbooks.org/the-korea-blog/ finding-new-seoul-old-buildings-kimswoo-geun-architect-modern-korea/.
Seoul, South Korea 1966 Open and renovation in progress 9.6 acres, 1.2 km in length Kim Swoo Geun Seoul Metropolitan Government Modostudio Megastructure, Mixed-Use, Adaptive Reuse, Small-scale Manufacturing Small-scale Manufacturing, Technical Education, Restaurants/Cafes Public
Figure 13. Sewoon Sangga’s first inter-building connection
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Since its construction in 1966, it has been widely panned for its appearance, its poor quality, and the reckless attitudes towards development that conceived it. Initially, the commercial activity inside it protected it from public calls for demolition, but with business declining since the nineteen-seventies, demolition and redevelopment plans became more frequent and more detailed, suggesting Sewoon Sangga’s imminent doom. However, recent international architectural interest in the megastructure, further catalyzed by the inaugural Seoul Biennale, seems to have secured its future for the time being. Though conversations regarding its future had existed long before, in 2014, the Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) began the Urban Regeneration projects, intended to revitalize forlorn, dilapidated sites without redevelopment or gentrification. Sewoon Sangga was chosen as one of the flagship projects. Since its inauguration as an Urban Regeneration project, a design competition was held, with the Italian firm Modostudio’s proposal selected as the future form of Sewoon Sangga with programming determined by the SMG’s Urban Regeneration department. While Modostudio’s proposal is fairly inert and mostly additive rather than substitutional, it is worth reiterating that it is a flagship project and not representative of the results of other post-industrial interventions in Seoul. It is certainly not representative of the transformations of post-industrial Seoul in places like Mullae-dong3 and Changsin-Sungin4. These transformations, at Sewoon Sangga and other post-industrial sites, are not without stakes, both for industry and the proximate residents. Though economic trends seem to be shifting away from manufacturing and heavy industry, presumably towards what we think of as white-collar jobs, local industry still holds value. Value in both the national security sense of maintaining control over critical supply chains and the urbanist sense of providing for local workers, residents, and neighborhood life. Seoul’s current policy actions (i.e., the Urban Regeneration projects) and urban trends towards transforming these spaces to cater to tourists often find themselves at odds with the aforementioned vulnerable.
Figure 14. Section of Sewoon Sangga’s 8 buildings (max. height ~ 170 ft)
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3. Siu, Yolanta C. 2017. “Collective Dust.” Places Journal, June. https://doi. org/10.22269/170628. 4. Kim, Jiyoun, and Mihye Cho. 2017. “Creating a Sewing Village in Seoul: Towards Participatory Village-Making or PostPolitical Urban Regeneration?” Community Development Journal, November, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsx051.
Figure 15. Figure ground diagram of Sewoon Sangga and its context
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Figure 16. Kim Swoo Geun, the architect of Sewoon Sangga
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TAXONOMY : Exterior Walkway Figure 17 (left). Lively exterior walkway in the 1960s Figure 18 (right). Dilapidated exterior walkway in present day
TAXONOMY : Building entrance condition Figure 19 (left). Building entrance condition after opening Figure 20 (right). Renovated contemporary entrance condition
TAXONOMY : Interior Corridor Figure 21 (left). Interior (commercial) corridor Figure 22 (right). Interior storefront/workshop
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PAJU BOOK CITY [POST-CITY URBANISM] In 1995, Rem Koolhaas asked “whatever happened to urbanism?”1. Modernism had failed. Mass-urbanization had rendered classical understandings of urbanism obsolete. Order and omnipotence were now urban fantasies. Around the same time, Ignacio de Sola Morales told us about “terrain vague”2. He told us of the opportunities and freedom to be had in these neglected, open spaces. As if in concert or conspiracy, Albert Pope pointed out our ignorance of these spaces, our inability to see them, and our inability to design them without destroying them3. These intellectuals told us that urbanism as we knew it was over, that all that remained for us henceforth was post-city urbanism. Today, if one was to perform a quick empirical experiment, it can seem as though theses post-city urbanists had no idea what they were talking about. Postindustrial responses since have (arguably) framed the space Pope talked about without destroying it. New Urbanists have for their neo-classical fight to preserve the remaining semblance of classical urbanism. And they seem to have won in much of the United States. The suburbs have continued to grow, and they still drive downtown for food and drink. The City seems to live on. We seem to be post-post-city.
[Location] [Date of Construction, Exact or estimated] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built / Ephemeral / Demolished] [Footprint] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant Actors] [Key Concepts and Themes] [Programs] [Funding Streams]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. Rem Koolhaas. 1995. “Whatever Happened to Urbanism?” Design Quarterly 164 (164): 28–31. https://doi. org/10.2307/4091351. 2. Mariani, Manuela, editor of compilation., and Patrick Barron 1968editor of compilation. 2014. Terrain Vague : Interstices at the Edge of the Pale /. First edition. xiii, 256 pages : vols. xiii, 256 pages : New York : Routledge, Taylor & Francis group, 2014. 3. Pope, Albert, 1954-. 1996. Ladders /. 278 p. : vols. Architecture at Rice University ; No. 34., 278 p. : Houston, Tex. : New York : Rice School of Architecture ;
Seoul, South Korea 1989 Built 215 acres Korea Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism Regional Planning, Decentralization Publishing, Commercial, Wetlands Public and Private
Figure 23. Paju Book City
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However, if we shift our focus from the Occident, and peer over at the Korean peninsula, we find reason to believe that the post-city urbanists might not have been so wrong after all. If we look at Paju, the South Korean border town on the DMZ, we begin to see elements of the post-city urbanism previously declared to be self-evident.
4. Matta-Clark, Gordon, 1943-1978., Jeffrey. Kastner, Sina. Najafi, Frances. Richard, Jeffrey A. Kroessler, White Columns (Gallery), and Queens Museum of Art. 2005. Odd Lots : Revisiting Gordon Matta-Clark’s Fake Estates /. 95 p. : vols. 95 p. : New York : Cabinet Books.
But first, for context, we should talk about Seoul. Seoul, the national capital, the overwhelming majority of the modern state’s history, this is the starting point of Korean post-city urbanism. Here, the consumption of architecture that Koolhaas declared in 1995 is complete. There are no more green fields, only towers, mountains, and satellite towns. Identifying the center of Seoul is no longer a reciting a common fact, but rather a Rorschach test: your answer displays your perspective. De Sola Morales’ terrains vague exist here, scattered throughout Seoul proper and some beyond, though they tend to look more like Gordon Matta Clark’s fake estates and odd lots4. Here, the urban disorder and dystopia described by the post-city urbanists is (mostly) embodied in reality. If Seoul is what the post-city urbanists were talking about, Paju is what they could never have imagined. Border towns are always odd urban creatures. If Windsor, Ontario is well-behaved and Cuidad Juarez, Chihuahua dysfunctional. Paju might be considered neurotic. Immediately to its north is the world’s most fortified border condition, immediately after that is the North Korean town of Kaesong, part North Korean propaganda, part foreign aid reception zone. Paju itself is a largely empty town, mostly known for being the place where one can buy tickets to tour the South Korean side of the DMZ. This is to say that Paju has no conventional sense of urban relation to context. But it gets stranger inside.
Figure 25. Section of Paju Book City (max. height ~ 30 ft)
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Figure 24. Odd Lots: Revisiting Gordon Matta-Clark’s Fake Estates Matthew Higgs et. al. (2005)
Figure 26. Figure ground diagram of Paju Book City and its context
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TAXONOMY : Books, as object of tourism Figure 28 (left). Bookstore with bookshelf walls Figure 29 (right). Map on large book
In the past couple decades, at least in urban circles, Paju has become known for its bold development projects: the Heyri Art Valley and Paju Book City. Neither have any direct programmatic relation to do with the DMZ (though the Heyri Art Valley was funded by an initiative to lessen the rift between the two states through cultural center development5. The Heyri Art Valley is clearly about art and Paju Book City is clearly about publishing but neither are merely theme parks. For one they each have residents, but more significantly, both are part of a regional effort to break the immense economic and cultural gravity of Seoul.
5.  Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
Figure 27. Convergent Flux Jinhee Park and John Hong (2012)
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TAXONOMY : Highly designed architecture as urban attractor Figure 30. Kyomunsa Headquarters, by Daniel Valle Architects Figure 31. Salim Publishing House, by Stan Allen Architects Figure 32. Rainbow Publishing House, by Daewha Kang Design
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YONGSAN GARRISON [POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] Most post-colonial scholarship and conversation, as covered in the course’s readings, focus on what agency the subaltern has. Or urbanistically speaking, who can contribute to urban Theory1. This essay, however, focuses on how a formerly colonized territory, the Korean peninsula, Seoul, to be specific, might reconcile its colonial past, both Japanese and American, with its yet-to-be-determined future.
1. Roy, Ananya. 2013. “THE 21ST CENTURY METROPOLIS: NEW GEOGRAPHIES OF THEORY.” Andamios: Revista de Investigacion Social 10 (22): 149–82.
Since the Joseon dynasty, the peninsula has seen three major colonial powers: Japan, the U.S.S.R. and the United States. Japan invaded and occupied Korea from 1910 until its defeat in World War 2. After Japan’s exit from the peninsula, the U.S.S.R. and the United States divided the peninsula’s administration along the 38th parallel north, with the U.S.S.R. responsible for the Northern half and the United States responsible for the Southern half. This administrative division became an explicit political and military division through the Korean War. Over these colonial eras, the peninsula has been strongly influenced by each power. We normally do not think of the United States as a colonial power but consider that a 630 acre U.S. military base, the Yongsan Garrison, sits in central Seoul and has done so since its original construction by the Japanese colonial government. And consider that legally, if fighting were to resume between the two Korean [Location] [Date of Construction, Exact or estimated] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built / Ephemeral / Demolished] [Footprint] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant Actors] [Key Concepts and Themes] [Programs] [Funding Streams]
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Seoul, South Korea by 1910 Built 630 acres Japan Japan, South Korea, United States Colonialism, Imperialism, Military Influence Military Headquarters U.S. and Korean Government
Figure 33. Yongsan Garrison
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nations, that the United States, from its 630 central acres, would take control of all military operations for the duration of said conflict. However, despite the long, colonial symbolism of the garrison, through both colonial eras, it has also fostered robust urbanisms throughout the city, especially in adjacent Itaewon, a thriving international neighborhood2. The administrative district, similar to a New York borough, that the garrison resides in has based its urban identity strongly in the garrison and its associated internationalism. And with the U.S. military’s planned relocation from the Yongsan Garrison to the distant Camp Humphries, double the current distance from the North Korean border, the contemporary urban and colonial legacies are now standing questions. One potential way forward from the garrison’s impending vacancy is to completely demolish it. This has precedent in South Korea’s policies regarding Japanese structures after the occupation. Aside from a select few buildings in Seoul (e.g., the Seoul Metropolitan Library) and Gunsan, three hours south of Seoul, most Japanese structures from the occupation have been demolished and erased from the urban fabric. This urban erasure represents a somewhat uncritical attempt to remove existing structures of power and oppression in a move to reassert national sovereignty and individual agency.
Figure 34. Section of Yongsan Garrison (max. height ~ 90 ft)
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2. Yun, Jieheerah. 2017. Globalizing Seoul : The City’s Cultural and Urban Change / Jieheerah Yun. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.
Figure 35. Figure ground Figure ground diagram of Yongsan Garrison
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Figure 36. Military tents at Yongsan Garrison
Another potential way forward is to take the opposite approach and preserve the existing structures. U.S. diplomatic buildings and other Occidentally significant structures generally fall under this approach. If the previously mentioned method of urban erasure is an uncritical rejection of past colonial imposition, this method of complete preservation is an uncritical acceptance of past colonial imposition, accepting existing imposed power structures and social values under the guise of international politics, preservation, and prestige. The current plans for the fate of the Yongsan Garrison are near, if not total, demolition of the existing military structures and then replacement with a park designed by West8. However, community advocates are arguing that the garrison should instead be the site of affordable housing complexes3. Then there is also the question of the existing site contamination from the U.S. military’s past operations. Regardless of which of these desires come to fruition, a programmatic and cultural void in the area would still exist. A reasonable question is if Itaewon would continue to thrive or at least exist in the same manner that it does today without the U.S. military’s continued presence.
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3. Rafferty, Nate. 2019. “Yongsan Garrison to Become Historic Park, Eventually | 10 Magazine.” 10 Magazine Korea. February 19, 2019. https://10mag.com/yongsan-garrison-tobecome-historic-park-eventually/.
TAXONOMY : Military gate checkpoint Figure 37 (top). A military gate checkpoint at Yongsan Garrison TAXONOMY : Fortified wall Figure 38 (center). A fortified wall at Yongsan Garrison TAXONOMY : Military Housing Figure 39 (bottom). A housing complex at Yongsan Garrison
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KIM IL-SUNG SQUARE [JUCHE URBANISM] Formed through Soviet Union influence after World War II and formalized by the Korean Armistice Agreement of 1953 after three years of the Korean War, North Korea, formally the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, represents an urbanism in itself. Less than a century old, North Korea is one of the last socialist states in the world. Most formerly-socialist states have since adopted free-market policies and economies, though many of these states are still less than democratic. North Korea finds itself at a critical junction: will it follow the post-socialist path of other formerly-socialist nations or will it continue on its current path of juche socialism? A critical step to understanding North Korean urbanism, or North Korea for that matter, is understanding Juche. Juche is the official ideology of North Korea. Developed by the state’s first leader, Kim Il-Sung, it was heavily influenced by Marxism before being adapted to the North Korean context. Juche emphasizes the individual, the country, and national sovereignty. One could think of it as socialist values with a neoliberal twist. Juche is used to justify the regime’s policies and is criticized for being a means of preserving the Kim regime1.
[Location] [Date of Construction, Exact or estimated] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built / Ephemeral / Demolished] [Footprint] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant Actors] [Key Concepts and Themes] [Programs] [Funding Streams]
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1. Cha, Victor D., 1961-. 2012. The Impossible State : North Korea, Past and Future /. 1st ed. xii, 530 p. : vols. xii, 530 p. : New York : Ecco.
Figure 40. The Impossible State Victor Cha (2012)
North Korea 1954 Built 18.5 acres Kim Il-Sung regime Kim Il-Sung regime Socialism, Juche Tourism, Military Parades, Political Instrumentalization Public
Figure 41. Kim Il-Sung Square
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The nature of the Kim regime is also important for context. Since its founding in 1953, the state has been ruled by the Kim family, starting with Kim Il-Sung, followed by Kim Jong-Il, and then Kim Jong-Un, the current leader. Through regime propaganda and supporting Juche ideals, Kim Il-Sung is revered as the “eternal president” since the nation’s founding. The centrality of Kim Il-Sung, and the Kim family by extension, in North Korean society is hard to understate. Over 500 official portraits of the “eternal president” still hang throughout Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, at bus stops, homes, stores, government offices, etc. This centrality is best illustrated by Kim Il-Sung Square. Located in front of the Grand People’s Study House and across the Taedong river from Juche Tower, Kim Il-Sung Square is located along a monumental axis meant to symbolize the prominence and power of the deceased Kim’s legacy. The square is where the nation’s infamous military parades and shows of power take place. Fast forward to the present, Kim Jong-un, grandson of Kim Il-Sung, is the leader of North Korea having inherited control of the nation at a tenuous moment. Geopolitically, North Korea has few allies, which it receives significant financial aid from. However, this aid is drying up. North Korea is currently faced with the pressing issue of how it will maintain financial stability and the looming question of whether it will open its doors to foreign investment and development or not. This is where the urbanism comes in.
Figure 42. Section of Kim Il-Sung Square (max. height ~ 120 ft)
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Figure 43. Figure ground diagram of Kim Il-Sung Square and its urban context
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In [UN]Precedented Pyongyang, Dongwoo Yim speculates upon a future where North Korea decides to open up to foreign investment and development. He develops his speculations along three socialist urban morphologies: city of symbolism, city of production, and city of green, and the observed urban changes in post-socialist states which he argues are already beginning in Pyongyang. In his speculations he ponders what Kim Il-Sung Square would look like without the Grand People’s Study House behind it and what Pyongyang might look like with big-box retail such as Costco2. Nolan Gray, however, observes that Kim Jong-Un’s recent residential constructions have been funded by donju, North Korean moneyed elite that run quasi-private enterprises in the country, and supported by the demand of a fledgling middle class3. Based off these observations, he suggests that North Korea could potentially achieve self-sufficiency if it continues along its path. This would result in a further warping of socialist urban ideals along Juche ideology. Although Gray does not provide any speculations of what this urban form could look like, one could imagine more buildings like the Ryugong Hotel, the world’s largest unoccupied structure, and the Soviet model of high-rise apartments.
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2. Yim, Dongwoo. 2016. [UN] Precedented Pyongyang. Edited by Jelena Prokopljevic and Rafael Luna. Actar Publishers. 3. Gray, Nolan. 2018. “The Improbable HighRises of Pyongyang, North Korea.” CityLab. October 16, 2018. https://www.citylab.com/ design/2018/10/whats-behind-north-koreasbuilding-boom/573142/.
TAXONOMY : Juche Tower and Daedong River Figure 44 (top). Juche Tower and Daedong River TAXONOMY : Grand People’s Study Hall Figure 45 (center). Grand Peopl’s Study Hall TAXONOMY : Framing Urban Context Figure 46 (bottom). Neoclassical government buildings frame the monumental instrumentalized axis
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BUKCHON HANOK VILLAGE [POST-IMAGINARY URBANISM] Seoul has been profoundly shaped by imaginaries over its history. The Joseon imaginary claimed an essential, nationalist idea of what Koreanness was, what we think of as traditional Korean culture, The Japanese colonial imaginary dictated what a colony should be. After Japanese occupation, the industrial-developmentalist imaginary kicked in and built what Korea was perceived to need to become a global nation. This imaginary resulted in the so-called Miracle on the Han River, South Korea’s spectacular rise to becoming a top global economy1. Recently, the global city imaginary has been funding and publicizing what Korea needs to look like a global nation.
1. Tudor, Daniel. 2018. Korea: The Impossible Country. 2nd ed. Tuttle Publishing.
Though the global city, imaginary is still active to an extent in the form of Seoul’s Urban Regeneration projects (e.g., Seoullo 7017); most of the city is no longer preoccupied with this or any other prior imaginary. The city is no longer being coherently formed by a collective imagined image. Post-Imaginary urbanism describes the current forming and urbanism of Seoul. Bukchon Hanok Village stands as both an example of how Seoul has been shaped by its multiple imaginaries and as a site of speculation of how postimaginary urbanism may play out. A loosely defined neighborhood just east of [Location] [Date of Construction, Exact or estimated] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built / Ephemeral / Demolished] [Footprint] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant Actors] [Key Concepts and Themes] [Programs] [Funding Streams]
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Seoul, South Korea Unknown Built Uncertain Various Homeowners, Seoul Metropolitan Government Nostalgia, Nationalism, Traditional Culture Housing, Guided Tours Public and Private
Figure 47. Bukchon Hanok Village
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the historic Gyeongbok palace, Bukchon Hanok Village is made of houses in the traditional Korean architectural style, Hanok. Though most have been renovated to resemble ideal images of Hanok rather than preserve their initial form, the village is both admired by tourists and formally promoted by the government for its traditional and nostalgic character2. However, Bukchon has become so popular that the residents claim living a normal life is difficult with the heavy streams of tourists. Residents have started to move out of the village and ask who the city of Seoul is really for: residents or international tourists? Other locations in Seoul that are not being shaped by a collective imaginary but nonetheless are (re)forming are taking urbanistically agnostic approaches. For example, Haebangchon, historically a neighborhood for poor North Korean refugees, has recently started to quickly gentrify, though not in typical ways. While low-skilled service shops have been replaced by trendy restaurants and bars, these developments have been strongly gendered, as women are largely spending their money and consequently shaping the neighborhood3. Here, the neighborhood is responding to gendered purchasing preferences rather than being shaped by a collective image of what women want it to become. Seoul’s mid-scale, multi-family housing provides another, more prevalent, example of how the city is being shaped
2. Yun, Jieheerah. 2017. Globalizing Seoul : The City’s Cultural and Urban Change / Jieheerah Yun. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, 2017. 3. “Ladification: Gendered Gentrification in Seoul, Korea.” n.d. Deconstructing Korea. Accessed April 7, 2019. http:// deconstructingkorea.com/articles/2015/8/2/ gendered-gentrification-ladification.
Figure 48. Globalizing Seoul Jieheerah Yun (2017)
Figure 49. Section of Bukchon Hanok Village (max. height ~ 60 ft)
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Figure 50. Figure ground diagram of Bukchon Hanok Village and its urban context
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by something other than a collective image of what Seoul should be. Instead, Floor Area Ratios are scrutinized for regulatory loopholes and other inadvertently incentivized forms. Thus, the urban fabric becomes calculated rather than imagined. This all raises questions regarding the future of Bukchon Hanok Villages. Whether the government ends its cultural initiative for the village or all of the current residents move out, Bukchon Hanok Village is likely to be significantly shaped again in the future. If the residents decide to remain, one could imagine them constructing separating elements, additional gates or higher walls, to decrease their exposure to tourists and eliminate tourists’ sight of the Hanoks, thus creating a sort of turtled, fortress urbanism. If the village goes the other way and it becomes void of permanent residents, perhaps the village becomes a theme park. It would be similar to Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan, a place where history is revised, staged, and experienced rather than lived. Despite these examples, postimaginary urbanism is not necessarily good nor bad. Post-Imaginary urbanism is instead an illustration of how the city’s urban fabric and life responds to powerful, niche forces, sometimes deliriously.
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TAXONOMY : Hanok Figure 51 (top). Traditional Hanok house in Bukchon Hanok Village TAXONOMY : Gates and walls Figure 52 (center). Gates and walls restricting interaction with neighborhood and illustrating resident-tourist relationships TAXONOMY : Narrow Streets Figure 53 (bottom). Designed before cars became commonplace, these narrow roads reinforce pedestrian use and activity in the neighborhood.
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GREATER MEKONG SUBREGION
Greater Mekong Subregion 01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY As Neil Brenner and Christian Schmid point out in Planetary Urbanization, the “non-urban” realm has been long presupposed as a “constitutive outside” for its epistemological and empirical operations.1 The Mekong River Basin offers a fertile territory for urban research addressing the intimate relationship between water and rapid urban transformation under a framework of trans-boundary cooperation. Defined by the 4,350 kilometers long course of the Mekong River, this territory expands across five countries, resulting in a unique collection of water infrastructures, housing typologies, transportation networks, diverse production, and disparate lifestyles.2 The seasonal changes and interrelated ecologies are legacies of a most convulsive recent history and offer additional layers of complexity in the investigation of this rapidly transforming region. The urban growth rates of all the countries in this territory are higher than the world average, with data projections suggesting that by 2030 more than 40% of its population will be living in urban areas.3 The Mekong River embodies trans-boundary urbanism where research and management are vital to the area’s sustainable future, giving access to natural resources management, and enabling migration, trade and many other socio-economic issues. Not only challenging the city itself as the territory of urban research, but also challenging the nation as absolute divide, identity tag and passive antagonistic entity, this research on the Mekong River Basin hopes to offer a possibility of better urbanization along the border of the river Mekong.
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1. Neil Brenner and Christian Schmid, “Planetary urbanization,” in Matthew Gandy ed., Urban Constellations. Berlin: Jovis, 2012, 10-13. 2. S. Liu; P. Lu; D. Liu; P. Jin; W. Wang (2009). “Pinpointing source and measuring the lengths of the principal rivers of the world”. International Journal of Digital Earth. 2 (1): 80–87. 3. Asian Development Bank. “Greater Mekong Subregion Statistical Database”. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.greatermekong.org/statistics/ index-static.php
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 2011
1995
1973 1968 1966
1955 1954
[Critical DATA] Basin size: 795,000 km2 River Length: 4,350 km Population: 340 million(2016) Country[es]: Cambodia, China (Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam Social Indicators Inhabitation history: more than 4000 years Population and Ethnic groups: more than 300 million people from nearly 100 distinct ethnic groups Environmental Indicators Fishery: up to 25 percent of the global freshwater catch Biodiversity: 20,000 species of plants, 1,200 bird species, 800 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 430 mammal species Economic Indicators: Agriculture and Industry| Hydro Power | Floating Market| Global Economy | Trans-boundary cooperation
The Third Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge opened for traffic on 11 November 2011, connecting Nakhon Phanom Province (Thailand) and Thakhek (Laos), as part of Asian Highway. Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam established the Mekong River Commission (MRC) to manage and coordinate use of the Mekong’s resources.
2000
1980
Direct U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ended in 1973 following the Paris Peace Accords Nam Ngum 1 construction started Sa Đéc City as the site of Sa Đéc Base in 1966 and 1967, an American PBR (Patrol Boat, River) base during the Vietnam War.
1960
The start of undeclared Vietnam War. Geneva agreement, US entered Vietnam. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end.
1940
1948
Burma independence from Britain
1932
The French writer Marguerite Duras lived in Sa Đéc during a threeto four-year period between 1928 and 1932.
1893
Laos was added as French Indochina.
1887
Three Vietnamese regions with Cambodia was formed as French Indochina.
1876
The French colonial enterprise starts in the Mekong Delta.
1871
The French governor pf Cochin-china established a permanent commission for the construction of canals.
1900
1850
1824
British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War. 1800 Siamese kingdom ruled parts of today’s Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Indonesia from 1350 to 1767.
1700
1600 The Khmer Empire effectively dominated all Mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century The earliest recorded civilization was the 1st century IndianisedKhmer culture of Funan, in the Mekong delta. Mekong River Basin
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Figure 01. Territory Map and Location of urbanism study A-60
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02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIO-POLITICAL THEMATICS
4. Asian Development Bank. “The Greater Mekong Subregion: Beyond Borders”. Regional Cooperation Strategy and Program Update 2006–2008. 2005. Accessed April 19th, 2019 http:// www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/ Beyond-Borders/default.asp 5. Biggs, D., 2004. Between the Rivers and the Tides. A Hydraulic History of the Mekong Delta (1820-1975). PhD. Dissertation, University of Washington. 6. See Stefan Lovgren, “Southeast Asia May Be Building Too Many Dams Too Fast”. National Geography, August 23, 2018. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic. com/environment/2018/08/news-southeastasia-building-dams-floods-climate-change/ 7. C N Trueman “The Impact of War on Vietnam” The History Learning Site, 27 Mar 2015. 5 Apr 2019. Accessed April 19th, 2019 https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/
The geographic framework of the Mekong River Basin includes Cambodia, China (Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.4 Most regions listed share a historical and colonial legacy. Although the “canal-creek” civilization in the Mekong Delta existed long before the French colonial interventions, a much greater number of canals were dug during the colonial rule and had transformed the territory into a huge hydrological system and productive agricultural region (see Figure 03).5 The infrastructure and social facilities invested by the colonial powers in the 17th and 18th centuries remained and shaped the urban form and life in these major towns and cities until present. The Mekong River Basin highlights the local cooperative practice in rural areas between community and government. Due to the tight relationship and kinetic interaction between human and nature, community-based protection against deforestation and overfishing not only helps to solve the development and natural protection paradox but also offers a local method towards inclusive planning in rural areas. The economic and socio-political theme of the Mekong River Basin is also about cooperation. The economic cooperation of Great Mekong Subregion started in 1992 with the efforts of the Asian Development Bank to bring the six countries together. Apart from the economic ties between major cities, the cross-border urban areas along the Mekong River are at the frontier of natural resource negotiation. The potential threat of flood caused by dam collapse upstream put villagers downstream in danger regardless of the country border.6 Long-term impact on Mekong fishery and biodiversity are also examples of Mekong River resource management as a trans-boundary issue. While urban planning and design are closely related to natural resource management, they receive little attention regarding cooperation or any effort to deal with this regional issue across the border.
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Figure 02. Mekong River Basin Colonial map.
As for the socio-political perspective, the Second Indochina War, also known as the Vietnam War, destroyed close to two million acres of agricultural land and forest due to the intense bombing missioned by the United States.7 Millions of peasants were forced to leave their ancestral homes, described by Harvard scholar Samuel Huntington as “forced urbanization.”8 The construction of military bases in the region also accelerated the urbanization process, leaving traces in today’s Vietnam rural and urban areas.
03 URBAN DYNAMICS Urban transformations in the territory of Mekong River Basin are rapid, both in the rural and urbanized area. Along the Mekong River, major cities of the region are experiencing fast urbanization and change in the near future. Laos’ four largest cities - Louangphrabang, Vientiane (Laos’ capital), Savannakhet, and Paxhé - are all located along the Mekong, as is Phnom Penh, Cambodia’s capital. Further south in the Mekong Delta, Vietnamese cities such as Sa Dec, Can Tho, Vinh Long, My Tho, Ben Tre, and Tra Vinh are the most productive agricultural land of the region. For the urbanized area, urban transformation faces the threat of climate change and sea level rise and the urgency to be more adaptive in the future development. For instance, the population has doubled in 25 years to over eight million and 60% of the urban area of Vietnam just 1.5 meters above sea level. Ho Chi Minh city (HCM) has been ranked as one of the ten cities in the world most vulnerable to climate change.9
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8. Huntington, Samuel P., July 1968. “The Bases of Accommodation”. Foreign Affairs. 46 (4): 642–656 9. The Guardian, “Mega city, mega problems”, November 26, 2015. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ ng-interactive/2015/nov/26/the-mekong-riverstories-from-the-heart-of-the-climate-crisisinteractive 10. Wolrd Wild Life. “Facts about Greater Mekong”, Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/greatermekong 11. Luc Forsyth, “How A River Builds Houses”. Dec 30th 2015. Accessed April 19th, 2019. http://blog.lucforsyth.com/tag/brick-factory/ 12. Open Development Mekong, “SDG 11 Sustainable cities and communities”. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://opendevelopmentmekong.net/topics/ sdg11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/ 13. Nhan Dan News, “Can Tho city to develop green tourism villages project”. Accessed April 20th, 2019. http://en.nhandan.org.vn/travel/ item/7348702-can-tho-city-to-develop-greentourism-villages-project.html
Figure 03 Mekong Delta Canal Network.
Figure 04 Mekong River Mainstream Dams, 2017.
On the other side, the Mekong River boasts the world’s largest inland fishery and is known as the “rice bowl� of Asia.10 The rural areas are facing the pressure of natural resource exploitation as well as pollution. The city Sa Dec is one example of how agricultural production is closely linked with industry because of the involvement of Mekong River water in this area.11 Sustainable production and growth are already under experiment based on the tradition and wisdom of the local people. Further observation and research are critical in order to provide feedback for the basin and in order to take lessons learned to other parts of the world.12 The unique urban characteristics of this territory are also highly impact by globalization, mostly through international tourism. This causes the environment, economic situation, and policy to change drastically. For instance, cities like Can Tho support development geared towards tourists, with the impact being both positive and negative. The positives include better infrastructure but the negatives include gentrification. Both sides are shaping the urban dynamics in the process.13
Figure 05. Book covers of Ephemeral Urbanism(Left) and Landscape Urbanism
Finally, urban infrastructure such as dams that supports both the rural and urban are suppressing the dynamic change, transforming the once remote natural areas fast into urban environment. Concerns on hydropower development, its impact on the immediate surroundings, as well as the downstream ecosystems are also significant across the territory.
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Figure 06 Rural area of Mekong River Basin
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The selected urban projects reflect five distinctive aspects of urban issues in the Mekong River Basin. However, given the complex and interrelated nature of this territory, the cases were difficult to be solely categorized as only one kind of urbanism theory. The floating village of Kompong Phluk in Cambodia is considered as one example of ephemeral urbanism because the village is constantly moving due to the seasonal change in water level. While the kinetic urban characteristic brought by the intimate relationship with water is typical in this region, the communitybased resource management of the floating village is also unique and thus the project can also be considered social urbanism practice. After the Angkor Wat became a world-wide tourist attraction in the 21st century, Kompong Phluk also became a tourist attraction and the villagers started to grow from new commercial opportunities. Mekong River Basin is heavily dammed. The construction of water infrastructure has had a series of impacts on the urbanization process of the surrounding area. Infrastructural urbanism is best illustrated by the construction of the Nam Ngum Dam in Laos. The reservoir is enormous and inhabited by vacation resorts for Laos’ rich and referred to by the locals as the Laos Sea.14 The dam is the first hydroelectric dam in Laos and has not existed long enough in order to research its ecological impact as well as its impact on the surrounding area’s urban condition. The Chiang Khong - Huay Xai border is a unique cross-border area between Thailand and Laos. Spanning the Mekong River, these two border towns are different in built form and culture but share an intimate connection with each A-64
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14. Luc Forsyth, The Laos Sea, April 20, 2016 blog post. Accessed April 14, 2019, http://blog. lucforsyth.com/tag/nam-ngum/
Figure 07 Urbanized area of Mekong River Basin
other through a long existing slow boat across the border. However, about ten kilometers to the south, the newly-constructed Thai-Laos Friendship Bridge changed the cross-border flow, and the urban conditions on both sides of the bridge appear isolated from any urban context and identical without cultural reference to either side. The last two urban projects are both in the Mekong Delta area of Vietnam. The colonial rule of the French in the 19th century left a well-constructed canal network in the region with a strong hybrid connection between water and on-land transportation. The second Indochina War, also known as the Vietnam War left military bases to become cities and caused accelerated urbanization in rural areas.15 Revision of the 2030 Can Tho Master Plan is an example of urban planning approach focusing on the colonial legacy of canals and the challenge of bringing water infrastructure into modern planning. From water transportation as symbol and method of colonial rule to an approach of achieving ecological and sustainable urban environment, the 2030 Can Tho Master Plan is an example of a post-colonial city experiment on how to weave nature with the urban. Tourism is an important factor in this urban case study. The revised 2030 Master Plan has an additional section addressing the development directly related to tourism and showed a clear sign of welcoming investment on projects for tourists. An increasing number of tourists provides both opportunity and challenge, as the water market is now facing the challenge of not being reserved for local inhabitants anymore.
15. Huntington, Samuel P., July 1968. “The Bases of Accommodation”. Foreign Affairs. 46 (4): 642–656 16. A River’s Tail, “Coconuts Reimagined”, August 8th 2015. Accessed April 19th 2019. http://ariverstail.com/vietnam/mekong-deltacoconuts
City Sa Dec is familiar to the western world because it is the city where French writer Marguerite Duras lived and based her novel The Lover on. The adapted film directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud showed the colonial elements of the city and the close urban-rural linkage. Diverse kinds of agricultural and industrial production are interrelated by water: the brick factories pump clay and Mekong River Basin
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KOMPONG PHLUK [EPHEMERAL URBANISM] Flood is usually considered as something that we need to control through water. According to the seven taxonomies (Religious, Festivals, Transnational, Extraction, Refugee Camps, Emergency responses to natural disasters and Miscellaneous) that identified for the ephemeral city by Rahul Mehrotra1, Kompong Phluk doesn’t belong to any of the category above. However, Kompong Phluk is a great example of how seasonal temporarily challenges the notion of permanence and thus changes the way planning and resource management work. Kompong Phluk lies on the shores of Tonle Sap Great Lake, one of the largest freshwater flood plains in the world. The local urban form and lifestyle has already been adapted to this annual flood cycle along with local vegetation. The village is built on top of wooden poles and stilts between six and eight meters high. During the dry season when the lake is low, the villagers move out onto the lake and build temporary houses, till the rain season they move back. This ephemeral urbanism is seasonal and when compared to Kumbh Mella, the pop-up mega city, Kompong Phluk is small-scaled and more flexible without a permanent master plan from the municipal department. [Cambodia] [2000 as Eco-tourism site] [Ephemeral / Built] [2000 – 3000 residents] [8864 Acres] [ Community Resource Management Committee] [Literally, what are the main components / concepts] [Public]
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1. Rahul Mehrotra, Felipe Vera, José Mayoral, Ephemeral urbanism : does permanence matter? 2017 - Trento : LISt Lab
Location Year Status Population Area Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
Figure 08. Stilted house typology in Kompong Phluk
This commune (several villages of 434 households combined as an administrative unit 2) is also one of those floating villages around all other lakes in Mekong River Basin that reveals the fact that the impact of Mekong has reached a lot further than the riverbank. The villagers rely on the flooded forests to protect their homes from wind and storms and as bountiful fishing grounds, thus the community has a long history of community-based management from 1940s as a means of protecting and managing natural resources in the Cambodian context. It also received support from the Participatory Natural Resources Management in the Tonle Sap Project, implemented by the Government of Cambodia in collaboration with FAO and the Government of Belgium. According to a 16-months field research by Melissa Marschke3,it was only at the end of 2003 that the committee was given secure tenure to implement comprehensive measures for sustainable resource management. One committee member criticized the government policy for taking too long to issue fishery law that by the time it’s enact, there will be no fish left4. The case of Kompong Phluk challenges the permanence of master planning and municipal bureaucracy on rural area which might end up with the same urbanization process instead of a adaptive, ephemeral relationship with nature. Ephemeral urbanism, at a small scale, can be one practical method to achieve adaptive and participatory urban resource management.
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2. . Kaushik, “Floating Village of Kompong Phluk adn Reversing Mekong River of Cambodia”. Accessed April 19th 2019 https://www.amusingplanet.com/2011/06/ floating-village-of-kompong-phluk-and.html 3. Melissa Marschke. “Kompong Phluk and Bos Thom Communities: asserting local rights”. 4. Melissa Marschke and Fikret Berkes, “Local level sustainability planning for livelihoods: A Cambodian experience”
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Figure 09. Kompong Phluk and the relationship between Tonle Sap Lake and Mekong River.
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Figure 10. Kompong Phluk figure ground in dry season and rain season.
Water flooded area Forest area Land area
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NAM NGUM DAM [INFRASTRUCTURAL URBANISM] Stan Allen pointed out both the social and spacial influence that infrastructural interventions bring to the urban area1. The existing research on the impact of dam construction is mainly on the environmental impact and displacement during the construction. But the observation of the area around Nam Ngum dam reveals much more interesting aspects regarding the social change brought by large urban infrastructure. As the first hydro electricity dam in Laos, Nam Ngum Dam is still under research and debate on its ecological impact on the downstream environment after construction. The trade-offs of becoming the “battery of Asia” are already visible: biodiversity loss, food insecurity, surface water pollution, etc2. The interesting and sarcastic situation is that the reservoir, known by the local as “the Laos Sea”3, is now surrounded by relatively luxurious beach resort and become a recommended tourist destination on travel websites. With lots of other dam construction in the Mekong River Basin, displacement is not uncommon during the process, but relating the outcome of water infrastructure construction to tourism is also becoming a trend. Party barges floats on the reservoir and expensive SUVs parked [Laos] [1984] [Built] [4.7 km3] [865 GW] [Électricité du Laos] [US$97 million] [Public]
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1.Stan Allen, Points Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City ““Infrastructural Urbanism looks to explore how spatial and social forms are being transformed through interventions. It is interested in the interplay between social and spatial aspects of infrastructural systems within the current economic and political context.” 2.Envionmental Justice Atlas batabase, Accessed April 14, 2019, https://ejatlas. org/conflict/nam-ngum-2-dam-displacedover-6000-ethnic-minorities-in-vientianelao-pdr 3.Luc Forsyth, The Laos Sea, April 20, 2016 personal blog post. Accessed April 14, 2019, http://blog.lucforsyth.com/tag/ nam-ngum/
Location Year(s) Status Reservoir Capacity Annual Power Generation Agents Construction Cost Funding Streams
Figure 11. Nam Ngum Dam Figure Ground and Conceptual Section
throughout the local village Baan Thaxan4, the main jump point for the wealthy residents from Vientiane. The construction of this huge infrastructure brought about environmental change, transforming land into a inner lake, and created a scenario that manifested the social division between rich and poor in Laos.
4.Sinohydro Corporation Ttd, “Update of Environmental Management Plan”, Accessed April 19th. 2019, https://www.miga.org/sites/ default/files/archive/Documents/EMP_for_ NamN5_HPP_in_Laos.pdf
Infrastructural urbanism, in this case, triggers the process of gentrification. The rural poor are the most vulnerable to any reduction in access to water resources such as fish which they depend on for nutrition and livelihood. The resettlement provided by the government offers more developed infrastructure, especially electricity provided by the dam, but separated the people from the convenient location of fishery. Documented in a year long collaborative multimedia journey, A River’s Tale5, the villages did prospered at first when the dam was constructed, but the government dislike the idea of large population live in remote area, thus villagers all shifted to the town on land. The formation of these new towns with its core function built around tourism reveals a micro scale observation on infrastructural urbanism in the Mekong River Basin.
5. Gareth Bright, Luc Forsyth, Pablo Chavanel, A River’s Tale, Lien AID, Accessed April 19th. 2019, http://ariverstail.com/
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Figure 12. Dams on the Mekong River Basin, 2016.
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Figure 13. Nam Ngum Dam location and Figure ground of resort and local village around reservoir area
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CHIANG KHONG - HUAY XAI BORDER [CROSS-BORDER URBANISM] The concept of a cross-border metropolis first appeared in the academic literature at the beginning of the 1990s. In discussing the emblematic case of San Diego–Tijuana, Herzog (1990) used it to describe the newly emerging cross-border urban spaces that were considered to be a specific product of globalization Herzog (1990: 139), the ‘trans-frontier metropolis’ is an ‘urbanized area fused into a single functional spatial domain that transcends the international border’.1 Different from Transnational urbanism, which addresses transnational social and political processes that are locally situated yet globally related2, cross-border urbanism focuses specifically on the geographically situated cross-border condition that includes social issues of migration, economic issues of trade and tourism, as well as political issues of border control.
1. Herzog, L.A. “Where North meets South. Cities, space and politics on the US–Mexico Border”. Center for Mexican American Studies, University of Texas, Austin, (1990). 2 Michael Peter Smith, Transnational Urbanism: Locating Globalization, WileyBlackwell; 1 edition (October 19, 2000)
Chiang Khong - Huay Xai Border can neither be described as “metropolitan” nor the place “north meets south”. As the nation border between Thailand(Chiang Khong) and Laos (Huay Xai), the physical boundary provided by the Mekong river created two different urban scenarios about how different/the same urban environments can be across border and how the transportation and migration procedure works. One is through international port and taking a slow boat cross border to the other side, which directly gets in the two distinctive border cities. [Laos - Thailand] [2013] [Built] [480 meters] [CR5-KT Group of China and Krung Thon Engineering of Thailand] [Migration, Tourist, Economic Trade zone] [Administration, Resident, Recreation] [Public]
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Location Year of Friendship Bridge Status Bridge Length Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 14 Photos of the cross-border condition around Chiang Khong - Huay Xai.. Mekong River Basin
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1325 ft 1250 ft 1200 ft 1150 ft 1100 ft
Thailand
Laos 0.35 mi
Figure 15. Conceptual Section of the Cross-border Situation
Documented in the travel blog Any Way in a Way3, this peaceful journey doesn’t only serve tourists, monks in their bright orange robes also get on and off if taken the slow boat to Prabang the next morning. Another is by the newly-built Friendship Bridge located 11 km from Chiang Khong. From the satellite map, the migration offices on both sides of the bridge look identical and in the adjacency, both sides are surrounded by in-urbanized area. The urbanization of the border regions along Mekong is powered by not only trade but also tourism. As Christophe Sohn argued in his article The Border as a Resource in the Global Urban Space: A Contribution to the Cross-Border Metropolis Hypothesis, “border can be exploited as an asset”4. The cross-border situation, once the reason of both Huay Xai and Chiang Khong’s existence, now under growing political control over the border that resulted in repressed urbanization on both sides. From border to the center of urbanization, the development and planning of border cities in the Mekong River Basin should be reconsidered.
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3 Any Way in a Way, Mekong crossing on slowboat: from Thailand to Laos, October 5th, 2016, Accessed April 14, 2019, https:// anywayinaway.com/mekong-crossing-slowboatthailand-laos/ 4 Christophe Sohn, The Border as a Resource in the Global Urban Space: A Contribution to the Cross-Border Metropolis Hypothesis, Volume 38.5 September 2014 1697–711 International Journal of Urban and Regional Research.
Chiang-Khong-Thailand-Huay-Xai-Laos
5000ft 5000ft
Chiang Khong-Huay Xai Friendship Bridge Chiang Khong-Huay Xai Friendship Bridge
Supermarket Supermarket
Thai Immigration Office Thai Immigration Office
Hotel
Hotel
Laos Immigration Office Laos Immigration Office
Lao - Thai Border Cross Ferry Lao - Thai Border Cross Ferry
Fort Carnot Fort Carnot
Huay Xai Port Huay Xai Port
Chiang Khong Port Chiang Khong Port
Old City Wall remnants Old City Wall remnants
Guest House Guest House
Figure 16 figure ground of the two Cross-border Situations
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THE 2030 CAN THO MASTER PLAN [POST-COLONIAL/TOURIST URBANISM] The development of the canals system during the Colonial period increased the amount of land under cultivation. At the intersection of main waterways, the floating markets were established as a place to goods exchange 1. The new towns were created to provide services to the farmers. Silt from digging the canals creates a high ground. These man-made levees allowed a road and house to be built on that able to be safe from flooding. The crossroad of the water-scape resulted in a pattern of redialing lines from the central void.2 In these cities, the waterway dominated as a mainly transportation route. The ribbon development of building sited along the canals as settlement forms, but was also the basis for urbanization. Floating market is one unique urban scene existed on this colonial legacy that attracts international tourists. However, both natural and man-made canals were used for goods and people transportation when reliable road network is absent, Thus with the implementation of modern urban planning, many of the floating markets shriveled.
[Viet Nam] [1,242,270 (2014)] [In Progress] [ 140,895 hectares] [ Urban and Rural Planning institute, CTC] [OSA/ WIT/ LATITUDE] [“Water-based city”] [Tourist zone, canal system] [Public]
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1.Dieu Quang Pham, “Urbanizing Mekong Delta in Vietnam: the challenges of urban expansion adapting to floods”, Conference: The 5th International Conference of the International Forum on Urbanism. (Accessed Feb 06 2019). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/271378002_URBANIZING_ MEKONG_DELTA_IN_VIETNAM_ THE_CHALLENGES_OF_URBAN_ EXPANSION_ADAPTING_TO_ FLOODS 2. Kelly Shannon, Annelies De Nijs, “(Re)forming Cantho’s as found canallandscape”, https://ign.ku.dk/english/research/ landscape-architecture-planning/ landscape-architecture-urbanism/worldin-denmark/world-denmark-2010/papersposters/filer/reforming-kelly.pdf
Location Population(2014) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 17 . Urban Planning Map of Can Tho 1970 (Left) and Two Typical Large Urban Corridors of Can Tho Under the influence of the Americans (Right)
The shift from water-based urbanism towards a road-based urbanism requires new morphologies and new relationship between infrastructure and landscape. The proposed revision of Can Tho’s master plan emphasizes the rich qualities of the delta landscape with colonial legacy of canals. Urban growth is structured within several dense urban centers that are interwoven in a green and blue network structure. Main structuring elements cover the whole of Can Tho’s territory: a high-tech agricultural area, a linear park and a civic spine, linking the different urban cores and providing recreational space mixed with public infrastructure elements. The revised 2030 Can Tho Master Plan proposed by the city government (figure 19) sends clear information of inviting in tourist-oriented investment. However, the growing number of international and national tourists has made the urban scenario greatly changed and the city, especially the floating market is changing from local based to tourist oriented. The colonial heritage and architecture signifying the past are used for place marketing3. It has fallen victim to the economic rise of the Mekong Delta, which has rapidly developed over the last decade. But local people are left behind, unable to afford a life on shore4. The conflict between local and tourist is an urgent issue to be discussed and addressed in this unique territory of Mekong River Basin.
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3. Dennis R. Judd and Susan S. Fainstein, the Tourist City, 1999 4. Sònia Vives Miró, Producing a “Successful City”: Neoliberal Urbanism and Gentrification in the Tourist City—The Case of Palma (Majorca), Urban Studies Research Volume 2011.
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Figure 18. Can Tho: announced 28 tourism projects in 2030 Master Plan (left); Proposed Revision by OSA focuses on colonial legacy as ecological mediator.
Figure 19. Impact of institutional Change on Water Resources Management in Vietnam
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Figure 20. Proposed revision section of rural (up) and urban area of Can Tho’s 2030 master plan, [OSA/ WIT/ LATITUDE 2010]
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SA DEC CITY [PRODUCTIVE/POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] The post colonial city Sa Dec is made famous by the French Writer Marguerite Duras, who lived and based her novel The Lover on the city during her stay in French Indochina. As the former capital of Dong Thap province, this peaceful city of tree-lined streets and fading colonial villas is ringed with orchards and flower markets. Unique flower nurseries is one unique productive urbanism scene, which are especially popular just before Tet for witnessing a riot of blooms loaded onto boats.1 Currently, the village, one of the most famous of its kind in the Delta, cultivates 2,000 kinds of flowers and ornamental trees on 355ha. 2 The village’s products are exported, mostly to Lao, Cambodia and China, and sold domestically as well. Fish Farms along the Mekong River are another unique urban production scene. Both rely on the close relationship with water, these two productive urbanism are linked by Mekong River. More interesting findings according to the documentary blog A River’s Tail3,The brick factories of Sa Dec pump clay and water from the Mekong river, which they form into molds before firing them in kilns fueled by rice husks grown from river water. Every time when the crops were harvested, the rice grains were
2. Vietnam News, “Sa Dec to diversify flower industry”, November 9th 2013, Accessed April 19th 2019. http:// vietnamnews.vn/society/247393/ sa-dec-to-diversify-flower-industry. html#XHD40lAcfQ1CuXk2.99 3. A River’s Tail, “How A River Builds Houses”, December 30th, 2015. Accessed April 19th, 2019. http://blog.lucforsyth. com/tag/brick-factory/
[Viet Nam] [Built]
Location Status
[60 km2 ] [213,610] [3,600/km2]
Area Population Density
[Sustainability, recycle] [Agriculture, Brick Industry, Food Industry, Fishery] [Public and Private]
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1. Lonely Planet, “City Sa Dec Introduction”. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.lonelyplanet.com/vietnam/ mekong-delta/sa-dec
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure21 Mekong Delta Situation Analysis
separated from husks before being transported to large wholesalers. Some are used by the locals to make pho, a Vietnamese noodles made by rice, dried and sold to the whole country, most sold directly by the wholesale to the world. The discarded husks will then be loaded onto transport ships and delivered to Sa Dec’s brick factories along the Mekong River downstream. Rice husks are burned up to six tonnes every day for one factory. With each kiln roughly 30 000 square metres in size and holding roughly 150 000 bricks each, it was easy to see how fuel was needed on such a large scale4.Figure 22 shows the interconnected relationship between the different industries, how the remains and products of one are used in another. What’s more, this productive urbanism also reflects on the social aspect, such as the social space alongside the brick factory wall while the workers wait for the rice husks to come. The experiment on sustainable production is not limited only around recycling. A Vietnamese firm has succeeded in producing straws made of rice flour, which can be eaten, to replace plastic ones at a time when environmental protection is a topical issue in Vietnam4. As the Rice Bowl of Asia, Mekong Delta region has more valuable experiences to share in many other communes such as Vinh Kim and My tho.
Mekong River Basin
4. Ibid. 5. Tuoi tre news, “Vietnamese firm makes edible rice-flour straws to help protect environment”, February 14th, 2019. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://tuoitrenews.vn/ news/business/20190214/vietnamese-firmmakes-edible-riceflour-straws-to-help-protectenvironment/48930.html
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Figure 22. Sa Dec City production linkage diagram
Chợ Giữa Vĩnh Kim Central Market
Chợ Trái Cây Vĩnh Kim Fruit store
Figure 23 Mekong Delta Vinh Kim commune area map
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Figure 24 U.S. Military base aerial image, 10 February 1967
Figure 25 Boat Station at Sa Dec Market
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SOUTH AFRICA CAPE TOWN JOHANNESBURG
SOUTH AFRICA:
CAPE TOWN & JOHANNESBURG
SOUTH AFRICA
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY The disciplines of urbanism, including urban planning, architecture, and urban design, developed out of Euro-centric and Western-centric ideals. Urban Design’s inception began at a conference of the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) in 1956 at Harvard’s Graduate School of Design. The then Dean, Jose Louis Sert, stated, “Urban Design is that part of the city planning which deals with the physical form of the city. This is the most creative phase of city planning and that in which imagination and artistic capacities can play a more important part. It may also be in some respects the most difficult and controversial phase, and because of all these factors it has been less explored…the urban designer must believe in all cities, their importance and their value to human progress and culture.”1
This conference organically began to look at urban design from an American and “Global North” perspective. There is merit and significance in studying urban design from a Western point of view, however, it is worth challenging with the diverse range of perspectives that exist in the world, and the western-focused point-of-view is just one. Additionally, by studying another country’s urban design, people are able to critically reflect on their own environment. To broaden the scope of global urban design, this piece examines five projects across two South African cities. South Africa’s two most populous cities, Cape Town and Johannesburg, formed out of drastically different circumstances and are united by a checkered past, extractive economy, and a complex present. Each city has distinct natural, social, economic, and historical qualities which influence the built environment and the policy shaping it. The various historical influences of African nations, colonialist powers, and current globalization pressures have resulted in unique expressions of the built environment, rarely found in the “Global North.” South Africa is not immune to global trends or capitalist influences and this results in unexpected outcomes. Cape Town and Johannesburg were chosen for their catalog of urban design projects, and my familiarity with these two cities.2
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[1] “Sert_et_al. Urban Design_Proceedings Fist Urban Design Conference_GSD_ ProgressiveArchitecture_1956.Pdf.” n.d.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 2018
Cape Town experiences a severe water crisis Land reparation discussions begin 2000
1994 1991
Nelson Mandela is elected president of South Africa Aparteid ends Nelson Mandela is released from Robben Island 1980
1976 1975
Soweto uprising Ponte Tower Apartments are built
1968 1962
Non-whites are banned from District Six Nelson Mandela is imprisoned and sent to Robben Island, near Cape Town
1948
South Africa’s democratic government passes apartheid policy, separating people based on skin color
1960
1940
1920 1910
South Africa transitions to its own governance as an independent country under commonwealth status
1886
Gold Discovered near present day Johannesburg Establishment of Boer government in Johannesburg District Six in Cape Town is formed
1867
1806
British take control of Cape Town
1795
British become a present power in Cape Town
1850
1800
1750 1700 1652
Dutch explorers working for the Dutch East India Trade Company establish a port in the Cape as a link between the East and West
1650 1600 1550
1488
Portuguese explorers are the first westerners to discover the Cape. While there is evidence of human activity, there is no prior written history of the Cape. South Africa
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[2] Stats SA. 2016. “Community Survey 2016 Statistical Release.” Stats SA Statistics South Africa, 107.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS Background Evidence of human inhabitation in South Africa goes back thousands of years. In 2018, scientists discovered a painted cross-hatch on a fragment of a cave wall within 200 miles of Cape Town, indicating the presence of homo sapiens in the region 73,000 years ago.3
[3] Henshilwood, Christopher S, Francesco d’Errico, Karen L van Niekerk, Laure Dayet, Alain Queffelec, and Luca Pollarolo. 2018. “An Abstract Drawing from the 73,000-Year-Old Levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa.” Nature 562 (7725): 115–18. [4] Pooley, Simon. 2009. “Jan van Riebeeck as Pioneering Explorer and Conservator of Natural Resources at the Cape of Good Hope (1652-62).” Environment and History 15 (1): 3–33.
[5] Murray, MJ. 2008. ‘The City in Fragments: Kaleidoscopic Johannesburg after Apartheid’ in Prakash, G and Kruse, K (eds). The Spaces of the Modern City. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Much of the recorded history begins in the 1400s when the Portuguese and Dutch arrived in Cape Town, yet thousands of years of human history exists prior to imperial documentation techniques. From the 1400s until the 1910, South Africa was under various colonial rule, most notably the Dutch and British.4 In 1910, South Africa gained independence from England and established a democracy. This democracy, however, only recognized white South Africans, the minority, as citizens. Over time and under white South African domination, societal norms of repressing the majority black population became institutionalized by law. These laws are known as Apartheid. These laws separated people into four groups: White, Black, Coloured, and Indian. Through these racial partitions, the Apartheid government controlled, among other things: where people lived, education level, jobs, and who people could date. The full extent of the Apartheid regime was not realized until the 1960s with a total of 148 laws suppressing non-whites and ensuring white supremacy.5 In 1994, the Apartheid government transitioned into a true democracy which recognized all people as citizens. At this time, Nelson Mandela was elected as the first Black-African President of South Africa. In the years since, South Africa has faced many institutional ramifications of Apartheid, colonialism, and globalization in the modern times. Its democracy is not perfect, but the country continues to address complex issues of their violent past through various efforts, such as the Truth and Reconciliation and land reparation initiatives.6,7
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Figure 02 & 03: The roads, rails, and administrative boundaries reveal the intimate networks of Cape Town and Johannesburg respectively..
Culture The culture of South Africa is in constant evolution. As an international port of Africa, uniting both the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans, people from around the world settled in South Africa, cultivating a unique and diverse culture. Music, food, art, architecture, and religious expressions give people a sense of breadth and depth of South African culture. Today, South Africa recognizes 11 national languages. These languages represent the broad range of culture from the precolonial African languages, such as Xhosa and Bantu, to languages synonymous with imperialist powers, such as Afrikaans and English. Each of these 11 languages has been incorporated into the national anthem, officially embracing the diverse culture of South Africa. One of the most effective shared cultural experiences happens at the table, sharing a meal. The different distinct cultures are expressed through dishes unique to South Africa. For example, the Cape Malay, a population descending from Indian and Malaysian slaves, have preserved their Asian traditions through curries. However, these curries have taken on a South African twist. For example, a comfort food called “bunny chow” is a curry served in a hollowed half-loaf of white bread. Another example is Steamed Bread, made out of the Xhosa tradition of using steam to cook food. The culture of South Africa is complex and diverse. Ultimately it is a place of many expressions in language, music, food, art, architecture, and life. Economy South Africa’s economy is deeply tied to two economic centers. Johannesburg, located along seams of gold and precious resources, and Cape Town, with direct access to international shipping routes. Johannesburg is a young city. Hastily developed in the late 1800s due to the discovery of a gold reef, Johannesburg is an anomaly. It is a city built on speculation and the promise of wealth. The city was built in proximity to the A-102
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[6] Lefko-Everett, Kate, Ayanda Nyoka, and Lucia Tiscombia. 2017. “SA Reconciliation Barometer Survey: 2017 Report.” Media. [7] Bloomberg, Amogelang Mbatha |. “Why Land Seizure Is Back in News in South Africa.” The Washington Post. August 01, 2018. Accessed March 18, 2019.
Urbanism Projects City of Johannesburg Gauteng
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precious metals, rather than a water source. Driven largely by capitalist forces linked to mining, Johannesburg has developed like an American city, experiencing the same boom and bust of the urban core and the development of wealthy suburbs.4 Johannesburg today is deeply rooted in manufacturing and finance and contributes 16% GDP to the national economy and 40% GDP to its home state, Gautang. Despite its financial influence, the city has a high unemployment rate of 27.2%. The population of Johannesburg is over 5.5 million.8 Cape Town, on the other hand, is nestled between the iconic Table Mountain and the Atlantic Ocean. Positioned in a protected cove, Cape Town sits in an ideal location for trade between the East and the West. The suitable physical features of the cove attracted the first explorers in the late 1400s to connect shipping routes between Europe and Asia. Since then, waves of colonizing empires began to establish and conquer the cape as means to control shipping. The most notable colonizing powers were the Dutch and the British.4 These imperialist forces brought slaves from Asia and Africa and architecture from Europe.9 [8] Johannesburg Population. (2019-03-30). Retrieved 2019-04-20, World Population Review
Today, Cape Town’s economy is primarily made up of trade, manufacturing, finance, and tourism. Cape Town contributes about 9.9% of GDP to the entire country and 71.8% of the GDP of its state, the Western Cape. While these industries are diversified and the economic influence is strong, the unemployment rate in Cape Town is approximately 23%. The population of Cape Town is over 4.5 million.10 Sociopolitical
[9] Demissie, F. (ed) 2008. Colonial architecture and urbanism in Africa: Intertwined and contested histories. Surrey: Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate
Unemployment is only one piece of a broader societal struggle. South Africa is home to the world’s greatest income inequality [Gini coefficient of .68].11 This income inequality is a consequence of Apartheid legacies. Apartheid South Africa
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Figure o4: Photograph of District 6 in the direction of the CBD [Gell, 2018] A-104
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[10] Cape Town Population. (2019-03-30). World Population Review
[11] Chelangat, Salome. “Cities With the Most Income Inequality.” WorldAtlas. May 17, 2018. Accessed March 18, 2019
officially ended in 1994, with new policy and a constitution created to support a post-apartheid South Africa; however, at that time wealth was not redistributed. Maintaining the wealth structures in South Africa continues the Apartheid legacy as poverty tends to follow race classifications. However, today the country is embarking on the controversial acts of land reparations, on order to redistribute some of the wealth back to oppressed populations.7 Apartheid policy sliced the urban fabric into Black, Coloured, and White neighborhoods. This legacy significantly impacted the urban development of Johannesburg, creating segregated geographies. Johannesburg is home to over 5.5 million residents, ranked second in the world as a city with the greatest income inequality [Gini coefficient of .74], and is the financial hub for all of Africa.12 In a Post-Apartheid South Africa, Cape Town ranks as the 11th city in the world for the greatest income inequality [Gini coefficient of .67] and has experienced consecutive years of crippling drought resulting in city-wide water rationing.6 These conflicts create unique manifestations of urban design theories and methods worth investigating.
03 URBAN DYNAMICS
[12] Stats SA. 2016. “Community Survey 2016 Statistical Release.” Stats SA Statistics South Africa, 107.
This particular time in South African history provides an interesting moment to study urban design. The dynamics are entrenched in historic political dynamics of colonialism and apartheid. Additionally, global trends of capital play a significant role in the current dynamics of the country. Most of the development in South Africa was spurred on by the extraction of precious metals near Johannesburg in the late 1800s. The country experienced its own industrial revolution and, like many industrial neighborhoods in cities, is slowly transforming those former industries into new uses. Today, the young government continues to reconcile and move beyond the Apartheid era, but the built environment remains an artifact of the power which willed the landscape to change. For example, in Johannesburg, Ponte City Apartments were built in the 1970s as a whites-only vision of luxury living for wealthy South Africans. Today, its identity has shifted. In Cape Town, the multiracial and multi-religious neighborhood of District 6 was completely leveled in order to build a whites-only neighborhood. In many cases, non-whites were displaced to Townships, under-resourced neighborhoods built at the periphery of the city but adjacent to white communities, to service these white families. The development was never realized, but today a vast open space remains adjacent to the downtown. To study a South Africa in these tender moments provides insight into the spirit and nature of the country. As the country negotiates its own identity it provides a deeper context to where the people of South Africa have come and where they may go.
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Figure o5: Photograph of woman walking in Johannesburg [Gell,and 2018] A-106 Theories Methods of Urban Design
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS These characteristics, and many more, provide a unique stage to examine urban design in the contemporary South African.3 Five different urbanism theories are explored in the context of five different projects, three in Cape Town and two in Johannesburg. Each of these sites offers an opportunity to reflect on the historical expressions of power and the contemporary use. Each of the sites selected can be classified as more than one urbanism but are investigated from a particular urbanism lens to highlight interesting moments. The two projects in Johannesburg are Ponte City Apartments and Orlando Towers. Ponte City Apartments is the tallest apartment building in Africa built at the height of the Apartheid Regime for wealthy white housing. Today it represents where South Africa has come from and where it is going; a utopian - and sometimes dystopian - representation of the country. Johannesburg is also home to the Orlando Towers located in Soweto, a Black Township on the southwest side of the city. Rising out of informal-like conditions, this former power plant has become a monument of Soweto. Three projects are situated along the Southwest coast of the country in Cape Town: Zeitz MOCAA, Bo Kaap, and District 6. The Zeitz Museum of Contemporary African Art is a post-industrial relic at the waterfront. The transformed grain-mill has provided a platform to share African culture in a rapidly developing public waterfront. A couple miles away from Zeitz MOCAA is the Bo Kaap neighborhood, rooted in Islamic tradition. The neighborhood has maintained its identity for hundreds of years but due to the proximity to downtown, it is experiencing pressures to redevelop. The District 6 neighborhood provides a unique opportunity to examine a moment in time as an ongoing crisis. District 6 was vibrant multi-ethnic neighborhood which was leveled for white-only redevelopment. The redevelopment was never realized and today, the neighborhood remains a field. South Africa is a complex place. These urbanisms and their projects provide a glimpse of the country but do not claim to be a holistic or comprehensive view. Many of these sites could be examined as multiple urbanisms. The urbanisms and projects selected curate a conversation around the agency and influence of urban design in the past, present, and future.
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PONTE CITY [UTOPIAN URBANISM] Utopian urbanism has taken many theoretical forms over the last 100 years. From Howard’s Garden City or Le Corbusier’s Radiant City, compelling visionaries have inspired a utopian future full of perfect living situations.[13,14] However, in order to understand these compelling visionaries, the root of utopia must be examined.
In the 1500s, Sir Thomas More published a satirical novel about an island home to the perfect legal, social, and political systems, called Utopia.[15] This novel has perhaps influenced urbanists to achieve the perfect society, but the very nature of perfection is undermined by diverse needs, preferences, and desires of the many. Both Howard’s and Le Corbusier’s utopia’s address the pressing issues of the day, creating a response to the dystopian city addressing the issues of access to nature and overcrowding in the city. These visions were rarely adopted in full due to the shifting issues of the time and that these utopian visions represented only one perspective.
[Johannesburg, SOUTH AFRICA] [1975] [Built] [45,000 sqft] [Mannie Feldmen] [Manfred Hermer, Rodney Grosskopff] [54 floors, 173m, hallow cilidrical center, visible rock outcrop in the courtyard] [Residential, Mixed-Use Potential] [Private]
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[13] Domain, Public. 1928. “Garden Cities of Tomorrow / by Ebenezer Howard.,” 1850–1928.
[14] Merin, Gili. “AD Classics: Ville Radieuse / Le Corbusier.” ArchDaily. August 11, 2013. [15] More, Thomas. 2014. Utopia. New Haven: Yale University Press. Accessed March 23, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Ponte City Apartments
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150 ft 26 11’32.95”S 28 03’19.19”E
Figure 06: Context Map of Ponte City Apartments in Johannesburg | Figure 07: Figure ground of Ponte City South Africa
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Figure 08: Section of Ponte City Apartments
In its short life, Ponte City Apartments has been an expression of both utopian and dystopian urbanisms. Ponte City was originally built the quintessential luxury apartment community, an ideal place to live.[16] The large apartments, with ample light, overlooking the city of Johannesburg, commercial on the bottom floor, walking distance to the city center, not to mention plans to include a ski slope in the inner circle courtyard were elements which offered endless possibilities of achieving a good quality of life. As the tallest apartment building in all of Africa, this tower embodied a utopian for whites-only living during the Apartheid regime.
Yet, this idealistic urban utopia would not last. In the 1980s, white flight took hold of Johannesburg and whites began fleeing the inner city. White residents of Ponte City felt the cultural turmoil and moved out to the suburbs of Johannesburg. Wealth, divided along racial lines, also left the city. In the wake of white flight, the urban core began to struggle. Ponte City Apartments was no exception. In fact, this once eagerly anticipated apartment block became the center of many dystopian urban legends. Overtime, Ponte City became colloquially known for its high crime rate, the multi-story garbage pile, and suicides. For many, this dystopian structure
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[16] Pinder, David. 2011. Visions of the City. New York: Routledge.
Figure 09: A view of Ponte City within the context of downtown Johannesburg | Figure 10: A taxonomy of Ponte City
became a metaphor for the state of South African society. In spite of, or due to its, notorious reputation this chaotic space provided a unique environment to resist the Apartheid regime, due to its infamy and the difficulty of navigating thought the building, blacks, whites, and coloureds lived together undetected. A crime which could have resulted in severe punishment at that time.[17]
[17] “Ponte City Tower - 99% Invisible”. 99% Invisible. Retrieved 2018-09-17.
Since the early 2000s, Ponte City has started to redefine its reputation. The hallow core has been cleared of waste, new ownership has begun to renovate and repair the decaying infrastructure, and people have begun to slowly shift the narrative of Ponte. Today, Ponte City is home to approximately 3000 residents with a diversity of background, young professionals, immigrants, and middle- and working-class residents. Mirroring South African society at large, wealth inequality tends to fall along racial lines in Ponte City, however, people are legally living together in a post-apartheid South Africa. Ponte City Apartments embodies a utopian spirit of hope under significantly different political circumstances. Mumford states ‘the first utopia was the city itself,’ Ponte City embodies that same spirit, the hope for a better future. Looking at Ponte City as a holistic, vibrant urban environment. [16,18]
Surrounded by highways
35 minutes from airport
10 minute walk from downtown
1 pool
8 Elevators
173 meters
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2 km of electrical and plubming
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Figure 11: A view of Ponte City from the core. [Benedict Brook] | Figure 12: Collage of Ponte
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Figure 13: The life of Ponte [Mikhael Subotzky & Patrick Waterhous] | Figure 14: Advertisement for the new Ponte City
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ORLANDO TOWERS, SOWETO [INFORMAL URBANISM] Soweto grew as a response to the gold rush in the late 1880s. At that time over 100,000 people moved to Johannesburg area to discover riches and provide the ancillary services for a rapidly growing city. The city could not keep up with the mass influx of people to the area. In the early 1900s, limited infrastructure and amenities were available to residents, resulting in a ‘shack city’. At the time, Soweto was an independent settlement providing a place for blacks, coloureds, and poor whites.[19] In 1923, The Urban Areas Act, also known as the Native’s Act, gave the government agency to separate whites from non-whites with a “cordon sanitaire” or sanitary corridor spatially separating white communities from non-white communities.[20] This among the first national legislation which institutionalized the apartheid in South Africa, but reinforced by the spatial relationships.
[19] ahoboss. “Soweto.” South African History Online. December 10, 2018. [20] “The O’Malley Archives.” 1923. Native Urban Areas Act No 21 - The O’Malley Archives.
In 1930, the government used this policy to separate people by race developing the Township of Soweto a separate entity from the white Johannesburg. While legislation prohibited non-whites living in white neighborhoods, these white neighborhoods relied on the non-whites to maintain their lifestyle. The non-white Townships were located in close proximity to serve the white cities. A railroad, the “cordon sanitaire”, separated Johannesburg from Soweto. Soweto was the location of some of the most violent protests during the Apartheid regime.[19] [Soweto, Johannesburg, SOUTH AFRICA] [1951] [Partially Demolished] [unknown] [unknown] [unknown] [Two cooling towers] [Murals, Advertising, Bungy Jumping] [Private]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Orlando Towers
Ponte City Apartments
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Figure 15: Map of Orlando Towers in Johannesburg | Figure 16: Figure Ground of Orlando Towers in Soweto, Johannesburg
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We were built to produce power. Now, we are a painted landmark of Soweto. We watch people jump of a platform between us. They are attached to a bungy cord. I am a giant mural an expression of Soweto
I am an advertisement for FNB, a bank and a sponsor of this project.
Figure 17: Section of Orlando Towers, Soweto, Johannesburg
Today, Soweto has been annexed by Johannesburg, but the separate township identity remains. While Soweto was a formally planned space, it was separate, functioning on the small resourced collectively accumulated by the poor residents. The years of weakened support has created settlements severely lacking in resources resulting in austere, almost informal, conditions in some places. This transition from an under resources township into the economic powerhouse of the greater Johannesburg provides an interesting case study looking at informal settlements as they transition from informal to formal.[22] The relationship between design and planning at this level is a duet between the knowledge generally accepted in practice, the formal, and the knowledge known and accepted by few, the informal.[23]
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[22] Lutzoni, Laura. 2016. “In Formalised Urban Space Design . Rethinking the Relationship between Formal and Informal.” City, Territory and Architecture. Springer Berlin Heidelberg [23] Roy, ananya. 2009. “Strangely familiar : planning and the worlds of insurgence and informality” 8 (1): 7–11.
Decommissinoed lines which use to transport fromlines the tower facilities. ansport Decommissinoed power from power the tower power facilities. lines Decommissinoed which use topower transport power power which from use thetotower transport facilities. power from the tower facilities.
The neighborhoods surrounding Orlando Towers in Soweto. Orlando with Towers, complete murals and bungy jumping complete facilities. with The neighborhoods surrounding Orlando Towers in Soweto. The neighbor Orlando Towers, complete murals andwith bungy jumping Orlando facilities. Towers, Orlando murals Towers, and bungy complete jumping with facilities. murals and bungy jumping facilities.
Figure 18: Orlando Towers with Soweto, [Mashalas Travel] | Figure 19: Taxonomy of the neighborhood surrounding Orlando Towers
Soweto is home to around 1.3 million people. A landmark found within Soweto is are the Orlando Towers, two decommissioned power-plant cooling towers located in the middle of Soweto. This plant originally powered the city of Johannesburg but today has been co-opted by the township. It is now used as a canvas for muralists and a place for adventure tourism, as people bungee jump off of the 33 story towers. While the Soweto has been able to transform the narrative of Orlando Towers, it does not negate the fact that a power plant was located in the center of a the severely underfunded black township to provide power to a white city.
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BO KAAP [POST-COLONIALISM URBANISM] Bo Kaap is a fascinating example of post-colonial urbanism in Cape Town, South Africa. Bo Kaap is a predominately and historically Muslim neighborhood, home to the Cape Malay population. The Cape Malay population was originally brought to Cape Town by the Dutch East India Trading Company as slaves from both Malaysia and India. They were predominately Muslim. A slave owner bought the land where Bo Kaap is today and built rental row houses, or huurhuisjes, for his slaves. When the British Empire emancipated slaves in 1833, the residents of Bo Kaap expanded their housing and built the neighborhood which exists today.[24] Miraculously, the neighborhood survived the apartheid regime, in spite of their close proximity to downtown. Slated as a “Cape Muslim” neighborhood, Bo Kaap remained untouched by the apartheid government and underwent restorations supported by city council in the 1940s, during the Apartheid regime.[25] Today, the neighborhood attracts visitors from around the world because of its signature brightly colored row houses, or huurhuisjes, with patio-porches. It is still an active neighborhood, mosques, schools, and vendors supply ingredients for Cape Malay food are found within walking distance.
[Bo Kaap, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA] [1844] [Built] [2,480,000] [unknown] [unknown] [colorful one-story homes, Muslim neighborhood] [residential, small businesses, museum, Mosque] [Private]
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[24]History and Style of the Bo-Kaap | The Heritage Portal.
[25] Burke, Jason. “In the Cape Town Enclave That Survived Apartheid, the New Enemy
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Figure 20: Map of Bo Kaap, Cape Town | Figure 21: Figure Ground of Bo Kaap South Africa
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Figure 22: Section of Bo Kaap, Cape Town
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Two colonial forces, the Dutch and the British, shaped this neighborhood, while one post-colonial force managed to preserve it. Theorist A.D. King speaks to a reciprocal relationship between the colonizing force and the colonizer and the build environment manifests the complex and blurred relationship between the two. This relationship has resulted in left over divisive policies from the imperialist and colonial forces which influence not only the built environment but the survival of the vestiges of the former colonial powers, everything from the remaining architecture to the social hierarchy left by these powerful forces.[26] In the case of Bo Kaap, a slave owner built the first, and oldest, building in the Bo Kaap neighborhood. Generations later, this housing type has become the iconic and standard urban design for the neighborhood. The neighborhood still retains it’s Muslim roots and Cape Malay population. During Ramadan, houses get a fresh coat of paint, continuing to maintain its colorful identity. Today, Bo Kaap is feeling the pressure of the global forces of gentrification, a faces power perhaps as strong as colonialist. Located in a prime location, the area is ripe for development, yet residents have been organizing in order to deter these faceless forces.[27] The pressure to build high rise apartments in the area grows as downtown looks to expand its footprint.
valuted gate
typical house typology
Is Gentrification.” The Guardian. August 19, 2018.
[26]King, A D, and York Binghamton. 2009. “Postcolonial Cities,” 1–6.
[27] Smith, Neil. 2002. “New Globalism , New Urbanism : Gentrification as Global Urban Strategy.”
collective courtyard with parking
Figure 24: Taxonomy of the neighborhood | Figure 25: Bo Kaap neighborhood in Cape Town [City Tours] South Africa
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ZEITZ MOCAA [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] Post-industrial urbanism indicates a larger shift of capital within the economy in a specified region. The rustbelt in the Midwest United States is probably one of the most notable examples of a post-industrial territory.[28] The post-relics of an industry which shaped the urban form driven by market forces, leaving behind buildings which may have outlasted the economy which built them. Post-industrial urbanism indicates a greater societal struggle as the entire economy weakens, or the specific sector of the economy shifts geographies. However, post-industrial urbanism looks to cutting edge approaches to transform these places. Often artist spaces and apartments, adapt and change the very nature of the area. The land is usually inexpensive leaving an opportunity for new investment which can challenge affordability of an area. Revived post-industrial spaces allocated for new use can cause tensions between people of differing socio-economic status as the economic function of the space shifts from one sector to another. This is true even in Cape Town, a city with diverse economic sectors. The region has felt severe economic stress over the past few years as globalization continues to influence the South African economy. As of December 2018, the unemployment rate for the Western Cape was 19.3%.[29] There are instances of post-industrial urbanisms where manufacturing facilities have outlasted the
[V&A Waterfront, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA] [2017] [Built] [102,000 sqft] [Thomas Heatherwick] [Van der Merwe Miszewski Architects (VDMMA), Jacobs Parkers Architects, Rick Brown + Associates] [repurposed grain mill] [contemporary art museum] [unknown]
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[28]“New City Books Series : Formerly Urban : Projecting Rust Belt Futures. New York, US: Princeton Architectural Press, 2012. ProQuest Ebrary. Web. 15 February 2017. Copyright © 2012. Princeton Architectural Press. All Rights Reserved.” 2017, no. February.
[29] Africa, Statistics South. “Unemployment Drops in Fourth Quarter of 2018.” Statistics South Africa. Accessed March 20, 2019.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
0
Zeitz MOCAA
Miles 1
Table Bay
Bo Kaap
300 ft
33 54’30.15”S 18 25’22.73”E
Figure 26: Map of MOCAA in Cape Town | Figure 27: Figure ground of MOCAA. South Africa
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Figure 28: Abstract Section of MOCAA in Cape Town | Figure 29: Photo of MOCAA [Royal Portfolio] A-124
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economy they were built for. In the case of Zeitz Museum of Contemporary African Art, the grain mill was situated at an ideal location for transformation. In 2017, extensive renovations of the old grain mill were completed, and the former industrial building was transformed into the art museum it is today.[30] Today it is an example of post-industrial urbanism in Cape Town, South Africa.
[30] Zeitz MOCAA.” Heatherwick Studio | Design & Architecture.
Located in the Victoria and Albert Waterfront (V&A Waterfront) of Cape Town, the Zeitz Museum of Contemporary African Art is an example of a post-industrial transformation. Originally a grain mill located at the water’s edge, this industrious building has become an institutional anchor of the waterfront, showcasing contemporary African artists. The building was originally constructed in 1921 as a grain silo but closed 80 years later in 2001.[31] In 2017, after extensive renovations, the facility reopened as the largest contemporary African art museum in the world. The building now holds two identities, it’s original grain silo and the new contemporary art museum. The V&A Waterfront, itself, is a post-industrial urbanism. Over the years the section of the Waterfront became obsolete as the port followed industry along a different stretch of Cape Bay. This left the Waterfront open for redevelopment. In the 1990s, the V&A Waterfront developed into a destination for shopping and tourism. Overtime, the V&A Waterfront has transformed from an port for the transportation of manufactured goods to a public space, where residents and tourist in Cape Town gather along the river’s edge.
Zeitz Muesum of Contemporary African Art Built_1921 Established_2017
Covered Zeitz MOCAA Plaza Built_1921 Established_2017
Plaza Steps Built_2017
[31]Scher, Robin, and Robin Scher. “A Closer Look at Africa’s First Contemporary Art Museum.” Hyperallergic. September 26, 2017. [13] Africa, Statistics South. “Unemployment Drops in Fourth Quarter of 2018.” Statistics South Africa. Accessed March 20, 2019.
Plaza Built_2017
Figure 30: A taxonomy of MOCAA and the public plaza South Africa
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DISTRICT SIX [CRISIS URBANISM] Crisis Urbanism examines the built environment through the lens of unstable or crucial time in which a change is impending. The anticipation of an event can influence the way in which crisis urbanism manifests in cities. Crisis Urbanism is an emerging concept, as cities feel pressures of climate change, migration, violence, disasters, and displacement. Not much is written about Crisis Urbanism, yet it is an important lens to view the city to recognize populations or spatial locations which are repeatedly bear the burden of societal “advancement�. Both the built environment and policies can respond to or create crisis. In Cape Town, crisis urbanism is found in many places, specifically, in the way the city manages severe water shortages or through reparations of contested land. This piece examines the lasting legacy of crisis urbanism in District 6. District 6 is just one instance of a specific, yet common, occurrence of methodical urban displacement in the name of urban renewal, resulting in crisis. Crisis urbanism exists in District 6 as the absence of the built environment. It is the fragmented social structures, unclear land ownership, collection of memories, fractured community relationships, and recognition of the violence, due to the displacement and leveling of the once, vibrant and thriving neighborhood. Located in adjacent to the Central Business District of Cape Town, District 6 is an unusual site. Grasses conceal a [District 6, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA] [1867] [Demolished] [5,470,000 sqft] [unknown] [unknown] [urban renewal] [District 6 Muesum, Church, Mosque] [unknown]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
0
Zeitz MOCAA
Miles 1
Table Bay
District 6 Bo Kaap
33 55’49.44”S 18 26’02.48”E
.25 miles
Figure 31: District 6 within Cape Town, South Africa | Figure 32: Figure ground of District 6 South Africa
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Figure 33: A sectional representation of District 6. Figure 34: A collage of historical photos and artifacts from District 6
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grid pressed into the landscape. The scars of these streets are the only evidence left in the wake of mass displacement of residents from the diverse neighborhood of District 6. District 6 was established in 1867 as a neighborhood for emancipated non-white slaves and grew rapidly. Slum conditions arose due to limited formal infrastructure and intentional neglect form the government. These living conditions resulted in waves of disease outbreaks, in 1885, 1895, 1901, and 1918. The Bubonic Plague outbreak in 1901 resulted in the first instance of forced removal of African residents from District 6, targeting over-crowded poor African neighborhoods. After the removal, the government then demolished the newly vacant homes in the name of “slum clearance”.[32] In 1950, the government passed the Group Areas Act, which created the power for the government to separate people by race and designate specific areas under different race classifications, Black, Coloured, or White. The proximity of District 6 to the CBD, water, and other desirable locations motivated the Apartheid government to use the Group Areas Act to establish the existing District 6 as a “whites-only” neighborhood. [32]
In the mid-1960s, the South African Apartheid government began to disenfranchise the neighborhood by banning property transactions and development in District 6. By 1968, the forced removals, through the Group Areas Act, and the demolition of the neighborhood began and continued through the 1980s.[33] Residents were forced to relocate to areas farther away from the city, separated by highways, to severely under resourced communities on the Cape Flats.[34] The “whites-only” development was never realized due to budget constraints, as the removals cost millions of Rand and the government destroyed their tax base.[32] To this day, most of District Six remains undeveloped. An apparent void in the urban fabric.
St Marks Anglican Church Built_1867
Cape Peninusla University of Technology Built_1990s
Al-Azhar Mashid Mosque Established_Late 1800s
[32] Pistorius, P, M Bezzoli, R Marks, M Kruger, and Cape Technikon. Sustainable Urban and Housing Development Research Unit. 2002. Texture and Memory: The Urbanism of District Six. Sustainable Urban and Housing Development Research Unit, Department of Architectural Technology, Cape Technikon.
[33] Smith, David M. 2003. The Apartheid City and beyond: Urbanization and Social Change in South Africa. The Apartheid City and Beyond: Urbanization and Social Change in South Africa. [34] Lisa Findley & Liz Ogbu, “South Africa: From Township to Town,” Places Journal, November 2011. Accessed 06 Feb 2019.
The remaining grid of District 6 Built_1800s
Figure 35: A taxonomy of the remaining elements of the District 6 neighborhood South Africa
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District 6 experienced waves of displacement as a result of the institutions of the Apartheid era. The destruction of a majority minority neighborhoods near city centers is not a new concept, many United States cities, such as Detroit, destroyed vibrant black neighborhoods to make room for Urban Renewal projects. What makes District 6 unique, however, is that it is frozen in time. It is stuck between the demolition and erasure. A faint grid, St. Marks Anglican Church, and Dorp St. Mosque, are the remnants of this once dense neighborhood, grounding the stories of surviving former residents. Generations removed from the events, the trauma of displacement still leaves an imprint on the landscape and the memories of Capetonians. The series of displacements in the present context reveal a larger conversation about the legacy of a crisis urbanism, generations removed from the trauma.[35] The lasting impacts of fractured social cohesion, physical destruction, and the unknown future development place this community in a time of crisis, attempting to organize and advocate for a fair and just future.
[35] Yehuda, Rachel, and Amy Lehrner. 2018. “Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma Effects: Putative Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms.” World Psychiatry 17 (3): 243–57.
Figure 36: The void of District 6 adjacent to Cape Town’s CBD. The path in the foreground is one of the few roads remaining from District 6 | Figure 37: Black & White, Cape Town
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South Africa
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THE SOCIALIST FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA
Belgrade Serbia, SFRY
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) existed from its establishment in 1948 to its dissolution in 1992. This investigation focuses on the experimental approaches to architecture and urban design in this period, while introducing the rapid social and political changes that gave shape to the republic. According to Mejrema Zatric-Šahovic and Zulejha Šabic-Zatric, “the commitment that the architects of emerging Socialist Yugoslavia made towards its revolutionary society in the early 1950s resulted in a pursuit of theory capable of articulating architectural social aspirations.”1 Doing research on the urbanisms of the SFRY are important because it underwent an economic and social structure change in the period of 1948 to 1992, when the architectural design and urban planning stepped into a brand new stage and achieved a very high level. Important to note was that the funding system for urban development was different from the capitalist system in most of western countries. The SFRY was a government-controlled system, as adopted from the United Soviet Socialist Republic. Such an economical system, under the requirements and control of the government, influenced the design and construction process. The “official standard” of urban and architecture projects reflects the way in which architects and planners reacted to political influence and social demands in different ways. “The first residential buildings which represented a step towards more humane living conditions were built.”2 This step was partly the outcome of the development in architecture construction technology. During this period, according to Mrduljaš, “the relationship between architecture and ideology was evident in many aspects of the architectural discourse in socialist Yugoslavia: from the debate on ‘official’ architectural style, fit for the developing new socialist society, to the attempt of connecting traditional national heritage and modern architecture.”3 However, due to many factors including political reasons, this case has not been widely studied before. The social background could be concluded and understood by some significant
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1.Mejrema Zatrić-Šahović & Zulejha ŠabićZatrić (2016) The Environment of Organic Theory: Juraj Neidhardt’s Organicism in Early Yugoslavian Architecture and Urbanism, Architecture and Culture, 4:3, 435-447 2.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 19481970, Spatium · January 2015 3.Mrduljaš, M., Kulić, V. (2012) Unfinished Modernisations: Between Utopia and Pragmatism. Zagreb: Udruga hrvatskih arhitekata, pp. 405-419.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2000
1992
SFRY was dissolved, after the Yugoslav War. Tensions between the republics and nations of Yugoslavia intensified from the 1970s to the 1980s. The causes for the collapse of the country have been associated with nationalism, ethnic conflict, economic difficulty, frustration with government bureaucracy, the influence of important figures in the country, and international politics.
1983 1980
Social Indicators: rapid liberalization and decentralization of the country’s political system, influx of population to cities and towns.
Post-Tito Yugoslavia faced significant fiscal debt in the 1980s, but its good relations with the United States, helped it achieve significant debt relief for Yugoslavia. Tito died.
1980
From 1971 on, the republics had control over their economic plans. This led to a wave of investment, which in turn was accompanied by a growing level of debt and a growing trend of imports not covered by exports.
[Critical DATA] Area: 255,804 km² Population:23.23 million in 1991 Country[es]: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia with Belgrade as its capital.
1990
1974 1971
1960s
Giving more autonomy to the individual republics
In 1971 the leadership of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, notably Miko Tripalo and Savka Dabčević-Kučar, allied with nationalist non party groups, began a movement to increase the powers of the individual federal republics.
1970
In the early 1960s concern over problems such as the building of economically irrational “political” factories and inflation led a group within the communist leadership to advocate greater decentralization. 1960
1959
Economic Indicators: Reform movement, the economic reforms began with the introduction of workers’ self-management in June 1950. An industrial sector began to emerge thanks to the government’s implementation of industrial and infrastructure development programs.The introduction of further reforms introduced a variant of market socialism.
IMS was founded. The West welcomed the Yugoslav-Soviet rift and in 1949 commenced a flow of economic aid, assisted in averting famine in 1950, and covered much of Yugoslavia’s trade deficit for the next decade.
1950
1949 1948
1944
1941
The Tito–Stalin, or Yugoslav–Soviet split took place in the spring and early summer of 1948.
The Tito-Šubašić Agreement, provided for the establishment of a joint Yugoslav coalition government headed by Tito with Šubašić as the foreign minister. On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany.
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1940
1: 5,000,000
Figure 01. Territory of SFRY A-136
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signs, including the influx of population moving to towns and the reformation of the structure of the economy all across the nation. The social background at that time in SFRY urged development in architecture construction technology, the exploration in construction materials, and in experiments in different urban planning theories. These factors encouraged a new way of architecture design. The study in architecture and urban design acts as an example for many developing countries that are facing remarkable population growth in metropolitan areas, especially in the housing design field.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS
4.Perović, J. (2007) The Tito-Stalin Split: A Reassessment in Light of New Evidence, Journal of Cold War Studies, No. 2, pp. 32-63. 5.Mesa-Lago, C. (1973) A Continuum Model to Compare Socialist Systems Globally, Economic Development and Cultural Change, No. 4, pp. 573-590. 6.Friedmann, W. (1966) Freedom and Planning in Yugoslavia’s Economic System, Slavic Review, No. 4, pp. 630-640. 7.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 19481970, Spatium · January 2015 8.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 19481970, Spatium · January 2015
SFRY was a country located in Central and Southeastern Europe. “After ideological split with Stalin Russia in 1948” - which can also be referred to as the Tito-Stalin Split - there was a trend in Yugoslavia to abandon “centralized socialist planning.”4 Centralized planning can be considered as one of the Soviet Union’s economic characteristics and influences. The SFRY opted to develop in another way, which was: “economic reforms, decentralization, and liberalization.”5 There were two main reasons for the emergence of a specific social system in Yugoslavia, different from all other models of communist ideology in the world. The first lies in the fact that it was a federal union of six Yugoslav republics, all with a different history, tradition and economic development. On the other hand, the split with the Soviet Union had a direct consequence, which led to “the aspiration towards the establishment of an authentic national communist philosophy along with political and ideological independence.”6 The urban development, including social housing development, infrastructure construction, and industrial development are the outcomes of the top-down planning process and are political in SFRY. Social Urbanism, if we could call it that, is predominant in such a context. In the period from 1948 to 1970, urban housing architecture in Yugoslavia had a distinctly experimental character as it strove intensively towards research and establishment of new architectural patterns and values that would mark the period of economic growth of the country.7 According to Djordje Alfirevic and Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, the most urgent and important mission at that time was “allotting every family acceptable living space,” due to “the significant influx of population to towns and the state” and conditions “initiated by the devastated urban housing fund after the Second World War,” which finally went to the direction of “mass housing construction.”8 Although Social Urbanism is the main branch of the whole reconstruction process of post-war SFRY, different theories and thoughts occurred at the same time. For example, the ideological model for social housing could be considered as a type of utopian urbanism. The monuments all across the nation could be defined as monument urbanism, if we could name it so, also developed simultaneously. The development in SFRY is hard to categorize under standard “urbanisms” introduced in class, due to the fact that many of Yugoslavia’s urban projects are closely related to politics and some of the features that suit the specific urbanism theories are
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Figure 02-03: 02. Tito, the leader of SFRY in the period of 1948 to 1980; 03. Yugoslav war, which finally caused the dissolution of SFRY;
“unconscious”. However, the region still calls for more research since this case has not been widely studied before. SFRY could be the example for many developing socialist countries since they are under similar conditions.
03 URBAN DYNAMICS As mentioned before, after World War II, SFRY was faced with a significant influx of population to towns and a severe shortage in housing due to the destructive wounds left by the war. Milašinovic claimed that “housing policy in Yugoslavia after the Second World War was determined by the five-year plan (19471951), which defined the program basis for establishing a standardized existential minimum per capita. However, in practice, this led to numerous problems.”9 Due to the hard economic situation, the only solution to the housing crisis proposed by the ruling political party was to construct communal flats.10 This solution was primarily ideology-driven and did not work well. According to Maroevic, “although it was planned that priority in flat allocation [would] be given to families with small children and sick family members,” the emerging ruling elite ignored social justice and “[chose] the best and most luxurious flats for their own families.”11 During the so-called “reform” period, after the Tito-Stalin split, the whole country went through a hard time economically. Although western countries, like the USA, gave financial assistance to SFRY due to “good friendship” and wanting SFRY to become a member nation of NATO, SFRY’s economic problem were never solved during SFRY’s existence. This was because, in part, the amount of goods exported could not cover the cost of what they imported, which led to the failure of the communist market economy.
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9.Milašinović-Marić, D. (2012) Housing Design Model Within Unique Architectural Complexes in Serbia in The Sixties of 20th Century: As Model Forms of Harmonization Between Ideology an Modern Architectural Forms, in Mako, V., RoterBlagojević, M., Vukotić-Lazar, M. (eds.) Proceedings from International Conference Architecture & Ideology, September 28-29. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, pp. 549-556. 10.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 19481970, Spatium · January 2015 11.Maroević, I. (2004) Croatian Architecture of the Fifties: Continuity of Modernity in the Environment of Socialism, Život umjetnosti: časopis za pitanja likovne kulture, No. 71/72, pp. 141-145.
Figure 04-05: 04. Construction of Block 02 in Belgrade, using the IMS system; 05. Air pollution in Zenica Town when the industrial plant was implemented
12. Nicholas R. Lang, “The Dialectics of Decentralization: Economic Reform and Regional Inequality in Yugoslavia,” World Politics, 27, no. 3 (1975): 309–35, at 314. 13.Mejrema Zatrić-Šahović & Zulejha ŠabićZatrić (2016) The Environment of Organic Theory: Juraj Neidhardt’s Organicism in Early Yugoslavian Architecture and Urbanism, Architecture and Culture, 4:3, 435-447
Under such a social background, in 1959, IMS (Institute for Testing of Materials) was founded. IMS provided a new way to deal with the shortage of housing, focusing on concrete. Concrete was essential due to its cheap price and the short time of production. It also aligned with pre-fabrication technologies and offered the best choice for SFRY to reconstruct the after-war ruins. The emergence of IMS and the prefabrication technology ensured the feasibility of mass housing projects, and so helped the republic to overcome the problem. After 1959. different thoughts and design methods were applied towards mass housing projects, including: the concern of the “official standard,” the ideology of a “happy community,” and the thought of how to make the whole republic be productive. Making the whole republic productive, meant making women productive, too, which shaped the various family and social experiments in SFRY. The independent Yugoslav way to socialism in 1948 began with “the political position of the idea of an integrated socialist economy [that] was incompatible with economic inequality among the republics.”12 The federal government wanted to make the six nations develop at the same speed, in order to show “justice” and “care.” This ideological thought became the primary thought, which meant the federal government decided to distribute more capital and resources to several cities, due to the opportunities they had, including natural resources, good location in transportation for exporting and importing. This change is due to economic challenges that came with Yugoslavia’s departure from the Cominform (Cominform means the Communist Information Bureau, the departure of SFRY from it is the evidence of the permanent split that had taken place between Russia and Yugoslavia).13 The industrial town of Zenica, among those cities that received more attention than others, came to be an emblem of Yugoslavian heavy industry and heroic socialist labor.
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Figure 06-08: 06. Master plan dealing with population growth for Belgrade in 1948;
Unfortunately, natural disaster showed no mercy to this calamitous republic. The Skopje earthquake in 1963 killed over 1,070 people, injured between 3,000 and 4,000 and left more than 200,000 people homeless.14,15,16 About 80 percent of the city was destroyed.17 The refugees and the destroyed town urged the action of the government to help the refugees to move to other towns for a short period first and rebuild the town to accommodate them since other towns are suffering from the housing shortage, too. Under such a background, the government held an international competition for the reconstruction plan of Skopje, Kenzo Tange and his team won the first price.
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS This study explores how Social Urbanism shaped SFRY, since it is the main branch of the whole reconstruction process of post-war SFRY all across the country. I will mainly focus on social housing projects in Social Urbanism. Also, the paper will focus on other urbanisms, since different movements or thoughts occurred at that time.. For instance, the ideological model or master plan for the reconstruction of Skopje is considered as utopian urbanism and the urban development of Zenica industrial town is based on organic theory. Zenica industrial town could also be recognized as the first-step model of the company town. Social Urbanism reflects the need for social housing during the very short period of a huge influx of population to towns and cities. In this period, the most important projects or developments were social housing constructions planned by the government. As mentioned before, the social background in that time in SFRY urged the development in architecture construction technology, the exploration in construction material, and the experiments in different urban planning theories,
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07. Plants in Zenica industrial town;
14. “My Info Agent”. Archived from the original on February 24, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2015. 15. Макфакс - Макфакс. Retrieved August 19, 2015. 16.Marking the 44th anniversary of the catastrophic 1963 Skopje earthquake Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine MRT, Thursday, July 26, 2007 17. Ibid
18. Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 1948-1970, Spatium · January 2015
08. Built part of Skopje plan, Macedonian Post Head Office
and so encouraged the new way in architecture design. The architects and engineers in the mass housing design field started their design from three main points: “a) the creation and application of new prefabrication systems, b) innovative application of modernistic patterns in aestheticization of architecture and c) experimenting with space units which will enable a higher level of privacy in high-density housing conditions.”18 I have selected three different typical housing projects, which express remarkable consideration in these three main directions, and give a brief introduction and analysis to each of them. Industrial Urbanism, is another significant development guideline for SFRY. The federal government decided to distribute more capital and resources to several cities while the industrial town of Zenica came to be an emblem of Yugoslavian heavy industry and heroic socialist labor. This is because the natural resources Zenica has, including iron mine and coal, became convenient to export metal and steel to other countries. SFRY is usually considered as the “concrete utopia,” since it used concrete to build vast projects all across the federal nation. The morphology of these projects are impressive. However, they are not the same as utopian urbanism. Utopia urbanism is usually stuck in ideology, trying to define the social structure, the lifestyle of citizens, and of course, the urban form. After the 1963 Skopje earthquake, the master plan reconstruction for the City of Skopje could be defined as utopian urbanism since it reshapes the lifestyle of its inhabitants to address future concerns of the physical environment and social structures.
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HOUSING BUILDING IN RESIDENTIAL BLOCK 2 [SOCIAL URBANISM] Djordje Alfirevic said, “the development of prefabrication technologies in Yugoslav construction industry, in a wider context of post-war reconstruction and industrialization, was particularly dominant in the field of housing, infrastructure and public buildings.”19 When material and economic benefits of concrete (cheap price and the short production time) aigned with pre-fabrication technologies, it offered the “best choice” for SFRY to reconstruct the city. On the other hand, the need for mass housing construction encouraged the advances in technological research in the area of prefabrication. The reconstruction process, especially the mass housing implementation, mainly happens on the west side of Sava River, since this part of land is the so called “New Belgrade” and the east side of the river is historical part of the city. In this reconstruction process, several agencies, especially construction companies and materials research institutes, played an important role in providing “supports”. According to Vukov, J, “large companies, such as Serbian Institute for Testing of Materials (‘IMS’ system), designed and manufactured new prefabricated and semi-prefabricated systems and components”20, which directly supplied components to constructions and became the backbone of the whole building industry. The first project built in “IMS” system was the housing building in residential Block 2 in New Belgrade. This building “was the training ground for all kinds of experiments related to architectural design and construction technology,”21 including transportation infrastructure construction and mass housing implementation. The successful experiment showed the promising potential strength of prefabrication in mass housing construction. “In subsequent years, “IMS” system was used in other housing units, such as residential blocks 21, 22, 23, 28 and 29, also in New Belgrade.”22 Prefabricated systems found their use in almost every important housing project in Yugoslavia between 1960 and 1985.
[Belgrade, Serbia] [1959] [Built ] [Site area135505 m2 , Ground Floor Area 15811m2] [Branko Žeželj] [Institute for the Testing of Materials] [Designed for the working class. Housing units were built as massive structures of so called ‘reinforced masonry’. Prefabricated.] [Government Funding and Private Investment]
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19.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 1948-1970, Spatium · January 2015 20.Vukov, J. (1962) The influence of rapid industrialization on housing problems in Yugoslavia, in Proceedings from the Second CIB Congress Innovation in Building, Cambridge, pp. 125-144 21.Djordje Alfirevic, Sanja Simonovic Alfirevic, Urban housing experiments in Yugoslavia 1948-1970, Spatium · January 2015 22.Jovanović J., Grbić J., Petrović, D. (2012) Prefabricated Construction in Former Yugoslavia. Visual and Aesthetic Features and Technology of Prefabrication, in Herold, S. and Stefanovska, B. (eds.) 45+ Post-War Modern Architecture in Europe. Berlin: Universitätsverlag der Technischen Universität Berlin, pp. 175-187.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
23.Jovanović J., Grbić J., Petrović, D. (2012) Prefabricated Construction in Former Yugoslavia. Visual and Aesthetic Features and Technology of Prefabrication, in Herold, S. and Stefanovska, B. (eds.) 45+ Post-War Modern Architecture in Europe. Berlin: Universitätsverlag der Technischen Universität Berlin, pp. 175-187.
In addition, they are the biggest step that the building industry has taken in further development. The success in pre-fabrication field in SFRY provides experiment to the whole world at that time, and some of the technologies are still used in developing countries like China even right now, as SFRY had reached a remarkable efficiency in design and production. As the pioneer in the prefabricated field, housing building in residential Block 2 has remarkable features in both of architectural design method and production in factory: the design focused on how to make the large scale components, mainly the flat plates, suitable for production and how to attach them efficiently; and the production, thanks to the delicate design, is cheap enough to make it feasible for constructing more housing projects using the same construction technique. But there were still some problems left: first, the architects were failed in clarifying the “definition“ of rooms, which means they did not think about whether the living room should be considered as a bed room to allow people to sleep or not;23 second, they failed in providing different housing types, the only two types they designed are for three person family and for one person family; third, since the morphology of the stair case, the whole building lacks privacy; fourth, the architect did not think about the appearance of the building, but this was not considered as a problem in that time and that social background.
Figure 09. Block 2’s location
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Figure 10. Block 2 foot print, Belgrade
Figure 11. Block 2 perspective, Belgrade
Figure 12. Block 2’s building facade, Belgrade
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Figure 13. Block 2’s Social housing transect
Figure 14. Block 2’s Social housing taxonomy The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 15. Block 2’s Social housing collage
Figure 14. Block 2’s living Synthetic Collage
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN LAGINJINA STREET [SOCIAL URBANISM] Architecture is not only about function; similar beliefs also existed in the housing construction practice in SFRY. According to Mrduljaš, M. and Kulić, V. , “the relationship between architecture and ideology was evident in many aspects of the architectural discourse in socialist Yugoslavia: from the debate on ‘official’ architectural style, fit for the developing new socialist society, to the attempt of connecting traditional national heritage and modern architecture.”24 The expression of traditions and culture by the elevation design of architecture is remarkable in Croatia. According to Maroević, based on the pre-war Zagreb modern architecture, “a new tradition emerged, enriched by local color tones and individual signatures of powerful authors.”25 “The works of Ivan Vitić, residential buildings in Laginjina Street in Zagreb, built in 1958, are an example of architecture with simple cubic volumes and lively colors, with polychrome facades articulated as changing and dynamic abstract pictures, with sliding wooden facade elements-window blinds, which was extremely innovative both for Yugoslavia of the 1960s and the world.”26 The works of Ivan Vitić is remarkable for two reasons: first, in the design field, he found a way to combine the local “traditional features” and the “official standards”, which is not common that time since the main stream is focusing on how to make prefabrication more efficient; second, he found a way, somehow, overcome the hard conditions in economy, while most of the residential buildings only focus on providing housing to society, without carefully thinking about the facade, urban impression, and many other aesthetic aspects.
[Zagreb, Crotia] [1958] [Built] [Site area 9756 m2 , Ground Floor Area 4500 m2] [Ivan Vitić] [Unknown] [Prefabricated, Architecture aesthetics] [Government Funding and Private Investment]
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24. Mrduljaš, M., Kulić, V. (2012) Unfinished Modernisations: Between Utopia and Pragmatism. Zagreb: Udruga hrvatskih arhitekata, pp. 405-419. 25.Maroević, I. (2004) Croatian Architecture of the Fifties: Continuity of Modernity in the Environment of Socialism, Život umjetnosti: časopis za pitanja likovne kulture, No. 71/72, pp. 141-145. 26.Karač Z., Žunić A. (2013) Antologic architectural guide of Zagreb. Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture University of Zagreb, UPI2M Books.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
27.Maroević, I. (2004) Croatian Architecture of the Fifties: Continuity of Modernity in the Environment of Socialism, Život umjetnosti: časopis za pitanja likovne kulture, No. 71/72, pp. 141-145. 28.Karač Z., Žunić A. (2013) Antologic architectural guide of Zagreb. Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture University of Zagreb, UPI2M Books.
But there are still some problems that Ivan Vitić did not solve: first, although he tried to break the limitation of building’s appearance, he created a “mess“ of facades, which means he used many different irrelevant methods in design; second, he ignored the urban context, and did not merge into the neighbourhood well, since the surroundings are only 5 stories high buildings; third, the core area ratio is very high, much higher than the other residential buildings at the same period, so he failed in the principle of “providing housing as much as possible”.27 Nevertheless, Ivan Vitić made a brave attempt to provide different housing projects to society since he did not begin by providing efficient architecture, but rather started to introduce different lifestyles to the public instead. In addition, as showed in the urban fabric map below, Ivan Vitić found a way of providing open space for street activities. As a pioneer, Ivan Vitić focused not only on architectural design and technologies itself, but also on aspects on the urban scale and social context. While a common feature of such urban contexts is “enclosure”, such as an inner courtyard for daily life, Ivan Vitić offered a small plaza that opens to the city. This gesture allowed citizens to occupy that zone, which became a social space that was a “one of a kind” design at that time in SFRY. 28
Figure 16. Project’s location, Zagreb The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 17. Laginjina Street’s foot print, Zegrab A-152
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Figure 18. Conceptual drawing
Figure 19. Perspective of Ivan Vitić’s building The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 20. Taxonomy of elevation
Figure 21-22. Transect and urban context
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Figure 23. Urban environment collage
RESIDENTIAL HOUSING BLOCK 29 [SOCIAL URBANISM] The constant gap between the real needs of families and the economic abilities of the state, forced the architects to identify the minimal standards required to secure the same housing conditions for all members of the society. Bajlon said that “in accordance with egalitarian ideology, new standards reflected the principle of classification of housing with regard to the number of rooms (related to certain number of family members, where the living room was used as bedroom), ”29 while the needs, habits of the residents and desires of potential group users were not given too much consideration, as it is hard to provide flexibility to such a “complete design” housing project. This is the background to the emergence of the first examples of ‘double-tract’ buildings, as an innovative form of collective housing in Yugoslavia, which was to be characteristic for the period of mass residential construction from 1950 to 1970. “This was particularly evident in architectural and urban planning competitions, where new, valuable solutions emerged, related to exploitation of minimal spaces and achievement of higher standards.”30 “For 1967 competition for architectural solution of buildings in Block 29 in New Belgrade, architects Mihailo Čanak and Milosav Mitić designed the construction of four housing units per each staircase vertical, thus avoiding the issues of the lack of privacy with optimal solution of double-tract.”31 Although it is looks like only a little change in the morphology, according to Milašinović-Marić, “it acted in the way reshaping or redefining the structure of community and neighborhood that also share a symbolic meaning of ‘happy community’, which is ‘the core of the communist society, in which it lives and creates in harmony, equality and order’.”32
[Belgrade, Serbia] [1967] [Built ] [Site area 86078 m2 , Ground Floor Area 18077m2] [Mihailo Čanak and Milosav Mitić] [Unknown] [Double Tract, Humane Ideological Social Standard] [Government Founding and Private Investment]
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29. Bajlon, M. (1975) Apartment in Belgrade, Architecture urbanism, No. 74-77, pp. 23-42. 30.Giofrè, F., Miletić, I. (2012) Between past and future: Social Housing in Serbia in the transitional process, Techne, No. 4, pp. 61-73. 31.Čanak, M. (2014) Svi moji stanovi. Belgrade: Orion art. 32.Milašinović-Marić, D. (2012) Housing Design Model Within Unique Architectural Complexes in Serbia in The Sixties of 20th Century: As Model Forms of Harmonization Between Ideology an Modern Architectural Forms, in Mako, V., RoterBlagojević, M., Vukotić-Lazar, M.(eds.) Proceedings from International Conference Architecture & Ideology, September 28-29. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, pp. 549-556
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
However, some problems that occurred in the Block 2 still remained unsolved in Block 29. Although Mihailo Čanak and Milosav Mitić designed different types of housing, they still failed in clarifying whether the living room should be used as bedroom and still ignored the real needs and habits of the residents. Moreover, Mihailo Čanak and Milosav Mitić “designed” a farm in the middle of the block. They imagined a “happy community” model, in which the lifestyle would be living while producing, and having a closer relationship with the neighbors. They tried to make the block become a self-sufficient community, and the food they produce might even supply the surrounding blocks as they are all residential blocks. However, since there were large amount of farm land in the suburban area of Belgrade, the farmers could not afford to live in the city area. This idea failed since the only residents they could attract were not farmers and were not interested in farming.
Figure 24. Block 29’s location, Belgrade
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Figure 25. Block 29’s footprint, Belgrade A-160
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Figure 26. Block 29’s residential building, Belgrade
Figure 27. Block 29’s playground, Belgrade The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 28. Block 29’s Social housing transect
Figure 29. Block 29’s Social housing taxonomy
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Figure 30. Living environment collage
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ZENICA INDUSTRIAL TOWN [INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] Industrial Urbanism, is another significant development guideline for SFRY. According to Mejrema Zatrić-Šahović in the1950s, “regionalism gained a dominant economic dimension”, though it was ineffective universalism, “compromised by the growing inequalities of the division of labor internationally.”33 As mentioned before, due to economic challenges that came with Yugoslavia’s departure from the Cominform, the federal government decided to distribute more capital and resources to several cities, hoping that they would be the backbone of the republic’s economy. Mejrema Zatrić-Šahović claimed that “the industrial town of Zenica, came to be an emblem of Yugoslavian heavy industry and heroic socialist labor. The location of Zenica, near the Bosnia river, metal mines, and a railway system, brought a lot of benefits to Zenica and its residents. Due to its natural riches, this Yugoslavian republic received considerable federal investments to set up plants for the industry of extraction, the so-called ‘priority sector’ of the socialist economy. However, it would also suffer from unprecedented levels of air pollution.”34 The way the town of Zenica got built is similar to a company town, since they built schools, residential buildings, sports fields and many other city amenities. However, the reason why Zenica town was built is different. First, it uses a different funding system, as Zenica receives a remarkable amount of funding from the federal government. Second, the aim of building this town is to bring jobs and try to make industry the backbone. We can see in the map that the railway’s density is higher than any other city in Bosnia. Therefore, the construction of Zenica began with the installment of a railway system. The medieval urban fabric was partly demolished the flat area at river side could be used for railway. In addition, ports and ferries started being constructed for shipping steel and metals.
[Zenica, Bosnia] [1950s] [Built] [Site area 2853917 m2 , Ground Floor Area 661151m2] [Neidhardt for master plan] [Right now belongs to Arcelor Mittal (a metal and mining company)] [Heavy Industry, Organic Theory, Health] [Government Founding and Private Investment]
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33. Mejrema Zatrić-Šahović & Zulejha Šabić-Zatrić (2016) The Environment of Organic Theory: Juraj Neidhardt’ s Organicism in Early Yugoslavian Architecture and Urbanism, Architecture and Culture, 4:3, 435-447 34. Ibid
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
35. https://secure.avaaz.org/en/ community_petitions/local_government_ of_the_city_Zenica_BH_and_managers_of_ ArcelorMittal_decrease_air_pollution_in_ Zenica/, accessed on 26/03/2019
The development of Zenica, attracted a huge population at first, since it could provide many jobs, but as it also caused severe environmental problems, such as air pollution which threatened the workers and resident’s health. This caused a social movement urging the government to stop the factories. Right now, the government is taking actions to make Zenica become a city for tourism, since it has beautiful natural views and attractive urban environments. However, since these factories are the backbone of Zenica’s economy, the government can not stop it, and the factories continue to run today. The factories take control of Zenica since the town and the residents have to greatly depend on it.35 Even though the world is already at the stage of post-industrialism and the need for steel and metal has declined, the environment pollution crisis in Zenica never seems to be resolved,.
Figure 31. Zenica Map The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 32. Zenica Town footprint A-168
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Figure 33. Zenica Town
Figure 34. Zenica’s industry plant The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 35. Zenica transect
Figure 36. Zenica taxonomy The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Figure 37. Zenica urban experiment collage A-172
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MASTER PLAN FOR SKOPJE [UTOPIA URBANISM] Utopia Urbanism is usually stuck into ideology, trying to define the social structure, the lifestyle of citizens, and of course, the urban form. The reconstruction master plan for the City of Skopje after the earthquake could be defined as Utopia Urbanism, since it addressed the concern of the reconstruction of physical environment and the social structure, and tried to reshape the lifestyle of the inhabitants. The planners and architects were trying to define a new order in this emerging “Third World Country”. After the earthquake, the federal government held an international competition looking at the reconstruction plan for Skopje, Kenzo Tange and his team won the first price and quickly the construction process began. But due to the lack of funding, only part of his plan was built. But as we can see in the master plan, Kenzo Tange and his team proposed a series of actions aimed to change or enhance the quality of the citizens: first, providing a lot of high rise residential buildings; second, reshape the whole landscape of the region; third, change the land use and add more public services around the railway station; fourth, add a theater; fifth, design a public park. Moreover, Kenzo Tange and his team are farseeing. The highrise residential buildings they proposed were unique. They designed the platforms on the second or third floor, and roof gardens were included,too. Kenzo Tange and his team imagined the lifestyle of the residents, and many colorful daily activities would happens on the roof top. This design method is still popular in our time, so they were actually thinking 60 years ahead. They were also far-sighted in the open space design. They proposed a walking system all across the core area of the city, linking every important project, like the city gate, the liberty plaza, the citizen’s theater and the monumental park for the earthquake (not on the ground, but on the lifted level).
[Skopje, Macedonia] [1965] [Partly Built ] [Built up area only, Site area 22372 m2, Ground floor area 10069 m2] [Kenzo Tange and his team] [Unkown] [Macedonian Post Head Office, Reshaping the lifestyle] [Government Funding]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
Brutalism is dominant and evident in the model they made for exhibition. The morphology of these buildings could be thought as a kind of expression of the strength of the country, and the planners somehow treat the “official style” as one of their principles. However, the team did not think about the successful “tradition” of pre-fabrication, which lead to the lack of funding and finally caused the “failure” of their plan. The ambition of Kenzo Tange and his team is admirable, but it failed since it fell into ideology urban utopia model. One of the built designs from their plan is called the Macedonian Post Head Office, which was first used as an electricity power station since the city plant must be built up first to recover the energy demands of the citizens. Another partly built up complex was the “city gate”, which only acts as railway station right now since the highrise part is not built up. In this case, we could find some clues indicating that the team was thinking about changing zoning laws, and even tried to find a way combine different zonings in a elaborate way. This is a pretty hot topic in our time since we have already noticed that single-use zoning is restricting our daily life.
Figure 38. Skopje’s masterplan, current
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Figure 39. Master plan for Skopje A-176
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Figure 42. Imaginary transect
Figure 43. Skopje taxonomy in model
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Figure 44. Skopje urban environment collage A-180
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THE RUHR METRO
OPOLIS, GERMANY
THE RUHR METROPOLIS
The Ruhr Metropolis GERMANY
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
The Ruhr Metropolis is an essential area to learn from when you are dealing with urban projects. This is due to its revival, changing greatly from a negative perception into the most successful industrial heritage transformation project worldwide. In history, the Ruhr Region is significant due to its once-glorious heavy industry. It now functions like a metropolitan area full of diversified activities and participants. In other words, the region should instead be referred to as the Ruhr Metropolis as recent urban projects have made way for the transformation of its blighted industrial landscapes into more of a metropolitan urbanity. Currently, there are a fair amount of blighted former industrial areas in the world waiting to be revitalized. For example, the Rust Belt in the United States and the Northeast China Old Industrial Base are all facing similar conditions to the Ruhr. Under this scenario, learning how to re-structure the economy, how to reuse former industrial architectures, and how to increase the employment rates are of great importance. The Ruhr Metropolis is such an excellent example of how to address these issues. Specifically, many projects in the Ruhr Metropolis exhibit features of several urbanisms, such as Post-Industrial Urbanism, Landscape Urbanism, Ecological Urbanism, and so on.
1. “Overview of the Ruhr Metropolis.” https:// www.metropoleruhr.de/en/home/ruhrmetropolis/data-facts.html (accessed February, 2019)
2. Tagliabue, John. “The Twilight of the Industrial Ruhr.” https://www.nytimes. com/1983/11/27/business/the-twilight-of-theindustrial-ruhr.html (accessed February, 2019)
3. newlandplanning. https://wemedia.ifeng. com/70663007/wemedia.shtml (accessed February, 2019)
4. A Review of Industrial Restructuring in the Ruhr Valley and Relevant Points for China. p. 9.
02 Geographic Framework: Culture, Economy, and Sociopolitical Thematics The Ruhr Metropolis, which is a polycentric urban region full of profound industrial cultures, is located in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany with a population of about 5 million and a population density of about 2800/ sq km.1 There are eight major urban areas in it, which are Bochum, Bottrop, Dortmund, Duisburg, Essen, Gelsenkirchen, Hagen, Hamm, Heme, Mulheim, and Oberhausen. Among those cities, Essen is the biggest. The total population within the Ruhr Metropolis is more than five million.
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Figure 01. Post Industrial Landscapes as Urban Interventions
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2010
Essen and the rest of the Ruhr stage RUHR.2010 – Kulturhauptstadt Europas. 2000
1989
The Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park begins its work. 1980
1975
[Critical DATA]
1952
The Dortmund Westfalenhalle is re-constructed in its present form, after the destruction of the first in the war. The official opening took place on 2 February in the presence of the President Theodor Heuss.
1943
During the Tehran Conference, it was already clear enough how important the Allies considered the Ruhr area for the new ordering of Germany after the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed placing the region under international administration, independent of other German states.
Area: 4593 km2 Population: More than 5 million Country[es]: Germany Social Indicators The Ruhr region has with 22 universities and colleges and more than 250,000 students.
Bochum and Duisburg are extended: Bochum incorporates Wattenscheid and Duisburg receives Rheinhausen, Homberg und Walsum. Herne and Wanne-Eickel are united.
1960
1940
1920 1893
In Essen the first electric tram in Rhine-Ruhr starts operating.
1827
In Lünen the Gewerkschaft Eisenhütte “Westphalia” started up business.
Environmental Indicators annual average amount of nitrogen dioxide in micrograms per cubic metre (NO2 in μg/m3): 40 μg/m3v
1850
1800
1750
Economic Indicators Essen: 24.196 (Gross Domestic Product in Billion €) Dortmund: 21.553 (Gross Domestic Product in Billion €) Duiburg: 16.667 (Gross Domestic Product in Billion €)
1700 1672
During the Franco-Dutch War, French soldiers under Marshall Turenne invade the region. Amongst their actions, they burn down the Haus Steinhausen.
1650 1600 1550
1518
In Dortmund, a conflict breaks out between the citizens and the clergy over the privileges of the clergy, such as exemption from taxes. These events can viewed in connection with the Reformation.
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1500
River Lippe River Rhein
Hamm
Kreis Recklinghausen River Emscher
Bottrop
Kreis Wesel
Gelsen Kirchen
KreisUnna Herne Dortmund
Oberhausen
Duisburg
Bochum
Mulheim A. D. R.
River Ruhr
Essen
EnnepeRuhr-Kreis
Hagen
0
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15 km
Figure 02. The Ruhr Area in 1830
5. Forests for Shrinking Cities? The Project “Industrial Forests of the Ruhr” p. 265.
6. “Ruhrgebiet: from Industrial Region to Cultural Melting Pot.” http://www.germany. travel/en/towns-cities-culture/towns-cities/ essen.html (accessed February, 2019)
7. Nesbit, Jeffrey. Post Industrial Landscapes as Urban Interventions. p. 9.
8. Nesbit, Jeffrey. Post Industrial Landscapes as Urban Interventions. p. 9.
9. Nesbit, Jeffrey. Post Industrial Landscapes as Urban Interventions. p. 8.
Figure 03-04. Landscape Urbanism
The Ruhr Metropolis was the pride of Germany during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century due to its inland port, busy inland waterways, and developed transportation system. Ruhr was also the center of coal mining, iron, chemistry, and machine manufacturing of Germany at that time. Duisburg is a good example within the area. It used to be the logistical center in the Ruhr Metropolis and the location of chemical, steel, and iron industries. It created lots of employment positions and resulting in rapid urban growth. Another example is the Krupp family. The first cast-steel factory was founded by Friedrich Krupp in 1811. Based on those elements, Germany accumulated abundant capital and became one of the strongest countries in the world at that time. However, during the period of 1960s and 1970s, with the development of different types of technologies, the adjustment of industrial structure, and changes in capital operations and social life, the industry of Ruhr Metropolis started to decline. The environment was heavy polluted and many traditional industrial enterprises went bankrupt during the process of de-industrialization.2 Similar to other traditional industrial areas in Europe and the United States, the economy of Ruhr Metropolis was grew rapidly and consequently suffered from serious environmental pollution and damage. Confronted with serious unemployment and environmental pollution, the Ruhr Metropolis started to try to reassess its situation in 1980s. The environment has become a great obstacle to the transformation and development of Ruhr. In order to improve the quality of the environment and attract new enterprises, local governments planned to completely eliminate old industrial buildings. However, it took even more financial and labor resources to remove a large number of abandoned factories than build new ones, which led to the government suspending this plan.3 After this period, more efficient interventions started to come into being. The IBA Emscher Park is an excellent example. It happened from 1989 to 1999 and aims to transition the “rust belt” into a green park. The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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Figure 05. Post-Industry Landscapes in Ruhr Metropolis
03
Urban Dynamics
Around 1985, the regional government began to focus on the introduction of new industries and the development of new industrial landscapes on the basis of the old industrial sector.4 At the same time, the local government adopted the strategy of tourism-centric, industrial heritage redevelopment, which can not only effectively reduce costs, but also effectively protect the urban cultural context and unique historical memory. Key sites of this transformation of industrial heritage into tourist attractions are located in the central part of the Ruhr area, stretching across Emscher Park.5 The goal was to improve the urban landscape quality, increase employment opportunities, and readjust industrial structures so as to achieve sustainable development. Different types of urban projects started to be implemented from then on. Some abandoned factories were redesigned into industrial museums, restaurants, and conference centers. Green spaces and public spaces, such as green corridors and parks, were under construction with more attention than before. These new spaces served as public service facilities and addressed the problem of inadequate urban infrastructure. With the original industry building protected and preserved, the Ruhr maintained its identity and strengthened the original urban memory of the region. Now the Ruhr Metropolis has been recognized as a “cultural melting pot� in Europe.6 It is also considered as a polycentric region which has a fair amount of revived cities. Specifically, the Ruhr metropolis succeeded in dealing with abandoned industry buildings. “Cities around the world are still and will continue to respond to the dramatic scale of abandoned landscapes. The IBA Emscher Park played a very important role in this process. Many high quality post-industrial landscapes and architectures came into being. Historically, many of these decaying places have been ignored, erased, or transformed without any consideration for the inherent cultural and contextual qualities.7 We need to evaluate the value A-188
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10. Nesbit, Jeffrey. Post Industrial Landscapes as Urban Interventions. p. 7.
Figure 06. Building Work on the Kleine Emscher
Figure 07. The Open Emscher at Lake Phoenix in Dormund
11. Technische Universitat Dortmund. Transforming City Regions: Polycentric City Regions in Transformation - The Ruhr Agglomeration in International Perspective. p. 16.
of the industrial relics. What can we learn from the Ruhr’s approach to postindustrial landscapes? “These once flourishing landscapes, located in dense urban centers provide incremental possibilities for contemporary activation; including the evaluation though innovative methods of manipulating physical horizontal topography, embedded structures, and ‘leftover’ anatomy.”8 As urban designers, we should shoulder these ‘drosscapes’, by transitioning so-called urban wastes into valuable landscapes and spaces. “The adaptability and occupation of drosscapes depend upon qualities associated with decontamination, health, safety, and reprogramming. The designer must act, at times, as the conductor and at times the agent of these effects in order to slow down or speed them up.”9 Besides, “Drosscapes are interstitial. The designer integrates waste landscapes left over from any form or type of development.”10 In other words, urban designers should try our best to create infinite possibilities leveraging existing conditions.
Figure 08. Waste Water Canal at the Kleine Emscher
Figure 09. The ‘ Slinky Springs to Fame’ footbridge across the Rhine Herne Canal by Artist Tobias Rehberger
04
Selected Urban Projects
“Within the last 40 years, the Ruhr agglomeration has undergone a significant structural change. The de-industrialization of the whole region has forced the area to transform in many ways: economically, socially and environmentally. Additionally, the region is making great efforts to establish new economies and attract young professionals.”11 From an urban perspective, several urban or architectural projects were selected based on the qualities they have. They are Duisburg Nord Landscape Park, Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream, the Ruhr Museum, Ruhr University West, and Ruhr Network Metropolis, respectively responding to Landscape Urbanism, Ecological Urbanism, Post-Industrial Urbanism, Social Urbanism, and Network Urbanism.
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DUISBURG NORD LANDSCAPE PARK [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] Duisburg Nord Landscape Park was designed by Latz+Partner. It is a project which respects the industrial past of the site, which is abandoned in 1985, to a large degree instead of ignoring or even destroying it. It aims to combine a delicate landscape with the industrial equipment of the factory, thus, a brand-new industrial landscape was built. Functions are well designed based on the features of the equipment. The entire park is divided into four landscape levels: First, the original railways combined with the elevated walkway build the highest level of the park. It is not only established the connection between various functional areas in the site but also enhanced communication with districts outside the site;1 second, water landscape layer. The rainwater is collected from the previous wastewater discharge channel. The rainwater is led to the original cooling tank and sedimentation tank in the factory, and is filtered and then flows into the Emscher River;2 the third layer is the road system layer, composed of various bridges and well-connected walking paths in the park; the fourth layer is the different functional areas and the uniquely designed open spaces, at which level visitors can fully experience the unique industrial landscape. These layers are selfcontained systems that exist independently and continuously, connecting them at specific points with elements such as ramps, steps, platforms and gardens for visual, functional and symbolic connections. This landscape urbanism can not only help to promote the environmental quality, but it can also help to preserve valuable memories. James Corner is a really important expert under the scenario of the Landscape Urbanism. One of his statements which really impresses me is that Landscape Urbanism treats all forces and agents in the urban environment as continuous networks of inter-relationships.3 Everything does not exist in the urban environment separately. Instead, they have amazing relationships. Those relationships help them work well. So urban interventions cannot consider different situations separately. Sometimes, several parts on the networks will have problems. Those urban interventions which aims to solve these problems can redefine those inter-relationships and make them more fine-grained. This is a really systematic way to scrutinize our cities. James Corner also mentions that roofs and grounds should become one and the same.4 I do really think that we considering surface as urban infrastructure is a good start. We used to build so many parks, but never take care about surfaces before. That is why Beijing [Duisburg-Meiderich, GERMANY] [1991] [Built] [200 hectares] [Latz + Partner, Latz-Riehl, G. Lipkowsky] [The low-lying water park, the single fields and clumps of vegetation, the promenades at street level ] [Green space / Park] [Landesentwicklungsgesellschaft Nordrhein-Westfalen, Stadt Duisburg, Emschergenossenschaft Essen, Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet] A-190
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1. Latz + Partner. “Landschaftspark Duisburg Nord.” http://www.landezine.com/index. php/2011/08/post-industrial-landscapearchitecture/ (accessed February, 2019) 2. “Landscape Park Duisburg-Nord.” https:// www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/ landscape-park-duisburg-nord/ (accessed February, 2019)
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 10-12. Duisburg Nord Landscape Park
3. Corner, James. Terra Fluxus. p. 30. 4. Corner, James. Terra Fluxus. p. 30.
and several other cities in my countries will have flooding issues. Porous and finegrained city surfaces can truly help to reduce runoffs and make plants grow in better conditions. Thus, urban areas can be more resilient to not only flooding issue but also air issue. Applying the Landscape Urbanism in those areas could help to truly promote the environment and allow more people to be involved in. For example, the mother river of my hometown, Taiyuan, is the Fenhe River. It used to be a very separated natural element in the city and was bad-polluted. Then the urban designers proposed a mega green belt along it, and many programs were well embedded into the system. As a result of it, it not only helps to promote the overall environmental quality, but it also makes more people to participate in the landscape. It has already been a must-go place in the whole Taiyuan region.
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Duisburg Location Figure and Ground 0
500m
Factory Building Landscape
Chimney Landscape
Tank Landscape
Taxonomy A-192
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Steelmaking Equipment Landscape
Collage
Transect The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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RENEWAL OF THE DEININGHAUSER STREAM [ECOLOGICAL URBANISM]
Deininghauser Stream rehabilitating project, conducted by The Emschergenossenschaft (Emscher Cooperative Water Industry Association) in 1992,1 is a model project for renewal of the Emscher system. The effects of mining activities in the Ruhr Area in the form of surface subsidence forced the need to engineer the morphology of riverbed channels. In the late nineteenth century, the hydraulic declines of the Emscher River and its tributaries, including Deininghauser Stream, were reversed. Riverbeds were redesigned with concrete, and the bottoms of riverbeds and channels were deepened and straightened in order to maintain sewage and accelerate the drainage of large areas of plains. The Deininghauser Stream became an open, untreated wastewater course which contained a large amount of municipal and industrial wastewater and caused serious environmental problems.2 The collapse of the coal mining industry brought new opportunities for rehabilitation of this area. Major efforts were undertaken to re-establish a more natural flow regime, including removal of concrete bottoms and introducing vegetation along the banks. The project also assisted through stormwater infiltration approaches to improve its performance on flooding mitigation. What is more, the project also created new riverside spaces with art and nature. Today, no-one would think that this is a former wastewater canal. The ecological renewal forms the backbone of an outstanding new landscape space in the eastern Emscher region.3 “We must be aware of the dynamic relationships, both visible and invisible, that exist among the various domains of a larger terrain of urban as well as rural ecologies.”4 When we are dealing urban projects under this scenario, we should always comprehensively think about all the essential elements in the system and always care about relationships between them.
1. “Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream, Castrop-Rauxel.” https://www.open-iba.de/ en/geschichte/1989-1999-iba-emscher-park/ umbau-des-deininghauser-bachs-castroprauxel/ (accessed February, 2019)
2. “Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream, Castrop-Rauxel.” https://www.open-iba.de/ en/geschichte/1989-1999-iba-emscher-park/ umbau-des-deininghauser-bachs-castroprauxel/ (accessed February, 2019)
Ecological Urbanism a considerS the whole region as an ecosystem. If we consider each part separately and ignore inter-connections, we will put the city in an unbalanced condition. Systematic thinking always matters in any urban project. The Deininghauser Stream rehabilitating project is not only a landscape for people to enjoy. It also serves as a green and blue infrastructure to ensure better
[Castrop-Rauxel, GERMANY] [1992] [Built] [ 9.5 kilometres] [Team Ingenieurbüro Fischer GmbH (Erfstadt), Ecology and Planning Group (Essen) and Architecture and Urban Planning] [Emscher Cooperative, City of Castrop-Rauxel] [Green space / Nature reserve] [IBA Emscher Park selected the stream as a model for ecological renewal of Emscher feeders] A-194
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Location Year(s) Status Length Designer Additional Agents Program(s) Key Project Components
Figure 13-15. Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream
3. “Renewal of the Deininghauser Stream, Castrop-Rauxel.” https://www.open-iba.de/ en/geschichte/1989-1999-iba-emscher-park/ umbau-des-deininghauser-bachs-castroprauxel/ (accessed February, 2019) 4. Mostafavi, Mohsen., Doherty, Gareth. Ecological Urbanism. Lars Muller Publishers. p. 29.
environment quality of the whole region. It has the ability to manage stormwater, which is not only make better use of it but also prevent people from flooding dangers. The landscape here is protective and productive which better meet citizens’ needs. As far as I am concerned, the Ecological Urbanism takes more steps than the Landscape Urbanism. The reason is that it considers open spaces not only as some decorations or recreations but also green or blue infrastructures which aim to protect the city even the whole region. Thus, well embedding some high-quality green or blue infrastructure to the blighted former industrial areas could help to prevent them from several types of disasters, such as flooding, air population, earthquakes, tsunamis, and so on to a large degree. In a word, landscapes, at least some of them, should be considered as urban or regional infrastructures.
The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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Kreis Recklinghausen
Location
Figure and Ground 0
200m
Woody Plant
Water Plant
Herbage Plant
Taxonomy A-196
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Rain Garden
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Transect The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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THE RUHR MUSEUM [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] The Ruhr Museum is located inside the old washing plant of Zeche Zollverein, the largest of Essen’s disused coal mines, and is designed by Rem Koolhaas with his atelier OMA in 2002. This is a design based on the formal abandoned industry site. Everything is aimed to delivering a full unique historical experience and feeling of the Ruhr area with the functions in harmony with forms. Most of the original constructions of the old factory are still visible.1 Machinery, concrete and iron are the basic materials of the whole museum. Interestingly, the movement from bottom to top of the former industry building has been kept.2 The stairs running through all floors are made of red material and yellow light, and the entire staircase is like a hot coal stream, reflecting the unique characteristics of the Ruhr Area, and giving visitors a strong visual experience.3 Those approaches successfully preserve the memory of the original factory production and create the respect to the industrial culture. Besides, this project helps to revive the area via a combination of business, art, education, and information. Moreover, the whole buildings and public spaces are well designed in Zeche Zollverein area. The government encouraged the cultural entrepreneurship to develop in this area, and tried to attract artists, designers and curators to settle in. Gradually, it will become a local culture center. I think Drosscape is a really inspiring concept under the scenario of Post-Industrial Urbanism. It is about how to make best use of leftovers which we thought useless before. “One Dross is understood as a natural component of energy dynamically evolving city. As such it is an indicator of healthy urban growth.”4 “The designer must discern which types of ‘waste’ may be productively reintegrated for higher social, cultural, and environmental benefits.”5 As planners and urban designers, we should always keep thinking how to appropriately integrate industrial relics with social, cultural, and ecological contexts. We should propose interventions based on specific features of each industrial equipment. We should carefully respond to the urban context and citizens’ demand. We should do our best to become collaborator and negotiator during this process. If you go to some blighted former industrial area, like the Northeastern part of China, you can see many abandoned industrial buildings. This is really a waste of valuable resources. The most amazing experience [Essen, GERMANY] [2001-2007] [Built] [12,000 m2] [OMA] [Floris Alkemade] [Industrial monument that combines modern use with historic context] [Museum / Gallery] [Ministry for Culture, Sports & Housing of Nordrhein-Westfalen, Development Company Zeche Zollverein] A-198
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1. “The Ruhrmuseum in Zollverein; a Full Sensory Experience Aimed at Discovery.” https://themuseumofthefuture. com/2010/03/21/the-ruhrmuseum-inzollverein-a-full-sensory-experience-aimed-atdiscovery/ (accessed February, 2019)
2. Portillo, Andrea. “The Ruhr Museum in Zeche Zollverein by OMA.” https://www. metalocus.es/en/news/ruhr-museum-zechezollverein-oma (accessed February, 2019)
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 16-18. The Ruhr Museum 3. “Ruhr Museum.� https://www.detailonline.com/article/ruhr-museum-14210/ (accessed February, 2019)
4. Berger, Alan. Drosscape: Wasting Land Urban America. New York, US: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007.
5. Berger, Alan. Drosscape: Wasting Land Urban America. New York, US: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007.
about the Post-Industrial Urbanism is that how to reuse those buildings via creative interventions. With deep understanding about the features of the industrial structures, a fair amount of innovations could come into being and truly help to show the industrial-culture identity. The potential of this type of architectures is really huge. Retrofitting and taking advantage of them could help to make the whole blighted region revive to a large degree. Industrial relics are treasures to us. This is because they have great potential to create brand new urban landscapes. However, if we only do some narcissist artwork on them, those may become total disasters. As far as I am concerned, two key points are essential when we are dealing with Industrial renovation projects. The first one would be local identity, and the second one would be citizen demand. Those two could combine top-down and bottom-up planning processes and help to transition industrial relics well. The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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Figure and Ground 0
Essen 200m Location
Crane
Tower
Corridors
Taxonomy A-200
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Stair
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Transect The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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RUHR UNIVERSITY WEST [SOCIAL URBANISM] Ruhr University West is an open and permeable campus designed by HPP+Astoc. It contains eight institute buildings with total 62,000 m² of GFA,1 including a lecture hall, a library, and a multi-level parking building. The project focuses on embedding the new campus area with the existing environment by its open and inviting structure. which also define the identity to the area. Thus, it is not only an educational institution but also a project that can help to activate the surrounding environment.2 The commonly used buildings reflecting the heights and volumes of surrounding development , center the campus in public area, while different departments are connected with foyers from the center. Moreover, the campus itself deliberately opens up towards the adjacent buildings and environment. The residential district on the South side of the Duisburger Street becomes integrated into this project. Thus, the residential area and the infrastructure along Duisburger Street are activated and enriched by events and uses of the new university. So, different types of vibrant public spaces are created within the campus which can provide high-quality recreational spaces not only for the students but also for the residents.3 It is well embedded to the city context and can help to promote civic pride, participation, and social impact, which has a great correspondence with social urbanism. For the Social Urbanism, “it was conceived as an urban strategy that combined simultaneously physical transformations, social/institutional programs and participatory processes. Social and institutional programs and activities aiming at education, culture, sports and recreation and employment should reinforce and make active use of the new public spaces and public facilities. This was done through coordinated and integrated actions of the different agencies of the municipality and the involvement of the community during the different stages of the projects.”4 An urban project is not just for physical transformations but also for more diversified goals to truly let society make progress. Besides, cooperation between different institutions during urban planning and design process are really of importance. It can balance different kinds of powers and make more participations. I think the most valuable part of this project is that it is not only for students to get high-quality educational resources, but it also provides the citizens with diversified types of public spaces for them to enjoy. The reason why those former industrial areas became blighted is not only about industry itself, [Mülheim an der Ruhr, GERMANY] [2016] [Built] [62,000 m2] [HPP + Astoc] [Not only as a new educational institution, but also as an important component of the urban development concept for the entire university surroundings] [University / Education] [BLB NRW / Building and Property Department of NRW, Münster, Germany]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. HPP Architects. “Hochschule Ruhr West / University of Applied Sciences.” https:// www.gooood.cn/ruhr-west-university-byhppastoc.htm (accessed February, 2019)
2. “ Ruhr University West.” https://www. domusweb.it/en/architecture/2016/11/07/ ruhr_university_west_hpp_astoc.html (accessed February, 2019)
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 19-21. Ruhr University West
3. HPP Architects. “Hochschule Ruhr West / University of Applied Sciences.” https:// www.gooood.cn/ruhr-west-university-byhppastoc.htm (accessed February, 2019)
4. Calderon, C. “Social Urbanism – Integrated and Participatory Urban Upgrading in Medellin, Colombia.” “Requalifying the Built Environment: Challenges and Responses.” (2012): p. 5
it is also about politics, economics, culture, and so on. It is an overall social issue. By taking advantage of the Social Urbanism, different agencies could be involved in the process and more diversified goals could be taken into consideration. This is really a good way to truly solve the issues in those areas. For example, Shanxi Province, which is the biggest coal-mining region in China, is suffering economic recession now. I think the best way to help it get out of this dilemma is not only about making new policies on coal mining again and again, it is about how to promote the situation using a sustainable way. As a matter of fact, there are a fair amount of ancient architectures located in it, so developing culture area may be a useful way. Institutional architecture plays a very important role in human being’s society. It offers a fair amount of opportunities for people to be involved in gathering, sharing, and celebrating. It doesn’t have to be big, a small installation might make everything different, just like a mobile reading room located around a street. The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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Figure and Ground 0
150 m Mulheim A. D. R. Location
Building Type A
Building Type B
Building Type C
Taxonomy A-204
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Window Blinds
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Transect The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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RUHR NETWORK METROPOLIS [NETWORK URBANISM] Ruhr Network Metropolis is based on existing environment and focuses on cooperation, communication, and co-production.1 Different types of values, such as social, economic, and ecological ones, will be added and demonstrated in physical environment. It will serve all stakeholders who are related with Ruhr Metropolis. There are three key elements within this system. They are the Time City which allows for an optimized everyday life, the Field City which structures the management of giant agricultural areas, and the Sponge City which defines an efficient use of the water resource.2 The polycentric structure of the Ruhr region is also reflected in the road network. In contrast to classic metropolises, it does not consist of circular and radial roads, but rather a grid structure which connects the centers of the numerous cities of different sizes. The railway system is also not focused on one single center. Instead, it is widespread all over the Ruhr region.3 All of those will help to increase the economic connections between Ruhr Metropolis and the whole world. These networks can help to activate economics, ecology, and living quality of Ruhr Region. “Partial and total automation is improving efficiency, reducing operating costs and radically changing the relationship between operators and users, as, for example, in underground transport systems. The newly enriched range of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) is also providing urbanites with untold means of harnessing the potential of the city’s physical space and of becoming integrated into its social space.”4 The earth is like a global village now. This global-scale mega system has different types of networks, such as highway network, railway network, communication network, and so on.
1. “Ruhr Network Metropolis.” https://www. bureaualisaad.eu/Projects/Ruhr-NetworkMetropolis (accessed February, 2019)
2. “Ruhr Network Metropolis.” https://www. bureaualisaad.eu/Projects/Ruhr-NetworkMetropolis (accessed February, 2019)
This is a good change to integrate physical environments and social environments, which could make developments healthier. The Ruhr Network Metropolis is a comprehensive planning proposal which consider the whole Ruhr Metropolis as a whole. Planners and urban designers should have a global processing when dealing with urban projects. We should always have a look at what a city or a region can contribute to the whole world and make interventions accordingly. There is no region can be developed separately today in the world. As far as I am concerned, one of the biggest issues in those blighted former industrial areas is that they cannot gain enough information and data about the [Ruhr Region, GERMANY] [Exact or estimated] [Built] [4500 km2] [Uberbau (Architecture, Urbansim)] [bgmr (landscape), Initial Design (mobility)] [The Time-City, the Field-City, and the Sponge-City] [Strategic regional plan] [Public Association Metropole Ruhr (RVR), DE ]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 22-24. Ruhr Network Metropolis
3. Polycentric City Regions in Transformation – The Ruhr Agglomeration in International Perspective. 2015. p. 17.
4. Dupuy, Gabriel. Urban Networks – Network Urbanism. p. 238.
region and the world efficiently. It directly results in not being able to make precise decisions. Building an efficient transportation network and an information network could truly help to solve this issue. Transportation and information infrastructures play very important roles in this process. A city or a region can never be in a healthy situation without the support of network infrastructures. Infrastructure, no matter what kind of type they are, should be well connected with each other. Thus, an overall system could be built. This could prevent a city or a region from many dangers like flooding, typhoon, and so on to some degree. This is because a delicate system is more stable that a single part most of the time. Designing infrastructures and their networks equals building human security. Or we can also say that everything in a city is linked via infrastructures in the types of both natural and artificial. People can enjoy the convenience brought by the amenities and live high-quality lives. The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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Ruhr Region
Figure and Ground 0
15 km Location
Neighborhood Alley
Street Groceries
Farm
Taxonomy A-208
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Park
Collage
Transect The Ruhr Metropolis, Germany
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MUMBAI METROPOLITAN REGION
Mumbai Metropolitan Region INDIA 01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE The Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is one of the largest and fastest growing metropolitan regions in the World. Urban landscapes in India are emerging rapidly, growing in their secluded bubbles, quite disconnected from the surrounding topography and natural condition.1 It is happening everywhere, from tropical coastal regions to desert plains, from fertile plateaus to barren mountains. Urban areas are growing and so are the satellite towns and metropolitan areas needed to support the urban centers. These complex formations, reorganizations and erasures form strange new patterns of work, living and leisure resulting in even more bizarre metropolitan psychologies that operate with multiple logics linking large number of actors in multifaceted arrangements.2 MMR is one such metropolitan region located in India. It has developed over the span of 20 years, consisting of Mumbai and its satellite towns. In total it consists of five districts, nine municipal corporations and 15 smaller municipal corporations which collectively define Mumbai Metropolitan Region.3 Mumbai Metropolitan Region is the result of land making and world building. Reclamation, land creation, recovery, repossession, renovation, restructuring and recuperation remains the major drivers defining the changing nature of the region. This process of city making by reclamation and ecological manufacturing plays an important role that can lead to a more cohesive and integrated urban region or a complete disintegration of the social and infrastructural fabric. MMR is an interesting site of investigation as the city faces complex challenges and transformations and is in constant flux of “kinetic” and “static” due to its geography, boundaries, topography and demography.4 The region is unique due to the mix of unmoving and constantly morphing components – heritage structures that are essential to the city’s identify and temporary structures that define the way of life for millions in the city. Constant state of conflict between the moving and the unmoving, the rich and the poor, the local and the migrant, the majority and the minority, all create space for new ideas of urbanism to take seed and blossom. Expansion and growth of territory of Mumbai within and beyond its city limits
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1 M, Srinivasan. “Rapid Urbanisation, change in style of worship threaten ‘devara kaadus’”. Times of India. 11 April 2019. https:// timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ rapid-urbanisation-change-in-style-of-worshipthreaten-devara-kaadus/articleshow/67937596. cms 2 Rupali Gupte, Rahul Mehrotra, Prasad Shetty. “ Frothing Urbanism: Discussing Urban Conditions in Contemporary India”. Aticle published in Mumbai Reader 08, Urban Design Research Institute. September 2007. 3 MMRDA. “About MMR”. Accessed 4th February 2019. https://mmrda.maharashtra. gov.in/about-mmr 4 Mehrotra Rahul. “ Negotiating the Static and Kinetic cities: The Emergent Urbanism of Mumbai”. Essay featured in Other Cities, Other Worlds, Duke University Press 2008. http:// www.rmaarchitects.com/essays/static-kineticcities.pdf
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020
2000 1996
1982 1970
1960 1947
2000 Mill land redevelopment reclamation of salt pan lands & mangrove forests The name ‘Bombay ‘ was officially changed to ‘Mumbai ‘
Mill workers’ strike & An eventual decline of Mills in Bombay Reclamation of Black bay now known as marine drive was finished
Plans for New Mumbai were proposed by Architect Charles Correa and a new satellite town for the island city came into existence
Area: Urban: 603 sq km Metro (MMR): 4,355 sq km Population Density: Urban Average: 20,694 people/sq km Metro Average: 4,764 people/sq km
1940
1925 1896 1873 1869 1856 1853 1838
Social Indicators : Cultural diversity | Ethnic Groups | Festivals | Housing Typology |Income Groups
1813
Environmental Indicators : Mumbai has a tropical climate, temperatures average between 28°C and 38°C in. During monsoon season, , heavy precipitation occurs daily, and peak storms regularly overburden the city’s sewer system, resulting in flooding
1772
Economic Indicators : Politicians | Government bodies (MMRDA) | Business man | MNC’s | Service Sector
1960
India gained independence from Great Britain
[Critical DATA] Population: Urban: 12,478,447 people Metro: 20,748,395 people
1980
1803
1684 1661
Major land reclamation at eastern port sides City Improvement Trust was found in response to the recent epidemic. The trust further carried out reclamation of low lying areas in the city Establishment of Bombay Port Trust Opening of Suez Canal made Bombay the closet port to Europe Bombay’s First Cotton Textile Mill was Established by Cowasji First railway line was constructed connecting Mumbai and Thane
1920
1850
7 islands of Bombay were amalgamated into one mass British Parliament ended East India Company’s commercial monopoly
1800
The Great fire of Bombay triggered development projects on the island
First large-scale Civil Engineering and reclamation works were initiated by British Governor William Hornby
1750 1700
Bombay became new headquarter of the British East India Company Islands were given to England as part of a dowry arrangement
1650 1600 1550
1534
Portuguese captured islands of Mumbai
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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1500
Thane District
Area: 4,214 sq km Total Population: 11,060,148 Density: 1,157 people/sq km
Mumbai Suburban District
Area: 446 sq km Total Population: 9,332,481 Density: 21,000 people/sq km
Mumbai Island City District
Area: 157 sq km Total Population: 3,085,411 Density: 19,652 people/sq km
Raigad District
Raigad District Thane District | Satellite Towns Mumbai Suburban District Island City | Mumbai District Mumbai Metropolitan Region District Boundaries Tehsil Boundaries
0
10 km
MMR is a metropolitan region located in India. Mumbai Metropolitan region developed over the span of 20 years, consisting of state capital Mumbai and its satellite towns. In total it consists of five districts, nine municipal corporations and 15 smaller municipal corporations which collectively define Mumbai Metropolitan Region.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Time-line Showing Reclamation of Seven Islands 5 Pethe, Abhay, Sahil Gandhi, and Vaidehi Tandel. “Assessing the Mumbai Metropolitan Region: A Governance Perspective.” Economic and Political Weekly 46, no. 26/27 (2011): 18795. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23018645. 6 Scott, Allen.,” A New Synthesis of Park and City”, (essay featured in) Turan N., Ramos S., New Geographies 0, Harvard University Press, 2009 p17 7 British Library. “Bombay: History of a City”. Accessed 4th February 2019 http://www.bl.uk/ learning/histcitizen/trading/bombay/history. html
Figure 01. Bombay: The Cities Within by Rahul Mehrotra and Sharada Dwivedi,1995
is the result of various processes of globalization, liberalization, capitalism and ever-growing population.5 These agencies trigger growth within the region by redefining its physical realities and urban processes that shape them. As Stan Allen said, “Urbanization today is not only a global phenomenon of physical and cultural restructuring, but it has itself become a spatial effect of the distributed networks of communication, resources, finance, and migration that characterize contemporary life. The city today is everywhere and nowhere.”6
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIO-POLITICAL THEMATICS The original city of Mumbai, expertly created by the British by connecting seven islands did not have the needed space to support the burgeoning economy and population of the city.7 Development of the MMR was therefore a natural consequence of urbanization. Stretching the limits of the region by more than 60 kms in two directions (North and East) has created a unique culture within the city and the MMR. While the main part (South) of the city dominates the social, cultural and economic narrative of the city, increased prosperity of those dwelling in MMR and traveling daily to the city has also started affecting the way in which the main city’s urbanization is shaped. Economic migrants from various parts of India started flocking to Mumbai after independence. Given the lack of space and high cost of real estate in the city, more housing and urban development started happening in the MMR region. Two themes dominated the growth of MMR. First was the category of migrants who could make a decent living and they expected certain basic standards from their living accommodations. Additionally, migration happened in batches and whole communities (e.g. Sindhi, Gujarati, Marwari etc.) started coming to Mumbai in large numbers. These groups created their own gated community living areas wherein sale or tenancy of property was allowed only to those belonging to the community.
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Figure 02. Marine Drive, Mumbai, https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/mumbais-iconic-marine-drive-turns-100/article8006021.ece
Second category of migrants were the daily wage labourers, domestic help and the abject poor who had neither a means of living nor a community to support them. This group found only harsh living conditions and were forced into slums, which are now home to over seven million people in MMR.8 Often, the city sees controversies and crises arising due to the pull of power between these two sets of citizens. From an Urban Development perspective, this is a unique challenge; while both groups can claim inheritance to the culture and heritage of the city, the priorities of both and the infrastructural needs of both diverge considerably. Careful cultural balancing is important for the development of any modern city.9 From the Economic front MMR presents a different challenge. A comprehensive development plan has to consider multiple aspects, which includes economically driven cultural interactions that shape the cityscape.10 Earlier, the direction of flow of people in the city was simple (though inefficient). All those living in the suburbs would have to travel to South Mumbai for their offices – be it Textile, Diamond, Banking or Stock Broking Industries.11 Natural dying out a few industries and the emergence of more service based industries has created spheres or bubbles of concentration (e.g. BKC has become the hub for Banking, Mindspace for BPO etc.).12 Secondly, like the main city, MMR also has a lot of sea-front areas and many of these areas got greater share of civic development funds due to their locational advantage. Thus, many have built homes that are far from their workplaces and the direction of flow of people has now become more chaotic. This creates an interesting challenge to address and govern planning of the region.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
8
Risbud Neelima. “The case of Mumbai, India”. Report extracted from UN-Habitat (2003) Global Report on Human Settlements 2003, The Challenge of Slums, Earthscan, London; Part IV: ‘Summary of City Case Studies’, pp195-228. 9
Scott, Allen. “Creative cities: The role of culture” Dans Revue d’économie politique 2010/1 (Vol. 120) 10 Redaelli, Eleonora and Haines, Anna “Framing Cultural Resource Policies in Comprehensive Plans”, Journal of Planning Education and Research, 2014 11
Clark, Greg and Moonen, Tim. “Mumbai: India’s Global City”. JP Morgan Chase. Dec 2014 https://www.jpmorganchase. com/corporate/Corporate-Responsibility/ document/gci_mumbai_02.pdf
Figure 03. Mumbai Reader ’17 by Urban Design Research Institute, Mumbai
Palava City, Dombivali
Figure 04. Mumbai Reader ’08 by Urban Design Research Institute, Mumbai
Fishing Village, Worli Lower Parel Eastern Waterfront Crawford Market
Figure 05. SOAK: Mumbai in an Estuary by A. Mathurand D. da Cunha, 2009
Figure 06. Map Locating Five Case Study Projects
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03 URBAN DYNAMICS According to Mehrotra, “Over the last three decades in Mumbai, planning has largely been about rear-guard actions versus the avant-garde approaches that have traditionally led planning. Thus today most infrastructure follows city growth rather than leading development by facilitating and opening up new growth centers within and outside the city.”13 Over and above the present day exigent needs for planning, there is a need to think about the growth of the city for the next two to three decades. As the old city areas, developed during the British era, start crumbling and the MMR becomes more and more independent from the traditional nerve center of the city, it is important for urban designers and planners to predict future movement of the people and plan living spaces, working spaces and then connect infrastructure accordingly. Diversity is at the core of MMR’s character and this diversity creates issues in the development of the city as well. Economic diversity – mega corporates working side by side with informal, unregistered companies vie for greater share in the city’s developmental aspirations. This in turn impacts the definition, role, and aim of the city and region to play at a global level. Moreover, the formal and informal landscapes within the city are not delimited by any boundary, rather, they are often fused together for sharing economic and social activities’.14 MMR is region that doesn’t stop. Thousands of migrants flow into the area on an annual basis and gradually push the boundary of the region. ‘It is an indigenous urbanism that has its particular “local” logic. It is not necessarily the city of the poor, as most images might suggest; rather it is a temporal articulation and occupation of space which not only creates a richer sensibility of spatial occupation but also suggests how spatial limits are expanded to include formally unimagined uses in dense urban conditions.15 Understanding MMR thus requires not just an understanding of the current state of affairs but also the past states that led to the current state and also predicting the future direction of the dynamically changing landscape. Any MMR developmental plan that ignores one or more of these is doomed to fail the region economically and/or culturally. MMR, more than any other area in the country, requires a certain amount of elasticity in planning. A-218
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
12
Mehrotra Rahul. “ Negotiating the Static and Kinetic cities: The Emergent Urbanism of Mumbai”. Essay featured in Other Cities, Other Worlds, Duke University Press 2008. http:// www.rmaarchitects.com/essays/static-kineticcities.pdf
13
Mehrotra Rahul. “Mumbai: Planning Challenges for the Compact City”. https://src. lafargeholcim-foundation.org/dnl/238630ef399c-4479-9fa7-5d6abe54c6cb/F13_Green_03_ Mumbai_Planning_Challenges_for_the_ Compact_City.pdf
14
Kidambi, P. “Mumbai Modern: Colonial Pasts and Postcolonial Predicaments.” Journal of Urban History 39, no. 5 (2013): 1003–11. doi:10.1177/0096144213479326.
15
Mehrotra Rahul. “Mumbai: Planning Challenges for the Compact City”
16
Kelly Shannon and Janinna Gosseye. “Reclaiming (the urbanism of) Mumbai.” Published by SUN Architecture, 2009, http:// www.planum.net/journals-books/reclaimingthe-urbanism-of-mumbai
Figure 07. Lost Mumbai : Collage of Old Photographs, http://8ate.blogspot.com/2008/02/lost-mumbai-collage-of-old-photographs.html Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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ISLAND CITY
SE
-RI H G HI 04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The projects selected for the research highlight different dynamic urbanism that territory faces. The Crawford Market represents the everyday life within the city and contains varying layers of urbanization and urban forms, it strongly emphasizes the kinetic life that narrow streets hold within them. It is an emblem of the old city and the charm and the economic significance that holds millions of citizens of Mumbai and MMR. The Palava City is a great example of capitalism and globalization driven project that further leads to social segregation and gated enclaves within the territory. It builds upon the tradition of the first category of community oriented migrants that came to the city. In contrast to Palava city, the Worli koliwada reflects a vibrant settlements contesting to sustain within the new contemporary city. The projects vary tremendously in scale and sustain within different socio-economic and political dynamics within the territory. The territory provokes relevant insights on the sharp contradictions across the present city and it questions the possible forms of its future development and growth.16
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WESTERN SUBURBS
NAVI MUMBAI
LS L I M
L A M
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Collage unveiling different layers of urbanity in Mumbai Metropolitan Region Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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CRAWFORD MARKET [EVERYDAY | PRODUCTIVE URBANISM] “Fast pace” life has become part of a routine and habit for Mumbaikars and define ever transforming yet constant everyday life. The city and its streetscape transform from morning to evening, and hosts several formal and informal activities which become part of daily life and processes of human activity. These informal activities hosts urbanism that engage the city and defines it extremely kinetic and dynamic nature.1 This quality of simultaneity and transformation hosts ever-changing public spaces in the city streets in the form of “bazaars” where everyday interactions and exchanges occur. ‘Crawford Market’ in Mumbai is a significant example that holds within it such dynamic connections that encourages everyday urbanism within its fine grain of street networks. It caters like an open shopping mall operated by hawkers and roadside vendors. “Crawford Market is a symbol of all that’s wrong and right with the city – disorganized and decrepit but possessing a character of its own that will be lost forever with multi-storied malls”.2 The maze of continuous dense streets and bazaars define the city and are the evidence of its culture that makes the city what it is, a city of bazaars, markets, shops, dreams and aspirations. ‘In this maze lie stories, images and ideas of a city that provide newer definitions of what it means to be a Mumbaikar, through the
Mumbai, INDIA [1869] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] William Emersion [It was the main wholesale market for fruits in Mumbai until March 1996, when the wholesale traders were relocated to Navi Mumbai] [Bazaars |Open Shopping Mall | Fruit Market| Poultry | Wholesale | Retail exchange of goods] [Public and Private]
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Ashlesha Kale. Through the Bazaars of Mumbai Full Paper. Retrieved from https:// www.academia.edu/8520427/Through_the_ Bazaars_of_Mumbai_Full_Paper
1
Phadke, M. (2011, September 16). Mumbai Local. Retrieved October 4, 2013, from timeoutmumbai.net: http://www. timeoutmumbai.net/mumbai-local/features/ bazaar-ending
2
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Program(s) Funding Streams
N
Figure 08. Figure Ground - Crawford Market, Mumbai
0
Commercial
Mixed -Use
Mixed -Use
Clothing and Textile
Resedential
Public Amenities
Public Amenities
Toys
Green Space
Residential
Figure 09. Land Use Map
Figure 10. Building Use Map Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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50
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Figure 11. Crawford Market Elevation, https://ebuild.in/gallery/restoration-of-crawford-marketmumbai-abha-narain-lambah-associates?id=84301
many languages the city speaks in, the many cultural practices it invents, its changing and evolving built forms, its bazaars and markets that are as vital and dense as the air the city breathes – making the question of its identity richer than anything the city officially celebrates. Way richer than the imagination of its political leaders and much deeper than the possibilities framed by its most conscientious citizens.’3 The Project highlights urbanism where market has become central to district and provides possibilities of dynamic exchange of goods and services.
3
The project’s importance has been recognized by the city’s municipal body as well. Recent visit to the market shows remarkable changes in the conditions of the market. Stalls have been legalized and organized better. Aisles have been cleared to create greater walking space which has led to elimination of significant number of hawkers in the area. In the Spanish city of Valencia, a similar market, named “Mercado Central” was reorganized in early nineteenth century by the city council.4 Mercado Central today serves not only as a great example of design and architectural achievement but is also a great tourist attraction in the city while serving the daily needs of the city’s denizens. Crawford Market is similarly located and has the potential to become a such a symbol for Mumbai. One advantage that the Crawford has is that has an original architectural plan and outside structure that is still pretty much in place. The stalls and haphazard shops that cling to the inside and outside walls of the structure have lessened the aesthetic appeal of the structure and the Project will therefore take into consideration this as well.
5
Practices of spaces like these within the city create distinct identifying factors and characteristics that transform the spatial nature of places in the city to a more lively nature.5 Henri Lefebvre terms the interaction of places, people, events and materials as “representations of space” and these representations bring out the true plurality of a living city.6 Urban environments undergo daily transformations as the nature of the interactions within the representations change and new patterns of urban growth get woven. Liveliness of the daily urban interaction needs to be maintained to ensure the regular functioning of the city.
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URBZ Mashup Mumbai Workshop, October 29 – November 1,2009 , Mumbai, http://www. planum.net/events-news/urbz-mashup-mumbai Rao, Anita. Mercado Central. Markets, Valencia [Blog post]. Retrieved from https:// timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/things-todo/Mercado-Central/ps50756622.cms
4
Jain P. “Cities in Flux: the ever transforming city.” Leuven: s.n. 2017 https://issuu.com/paruljain09/docs/invisible_ infrastrucutres_final_boo Lefebvre H. “Rythmanalysis: Space, time and Everyday Life.” First ed. London and New York: Continuum 2004
6
Cloth Stall Food Stall Pedestrian Activity
Others Cloth Stall
Vehicular Activity
Legal Tempo Parking Cloth Food Stall Stall
Pedestrian Activity
Others
Food Stall
Vehicular Activity
Legal Tempo Parking
Others
Pedestrian Activity
Legal Tempo Parking
Vehicular Activity
Figure 12. Mapping Informalities
Figure 13. Mapping Pedestrian and Vehicular Movement
Figure 14. Taxonomy of Commercial And Informal Activities
Street Food
Shop Houses | Retail Shops
2 Wheel Hand Carts
Fruit Vendors Cart
Arcade Shopping Spaces + Commercial
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Temporary Shops
Clothing Warehouse Market | Mangaldas
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Fruit Market
Crawford Flower| Imm Jewellery Market
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Crawford Market Streets | Road Side Vendors | Shop houses
Warehouse Plastic Goods | ArcadeMarket
mitation
Mangaldas Market | Cloth Market
Crawford Market Building
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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LOWER PAREL, MUMBAI [POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] Post colonization, Mumbai’s economy was based on textile and manufacturing industries housed in Lower Parel region of Mumbai.1 The unskilled class and migrants were the ones working in these industries and lived in informal settlements in close adjacency to industries. In the 1920’s city municipality constructed BDD (Bombay Development Department) Chawls for the workers in these industries. The ‘Chawl’ is a group of one or two room dwelling units along a corridor, sharing sanitary facilities. Chawls were initially created for housing industrial workers who were single, male, migrants. This form of housing originated in the latter part of the last century in response to increasing migrants and industrial development.2 Today, these chawls still exist in centre of the city and occupy prime real estate of the city.3 These chawls are yet occupied by the descendants of these industrial workers although all the mills have been shut down and are undergoing transformation and restructuring in terms of their land use. Due to decline of industries most of the workers lost their job which led to increase in growth and formation of informal sector in the region along with booming real estate and land prices in the area. Today, most of the land and old industries are taken by private developers for building skyscrapers for the elite or have used mill structure to host recreational, public and office spaces. The area is also the site of construction for Trump Tower
[Lower Parel, Mumbai, INDIA] [1920] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Bombay Development Department] [Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority Tata Projects Ltd, Capacit’e Infraprojects and Chinese CITIC] [BDD was responsible for providing more land for housing and constructing for 50,000 tenements on reclaimed lands] [Mill Lands | Industries Commercial | Recreational |High-rises | Slums | Chawl] [Public and Private]
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Mumbai Reader 08, Urban Design Research Institute. “Shifting Cities: Urban Restructuring in Mumbai”. Reprinted from Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 37 (2), pp 121-128, Mumbai 2002
1
Shah Mayank. “Chawls: Popular Dwellings in Bombay”. Architecture Plus Design; Bombay Vol. 8, Iss. 6, (Nov 1, 1991): 47.
2
Mumbai Reader 08, Urban Design Research Institute. “Shifting Cities: Urban Restructuring in Mumbai”. Reprinted from Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 37 (2), pp 121-128, Mumbai 2002
3
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
N 05
0
100
Figure 15. Figure Ground | Lower Parel | BDD Chawl, Worli A. D. King, “Postcolonial Cities”. State University of New York Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, USA, 2009. [5]Bill Ashcroft (2011) Urbanism, mobility and Bombay: Reading the postcolonial city, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 47:5, 497-509, DOI: 10.1080/17449855.2011.614774
4
and Lodha World One Tower, both of which have homes that are priced 2 million plus dollar and placed right next to homes of people who subsist on less than 1 dollar per day. The urbanism post decline of industries has transformed area in a way that it hosts within it various formal and informal sectors in form of Chawl settlements, fancy high-rises, shopping malls, office buildings and slums. Old mills have been sold by the mill owners and have been repurposed to create huge office complexes that host the head offices of some of the largest media and finance firms in the country and have a slew of high end restaurants within old mills’ compounds. Even after decolonization, there are still signs of the occupier and the division that existed during colonization.4
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BDD Chawls | Tenament Housing
Palais Royale | Highrise
Slums | Informal Settlements
‘The city has been largely ignored in postcolonial studies because it is hard to fit into the classic discourse of decolonizing rhetoric. But the critical feature of postcolonial cities is that they are the first stage, and the microcosm, of the mobility and cultural intermixing that colonialism sets in motion. No city embodies this function better than Bombay/Mumbai. Bombay is the sine qua non of the postcolonial city because in every respect it encapsulates the processes of postcolonial movement and settlement that come to extend globally. An invention of colonialism, no city has been a greater focus of literary writing than Bombay, which demonstrates the mobility and cosmopolitanism of the postcolonial city, and the fluidity, class disparity and ambivalent sense of home that has come to characterize diasporic populations.’5 The case of Lower Parel region examines colonial history of the city, despite all the pressures of urban governance, politics and violence, region expresses an idealistic view of the social, religious and cultural ingenuousness of accumulation of peoples, ethnicities, cultures, classes and religions. In addition to this, the rules of 1991 permitted mill lands to be used and sold for developments to carry out the process of modernisation which had resulted in haphazard development of area leading to lack of open spaces. The ongoing rehabilitation of the area aided with the dilution of zoning laws thus did not lead to foster economic growth; rather it contributed to a smooth change of landuse from industrial to business and the like.6 Today, in the area poor and rich live in adjacencies which are unimaginable.7 Thus the area becomes of keen interest in terms of cultural coherence and social justice. According to theorists Storper and Allen, the region today is the result of capitalistic and market economies shaped by complex forces and income distribution in an economy marked by private property, competitive markets and wage labor.8
Bill Ashcroft (2011) Urbanism, mobility and Bombay: Reading the postcolonial city, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, 47:5, 497-509, DOI: 10.1080/17449855.2011.614774
5
Mumbai Reader 08, Urban Design Research Institute. “Shifting Cities: Urban Restructuring in Mumbai”. Reprinted from Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 37 (2), pp 121-128, Mumbai 2002
6
Rahul Mehrotra, “Extreme Urbanism I: Reimagining Mumbai’s Back Bay”, A Studio Research Report of the Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2011, http://rmaarchitects. com/2012/09/extreme-urbanism/
7
Storper Michael, Allen Scott. “Current debates in Urban Theory: A Critical Assessment”
8
Old Industrial Mills
World One Towers | Highrise
Palais Royale World One Towers United Mills
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Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Abandoned Shakti Mills Compound
World One Towers
WORLI KOLIWADA, MUMBAI [INFORMAL URBANISM] Informal urbanism is self-organized and hence probably more representative of the people’s expression of their manner of co-existence than any other form of urbanism.1 Mumbai where most of its population lives in informal settlements become integral part of urban areas. These informal areas form the essential fragment of the region and contribute significantly to the economy through their labour market contributions and informal production activities.2 Many urban planners fail to consider this as a part of their upgrade plans. Informal urbanism is one form that is truly global in nature – no matter the location of the city, informal urbanization happens in every location. This raises the need to study the nature of a particular kind of information urbanization in Mumbai. For Mumbai to become a global city, its informal urban areas need to retain their original characters while connecting with their global peers.
Prescott, Michaela & Vollmer, Derek & Heisel, Felix. (2013). Informal urbanism: A source of information. Gazette, Future Cities Laboratory. 20. 1-2. 10.3929/ethz-a-010643007.
1
Sharit K Bhowmik. “Politics of Urban Spaces in Mumbai: ‘Citizens’ versus urban working poor”. Article Published in Mumbai Reader 09, Urban Design Research Institute 2
Mumbai with its largest coastal line holds more than over 30 fishing villages known as ‘koliwada communities’. Historically known as an ‘urban fishing centre’, city and it’s fishing communities today face tremendous pressures of industrialization, modernization and population expansion. From once inheriting
[Worli, INDIA] [1700] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Koliwada Community] [Community, NGO’s, Mumbai Muncipal Corporation, Slum Rehabilitation Departments] [covers approximately 125 acres of land, core Koliwada area, Worli Fort , unorganized developments accounting for 68 acres and the Coast Guard] premises[Fishing Village, Docking Area, Fish Market, Koliwada Housing, temples] [Public and Private]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
N 0
Figure 16. Figure Ground | Worli Koliwada - Fishing Village Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Figure 17. Worli Fishing Village Panaroma, https://www.picswe.com/pics/worli-koliwada-c2.html
major formal areas and occupation of the city these vibrant communities today are looked upon as encroaching informal settlements that occupy land within dynamic neighbourhoods in the city. Today contesting for their own rights, the cultures, histories, dreams, aspirations of these ‘koliwada communities’ fuels urban transformation that calls for environmentally, and socially just sustainable future. Contemporary urban culture of the city makes it difficult for koliwada settlements to fit within the dynamic urban fabric of the city. Such struggles have been witnessed in other parts of the world as well. However, many have taken a different standpoint on this and improved the overall conditions without touching the shape of such settlements.3 The Worli Koliwada fishing village located at the heart and most valuable land of the city is a perfect example that faces tremendous pressure today for its survival. The project highlights aspects of ‘the physical neighbourhood, livelihoods, heritage, culture and memories – and their changing patterns with time. It attains a broader relevance in wake of Mumbai’s towering aspirations and swift transformation into a global megapolis. However, such priorities dexterously implant global images of urbanity into the local landscape, while often casting aside any concern of context, culture and liveability.’4 “It is now very clear that such settlements are functionally integrated parts of many cities and cannot simply be erased without moving the informality somewhere else.” b As described by Prof Kim Dovey ‘informal urbanism’ - one that is highly dynamic. It defines and clears the range of informal urbanism from the slum and squatter settlements to street markets and provides a new conception and relation between formal and informal and how are these two conceptions though independent but are interconnected.5 The assemblage of the formal and informal construct and their complex adaptive theories provide us with a critical approach to understand urban areas as a whole where every part starts defining and adding value to this whole. These informalities become part of formal sectors by taking over formal systems creating formal/informal systems with entrepreneurial flexibility and adaptation.6
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Dovey, K., & King, R. (2011). Forms of informality: Morphology and visibility of informal settlements. Built Environment, 37(1), 11–29.
3
Kamalika Bose, Anuradha Parikh,” An Urban Village in Mumbai – Worli Koliwada”, Summer School 2017, Mumbai, Published by CEPT Portfolio, https://portfolio.cept.ac.in/archive/ an-urban-village-in-mumbai-worli-koliwada/
4
Dovey Kim. “Informal urbanism and complex adaptive assemblage”. Article published in International Development Planning Review, 34 (4) 2012 doi:10.3828/idpr.2012.23
5
6
Ibid
Figure 17. Street Elevation A
Figure 18. Street Elevation B
Figure 19. Street Elevation C
Fort Gate
Shared Community Otlas
Temple
New Construction + Restaurant
Fish Market
Fish Drying Area
Koliwada house + Shop
Sea | Bay Area
Figure 20. Taxonomy of Built Spaces, Program and uses in Fishing Village Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Worli Fort
Similarly, this project provides us with an opportunity to unlace many layers of its history and culture and to accept the ordinary so as to create possibilities to foster inclusive approach of working with settlements that could enable us to redefine the ‘local culture’ of koliwada communities as their practice, cultures and communal beliefs play significant role in defining the city. Analysing coastal community settlements is also important for long term legacy of the city. As more people from the country migrate to the city and call it home, the city is morphing its nature. Retaining and improving older structures and systems will help to save Mumbai from being relegated to a utilitarian and transitory place that people just come to make a living instead of making a life.
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Koliwada | Fishing Village
e
Bandra - Worli Sea Link
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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PALAVA CITY, DOMBIVALI [SMART CITY URBANISM] Located approximately 40 km away in outskirts suburban area of Mumbai, ‘Palava – City of opportunity’ and “the first Smart city of India’, developed by Lodha Group is spread over 4,500 acres of land and holds 30,000 dwelling units. Palava city aims to develop as self-sufficient smart city including world-class amenities, institutions, sports complex, etc. It is one of the largest ever privately planned development in urban India. The project envisions to build a town which can house over 100,000 families.1 Palava advertises a lifestyle of comfort and luxury that attracts the middle-class of the city over chaotic nature and box houses with close proximity to the city. This project highlights idea of enclave urbanism which in turn results in defining lines between different classes of society based on income groups within the city.
“Palava City Offers Residential Spaces with World-Class Amenities.” Palava City Offers Residential Spaces with World-Class Amenities. Accessed April 19, 2019. https://www.palava. in/residential.
1
Ravindran Shruti, “Is india’s 100 Smart Cities project a Recipe for…Social Apartheid?”. The Guardian, 07 May 2015. https://www. bibliotecapleyades.net/sociopolitica/sociopol_ globalelite208.htm
2
“The emergence of hi-tech prototype cities is raising concerns that India’s new urban enclaves will override local laws and use surveillance to keep out the poor.”2 Enclave urbanism can be observed at multiple scale within the fabric of Mumbai Metropolitan Region ranging in scales from informal to tenement to gated communities and now even to the scale of entire neighbourhoods and towns. Mumbai and MMR have had a history of such enclave urbanism. Earlier, linguistic or religious (e.g. Parsis) communities created enclaves where only members of the
[Dombivali, Thane District, INDIA] [2017] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Lodha Group] [IBM India/South Asia] [Strategically located at the junction of Thane, Navi Mumbai and Kalyan, and home to over 30,000 families] [Smart City | Residential |Commercial| Educational|Recreational] [Private]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 21. Figure Ground | Palava City, Dombivali N 0
R N Sharma, “Mega Transformation of Mumbai: Deepening Enclave Urbanism”. Sociological Bulletin, Journal of the Indian Sociological Society, Vol 59(1), January-April 2010 (pp. 69-21)
3
50
100
community were allowed to purchase property within the enclaves. Segregation then was based on social lines. Even today, many such enclaves exist where certain communities that were able to grab land in the chaos following the independence have actively barred others from getting a chance at acquiring those properties.3 Palava represents the capitalist era avatar of the same phenomenon. Instead of birth based attributes such as mother tongue or religion, the lines of segregation are based on class. The project by highlighting and claiming to be a perfect model of a ‘smart city’ driven and developed around ideas of technology and infrastructure as drivers of economic growth promote itself as a private city that could be afforded by only
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Figure 22. Palava City Aerial View
higher-income groups. “May be a very subtle disciplining technique: for example, measuring the performance of cities by attributing a higher score to urban settings which attract higher private investments imposes a certain approach towards distinguishing between what is desirable and what is not.” Aspect of what Smart City urbanism plans to do: allow big corporations to manage the data assemblage and mobilization, in order to establish comprehensive and total city homogeneity.4 In India such cities - geared towards high-end services - seem unlikely to provide many meaningful livelihood opportunities in the rural hinterlands where they come up. “Having islands of well-serviced smart cities amidst a vast sea of poorlyserviced and impoverished villages leads to what urban scholars have called the juxtaposition of the citadel and ghetto,” says Sai Balakrishnan, an urban scholar at Rutgers, who studies land conflicts and urbanization in India.5 The Palava city is a perfect example of top-down approach of planning where the involvement of citizen takes place after the city has been constructed. Some commentators have suggested that cities such as Palava will be “more fortresses than places of heterogeneous humanity, because they are meant only for specific classes of people” (Academician Pramod Nayar).6 This may contribute to a growing divide between haves and have-nots as these private enclaves draw natural resources from the region with the blessing of the municipal government and under the guise of boosting the economy.”7 For the MMR, this is an essential project because its success would mean that more and more such projects would be pursued actively, increasing the segregation and potentially lessening the interaction between the
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Valono, Alberto. “Smartmentality: The Smart City as Disciplinary Strategy” . Urban Studies, Paper first received, November 2012; in final form, April 2013. https://doi. org/10.1177/0042098013494427
4
Ravindran Shruti, “Is india’s 100 Smart Cities project a Recipe for…Social Apartheid?”
5
Poole S (2014), “The truth about smart cities: in the end, they will destroy democracy”. The Guardian, 17 December 2014. http://www. theguardian.com/cities/2014/dec/17/truthsmart-city-destroy-democracy-urban-thinkersbuzzphrase. Accessed 23 Oct, 2015
6
Katherine Harrison, “Who Is the Assumed User in the Smart City? “ . Chapter 2 Katherine Harrison, “Who Is the Assumed User in the Smart City?” Retrieved from book Designing, Developing, and Facilitating Smart Cities: Urban Design to IoT Solutions (pp.1732). DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-44924-1_2
7
Figure 23-24. LODHA Group 2018 |Palava City, https://www.palava.in/business Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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EASTERN WATER FRONT [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] Decline of manufacturing industry in Mumbai Metropolitan Region, led to transformation of economy from industries to service sector. This decline of economy posed tremendous pressure on the ports of Mumbai – Eastern Waterfront and Navi Mumbai Port. The old port on the island city of Mumbai was the major source of cities economy and region, which now lies vacant, under-utilized and disconnected from the city as it was highly dependent on industries located in its proximity.1 On the other hand, Navi Mumbai Port across the Island city continues to function and serve as one of the biggest port. Navi Mumbai port with its mangrove and ecology maintains balance between the city’s economy and ecology.2 The island city port with its ship breaking yards pollutes urban water and leads to destruction of mangroves. Destruction of these mangroves has been a concern for a long time.3 Since independence, the government of India has had a very bad track record of maintaining the integrity and environmental balance, especially in the coastal belts. Degradation of creeks and mangroves in urban areas couple with the increasing population creates an ecologically dangerous situation. While planners and developers focus on the material upgrade of the living conditions of the citizens, little attention is paid to the ecology that is getting destroyed. The port today is home to an informal ship repair and salvage industry.
[Island City, Mumbai, INDIA] [1873] [Redevelopment] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Jawahar Lal Nehru Port Trust] [Mumbai Port Trust, Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority]W [ 28km-long eastern waterfront, a historic port area that is largely inaccessible and under-utilized] [Mumbai Port Trust, Fishing Village, Docking Area, Industries, Warehouses, Informal Settlements] [Public and Private]
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University of Pennsylvania School of Design.“ Mumbai Eastern Waterfront Plan”. Fall 2015 Studio. https://issuu.com/pennplanning/docs/ mumbai_for_web
1
MIT School of Architecture + Planning. “Plan 73: Landscape and Urbanism in Old and Navi Mumbai”. Published on April 2009. https:// sap.mit.edu/article/standard/landscape-andurbanism-old-and-navi-mumbai
2
Mukherji, M., 2002. Degradation of Creeks and Mangroves and its impact on Urban environment – A case study of Mumbai. Procd. Nat. Semi. on Creeks, Estuaries and Mangroves Pollution and Conservation, Organized by, B. N. B. College of Science, Thane, Mumbai on 28th – 30th November 2002.pp 331 – 333.
3
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi calls for Mumbai Port Land to be made available to the city for greening and recreation when JNPT is established.
1980
Government of India Directive requires land not used for port operations to be released for recreation and greening.
1988
JNPT begins operations.
1989
State of Maharashtra sets up a task force to review land allocations and look for synergies between the port and Mumbai
2002
Minister of transport and shipping appoints a Land Development committee to examine redevelopment of 1,000 acres of underused land, Report released in late 2014.
2014
B
Figure 25. Figure Ground | Eastern Water Front, Mumbai
A
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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With ever-growing and changing population in the region and to fulfill requirements of infrastructure, housing, it poses a threat on decline of ports and hence the ecology of the region. Land sharks and bureaucratic agencies became involved in piecemeal real estate developments in these localities.4 This is driven top down where the political families and parties that have ruled the country for decades have indulged in the basest of land grab schemes, across the country. Political nepotism and punishment-free corruption trickles down to the lowest levels of the society, making law-breaking and corrupt land grabbing a norm. Since 2014 there have attempts to stem this and to reverse the trend, however there are deep systemic changes that are needed to be done to undo 65 years of damage. Today most of this land is either developed, currently under development or auctioned for private development. While the migrant workforce, residing in mass housing units constructed in the vicinity of the mills, developed stronger community ties and a rich network of physical and social infrastructure.5
MHADA Housing
Warehouses
Highrise Residential Apartments
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Dwivedi S., Mehrotra R., Bombay: The Cities Within, Eminence Designs Pvt. Ltd, 2001, p321
4
Mhatre P., Downtown Revitalization: Lessons for Mumbai’s Mill Lands, Class Papers, GEOG 616: Urban Geographies, Texas A&M University (web link: http://urbanplanningblog. com/papers/Downtown%20Revitalization%20 Lessons%20 for%20Mumbai’s%20Mill%20 Lands.pdf) p6 accessed on January 15, 2012
5
Slums | Informal Settlements
Fishing Vill
Industries
Highrise Residential Area
Depleting Mangroves
Fish Market | Inland Docking Area
Fishing Village
Highrise Residential Area Warehouses Underutilised Port land
Fish Market | Inland Docking Area
Taxonomy of Built fabric and Programmatic Adjacencies in Eastern Water Front
Walled Port Land
Abandoned | Vacant warehouses
lage
Inland Docking Pier
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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Fishing Village
Berger, Alan. Drosscape : Wasting Land Urban America. New York, US: Princeton Architectural Press, 2007. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 15 February 2017.
6
Smruti Koppikar. “ A peek at Government Plan to redevelop Mumbai’s 1,800 acre Docklands”. Mumbai Reader 17, Urban Design Research Institute. Republished from Scroll in ,27 January 2015.
7
Alan Berger in his article ‘Drosscape’ puts forward an interesting argument to city’s drosscape and how these spaces are more of potential spaces within the urban fabric rather than waste spaces. It highlights post-industrial urbanism and the need to develop designs factoring in marginal urban landscapes, especially the abandoned and dilapidated industrial infrastructure. Similarly, in Mumbai abandoned textile mills, industrial mills and adjoining waste spaces are being repurposed to cater several needs of the region.6 This is one of the most contested site at stake: the very future of Mumbai, a land-starved city as it provides region the last chance to renew and re-imagine the city itself. “The length of the Eastern Waterfront could give the city seven Marine Drives.”7 Ever Changing economies and urbanisation of the region poses threat on environmental ecology and its dense urban fabric. Different scale of revitalisation and redevelopment proposals create a friction within the region and its potential to maintain the social equity that it holds. With the coastal road coming up on the western side, it is even more important to review the eastern seaboard to ensure that the mistakes of the first six decades since India’s independence are not repeated.
FISHING VILLAGE
FISH MARKET
MUMBAI PORT TRUST
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EASTERN WATERFRONT MARINE DRIVE
INFORMAL HOUSING
FORT AREA
SHIP BREAKING YARDS
CST STATION
WAREHOUSES
SCRAP METAL INDUSTRIES
Mumbai Metropolitan Region
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DUTCH WATERLINE REGION
THE NETHERLANDS
THE DUTCH WATERLINE
Dutch Waterline Region NETHERLANDS 01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY The Dutch Waterline is a typical example of Netherlands urbanization. Firstly, as a complex water management system, the waterline shows the development of the use of controlled inundation. Controlled inundation is a Dutch innovation for the integration of urban and rural areas. The New Dutch Waterline is a national revitalization project and has become a unique landscape that fully demonstrates the Dutch genius for water management technologies in the past (in regards to defense and in regards to present urban development). The waterline has become a fundamental value of Dutch culture and expertise.1 In other words, the successful water management of the Dutch waterline contributes to urban development and urban landscape in the national context. In addition to the landscape value, the large cities, including Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Rotterdam, along the waterline are popular for residents and migrants because of the better job market and the healthier lifestyle.2 As for the potential development of each of these large cities, the waterline area makes up the significant part of urban opportunities, cultivating outstanding urban projects to offer citizens various urban lives and conditions.
1. The New Dutch Waterline UNESCO, “New Dutch Waterline & Defence Line of Amsterdam”, Report International Expert Meeting on World Heritage Nominations (2015):9. 2. Kersten Nabielek, David Hamers, and David Evers, “Cities in the Netherlands: Facts and Figures on Cities and Urban Areas”, Report of PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2016): 8-24.
Furthermore, the ecological, social, and infrastructural conditions existing in the waterline area facilitate capital accumulation, which could orient new exploration of urban design and planning for the collective uses and the common good. It will not only be conducive for the Netherlands itself, but would also be a good research example with impact on the global urban environment. Even though context would be different, the research could help researchers rethink the relationship among infrastructure, waterfront, ecology, and social development, so that designers and planners could propose a better vision for global urban development. The Dutch waterline territory is the green heart of the Netherlands due to its central location and the heritage landscape, but it also shows the urban development of the Netherlands in cross-disciplinary fields, including: ecology, military, agriculture, landscape architecture, urban design, and planning. The waterline territory is an urban complex system with multiple functions. For these
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Figure 01. Charles Waldheim, Landscape as Urbanism: A General Theory, 2016
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 2016
In order to be ready for a nomination at the World Heritage Committee meeting in 2019, the waterline was nominated as an extension of the Defence Line of Amsterdam at the end of 2016.
2009
The procedure for the application as an UNESCO World Heritage Site was started. The process of inventory of the monumental values was elaborated and published as the ‘Aanvullende aanwijzing en verfijning Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie’.
2000
1980
1975
In the middle of the 1990s public awareness grew that the New Dutch Waterline was not only a series of forts, but a military mega structure, strongly connected to the landscape. At the end 1990s, the National Project New Dutch Waterline started.
[Critical DATA] 1940
Area: 85 acres
The last modernisation was on the Dutch waterline. The Dutch had decided to use a more eastern main defence line, the Grebbe line, and reserved a secondary role for the Water Line.
Population: Around 2.1 million population live in cities Country: the Netherlands Social Indicators 75% of people aged 15 to 64 in the Netherlands have a paid job; 77% of adults aged 25-64 have completed upper secondary education; Environmental Indicators The level of atmospheric PM2.5 is 14.0 micrograms per cubic meter Economic Indicators: Average earnings are around 53 000 USD in 2016.
1960
1940
1920 1870
1815
It was further extended and modernised in the 19th century, with forts containing round gun towers reminiscent of Martello towers. The line was mobilised but never attacked during the FrancoPrussian war in 1870 and World War I. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed. Soon after King William I decided to modernise the Water Line. The New Water Line was partly shifted east of Utrecht.
1794
The revolutionary French armies overcame the obstacle posed by the Dutch Water Line only by the heavy frost that had frozen the flooded areas solid.
1672
The Dutch Water Line proved its value less than forty years after its construction during the Franco-Dutch War (or Third Anglo-Dutch War) when it stopped the armies of Louis XIV from conquering Holland, although the freezing over of the line came close to rendering it useless.
1629
Prince Frederick Henry started the execution of the plan. Sluices were constructed in dikes and forts and fortified towns were created at strategic points along the line with guns covering especially the dikes that traversed the water line.
1850
1800
1700
1650 1600 1550
1506
The Netherlands under Charles V, Charles V succeeded his father Philip the Handsome as ruler of the Low Countries in 1506. The Dutch Waterline
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10 km
reasons, this territory exemplifies the urban development of the Netherlands and even of the global context. 3. Rijks Studio. “Timeline Dutch History”. Accessed on April 20th. https://www. rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio/timeline-dutchhistory 4. New Dutch Waterline & Defence Line of Amsterdam, International Expert Meeting on World Heritage Nominations, June 2015. 5.City Lab. “How a Defensive Moat Became a Top Toursim Attraction”. Accessed on April 20th. https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/ rijksstudio/timeline-dutch-history 6. Thomas Brinkhoff. “The Netherlands: Province, Cities, Municipalities, Urban Areas, Conurbations - Population Statics in Maps and Charts”. Accessed February 24th, 2019. https:// www.citypopulation.de/Netherlands.html 7. Wageningen University & Research. “More opportunities for bats in forts along the New Dutch Waterline”. Accessed on April 20th. https://www.wur.nl/en/show/Moreopportunities-for-bats-in-forts-along-the-NewDutch-Waterline.htm
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS The Dutch Waterline region is located in the central part of the Netherlands, starting at Amsterdam and ending at Rotterdam, which combines the New Dutch Waterline and the Defense Line of Amsterdam, two famous heritage landscapes of the Netherlands. The Dutch have been reclaiming land from water since the Middle Ages with dikes and polders, so it is no surprise they came up with ingenious ways to do the reverse to their enemies.3 Most of the Waterline was a military defense system designed in 1815 by order of King Willem I, to protect the economic and financial heart of the Netherlands.4 However, during the Second World War, the concept of a waterline as a defensive device proved to be useless and was abandoned, leaving an extensive ensemble of cultural and natural heritage behind. For 40 years, the area was little more than an overgrown archaeological find.5 Nowadays, facing new developing purposes, the region is reformed as a national landscape project connecting several large cities of the Netherlands, including Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Rotterdam. In addition to national heritage, as an area supporting a population over 2.1 million (according to a 2018 estimate), the waterline serves multiple urban functions, like recreation, economy, transportation, and ecology, to offer people a better urban life.6 It is reformed into a more educational and publicly accessible space. Furthermore, the region serves as a refuge for the endangered flora and fauna that had moved in, including four species of bats, to maintain the biodiversity goods.7
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Figure 02. Heritage Fort in the Dutch Waterline Area. (Source: Utrecht: the Heart of Holland. "the New Dutch Waterline". Accessed on April 20th. https://www.theheartofho
03 URBAN DYNAMICS The Netherlands has several distinctive urban dynamics to drive urban development with ingenious water management, collective infrastructures, sustainable lifestyle, and consistent urban-rural transformation. According to research about threats and challenges the Netherlands facing, the major urban dynamics include: climate change, flooding disasters, lack of sustainability, population growth, and growing social-economic and social-culture inequality.8 The extreme flooding disasters form the distinguishing agricultural style and urban sprawl in the Dutch region. On one hand, it is widely known that polders in the Netherlands are a major strategy to expand development areas that face limited land but have high spatial demands and growing population. On the other hand, the polders and dikes in the Dutch waterline region make up a majority of water infrastructure and agriculture and are good opportunities to develop a sustainable lifestyle. Additionally, in the Netherlands, the transformation of both urban and rural areas is motivated by the limited available space and large spatial demands.9 During the process of rapid urbanization, the interrelationship between city and landscape changes rapidly. This change is determined by water management and relationship of the scale of agriculture, recreation and urbanization. Furthermore, facing the challenge of unbalanced development of social economy and social culture, the infrastructures and water network in the Dutch Waterline region play an important role to connect different areas and to explore the interrelationship between the urban and rural regions. Also, public spaces serve mixed functions to offer people a better platform to enjoy the benefits of globalization and to have more conversations with different social groups.10 A-258
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8. Berand Tar Haar and Eva Maas. “Threats and Challenges for the Netherlands”. Threat Perceptions in the OSCE Area: A Comprehensive Approach. (January 2014): 16. https://www.clingendael.org/publication/ threats-and-challenges-netherlands 9.Gerdy Verschuure-Stuip. “Project New Dutch Waterline and Project Arcadian Landscapes; Guidelines for New Spatial Development Based on Heritage”, Aesop Conference 2014, (At Utrecht: 2014):2. 10.Nabielek, K., Kronberger- Nabielek, P., & Hamers, D. 2013. The rural-urban fringe in the Netherlands: Recent Developments and Future Challenges. (SPOOL, 2013):1-18.
olland.com/en/region/nieuwe-hollandse-waterlinie)
Figure 03. important data analysis of the Netherlands (Source: Kersten Nabielek, David Hamers, and David Evers, “Cities in the Netherlands: Facts and Figures on Cities and Urban Areas�, Report of PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2016): 8-24.)
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Figure 04. Dutch Dikes. (Source: Holland. Accessed on April 20th. https://www.dutchwatersector.com/news-events/news/8756-boskalis-and-van-oord-to-reinforce-coastline-
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The five projects presented in this paper exemplify different urbanisms happening in the Dutch Waterline region and mirror different aspects of urban issues. Although I think each of the projects could not be defined by only one urbanism because of its complicated and mixed urban context and project goals, each of them could illustrate major urbanism trends. The first one is Utopian Urbanism reflected by the Expansion Plan for Pampus because the project was never implemented. The Pampus Plan offers a vision for people to live in a collective urban environment organized by central transportation and built on the polder. It shows how planners and designers apply utopian urbanism to present their visions to face the challenge of a growing population and limited land in Amsterdam. Second, the Utrecht Central Station is a good example of Infrastructure Urbanism to demonstrate how infrastructure could connect people from different social groups. Thirdly, the landscape urbanism is well presented by the Dafne Schippers Bicycle Bridge, which considers the landscape elements as a significant part to organize and connect different urban areas and to shape urban places. The fourth project is the Dike and Spatial Quality Guideline for GorinchemWaardenburg, which focus on not only preventing the flooding disasters but also offers people a sustainable lifestyle with Ecological Urbanism. Last but not least, Markthal is a residential complex that combines a parking lot, market, public space, and apartments together, while also contributing to building a productive urban space with the public library and the Rotterdam station. These Five Projects are located along the New Waterline and Defense Waterline in the region. Each of these projects illustrates the future urban formation and urban life from various perspectives, including colorful urban programs, optimistic belief in urban malleability, and balancing human-nature relationship.
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Figure 05. Book cover of Utopian Urbanism and Infrastructrual Urbanism
-by-creating-beach-in-front-of-sea-dike-the-netherlands.html)
Figure 06. Views of Projects
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UITBREIDING PAMPUS: EXPANSION PLAN FOR PAMPUS [UTOPIAN URBANISM] The utopian urban planning projects were designed by Van den Broek and J.B. Bakema firm of architects in 1965. For Van den Broek and Bakema, these mega-structures are an answer to increasing affluence, the need for mobility and recreation, and the rise in population, which is unavoidable urban sprawl gradually sweeping through the Netherlands. Although the expansion plan for Pampus is never implemented, it conveys the typically Dutch values in relation to the infrastructure, landscape, and urban life. Firstly, infrastructure plays an important role in recreation - waterways and cycling paths take the Dutch day - tripper past picturesque landscapes close to home. The landscape is highly accessible, embedded in the system of planning and water management. Additionally, maximizing the border areas between land and water has been a recurring pattern in the development of urban areas offering a recreational urban lifestyle - the expansion of the coastline for the benefit of seaside recreation1.
1. Like Bijlsma, Terenja Van Dijk, and Filip Geers, “Editorial Architecture and the Tourist Landscape”, OASE#64: Landscape and Mass Tourism, (NAi Publishers, 2004):2-15. 2. NAi. “Expansion Plan for Pampus”, Accessed February 24th, http:// schatkamer.nai.nl/en/projects/ uitbreidingsplan-pampus 3. Bakema, R. B, “Country-Life in Town: The Pampus Plan for Amsterdam”. In Ekistics Vol.22 No. 130 (1966.9)
The Pampus City project proposes constructing a large-scale linear town for 350,000 inhabitants on a series of artificial islands to be built in the IJmeer to the east of Amsterdam. By way of comparison, IJburg (begun in 2000) has been designed to accommodate roughly 18,000 residents2. The unit of design is no longer a single block but a clustered grouping or district of nearly 3000 dwellings and interwoven functions3 organized along the central transportation artery. Each Figure 01. Small Map of the Expansion Plan for Pampus
[Amsterdam, NETHERLANDS] [1964] [Unbuilt] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Van den Broek and J.B. Bakema] [The project expressed an optimistic belief in the malleability of society] [Residential, Working, Recreation, Transportation, Shopping]
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Location Year Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Programs
Water
Figure 02. ‘Stad Op Pampus’, Expansion Plan for Pampus, Figure Ground.
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district is composed of interlocking high-density residential buildings set within an open recreational area. Three housing units accommodate 10,000 people and form one self-contained urban unit. District densities varying from 30,000 to 200,000 people. Multiple centers are situated at junctions of main arteries defined by high wall building structures located on a linear backbone. Three zones of twentyfive distinctive residential neighborhoods compose the town with progressive population concentrations.
4. Like Bijlsma, Terenja Van Dijk, and Filip Geers, “Editorial Architecture and the Tourist Landscape”, OASE#64: Landscape and Mass Tourism, (NAi Publishers, 2004):2-15.
What’s more, the romantic plan combines the architecture and landscape in a harmonious language. In the standard neighborhood, the two are equivalent and there is an equilibrium between mass and open space, in which monumentality and hierarchy are often absent. The buildings are up to forty stories high. Access to this core is in the form of a central traffic artery which includes a monorail, among other things. The buildings are lower and more open along the periphery, allowing inhabitants and users to enjoy the recreational function of the water and the landscape every day. Residential areas are traffic free due to cul-de-sacs streets with parking garages situated underneath functional service areas such as schools, churches and business centers. The linear city on Pampus is a new city for the new man, literally based on recreation4. It is a dramatic plan, which attempts to combine the best of two worlds; the view of the romantic banks of rushes from the balcony has an urban artery to back it and feed it. It manages to reconcile the contrast between the town and the countryside. It could not be denied that the Pampus plan offers a proposal for the urban lifestyle, with both natural landscape view and convenient urban environment. However, the critics grow, which is stimulated by the significant character, the monumental and large inhuman scale interaction with empty landscape, of the romantic plan. Also, the Netherland’s plans for housing and urban area result in scale reduction, splintering, and fragmentation. As a result, this huge complex becomes a utopian urban project with inhuman scale characters.
Figure 03. Book cover of Utopian Urbanism
Figure 03. ‘Stad Op Pampus’, Expansion Plan for Amsterdam, Section.
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Pedestrain Platform
Tram System
Central Artery
Figure 04. Central Transportation System of ‘Stad Op Pampus’, Expansion Plan for Amsterdam
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THE UTRECHT CENTRAL STATION [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] The new central station as a significant part of the urban infrastructure is not only used for transportation but also designed as public space serving various user groups. Located in the complex urban context, the Utrecht central station successfully integrates the city spatial environments with multiple functions it offering, including tourism, foods, and shopping. Also, as the station is no longer for single use, it contributes to the various urban lifestyle as well as social safety. For example, this station would be nearly empty after the last service time at midnight; this could create some serious concerns for pedestrians passing by the station. However, this station now works as “urban hub” in a broader sense: connecting places, functions and people, which are not necessarily related to travelers or transportation. In this line of thought, the station could provide spaces for cultural events, recreation, leisure, sightseeing, etc. during the day and night. The integration of a cinema complex and/or a musical hall could encourage a new cultural dynamic in the area1. Consequently, this terminal complex will be a landmark and a destination of the city shaping the urban conditions. Since the previous building could not handle the increasing amounts of passengers, Utrecht Central Station has been rebuilt - three times its original size - to one new integrated station complex, which regulates the transport of train, tram, and bus2. The station has become an autonomous building with two new city
[Utrecht, NETHERLANDS] [2003-2016] [Partly Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Benthem Crouwel Architects] [ProRail] [integrating the station and station environment reinforces the identity and vitality of the city] [Transportation, Leisure] [Public]
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1. ISoCaRP. Utrecht New Central StationYoung Planners’ Workshop. (ISoCaRP and V & W publishing, 2004): 20-21. https:// isocarp.org/app/uploads/2014/08/ YPP_Report.pdf 2. Utrecht Centraal. Accessed on April 20th. http://www.mijnstation.nl/en/ utrecht-centraal/
Figure 01. Small Map of the Utrecht Central Station
Location Years Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Programs Funding Streams
Figure 02. Figure Ground of The Utrecht Central Station
Water
Green Space
Figure 03. The Utrecht Central Station (Source: BNTHMCRWL Architects. “Utrecht Central Station”. Accessed February 24th. http://benthemcrouwel. com/projects/utrecht-central-station/)
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squares on both entrances, the side of the Jaarbeurs (convention center) and the city side. Next year, under the square on the city side, the largest bicycle parking facility in the world will be finished, accommodating 12,500 bicycles3. Located on one side of the station, there is a station promenade, a public street, which crosses the railroad tracks. Restaurants, shops, and a possible market give this promenade the atmosphere of a real city street. The station offers all kinds of stunning lookouts, to trains, tracks and expansive views of the city. The interior has a reserved allure and modest charm: it is the people, signage, vehicles and other typical additions that make the station alive and vibrant and give color and ambiance. Also, as a project of the New Key Projects, integrating the station and station environment reinforces the identity and vitality of the city. As a result, the public transport terminal provides travelers and city dwellers with various comforts and functionalities in the area. What’s more, the station is part of the urban fabric, with logical walkways and a better connection between different city districts4. In a conclusion, the Utrecht central station, as a significant role in urban infrastructure system, contributes to transforming the social and spatial forms in the urban context, even in the national and global context. It serves as a basic urban function to meet the daily life needs of citizens but also undertakes the colorful and interesting programs to facilitate better urban life.
Figure 04. Section of The Utrecht Central Station
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3. BNTHMCRWL Architects. “Utrecht Central Station”. Accessed February 24th. http:// benthemcrouwel.com/projects/utrecht-centralstation/ 4. Archdaily. “Utrecht Central Station / Benthem Crouwel Architects”. Accessed on April 20th. https://www.archdaily. com/801731/utrecht-central-station-benthemcrouwel-architects?ad_medium=gallery
Figure 05. Components of The Utrecht Central Station
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DAFNE SCHIPPERS BICYCLE BRIDGE [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] The Dafne Schippers Bridge connects Utrecht’s new district of Leidsche Rijn with the historic city center. Leidsche Rijn is currently one of the most important development locations to accommodate the city’s growth and is separated from the center by the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal that cuts across the city. To make this new area attractive to present and future inhabitants, a fast and safe connection over the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal is needed. In this context, the landscape is considered as a dominant element to integrate and organize the urban form. There were, however, some notable challenges: on the city-center side, the bridge lands in the densely built neighborhood of Oog in Al; and on the exact spot where two elementary schools were standing. The design responds to these challenges by integrating the cycle and pedestrian bridge with a new school and the public park, forming one single cohesive design. As such, the Dafne Schippers bridge and elementary school Oog in Al serves a variety of interests. Cyclists, neighborhood residents, a local primary school, the municipality, and the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment were all involved in this project1. By approaching all the different elements within the project in an integral manner, the bridge’s design is able to simultaneously satisfy the different interests that are at play in this complex site. The inhabitants of this densely build area want [Utrecht, NETHERLANDS] [2017] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [NEXT and RUA] [Rudy Uytenhaak + Partners Architects, Bureau B+B urbanism and landscape architecture] [Increasing Connection with green space and infrastructure] [Bicycle, Schooling, Recreation] [Public]
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1. NEXT Architects. “Dafne Schippers Bicycle Bridge”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.nextarchitects.com/ en/projects/dafne_schippers_bicycle_ bridge?c=infrastructure
Figure 01. Small Map of The Dafne Schippers Bridge
Location Year Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Programs Funding Streams
Water
Green Space
Figure 02. Figure Ground of The Dafne Schippers Bridge
Figure 03. The Dafne Schippers Bridge (Source: NEXT Architects. “Dafne Schippers Bicycle Bridge”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.nextarchitects. com/en/projects/dafne_schippers_bicycle_bridge?c=infrastructure) The Dutch Waterline
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the green public space in their neighborhood to be maintained and improved. In addition, they want to ensure a safe traffic situation. The cyclists need a comfortable and fast route from Leidsche Rijn to the center of Utrecht2. To this end, the bicycle lane should not be too steep. The city of Utrecht wants to improve the infrastructural connection between the city center and Leidsche Rijn, especially for cyclists, thereby contributing to the city’s sustainability ambitions. The school, needs a safe environment to learn and to play. Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment needs to safeguard the shipping route across the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal. This is one of the main shipping arteries in the Netherlands connecting the port city of Amsterdam to the Rhine river3. By integrating the structures into the park, almost the whole park and most of the old tree structure could be spared and at the same time become reorganized as a connecting link between the bridge, the school, and the inner city. In this way, the coherent design elements overtake a multi-layered function within the city structure of Utrecht. Firstly, they serve as a renowned stepping stone for the major number of pedestrians and cyclists between the city center, the outer parts as well as the town Leidsche Rijn. Secondly, the area itself develops a poetic character as a new hub of public space where all generations come together in their usage of the park, the bridge, and the school. The new housing structures next to the bridge and the Victor Hugo Park support this development. A forgotten piece of land has been transformed into a new place full of public life.
Figure 04. Section of The Dafne Schippers Bridge
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2. Bicycle Dutch. “The cycle path atop a school”. Accessed February 25th. https:// bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2017/04/11/thedafne-schippers-bridge-is-open/ 3.Bureau B+B. “Dafne Schippers Bridge”. Accessed February 25th. http://bplusb.nl/en/ work/dafne-schippers-bridge/ 4.LANDEZINE. “Dafne Schippers Bridge”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.landezine. com/index.php/2017/05/dafne-schippersbridge/
Figure 05. Book cover of Landscape Urbanism
Figure 06. Components of The Dafne Schippers Bridge
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DIKES+SPATIAL QUALITY: SPATIAL QUALITY GUIDE GORINCHEM-WAARDENBURG [ECOLOGICAL URBANISM] Flood problems often is a major part of water management in the Netherlands. Dikes often protect residents living around from the flood with ecological and practical function. However, with the urbanization expansion, the increasing spacial demands make the dikes to be integrated with more functions. Thus, the motive of this project is that the main part of the dike between Gorinchem and Waardenburg, which is part of the new Dutch waterline, does not meet the current standard and consequently needs to be reinforced. Additionally, the ambition is to increase the recognizability of the dike and to create a clear boundary in the landscape1.
1. H+N+S Landscape Architects. “Spatial Quality Guide GorinchemWaardenburg”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.hnsland.nl/en/projects/dikereinforcement-gorinchem-waardenburg
The Waal river is experiencing obstacles due to continuous diking and regulations: dynamism has disappeared from the river system. This narrows the process of finding possible solutions for upcoming water challenges. Therefore, the adaptive dike is not a final plan but a maintenance and growth strategy, meaning continuing transformation, adaptive ability, and renewed dynamism. The quality of the river landscape will be increased by new forms of housing, working, and recreation. By transferring the management of the entire dike zone, new types of use are created. Sediment depots, nature development, recreation, agriculture, and other activities are part of a single strategy. By dredging, storing and ripening various types of sediments for dike reinforcement, the landscape will change in a 5 – 15-
[Gorinchem - Waardenburg, NETHERLANDS] [2014-2015] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [H+N+S Landscape Architects] [Bureau Waardenburg/Marinus Kooiman/RHDHV/Transect] [The ambition is to increase the recognizability of the dike and to create a clear boundary in the landscape. ] [Transportation, Recreation, and Flood Protection] .[Public]
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Figure 01. Small Map of the Dike + Spatial Quality Guideline
Location Years Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Programs Funding Streams
Waardenburg
Gorinchem
Water
Green Space
Fort
Figure 02. Figure Ground of Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg
Figure 03. Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg (Source: H+N+S Landscape Architects. “Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg�. Accessed February 25th. http://www.hnsland.nl/en/projects/dike-reinforcement-gorinchem-waardenburg) The Dutch Waterline
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year cycle. Therefore, according to the circle of sediments, the function of the dike varies. The rapidly changing storage of sediment has a 5-year cycle and offers space for nature, temporary recreation and orchards. The locations close to the main residential area will change less frequent. On these locations, sediment will be stored for a longer 15 year period. This area could be used as a golf course or recreational area. As a result, with the effort of cooperation with the neighborhoods, local qualities are maintained through tailored solutions, but designers decided to also devote greater attention to the recognizability of the dike as a whole. To this end, they designed a continuous ‘base profile’ and improved the dike at ‘invisible’ locations. Also, as the dike becomes higher and wider over time, by earthing-up supporting slopes on the adjoining ground and transferring the use to private users, the management by the water board will be reduced significantly.
Figure 04. Section of Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg
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Figure 05. Book cover of Ecological Urbanism
Different Ways to Rebuild Dike
Figure 06. The dike forms of Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg
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MARKTHAL [PRODUCTIVE URBANISM] Markthal proves that Rotterdam is an icon richer. The first covered fresh market in the Netherlands was commissioned by Provast on a historic spot on the Binnenrotte, right next to the Blaak station and the largest outdoor market in the country. The Market Hall consists of a huge market floor at street level surrounded by an archway with apartments. The shape, the artwork on the inside and the height make the Markthal a special spectacle. The uniqueness of the design lies not only in its form and size but especially in the way in which the various functions have been brought together. Nowhere else in the world is the combination of a large covered fresh food market, (food) shops, catering establishments, a supermarket, houses and underground parking under one roof1. The Markthal gives the outside market a new impetus on the Binnenrotte. And that entirely contributes to the urban economy. The Markthal, with its fresh market, shops and houses, ensures greater coherence and connection from the east side of the center to the city center. After the construction of the Markthal, the municipality of Rotterdam has started the redevelopment of the Binnenrotte. The greener space for terraces makes the Binnenrotte more attractive and vibrant, even on days when no outdoor market is being held. After the redesign, the outside market has been given a new layout, so that the outside market and the Market Hall can benefit optimally from each other. [Rotterdam, Netherlands] [2009-2014] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [MVRDV] [Provast Nederland bv/INBO/Royal Haskoning DHV/Acoustics: Peutz & Associates/Techniplan/Arno Coenen and Iris Roskam] [It offers residents a colorful urban life with multiple programs living in the building.] [Residential, Shopping, Exhibition, Socializing] [Private]
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Figure 01. Small Map of the Markthal 1. Domus. “Markthal Rotterdam�. Accessed February 25th. https://www.domusweb.it/en/ architecture/2014/10/17/mvrdv_ markthal_rotterdam.html
Location Years Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Programs Funding Streams
Water
Green Space
Figure 02 Figure Ground of Markthal
Figure 03. Markthal (Source: KCAP. “Blaak 31 Rotterdam [NL]”. Accessed February 25th. https://www.kcap.eu/en/projects/v/blaak_31/) The Dutch Waterline
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For the architecture of Markthal, it is formed by the construction of privatelydeveloped apartments arranged into a large arch, strategically allowing a private initiative to create a public space. The result is a covered square which features a central market hall during the day, and after closing hours, a lively series of restaurants on its lower levels. The Markthal is a sustainable combination of food, leisure, living, and parking, a building in which all functions are fully integrated to celebrate and enhance their synergetic possibilities2. A secure, covered square is nestled beneath a large arch, conceived as an entirely new take on a typical market square and its surrounding buildings. Additionally, with its unique arched structure, and unusual achievement of turning a private development plan into a public building, the Markthal makes Rotterdam home of a new urban typology, a hybrid of market and housing. It offers residents a colorful urban life with multiple programs living in the building3. Furthermore, the Markthal not only stimulates colorful life and urban development but also brings the surrounding an energyfriendly future4. Markthal means an important impulse to its surrounding area which is a strong contribution to the urban economy. Markthal with its daily fresh food market, shops and apartments, creates coherence and connections in the neighbourhood which will reach a new centrality. After completion of Markthal, the city of Rotterdam will start to refurbish Binnenrotte Square to make it more attractive also on days that there is no outdoor market. After the refurbishment the outdoor market will be reconfigured, the market lanes will connect seamlessly to the entrances of Markthal, to allow the public to easily enter and exit the building and to create incentives between the two markets, indoor and outdoor5.
Figure 04. Section of Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg
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2. MVRDV. “Markthal”. Accessed February 25th. https://www.mvrdv.nl/projects/115/ markthal?photo=16331 3. Markthal. “Themasheet Markthal Rotterdam”. Accessed February 25th. http:// pers.markthal.nl/87402-themasheet-markthalrotterdam 4. Architectural Review. “Markthal in Rotterdam by MVRDV”. Accessed February 25th. https:// www.architectural-review.com/today/markthalin-rotterdam-by-mvrdv/8674309.article 5. Archdaily. “Markthal Rotterdam / MVRDV”. Accessed February 25th. https://www.archdaily. com/553933/markthal-rotterdam-mvrdv
Figure 05. Components of Markthal
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THE TRANS-MEXICAN VOLCANIC BELT
The Transvolcanic Belt, MEXICO
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
Stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of California, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt is a region of high volcanic activity, featuring a physiographically complex series of mountainous peaks. Straddled with a rich history, the region exhibits a palimpsest of rich mesoamerican culture, tumultuous colonization, and rapid urbanization that has left its mark on the urban fabric. Peeking into the strata of these complex layers has the potential to provide clarity into the relationships between the vast urban systems present in modern-day Mexico City, its urban periphery, and the transoceanic networks that connect into the broad global ecosystem.1 Typically considered a megacity, Mexico City is often discussed through the notions of its inherent complexity and relationship to global flows of capital, but missing from the metanarrative is the notion of a regional infrastructure. This network, which weaves together the topographically complex Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, facilitates the flow of goods and services, provides access to major transportation hubs, and connects the otherwise precipitous landscape. The complexity of the Valley of Mexico metropolis and all its troubled historical legacy, unique ecological heritage, rich culture, and prominent educational institutions would cease without the underlying regional infrastructural network.
02 Geographic Framework: Culture, Economy, and Sociopolitical Thematics Earthquakes, volcanic plumes, and water scarcity constantly threaten the wellbeing of the people who inhabit this region, yet massive population growth has continued to strain the Valley of Mexico’s resources and sinking infrastructure. The process of urbanization, where the majority of the lakes and aquifers of gave way to the ever-expanding metropolis, has left the foundational structure of the city—the literal ground that the city was built upon—too unstable to support the architectural verticality of other megacities around the world, creating an urban
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1. Correa, Felipe, and Carlos Garciavelez Alfaro. Mexico City: Between Geometry and Geography. Novato, CA: Applied Research and Design Publ., 2014. 2. “Global city GDP 2011”. Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on June 4, 2013. Retrieved December 26, 2012. 3. Murgula, Regina Orvananos. “Everyday Urbanism and the Role of Civil Society in the Production of Public Spaces in Mexico” Trialog, 2011. 4. O’Rourke, Kathryn E. Modern Architecture in Mexico City: History, Representation, and the Shaping of a Capital. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2016. https://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed February 6, 2019). 5. Nestor Garcia Canclini and Paul Liffman. “From National Capital to Global Capital: Urban Change in Mexico City.” Public Culture 12, no. 1 (2000): 207-213. https://muse.jhu. edu/ (accessed February 6, 2019). 6. Delgado-Ramos, Gian Carlo. “Water and the political ecology of urban metabolism: the case of Mexico City.” Journal of Political Ecology 22, no. 1 (2015): 98-114.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS 2005
1995
Mexico City Metrobus begins operating.
2000
World Trade Center Mexico City opens.
1980 1969 1968
First line of Mexico City Metro subway system opens. Tlatelolco massacre at the Plaza de Tres Culturas. 1960
1954
Ciudad Universitaria campus built in Coyoacan.
[Critical DATA] Area: 3,707 mi2 Population: 21 million residents United States of Mexico Social Indicators The valley has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years, including the Teotihuacan (800 BC to 800 AD) the Toltec Empire (10th to 13th century) and the Aztec Empire (1325 to 1521). When the Spaniards arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it had one of the highest population concentrations in the world with about one million people. Environmental Indicators The Valley of Mexico is enclosed with no natural outlet for water to flow. The lakebeds of five now-extinct lakes, are located in the southernmost and largest of the four sub-basins. Today, the Valley drains through a series of artificial canals to the Tula River, and eventually the PĂĄnuco River and the Gulf of Mexico. Seismic activity is frequent here, and the valley is considered an earthquake prone zone.
1940
1928
Federal District of Mexico City divided into 80 boroughs. 1920
1872
1824
1778
Porfirio Diaz assumes the Presidency and begins his forty year rule where canalization, omnibus transit, and property reforms altered the urban fabric of Mexico City.
Federal District created.
1850
1800
The Decree of Free Trade reforms reinvigorated the economic climate which spurred infrastructural expansion of Mexico City. This led to rapid shrinkage of the remaining lakes within the city. 1750 1700 1650
1634
Reestablishment of the colonial capital after the flood of 1629 inundated the city for five years.
1600 1550
1521
The conquest of Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Hernan Cortes’ mounted contingent.
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1500
Monterrey
San Luis Potosi Transvolcanic Belt
Guadalajara
Mexico City
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fabric unique to the geographic conditions. Beyond the Valley of Mexico, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt shares the highly tumultuous geographic conditions that has been intricately appropriated in order to accommodate the flows of people, goods, and capital. This infrastructural network allows for cities like Mexico City, Guadalajara, and many others to tap into the global marketplace, exporting the goods produced from its robust manufacturing capacities. Mexico is ranked 15th in the world in terms of GDP and Mexico City represents 22% of the country’s GDP.2 Additionally, Mexico has seen the emergence of an urban crisis over the course of the last several decades, where violence, drug cartels, and many other criminal activities have had a major impact on the safety of the urban environment. As a response, communities have instrumentalized culture and community building spaces as a way to “expose, propose, and politicize� issues occurring in the urban realm.3 Most notably, these interventions have taken place in the form of urban art and cultural/educational centers with the aim of providing educational and cultural opportunities for some of the most marginalized populations in Mexico City, providing an alternative to gangs and drugs.
03
Urban Dynamics
Before arriving at its contemporary form, the Valley of Mexico had been inhabited for at least the last 12,000 years by civilizations including the Teotihuacan, the Toltec Empire and the Aztec Empire. Following the Spanish Conquest, Tenochtitlan was rebuilt to become the largest and most dominant city in the region, which was eventually renamed to Mexico City. Following this major turn of events was a period of significant growth and expansion not only in Mexico City, but the surrounding geographic region. In order to serve the continuing population increase, infrastructural networks expanded outwards from the city towards the coasts.4 Transition of goods from major ports on either end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt require an infrastructural network of highways, refueling stations, and micro urbanities.5 Another resulting factor of rapid urbanization and population growth is the immense transformation of the ecological and hydrological capacities of the region. Lake Texcoco formerly occupied a large portion of the southern half of the basin, belonging to an interconnected chain of five other lakes, including Chalco, Xaltocan, Xochimilco, and Zumpango. Tenochtitlan originated on an island at the center of Lake Texcoco, but following considerable flood events,
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Spanish authorities decided to conduct a series of infrastructural works to drain the lake, the most recent iteration occurring in 1967 with the construction of the Drenaje Profundo, “Deep Drainage System,� where a network of several hundred kilometers of tunnels were buried beneath the city to facilitate the drainage of stormwater. This has led to the reduction of much of the agricultural heritage of the city, where Xochimilco Park stands as the last remaining vestige of the hydrological network in the city.6 Mexico City and its surrounding urban territory serves as a convergence of many of the larger regional issues discussed in this research. Political structures, governance, the impact of industrialization, housing, crime, and urban welfare are extensions of many of the larger scale provocations resulting from the urbanisms explored. While there is not enough time to delve into the specifics of each of these vital topics, they are instead positioned as resultant conditions of the geographic framework within the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Many other cities along this transect exhibit similar complexities, but Mexico City serves as the primary basis for investigation.
04
Selected Urban Projects
In order to better understand these complexities, this research will look to expound upon the urban systems of the Transvolcanic Belt through five lines: regional infrastructural network, historical palimpsest, hydrologic transformation, cultural infrastructure, and educational institutions. Setting the stage for the regional infrastructural network, the transoceanic highway system illustrates the conduits for flows of goods, people, and capital. This system taps into major transportation hubs including ports, airports, and rail depots. There is an inherent challenge to weaving this system through the physiographically complex Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, yet not insurmountable. Among the system sprouts instances of hinterland territories which leverage the economic siphoning of flows, indicating urbanities that operate outside the traditional purviews of urban thinking. Representative of the cultural palimpsest visible within the region and more specifically, Mexico City, Plaza de Tres Culturas illustrates the stratification of the layers that comprise its contentious historical legacy. Mesoamerican, Post-colonial Spanish, and the mid-20th Modernist movements are not exclusive to the Valley of Mexico, but the convergence of layers is most vividly articulated through this project. This was also the site of major historic events like the 1968 student massacre. Critical to the narrative of Mexico City is the hydrologic transformation of its geographic condition due to urbanization. This has been a point of contention for many with water scarcity and the depletion of the cities agricultural heritage at the center of many debates. These issues have manifested themselves in the revitalization `of Xochimilco Park, one of Mexico City’s last remaining vestiges of its hydrological system. The recognition of the role of ecology in securing the
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historical identity of the region speaks to a larger movement to acknowledge the ecological benefit of historical and endemic landscapes. The troubled cultural landscape of the region is a result of many complex issues. Politics, crime, violence, and drug cartels contribute to the precarity of the urban dynamics. In some cases, social responsibility has found its way into the political platforms of modern politicians, even so far as to funding social programs with the intention of ameliorating cultural issues. Los FAROS is one of these initiatives aimed at providing alternatives to social decline through free public workshops and events. A variety of these sites have been intentionally situated within the margins of the Mexico City and is largely funded through the government. One of the largest academic institutions in Mexico is situated within Mexico City. Universidad Nacional AutĂłnoma de MĂŠxico (UNAM) has served a significant role in shaping culture both inside and outside of Mexico. Adopting the mantra of autonomy, the institution intentionally detaches itself from the contentious political climate of the region. This has sparked moments of protest throughout its history, most notable is the 1968 student massacre where the government shot down 300-400 protesters. As an autonomous public institution, free thought and progressive inquiry are able to operate without government oversight, which is essential to the development of a free society.
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TRANSOCEANIC HIGHWAY [NETWORK URBANISM] “Infrastructure acts as the invisible fundamental element that organizes urban spaces. Although static in and of themselves, infrastructures organize and manage complex systems of flow, movement, and exchange. Not only do they provide a network of pathways, they also work through systems of locks, gates, and valves. A series of checks that control and regulate flow.” —Stan Allen The Port of Manzanillo (located on the Pacific coast) and the Port of Veracruz (located on the eastern coast along the Gulf of Mexico) are two of the top three ports in Mexico, and handle 26 million and 20 million metric tons of cargo respectively. Transition of goods from these centers of exchange towards the dense continental urbanities of the Transvolcanic Belt requires a significant infrastructural network to facilitate this movement. The network of highways in Mexico are built and maintained by the federal government of Mexico via the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation and serve as major corridors for the transportation of goods. Often, Mexico City and it’s broader economic capacity has been discussed within the city and global scale, but what’s missing is a regional narrative that extends along the system of infrastructures connecting urban areas to major conduits of global access. The extensive paved highway system in Mexico is the largest in Latin America, with the most traveled freeways are those that connect Mexico’s most populous cities, Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. Many of the freeways are toll roads, which on average are among the most expensive in the world. In 2007, the National Infrastructure Program (NIP) was instituted to continue to modernize and expand this infrastructural network. In addition to the regional transportation network, Mexico City has taken efforts to improve the public transit infrastructure within the region, including the renovation and general improvement of transit stations. For example Metro Insurgente, which was inaugurated in 1969, is a metro station and roundabout located in the Roma and Juarez neighborhoods. Architecturally, the design is intended to A-290
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7. Fig. 2 “Expansion Sets Veracruz Port for Growth.” JOC, 20 Dec. 2018, www. joc.com/port-news/international-ports/ veracruz-port-upgrade-dent-mexico’s-capacitystress_20181220.html. 8. Fig. 3 “MIT Gets $300 Million Equipment Upgrading.” The Bulletin Panama. http:// thebulletinpanama.com/2012/06/mit-gets-300million-equipment-upgrading/.
Port of Altamira
Transoceanic Highway Port of Veracruz
Port of Manzanillo
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Figure 1. Transoceanic Highways, airports, rail lines, and rail hubs. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Figure 2. Port of Vera Cruz6
reference both the pre-Hispanic past of Mexico, represented by the use of Mayan glyphs in the architectural design, as well as the New Spain period, which recall the headstones of Puebla. This busy public square was recently remodeled in 2017, to create a dynamic and diverse plaza that celebrates the eccentric characteristics of Mexico City and a renewed interest in the significance of public transit. This transit hub facilitates the access to both the subway and metrobus system. In looking at the logistical network of both the transoceanic highway and the metro system within Mexico City, we can start to understand broader notions of urban networks of the region. The infrastructure required to facilitate the flows of people and materials through the city is a vital component to the urban fabric, linking fragments of the city to larger systems. Mobility within the city and connectivity to geopolitical economies have the potential to reveal latent indicators of urban heterogeneity within the region.
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Figure 3. Port of Manzanillo7
JUNCTION
19°52’50.94”N, 101°12’11.22”W
FLYOVER
19°17’44.93”N, 99° 9’21.82”W
HWY SETTLEMENT
19°52’53.45”N, 101°11’45.64”W
SWITCHBACKS
19°52’50.94”N, 101°12’11.22”W
Figure 4. Network typologies along the Transoceanic Highway system. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
BRIDGE
18°54’25.67”N, 97° 0’50.04”W
TOLL BOOTH
19°54’5.76”N, 100°47’19.16”W A-293
PLAZA DE LAS TRES CULTURES [POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] “These distinctively postcolonial migrations have major influences on the economy, society, culture, religion, politics, spatial and built environments, and also security, of the city.” —A.D. King The transition from the Mesoamerican settlements to the urbanized region today has no doubt left its mark, but the last century has presented its own sense of palimpsest that has only further complicated the struggle between people and power. Perhaps there is no better example of this layering of cultures and ideologies than the Plaza de tres culturas and the adjacent Tlatelolco Habitational Units. Completed in 1960’s by Mexican architect Mario Pani, the Plaza de Tres Culturas is flanked by the remains of Aztec temples, the Catholic church of Santiago de Tlatelolco, and the modernist Tlatelolco Habitational Units. The square is most commonly remembered as the place where the massacre of the 1968 student movement took place, one of the bloodiest events of the 20th century in Mexico. The juxtaposition of diverse cultures and the symbolic nature of the politically charged incident reveals a convergence of diversity in the city and the attempt to impose some sense of order onto this complexity.
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9. Fig. 6 “Visit Plaza De Las Tres Culturas in Mexico City | Expedia.” Expedia. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.expedia.com/ Plaza-De-Las-Tres-Culturas-Mexico-City. d501751.Vacation-Attraction. 10. King, A. D., “Postcolonial Cities.” State University of New York, Binghamton, NY. 2009
Tlatelolco Housing
Plaza de Tres Culturas
Figure 5. Tlatelolco Habitational Units and Plaza de Tres Cultures The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Figure 6. Plaza de las Tres Culturas8
It’s clear through the residential complexes extending beyond the Plaza de Tres Culturas, that Mexican authorities at the time were speculating what the future of Mexico City could be. At the time, it seemed the egalitarian tenets of modernism could provide the template for this aspiration. The project was originally designed as a “city within a city”, an all-encompassing human habitat with parks, commercial, and employment. Today, the complex has experienced significant deterioration and neglect, partly due to the 1985 earthquake. A.D King asserts in “Postcolonial Cities” that the notion of postcolonial can be radically different depending on the context, but the “postcolonial histories, sociologies, and geographies are nonetheless key to the understanding of a plethora of issues.”10 Perhaps the juxtaposition of three vastly different cultural markers suggests an agnostic perspective on reterritorialization, with there being many instances of aesthetic contradiction existing throughout the city.
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Templo de Santiago apรณstol
Modernist Housing Blocks
Tlatelolco Archaeological Zone Figure 7. Layers of cultural signification at the Plaza de Tres Culturas. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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XOCHIMILCO ECOLOGICAL PARK [ECOLOGICAL URBANISM] “We need to view the fragility of the planet and its resources as an opportunity for speculative design innovations rather than as a form of technical legitimation for promoting conventional solutions. By extension, the problems confronting our cities and regions would then become opportunities to define a new approach. Imagining an urbanism that is other than the status quo requires a new sensibility — one that has the capacity to incorporate and accommodate the inherent conflictual conditions between ecology and urbanism. This is the territory of ecological urbanism.” -Mohsen Mostafavi Over time, the urbanized region of the Valley of Mexico has seen the draining of the five historic lakes, Chalco, Texcoco, Xaltocan, Xochimilco, and Zumpango. This has led to a myriad of issues, including unstable soil conditions, water scarcity, and poor drainage just to name a few. Additionally, the environmental and ecological impacts of this has been severe, with the overwhelming pollution, overpopulation, and congestion slowly asphyxiating the dwindling resources remaining. While only small portions of the lakes remain, areas in Mexico City have attempted to improve the remaining artifacts of the hydrological past. For example, Xochimilco Ecological Park is a thirteen hectare natural reserve, the largest in Latin America. Inaugurated in 1993, the project intended to restore the ecosystem of a degraded series of chinampas (agricultural islands). Programmatically, the park features a Plant Market, which rents stalls to ornamental plant producers/sellers, many of which grow their plants on the chinampas. These chinampas were historically created as agricultural land, but with the ecological restoration of the park, these islands have been transformed into agro-ecological land.
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11. Fig. 9 “Thirty Years of Landscape Architecture in Mexico.” World Architects. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.worldarchitects.com/en/architecture-news/reviews/ thirty-years-of-landscape-architecture-in-mexico. 12. Fig. 10 “Chinampas, The Floating Gardens of Mexico.” Ancient Origins. April 07, 2014. https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancientplaces-americas/chinampas-floating-gardensmexico-001537. 13. Mostafavi, Mohsen, and Gareth Doherty. Ecological Urbanism. Zürich: Lars Müller, 2016. (pg 12-24)
A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
Conventional Agriculture Chinampa in Transition Chinampas Greenhouses Scrub and Grasslands Secondary Forest Wetlands
F
A
G
A
F
E
E
B
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G D C
Figure 8 Xochimilco Ecological Park Zones The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Figure 9. Section cut of the chinampas.11
The park is a prime example of ecological urbanism, which draws from the field of ecology to inspire urban projects that exemplify environmental sustainability through habitat creation, green infrastructure, and complex ecosystem processes. As the last remaining pre-Spanish Conquest landscape, Xochimilco was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. This spurred a restoration process by Mexico City to combat the apparent contamination as a result of rapid urbanization. The chinampas were restored to its original agricultural functionality characterized by fenced in layers of mud and lake sediment to build up the fertile ground ready for cultivation. In addition to the agricultural benefits of the site, this project also provides shelter for wildlife, including the fostering of habitat for the Axolotl, which is a critically endangered amphibian endemic to Lake Xochimilco. As one of the last vestiges of the original bodies of water that occupied the Valley of Mexico, Xochimilco’s canals and productive landscape are considered as a valuable resource for the region for both ecological and recreational purposes.
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Lake Zumpango
Lake Xaltocan
Mexico City
Lake Texcoco
Lake Xochimilco
Lake Chalco Remaining Xochimilco
Figure 10. Historic lakes overlayed on modern day Mexico City.
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FARO ORIENTE [SOCIAL URBANISM] Over the course of the last several decades, Mexico has seen the emergence of an urban crisis, where violence, drug cartels, and many other criminal activities have had a major impact on the safety of the urban environment. Along with the complexity of the urban condition and the history of marginalization, came the need for a means of expression within the communities. As a response, communities have organized small and effective urban spaces as a way to “expose, propose, and politicize”14 issues occurring in the urban realm. Most notably, these minimal interventions have taken place in the form of urban art, where urban spaces have been transformed through community-led efforts to either make statements on current events, or simply to activate and beautify a dilapidated public space. There has also been a desire to create social and cultural infrastructure that offers alternative modes of skill-building and community outreach. Mexico City in recent years has taken steps to curate cultural experiences for not only formal art institutions, but through more informal programs located within marginalized communities. One example of this is the Fábrica de Artes y Oficios Oriente, better known as FARO. This institution receives the majority of its funding from government sources to provide educational and cultural opportunities for some of the most marginalized populations in Mexico City, providing an alternative to gangs and drugs. This has happened through the form of cultural community centers like the FARO Oriente, where a series of buildings provide modes of formal and informal programming to occur. This acronym also serves another meaning, translating to “lighthouse” in Spanish, where the centers that adopt this name represent a light of hope in zones historically denied access to arts and culture, FARO Oriente is no exception. Free workshops are offered to anyone in the surrounding community where participants learn trades through which they can “earn an income and improve their living environments.”15
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14. Fig. 11 “FARO DE ORIENTE.” Albert Kalach. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// www.kalach.com/faro-de-oriente. 15. Ibid. 16. Murgula, Regina Orvananos. “Everyday Urbanism and the Role of Civil Society in the Production of Public Spaces in Mexico” Trialog, 2011. 17. Team, WNN Editors. “Free Arts Instruction Improves Shattered Lives in Mexico City.” Woman News Network (WNN). September 03, 2013. https://womennewsnetwork. net/2013/09/03/free-arts-mexico-city/.
FARO Orientes FARO Indios Verdes
FARO Aragon
FARO Iztacalco Figure 11. Los Faros Locations The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Figure 12. FARO Oriente12
Other cities have taken a similar approach. For example, in Medellin under the leadership of mayor Sergio Fajardo, the city, in 2004, “decided to bet on a public policy that was focused on reducing the profound social debts that had accumulated during decades, as well as the problems of violence. In this way, in a decisive manner, structural transformations that combined, integrally, programs of education, culture and entrepreneurship were implemented, together with a “face-lift” of some neighborhoods located in the most critical zones of the city.” 16 This notion of investing in cultural and social infrastructure within communities that have been traditionally deprived of such programs has been considered as the catalytic spark that over time continues to nurture new forms of social cohesion, encouraging the process of “physical and social integration between the informal city and the conventional one.”17
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18. Restrepo, Alejandro Echeverri and Francesco Maria Orsini. “Informality and Social Urbanism in Medellin.” (2015). 19. Ibid.
Figure 13. FARO Oriente13
Community and Children
Budget
CDMX + Secreteria de Cultura de la Ciodad de Mexico Budget
Cultural Services
Budget
FUNDING SOURCES
Budget
ORGANIZATION NETWORK
FARO 01
FARO 02
FARO 03
FARO 04
Adult Workshops
Media Outreach
Universities Museums
FARO 01
FARO 02
FARO 03
FARO 04
Other Funding Sources
Cultural Organizations
Figure 14. FARO Organization and Funding
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Donations
UNAM CIUDAD UNIVERSITARIA [INSTITUTIONAL URBANISM] “Lasting institutions like colleges and universities invoke a social rationale for their physical installations, a rationale that speaks to their overarching purposes and helps elucidate the ideas behind their operations. In our culture, we are educated to find in our surroundings the manifestations of character and purpose, particularly when those larger abstractions such as character, purpose, and meaning would tend to escape our immediate grasp.”18 Kurt W. Forster Among the other factors contributing heavily to the urban landscape are the major educational institutions in Mexico City. The largest university in the city, UNAM, also known as Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, has had the most profound impact. As the first master planned campus in Mexico, the university city of the UNAM provides a major divergence from the predominant density of the city. The architect, Mario Pani, designed the campus to exteriorize characteristics of the modern movement, establishing the notion of the superblock with an internal organic circulation system. The architecture, which is uniquely Mexican modern in style, utilizes characteristics of critical regionalism to use materiality that references climatic, socioeconomic and cultural factors of the country. Murals by famous artists have been integrated into the facades to further this notion. The foundation of UNAM was rooted in the intentional disconnect from anachronistic institutions of the past and instead “serve as a model of positivism and encompass the ideas of the dominant Mexican liberalism.”19 The aspirational modernist plan in a sense embodies these ideals by speculating on the future of education in Mexico. While its spatial organization was designed to be deliberately interiorized, UNAM continues to function as a progressive institution within Mexico City, where the university explicitly extends its research and programs to engage its adjacent communities.
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20. Forster, Kurt W. From Catechism to Calisthenics. 1993. 21. Sierra, Justo. “Inauguración de la Universidad Nacional de México, el 22 de Septiembre de 1910” in Discursos. Mexico: UNAM, 1949. (pg 447-462)
The Stadium
Internal Circulation
Ecological Reserve Ecological Reserve
Ecological Reserve Ecological Reserve
Figure 15. UNAM Ciudad Universitaria Organizational Framework The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Olympic Stadium
Modernist Institutional Buildings
Museums
Figure 16. Institutional campus monuments.
As Sharon Haar writes in her book, The City as Campus, “within higher education in general and on urban campuses in particular there is the beginning of a new relationship with the city based on the common mission to acknowledge and accommodate diverse people, ideas, and technologies and to advance knowledge directed toward global interactions.”20 The social programs organized by UNAM through their public programs department in a sense embraces the accommodation of diverse people and ideas.
22. Haar, Sharon. The City as Campus: Urbanism and Higher Education in Chicago. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2011. 23. Fig. 16 Cruz, Daniela. “Clásicos De Arquitectura: Ciudad Universitaria / Mario Pani Enrique Del Moral.” Plataforma Arquitectura. April 10, 2013. https://www. plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/626400/clasicosde-arquitectura-ciudad-universitaria-mario-panienrique-del-moral. 24. Fig. 17 Gibson, Eleanor. “Mexico City’s “modernist Haven” UNAM Captured in Photos by Jazzy Li.” Dezeen. January 10, 2019. https://www.dezeen.com/2019/01/08/ unam-modernist-central-campus-jazzy-liphotography/.
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Figure 17. UNAM Ciudad Universitaria22
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AUSTRALIAN
SOUTHEAST COASTLINE
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Australian Southeast Coastline
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AUSTRALIAN SOUTHEAST COASTLINE
Southeast Coastline AUSTRALIA Figure 01. The map of territory location.
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY The Australian Southeast Coastline has experienced notable changes from manufacturing dominance to trading, finance and tourism, sharing the largest economy in Australia. Including most of the country’s major cities, the Australian Southeast Coastline offers an interesting glimpse to the large urbanization dynamics at the continental scale. The geography of an urban area heavily influences its economic development, and eventually drives urban form.1 The whole Australian Southeast Coastline was once based on industrial economy during and right after the colonial British occupation. New South Wales was the first British colony in Australia in 1788. British raised sheep and Cannabis there, together with mining camping.2 The booming of dairy, wool and aviation industry spawned local factories with transportation, accelerated the development of villages, urban and suburban area.3 Later during the de-industrialization, cities in the coastline reacted differently to the social, environmental and economic changes during that time. The urban decline became an issue when many industries began to move to cheaper land and the decline of the wool industry made many factories redundant. As factories moved out of the cities, new kinds of economies, like tourism, ocean, business, financial, services, energy are booming in some of them.4 The legacy of the former industrial uses can still be read in the landscapes: environmental damage and water pollution lead most efforts of recovery in these areas. Urban form is always reacting to these challenges. As a response, Australia’s planned towns and cities are investing in sustainable growth management strategies like new urbanism and the transit-oriented development (TOD) strategies. Like other developed countries, Australia’s urban form is changing significantly while facing de-industrialization. Currently in the midst of deep transformations, cities are changing from low density to intense and compact developments, and this gives many opportunities to introduce more sustainable and better futures for its population.
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1. Yina Sima, The Historical Transformation of Melbourne’s City Center, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 2. Margaret Simpson, Industrial Revolution in Australia – impact on the wool industry, https://maas.museum/inside-thecollection/2016/03/31/industrial-revolutionwool/, 2016 3. Stephanie Ruiz-Diaz, Urban Growth and Design, http://stephaniegeographicalissue1. weebly.com/management-strategies.html, 2017 4. Joann Wilkie and Tony McDonald, Economic geography and economic performance in Australia, Australian government, 2008
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
[Critical DATA] Area: Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast and the suburban area in between. Covers an area of 30,900km2.
RMIT’s New Academic Street (NAS) project finished.
2018
Population of Sydney reaches 5 million, Melbourne 4.85 million, urbanization reached 85.9%.
2017
Sydney Park Water Re-Use Project proposed.
2015
East coastline ‘Mega-region’ proposed.
2013
City of South Sydney becomes part of City of Sydney.
2004
Controversial Melbourne 2030 planning policy introduced, aimed to increase population in designated ‘activity centres’ and curb urban sprawl, promises to increase public transport usage to 20% of motorised trips by 2020
2002
CityLink freeways open
2000
Development of the Docklands area in Melbourne begins
1996
Australia experiences a severe economic slump; City property markets crash and CBD vacancy rates reach all-time high.
1990
The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded in Ausralia.
1960
Brisbane Story Bridge completed
1940
Modern Australia came into being
1901
Population: 19 millions Country: Australia Social Indicators: Australian south east coastline had colonial occupations by British from 1788 to 1850. Those original settlements became the capital cities for the 6 states and 2 territories today. 80% of Australians live in the Australian southeast coastline, causing a rapid urbanization. Environmental Indicators: Australian is lacking of potable water seriously, with an average annual rainfall of only 469mm per year. Economic Indicators: Most of Australian southeast coast cities are facing the fact of transforming their reliance on the industrial economy(12% of GDP) to other ways of economy like services(14.5.% of GDP), tourism(8% of GDP) and business(11% of GDP).
British colonial occupation: New South Whales(1788), Western Australia (1829), South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851) and Queensland (1859). Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania after 1856)
Captain James Cook chartered the eastern coast of the land
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Melbourne Theories and Methods of Urban Design Figure 02. The map of Australia east coastline.
Sunshine Coast Brisbane Gold Coast
Brisbane Linear cities, Brisbane, Gold Coast, Sunshine coast are almost connected as a line cling the coastline.
ney
Sydney Ordinary cities, sprawling around, under the sequence of city center, suburban, rural area, landscape and farm.
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Figure 03-05. The map of Melbourne/ Sydney/ 200km City.
Figure 06. The image of Industrial Sydney.
As many places in the world are experiencing post-industrial transformation, I think what makes the Australian Southeast Coastline worth being discussed is its unique nature, an urban continuum that extends through 2100 kilometers. The layout of linear coastline cities has also been dictated by the historic rail reserves, the original main road network.5 The history of rural utilities development from the colonial era also support this kind of urban growth.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS The Australian Southeast Coastline is highly urbanized, and the entire east coastline is often discussed as an integrated region. Since 1788, Australians have built more than 2,500 towns, but 81% of Australians move from inland small towns to the main eastern coastal city.6 Such conditions have led to the inevitable density growth and expansion of east coast cities and have also led to a large number of urban conflicts. Although these places are highly urbanized, their economic development models are different. Comparing the different developing approach in those coastline cities and how the area between link them together as an integration can be interesting.
5. B. T. Hiller, B. J. Melotte, S. M. Hiller, Uncontrolled Sprawl or Managed Growth? An Australian Case Study, https://doi.org/10.1061/ (ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000238, 2013 6. Phillip O’Neill, Pauline M. McGuirk, Prosperity along Australia’s Eastern Seaboard: Sydney and the geopolitics of urban and economic change, (University of Newcastle). 7. Stephanie Carlisle and Nicholas Pevzner, In Australia: The Future of Australian Cities, (Scenario 03: Rethinking Infrastructure), https://scenariojournal.com/journal/issue-3/, 2013
The research area mainly includes more than 1,300 miles from Brisbane in the north to Melbourne in the south, including Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Gold Coast, and the suburban area. It is also the region where Australia proposes mega-regional planning, which focuses on Australia’s sustainable development with the development of large-scale satellite cities and transportation infrastructure, advocating a large-scale economic and ecological vision.7 The Australian Southeast Coastline is facing a huge urban expansion. On the one hand, Australia is planning mega-regions, on the other hand, it wants to
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Figure 07. Steven High, Lachlan MacKinnon, Andrew Perchard, The deinfustrialized world, UBC Press, 2017
Figure 07.
8.Ian Morley, Post-Industrial Urbanism and the Growth of Sustainability: Historical Trends, Present and Future Observations, (Ming Chuan University). 9. Lily M. Hoffman; Susan S. Fainstein and Dennis R. Judd, Cities and Visitors, Regulating People, Market and City Space, (Blackwell publishing). 10. Dr Caryl Bosman and Dr Dianne Dredge, Histories of placemaking in the Gold Coast City: the neoliberal norm, the State story and the community narrative, (Research Paper 33, Griffith University).
increase the density of inner-city by revitalizing it. Australia experienced a longlasting economic boom between 1980 and 2000, promoting rapid urbanization. Capital, labor markets and neoliberalism greatly affected cities. Rapid urban expansion, with lack of transport infrastructure causing the emergence of some large urban agglomerations. In particular, cities such as Melbourne, where urban populations are growing rapidly, faced the danger of ‘donut cities’ in the 1990s, namely, the population in the inland areas decreased, the density of the suburbs in the central region increased, and the growth in the outer suburbs was stable.8 At the same time, the economy has a far-reaching impact on the city.9 A large part of the Australian Southeast Coastline, especially Brisbane, Sunshine Coast and Gold Coast, are driven by tourism as the main driving force for urban development, not just social structures, but also its urban fabric. Brisbane prides itself on being green. Sydney has its magnificent harbour, and Melbourne has its grand parks and gardens. The development patterns and models are also completely different from the ordinary economic industry-led cities, including the different internal layout of the city and the development of the suburbs of the city, is liked to meta or hyper-neoliberal discourses; hegemonic, market- driven and market- led.10 The urban development in Brisbane and the Gold Coast region is linear, stretching tens of kilometers along the coastline, but only one- kilometer lateral distance and they are different from Melbourne and Sydney, completely under the new urbanism. Covered by resorts, tourism has a major impact on the shape of the southeast coast cities. The limitations and impetus played by development are also very interesting. I would like to explore the process of revitalizing the inner city in the post-industrial era of industrial transformation, studying the economic diversity of the Australian Southeast Coastline.
Figure 08. Lily M. Hoffman, Susan S. Fainstein, Dennis R. Judd, Cities and Visitors, Blackwell Publishing, 2003 Australian Southeast Coastline
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11. How centralised is Australia’s population?, https://blog.id.com.au/2014/population/ demographic-trends/how-centralised-isaustralias-population/ 12. Arable land (% of land area), https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/ag.lnd.arbl.zs 13. Peter Spearritt, Tke 200 KM City: Brisbane, The Gold Coast, and Sunshine Coast, (University of Queensland)
03 URBAN DYNAMICS The Australia southeast coast cities are facing dynamic challenges, but connectivity and digital technologies are fundamentally changing the way Australian live, work, learn, socialize, and connect. Urban areas have different ways to revive the economy after de-industrialization, some focusing on the tourism and some places transformed into educational, business districts, or denser residential area. The industrial and colonial heritage offers cultural and tourism values to the land. Also, the shrinking of mining cities introduce more transforming chances to the cities. turning direction of economy becomes the main driven force for the urban development. With over 80% of all immigrants to Australia coming to Southeast Coastline, it is inevitable that the coastline will eventually succumb to a cultural change.11 Australia has made great effort to settle the population to the inner city through planning and addresses the housing and infrastructure needs of rapid population growth. Meanwhile, the planning policy of sustainability is very important in urban design in Australia, both in the landscape and common spaces. Since the Australia is facing Cities hold a significant potential to make a rapid change toward reduced resource consumption and waste production. Because only 6% of Australia’s land is arable land, and it is also threatened by floods and droughts, as well as pollution, 20th- century engineering has led to negative downstream consequences, water resources...12 Such as the Darling River ecosystem that flows through Sydney. Marine resources are also seen as part of the economy, and early colonists built cities on the east coast because of natural ports. In a state of treatment, Australia attaches great importance to ecological and sustainable development and repairs the destruction of once coastal ecosystems. The coastline is not considered as several big cities but a linear region. The connection in transportation and business, together with the landscape continuum and the well distribution of city function contributing the dynamics for the linear region. These coastal areas have in turn experienced such rapid population growth that their economies are no longer simply dependent on holidaymakers and retirees, but have merged into the wider metropolitan economy that now dominates this coastline.13 The entire coastline is very important. It not only plays a role in tourism but also plays a role in trade and it’s an important part of ecological infrastructure. 04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS
Figure 10. Ying-Yu Hung, Gerdo Aquino, Charles Waldheim, Julia Czerniak, Adriaan Geuze, Matthew Skjonsberg, Alexander Robinson, Infrastructure Landscape, Bagh-E Nazar 13(43):5-18
The five projects I choose are trying to show how economic development and migration shape the cities in the Australia Southeast Coastline, and also how cities are transformed under new technology and ecology. They are about post-industrial, social, infrastructure, memorial, tourism urbanism. Some projects are turning industrial sites to more mixed-use urban areas under this new era, some are showing how capital-driven tourism shaping the city. In addition, when talking about the coastline, those projects also focus on how the whole region are connected and the approaches that cities dealing with water.
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THE GOOD LINE [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] The phrase ‘post-industrial society’ is now used widely to describe the extraordinary range of changes that run through the social structure of the emerging post-industrial world.14 The post-industrial society marked by a transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy, a transition that is also connected with subsequent societal restructuring.15 The post industrial society generates from the agrarian and industrial world, during which new principles of urban innovation, new forms of urban morphology, and new modes of public places are developed. The Goods Line is an example of post-industrial transition, showing the potential of transforming isolated post industrial spaces into creative and connected public destinations. Located on the southern fringe of downtown Sydney, the Goods Line re-purposes a decommissioned rail corridor to create a leafy, public open space.16 The design transformed the remnants of industrial infrastructure into contemporary circulation infrastructure and new public space, drawing on the post-industrial aesthetic in further design features and elements. This part of the line is very historic as it was constructed as a freight line at the same time as the first passenger line between Sydney to Parramatta which opened in 1855.17 The impetus for the State’s first railways wasn’t to carry people. It was for transporting the valuable wool clip from the interior to waiting clippers for shipment to the English textile mills.18
[Sydney] [2015] [Built ] [80m] [ASPECT studios] [CHROFI, ACOR, Deuce Design, GML, JBA, Lighting Art + Science, AR-MA, Gartner Rose] [Connecting Sydney’s creative hub, Sights & Landmarks, Points of Interest & Landmarks, Scenic Walking Areas] [Public outdoor space for work, study and public events] [Public]
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14. Bell, Daniel, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books. pp. x–xi, xiv, xv–xvii, 1999 15. Robert C. Robinson, Postindustrial society, https://www.britannica.com/topic/ postindustrial-society 16. The Goods Line (North), https://www. landscapeperformance.org/case-study-briefs/ goods-line 17. The Goods Line, http://thegoodsline. aspect.net.au/ 18. The Goods Line – then and now, https://maas.museum/inside-thecollection/2015/09/03/the-goods-line-thenand-now/
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
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Figure 11. The plan of Sydney Good Line.
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Figure 12. The collage of Sydney Good Line. A-322
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Factory
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Activities
Figure 13. The taxonomy of Sydney Good Line. 19. The Goods Line (North), https://www.landscapeperformance.org/casestudy-briefs/goods-line#/sustainable-features 20. http://www.landezine.com/index. php/2015/10/the-goods-line-by-aspect-studios/ 21. https://maas.museum/inside-thecollection/2015/09/03/the-goods-line-then-andnow/ 22. The Goods Line (North), https://www.landscapeperformance.org/casestudy-briefs/goods-line#/sustainable-features
This linear and, in places, elevated city park forms part of an inter-urban pedestrian and cycle network linking the key transportation hubs of Sydney’s Central Station and Railway Square to a series of cultural, educational, entertainment, and leisure spaces on the southern and western edges of the Central Business District. Sydney’s southern fringe has now been reconnected to the surrounding city fabric, providing more than 80,000 locals, visitors, and university students direct access to nearby Darling Harbor, Chinatown, and the rest of Sydney.19 The Good Line successfully stimulated public interest in landscape design while simultaneously reintegrating an industrial relic into the everyday life of Sydney. Introducing ‘social’ into ‘post-industrial’, the good line is filled with ‘social infrastructure’ from bleachers, bench seats and an amphitheater to fully-enabled wi-fi, a children’s play area, table tennis tables and raised lawns.20 The good line also works as a platform for Sydney public engagement, providing a collective memorial role in this precinct. Elements like Mary Ann Street culvert, Ultimo Road railway under-bridge, Signal box and interlocking machine are maintained as monuments.21
Figure 14. The section of Sydney Good Line. A-324
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Landscape
Street Elements
Observation Deck
The project shows a successful turning from post-industrial area in the city center to shared public realm space. Also, the Good Line serves as a powerful metaphor for urban transformation from an industrial past to a modern knowledge economy. The Good Line will never be a isolated and forgotten industrial part in the city, but a highly landscaped and urbanized space to serve people around. Collaborating with clients, community and stakeholders, the restructuring of the Good Line creates a more memorial, inclusive and sustainable urban future. The Goods Line offers an important respite within the heavily built-up periphery of Sydney’s urban core. It gentrificates the neighborhoods gently and upgrades new uses and developments occurring in the area. 22
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SYDNEY PARK [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] According to Pierre Bélanger, in addition to airports, harbors, roads, bridges, dams, power corridors, today’s infrastructure urbanism redefine the conventional meaning of modern infrastructure by amplifying biophysical landscape as a sophisticated, instrumental system of essential resources, support urban economies.23 Because cities face much of the burden of preparing for global changes – such as climate shocks, population decline and rapid population growth – city leaders and residents are hard pressed to judge how much and what kind of infrastructure they will need in the future. Planners are exploring infrastructures that are smaller and mutually independent, to meet the dual challenges of sustainability and resilience.24 Sydney Park is a landscape infrastructure to faced with challenges in modern Australia. It has a rough history. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the park was a major source of clay, which was extracted and led to a number of family-run brick, pottery and tile works being established with brick-making becoming an important local industry.25 Bedford Brickworks was established in Sydney Park in 1893 and remained operating until 1970. From the late 1940s to the 1980s the former brick pits were used as a local tip. There was no wildlife and the site was unrecognizable from the green oasis of thriving wetlands today.26 Much has been achieved over the past two decades to transform the Sydney Park site from its former post-industrial history and waste disposal, into 44 hectares of parkland, a vital asset for the growing communities of Sydney’s southern suburbs, and a water re-use infrastructure.27 The transformation is under the burden of Sydney to faced with environmental shocks and population change in the post-industrial era. [Sydney] [2015] [Built] [16000 sqm] [Turf Design Studio] [Environmental Partnership, Alluvium, Turpin+Crawford, Dragonfly and Partridge] [Renovations for energy and sustainability infrastructure] [Water re-use, recreation, biodiversity] [Public]
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23. P. Belanger, Landscape As Infrastructure, Landscape Journal 28(1):79-95, March 2009 24. New Approaches to Urban infrastructure, A Two-Day Conference at the Center for Advanced Urbanism, https://sap.mit.edu/article/ standard/new-approaches-urban-infrastructure 25. Sydney Park Water Re-Use Project, http:// www.landezine.com/index.php/2016/08/sydneypark-water-re-use-project-by-turf 26. Wasteland to wetland: The transformation of Sydney Park, https://www.architectureanddesign. com.au/news/wasteland-to-wetland-thetransformation-of-sydney# 27. Sydney Park – a vibrant recreation and environmental asset for Sydney, https:// worldlandscapearchitect.com/sydney-park-avibrant-recreation-and-environmental-asset-forsydney/#.XN4W6C2taNE
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Figure 15. The plan of Sydney Park.
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Figure 16. The collage of Sydney Park.
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Figure 17. The taxonomy of Sydney Park. Source: archoutloud.com
The region being regularly subjected to long periods of drought and extremely heavy rainfall at other times. This project forms the City of Sydney’s largest environmental project to date, and built in partnership with the Australian Government through the National Urban Water and Desalination Plan. It is an integral component of Sustainable Sydney 2030; targeting 10% of water demand to be met through local water capture and re-use in the park.28 Sydney Park works as an uban infrastructure, and it has 4 wetland areas which are important parts of the park’s ecosystems and playing important roles in uban flood mitigation. Those wetlands can not only clean stormwater, manage floods and reduce urban heat but they attract more wildlife to our urban spaces.29
Figure 18. The section of Sydney Park. A-330
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28. City of Sydney https://www.cityofsydney. nsw.gov.au/vision/better-infrastructure/parksand-playgrounds/completed-projects/sydneypark-wetlands 29. Sydney Park Water Re-Use Project, http:// www.landezine.com/index.php/2016/08/ sydney-park-water-re-use-project-by-turf
Australia is well-known of its water issues, the reconstruction of park supports the urban resilience. Sydney park is not the only one urban area in the Southeast Coastline that experienced notable changes from heavily manufacturing pollution to landscape infrastructure. Under the pressure of urbanization and de-industrialization, the entire coastline shows a possible direction to repair industrial damages and remnants, turning the post-industrial spaces into functional, sustainable and infrastructural spaces.
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HOWARD SMITH WHARVES [MEMORIAL URBANISM] Memorials and monuments are part of the very fabric of cities, holding a significant place in urban policy and design. They can range from crowded public tourist attractions to peaceful respites for reflection amid urban chaos, but many have become iconic features that help shape the character of a city.30 So how to both preserve the memorial space and attracts day-to-day activities and recreation seems important in historical area development. In its growth from regional town to an emerging global city, the evolution of Brisbane city as the country’s most suburban city helped to keep it at a distance from rapid urbanization in other mega cities like Sydney and Melbourne. However, under the development of tourism economy, booming new ubanism resorts still somehow make an overriding insensitivity to architectural heritage and culture, causing the lack of cultural amenity. With no heritage protection legislation to protect the city’s history, many notable public buildings were lost. Howard Smith Wharves is Brisbane’s newest waterfront event space–an urban renewal project along the Brisbane River involving the restoration of Howard Smith Wharves has been named a Heritage Hero by the National Trust of Australia.31 Celebrating the site’s unique position beneath the Story Bridge, it’s city and river views add yet another cultural dimension to the inner city. Howard Smith Wharves was originally built in 1936 as a culturally important precinct on the Brisbane River.32
30. Emma Kantrowitz, How Memorials and Monuments Shape Cities Around the World, https://blueprint.cbre.com/how-memorialsand-monuments-shape-a-city/, 2016 31. Woods Bagot-designed Howard Smith Wharves named Heritage Hero https://www. architectureanddesign.com.au/news/woodsbagot-designed-howard-smith-wharves-namedhe 32. Howard Smith Wharves, https:// howardsmithwharves.com
[Brisbane] [2018] [Built] [34300 sqm] [Woods bagot] [Brisbane studio, HSW Nominees] [Celebrating heritage] [public space, a community playground, cycle edge, green spaces, urban agriculture, dynamic cliff lighting, and theatre-like public seating.] [Public]
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Figure 19. The plan of Brisbane Howard Smith Wharves.
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Figure 20. The collage of Brisbane Howard Smith Wharves. A-334
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33. Woods Bagot-designed Howard Smith Wharves named Heritage Hero https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/news/woods-bagot-designedhoward-smith-wharves-named-he 34. Howard Smith Wharves Revitalization Project, https://www.brisbane.qld. gov.au/planning-building/planning-guidelines-tools/other-plans-projects/ howard-smith-wharves/howard-smith-wharves-revitalisation-project 35. Uncovered historic air raid bunkers set part howard smith wharves entertainment precinct, https://newfarmnews.com.au/uncovered-historic-airraid-bunkers-set-part-howard-smith-wharves-entertainment-precinct/
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Memorial Elements
Memorial Bridge Figure 21. The taxonomy of Brisbane Howard Smith Wharves.
The Howard Smith Wharf regeneration plan tries to create a public space that both celebrates its history and provides public realm in this dramatic waterfront location. The master plan for the 3.4-hectare historic wharf has new buildings occupying less than 10 percent of the site, with their design complementing the industrial language of the existing structures.33 The project incorporates the existing heritage-listed buildings into the redevelopment and the new parkland will also enable a pedestrian and cycle connection through the site to link the city centre with Riverwalk at New Farm. The cliffs surrounding the Howard Smith Wharves site have undergone stabilization to ensure the safety of the public during and after the restoration. It will also protect the five World War II air raid shelters which have been damaged over the years by falling rocks. Minor repair works to two heritage buildings were completed in February 2011.34 The remaining wharf buildings are rare evidence of the pre-1940s Port of Brisbane. They have been vacant and derelict for more than 20 years.35 The wharf experiences the shift in urban design from pass away to depict the colonial and industrial history, and shows the response to the forgotten landscape. It can hold emotional meaning for public and the public memory it carries is inevitable in the urbanization process.
Figure 22. The section of Brisbane Howard Smith Wharves. Australian Southeast Coastline
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RMIT NEW ACADEMIC STREET [SOCIAL URBANISM] The social urbanism uses specific projects to inject investment into targeted areas in a way that cultivates civic pride, participation, and greater social impact.36 Social Urbanism emerged as a reaction to the top-down methods of modernism, trying to raise both functional social activities and recreational activities in a communal fabric. It encourages the possibility of meeting neighbors and coworkers in connection with daily comings and goings, and makes most restfulness of small spaces marked by a high density of people and a very efficient use of space. RMIT New Academic Street is such a project that encourages more social activities on the existing street. Rather than not down the existing building and start from scratch, the design team embarked on a bold project of adaptive reuse of an existing structure.37 The previous 1960s buildings are transformed into environmentally sustainable and functionally flexible buildings. As well as serving students with its diversity of spaces, New Academic Street re-establishes a longlost connection between RMIT and Melbourne CBD, incorporating a number of community areas intended for wider use.38 The RMIT campus is reassembled with the surrounding streetscape elements, creating light-filled laneways, glass-roofed arcades, rooftop urban spaces, corner cafe, outdoor terraces, shopfront, light wells, efficient walkways between floors and new learning spaces including an acoustically isolated new media lab.39 In this project, the once disjointed, dark, confined and scattered collection of campus buildings has been transformed into an interconnected, social, light and lively urban space. [Melbourne] [2015] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Name / Firm / Academic Institution] [Relevant to the conceptualization of the project] [Literally, what are the main components / concepts] [Literally, programs, not only land uses] ... You may need another line... [Public and Private]
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36. Leo Hollis, Why Social Urbanism Matters for Sharing Cities, https://charterforcompassion.org/ problem-solving/why-social-urbanism-matters-forsharing-cities 37. “A bold example of adaptive re-use”: unpacking RMIT New Academic Street, https://www. architectureanddesign.com.au/projects/educationresearch/a-bold-example-of-adaptive-re-useunpacking-rmit-n 38. James P. Lesh, From Modern to Postmodern Skyscraper Urbanism and the Rise of Historic Preservation in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth, 1969-1988, (University of Melbourne) 39. ARUP, Reinventing an urban campus to unite city and students, https://www.arup.com/projects/ rmit-new-academic-street
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Figure 23. The plan of Melbourne RMIT New Acedamic Street. Australian Southeast Coastline
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Figure 24. The collageA-340 of Melbourne RMIT New Acedamic Street. Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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Temperate Platform
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Figure 25. The taxonomy of Melbourne RMIT New Academic Street.
Figure 26. The section of Melbourne RMIT New Acedamic Street. A-342
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Meeting
Historical buildings
Corner Cafe
The collaborate design in this project is also intriguing, with 5 major design companies and other small firms established by graduates from RMIT, and it also has social construction with students in assembling street elements. It causes the outcomes revel in the kind of diversity and free-for-all style of the commercial high street. Each practice in the collaborate design and construction team contributed to segments of the final whole. The whole new academic street does not feel fixed, it is more like a series of theatrical stage sets, and it’s more social.40 Lyons co-founder Carey Lyon said, ‘Universities are no longer viewed as isolated institutions that look inwards. They want to connect with the cities that surround them and giving this connection a physical architectural form assists in making this happen.’41 The New Academic Street provides public with a glance of the relationship between streets, buildings and people, and the lively activation and social spaces on the street are vital to the social interaction.
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40. Andrew Nimmo, Setting the stage: New Academic Street, 2018, https://architectureau. com/articles/new-academic-street/ 41. Peter Bennetts, Streets Ahead: RMIT’s New Academic Street, https://www.indesignlive.com/the-work/ rmit-academic-street, issue #73 of Indesign magazine, The ‘Information Age’ issue.
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THE 200KM CITY [TOURIST URBANISM] The rapid growth of tourism economy over the last 50 years has led to a series of important consequences. One of the consequences is having the evolution of some metropolitan areas heavily dependent on tourism. This is a phenomenon Mullins calls tourism urbanization.42 Tourism urbanization is the most striking form of the postmodern city, identifies the mass consumption of pleasure.43 Such urban area like Las Vegas, Orlando in the United States, the city belt including Brisbane, Sunshine Coast and Gold Coast in Australia, and also Cancun in Mexico are major tourist economies. Studies of the tourismdependent city belt in Australian Southeast Coastline can show their significant differences symbolically and socially from other more traditional metropolitan areas. Due to the prosperity of tourism globally, since the 1970s, several Southeast Queensland coastal towns in areas marketed as the ‘Gold Coast’ and the ‘Sunshine Coast’ have merged with each other and joined with Brisbane to become one of the world’s longest urban coastal strips.44 Those cities are the most dramatic expression of this new urban form because the entire cities and towns built exclusively for pleasure. Urban geographers and urban historians have long been fascinated by the growth of very large, land extensive cities. French geographer Jean Gottmann turned to Greek to coin the term ‘megalopolis’. The tourist urbanism in 200km city specializes in “sun, sand, and sea” tourism, and also capital-intensive.45 [Brisbane, Sunshine Coast, Gold Coast] [1970-now] [Built ] [200km] [/] [/] [Tourism] [Transportation, monument, resorts, landscape] [Public and Private]
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42. David L. Gladstone, Tourism Urbanization in the United States, https://journals.sagepub.com/ doi/10.1177/107808749803400101, 1998 43. David L. Gladstone, Tourism Urbanization in the United States, https://journals.sagepub.com/ doi/10.1177/107808749803400101, 1998 44. Peter Spearritt, Tke 200 KM City: Brisbane, The Gold Coast, and Sunshine Coast, (University of Queensland) 45. Patrick Mullins, Cities for Pleasure: the Emergence of Tourism Urbanization in Australia, (Alexandrine Press)
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Green
Land
Sea
0 50km
City Center
Figure 27. The plan of the 200km City.
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Figure 28. The collage of the 200km City Australian Southeast Coastline
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Airports
City-link Transportation
Landscape
Waterbank
Figure 29. The taxonomy of the200km City.
Brisbane is combined with the two holiday coasts under freeway dominated suburbanization. As cities commit to the consumption of pleasure, the Gold Coast and the Sunshine Coast are not only socially different but also spatially different from other Australian cities. Brisbane, Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast developed as long, narrow bands of coastal settlement only 1 km wide in places; the Sunshine Coast spreads 75km northwards from Brisbane, while the Gold Coast extends 50 km southward from this metropolis.46 They concerned with the quality of residential life, notably the pollution of the sea, and high-rise buildings are a focus of attack. Most area are constructed as new urbanism formed resorts. The population of this 200 km long city is fast approaching 3 million.47
Figure 30. The section of the200km City. A-348
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46. Peter Spearritt, Tke 200 KM City: Brisbane, The Gold Coast, and Sunshine Coast, (University of Queensland) 47. Peter Spearritt, Tke 200 KM City: Brisbane, The Gold Coast, and Sunshine Coast, (University of Queensland)
Artificial Island
Commercial Resorts
48. The realities of living in Australia’s first 200km city, http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/ view.asp?article=4250 49. The realities of living in Australia’s first 200km city, http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/ view.asp?article=4250
Monuments
Residential Resorts
The unplanned nature of this linear growth causes several policy challenges both in resource use and traffic congestion. The Sunshine and Gold Coasts are now, courtesy of the freeway system, integral components of Australia’s first linear coastal city.48 Such an urban form has extraordinary demands on water and energy supply. Also, as the Brisways puts Brisbane and the Sunshine and Gold Coasts in one giant map sequence, so little green space has been preserved in some of the new developments, that the only identifiable part of a once majestic landscape is the road system. Like outer suburban development almost everywhere in Australia, the developers, the builders and the sub-contractors have never met a pedestrian.49 The high rises on the coast are littered with unused parking spaces.
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JING JINJI
Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei CHINA 01
DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY
Beijing, Tian Jin, He Bei are three important provinces in northeast China and is home to over 90 million people and continues to develop consistently over the years. Although there is still unbalanced development in these three provinces, they each hold a different hierarchy of function. However, the government still decides to use them for their own advantages in order to prosper development among each other. Therefore, they were not only focusing on developing the capital of Beijing. This background context and development goal makes the Jing Jinji Region a globally unique cosmopolitan group to study. According to the latest policy of the Chinese government, the Xiong An district holds the function of relieving non-core capital function from Beijing in order to contribute to maintain the relationship of rural and urban areas. The core function of Beijing is a political center, cultural center, international communication center, and technology innovation center. Thus, the non-core function is the “capital function”. This reflects the significance of empirical urbanism which “rejiggers” the system. The territory provides a high mixed-used function for metropolitan groups who need to act upon its’ functions. Thus, it’s worth for us to learn and compare other international groups that differ from typical urban expansion urbanization. Learning about other methods could change the system of urban development and proceed to build more generally within a region. This makes the Jing Jinji a unique example. This is not just a physical aspect of non-core functions of Beijing but a consistent development of three regions. It’s important for government and planners to think about how to bring human resources to Xiong An new district based on this new stage and deal with the boundaries of three regions. Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, or Jing Jinji Region, is the ‘Capital Economic Circle’ of China. With 112,48 million inhabitants, the future of this region calls for new approaches to urbanism to integrate responses to some of the socioenvironmental challenges ahead: unbalanced development of economy, air pollution, brain drain, and so on.
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TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 1949
2014
[Critical DATA] Area Beijing-Tianji-Hebei Population 90 million people Country China
Economic Indicators In 2003, the regional GDP was about 103.6 billion yuan. It is mainly engaged in automobile industry, electronics industry, machinery industry and metallurgical industry. It is the main high-tech and heavy industry base in China.
2000
1980
1960
General Secretary Xi Jinping listened to the special report to the Central Political Bureau meeting to review the planning outline. 1940
2015
The “Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Collaborative Development Plan Outline” reviewed and approved by the Central Political Bureau meeting pointed out that promoting the coordinated development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei is a major national strategy, and the core is to orderly dismantle Beijing’s non-capital functions.
Social Indicators： urbanisation rate: 64.9% The urbanization rate of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region increased from 55.7% in 2010 to 64.9% in 2017. Environmental Indicators The land area is about 90,000 square kilometers.
Beijing is one of the first national historical and cultural cities and the world’s largest city with the world’s cultural heritage. The history of more than 3,000 years has nurtured many places of interest such as the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, the Badaling Great Wall, and the Summer Palace. As early as 700,000 years ago, the original group of tribes “Beijingers” appeared in the Zhoukoudian area of Beijing. In 1045 BC, Beijing became the capital of the vassal states of Yan and Yan. Since 938 AD, Beijing has successively become the capital of Liao Dynasty, Jinzhongdu, Yuandadu, and Ming and Qing Dynasties. On October 1, 1949, it became the capital of the People’s Republic of China.· Tianjin has risen since ancient times, and Ming Yongle officially built the city on November 21 (December 23, 1404). Hebei is a famous historical and cultural city in China named by the State Council. It has a history of more than 3,000 years. It has a profound cultural heritage.
1920
1850 2016
The Hebei Higher People’s Court has consciously integrated the work of the court into the overall situation of “Beijing-TianjinHebei coordinated development” and “One Belt, One Road” construction, and coordinated and promoted the law, safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of the people, defending social fairness and justice, and promoting social harmony. stable.
1800
1750 2018
The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council have clearly requested that the function of Beijing’s non-capital capital be used to promote the coordinated development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, adjust the regional economic structure and spatial structure, promote the construction of Hebei Xiong’an New District and Beijing City Sub-center, and explore megacities, megacities, etc. An optimized development model for the effective management of “big city diseases” in an economically densely populated area.
1700 1650 1600 1550 1500
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0
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100 km
1, Transformed from baidu website of China. Available online at: https://baike.baidu.com/ item/京津冀/7504899?fr=aladdin 2, Shuo Zhang, Zhao Yan, “Research on the Interactive and Coordination Development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Economic Region”, No.2x 2019 3, Haicun Xu,“Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei regional Internet consumer finance development trends and risk management”, 2019-2 4, Jing Tao, “Research on the Cooperative Tourism Development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei based on the Spatial Structure of Regional Tourism System”, 02/2019 5, Shuo Zhang, Zhao Yan, “Research on the Interactive and Coordination Development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Economic Region”, No.2x 2019 6, “Analysis of the economic operation of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei in 2017”, (4/28/2018), available online at: https://www.sohu. com/a/229821693_597671
Historically, Jing Jinji belonged to a family from the Yuan Dynasty that lasted 800 years. Their border was geographically connected. These three provinces are located in the heart of the Bohai in Northeast China. [1] It’s the largest and most dynamic region in the north of China and is attracting more and more attention, both nationally and internationally. It’s worth mentioning that in April 2017, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China decided Xiong An New District of Hebei as the political sub-center to ease functions from the capital Beijing and create more employment. To develop a pattern of this metropolitan group, the central government planned to build a world-class city group to dynamically support the Xiongan New District from all-round. Also, the convenient and efficient transportation connection should be established as well as the innovation resources. 02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS ECONOMY: Since 2014, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei implemented the coordinated development policy, the total economic volume of the three places, Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei, have increased 23.91% which Beijing contributed 43.58%, Tianjin contributed 25.42% and Hebei contributed 31.00%.[2] It can be seen that during this period, Beijing and Hebei are the main driving forces for the rapid economic growth of Jing Jinji area. However, the economic development of the Jing Jinji is not balanced and the coordinated and interactive development of the regional economy is ignored. [3][4]In the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, because of the larger population of Hebei. (”75.2 million people which Beijing is 2,171 ten thousand people and Tianjin is 15.57 million people”[5]) The per capita GDP is significantly lower than Beijing and Tianjin that led to an imbalance in the economy of Jing Jinji. For specifically, Beijing contributes to the highest economic volume in the third industry and He Bei produced the highest economic volume in the second first and second industry. [6]
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Figure 01-03. The image of Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei
Statistics on the education level of employed persons in Jing Jinji (%)
For civil salary, Beijing at the top of the list, 8.1 million yuan per year, then follow with the Tianjin (3.7 million) and Hebei(2.1 million).[7]
SOCIOPOLITICAL The problem of brain drain in Hebei Province is relatively serious, which has led to the loss of a large number of scientific research in Hebei Province. [8] The double loss of human capital and scientific research results also affected local human resources. [9] Therefore, the problems of human capital affected the contribution of technological progress to economic development. There are many other aspects which can demonstrate the difference through these three places. For medical hygiene, larger hospitals are concentrated in Beijing and use the numbers of service people for every thousand people as an evaluation method. Beijing is twice of the Hebei and Tianjin. For traffic accident statistic, Hebei is much higher than Beijing and Tianjin. For the rate of divorce, Beijing and Tianjin are higher than Hebei, which means the families in Hebei are more stable than the other two. For the number of beds for elderly-care, Hebei possesses more than Beijing and Tianjin.[10]
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7, Qingchuan Yuan, XInxiao Wang, “Research on the Distribution Mechanism of Salary Income Based on the Integration of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei”, (Journal of Hebei Science and Technology Normal University, 06/2017) 8, Jing Bai, “The influence of human capital on the economic growth of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region”, No.2x, (Cooperative Economy and Technology, 2019), 5-6. 9, Xinlei Zhang, “Analysis on the Correlation between Consumption Structure and Industrial Structure of Residents in Hebei Province under the Coordinated Development of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Province”, (2019).
CULTURAL 10, “Suggestions on regional social development differential understanding and coordinated development”. Available online at: https://www.xzbu.com/2/ view-11415280.htm 11, “Constructing a new pattern of coordinated development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei culture”, (3/12/2018) available online at: https://www.sohu. com/a/225374292_115239
The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is geographically connected and communicate with each other. Culture can play a unique role in promoting the integration and synergy of the three places. Beijing is home to national landmarks such as the Grand Canal Cultural Belt, the Great Wall Cultural Belt and the Xishan Yongding River Cultural Belt. These are three invisible belts that connect to many historical resources. Shu Xiaofeng, director of the Beijing Municipal Bureau of Cultural Relics, said that the three cultural belts have many cultural heritages and are distributed in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei.[11] Besides, to the heritage protection of three places, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei jointly developed a complete set of evaluation criteria which can evaluate consistently in three places.[12]
12, Weili Wang, Research on the Cooperative Development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Culture and the Institutional Innovation of Non-legacy Protection System”, (Sanwenbaijia, 01/2019)
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Figure 04-06. The image of Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei
03
URBAN DYNAMICS
The following projects cover economic, residential, and technology sectors. They introduce ways urbanism government treat functions of city development in Jing Jinji. The city does not just develop the core function of capital, but also balanced the development from bottom-up. To better following the policy of function relieve, each region and provinces are also testing different function development pattern positively. One of most important territories in China in addition to Pearl River Delta and Yangtze River Delta, is Jingjin Ji since it possesses many intelligent and advanced project of urban design, which to some extent learned from the western urbanism theories. However, due to the 5000-year history of Chinese development and the different background with the western world, it composited its own planning system. I was impressed that new urbanism, productive urbanism and others are coming into Chinese urban planning. Due to the above challenges of unbalanced development through the three regions, we need to dispute some non-capital functions into the two other provinces especially Hebei and design the infrastructure to attract people which contribute to the synergetic development regionally.
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BEIJING FINANCE STREET [PRODUCTIVE URBANISM] The infrastructures of the twenty-first century, if they are to respond to impending urgencies with respect to resources, will look to efficiencies and symbiotic relationships; to the pairing of infrastructure, landscape, public amenities, and architecture, towards a culturally, economically, and environmentally productive urban realm.[13]
13, Mason White, Lola Sheppard, “Productive Urbanisms From Runways to Greenways”,2009, https://www.researchgate. net/publication/237643560_Productive_ Urbanisms_From_Runways_to_Greenways. accessed Feb 20
Located in the city’s historic center, Beijing Finance Street is China’s new “Wall Street.”[14] The vibrant district, built in time for the 2008 Olympic Games and introduces a new model of mixed-use development to China, one that signals the region’s rising global prominence with its unique blend of commercial, residential, retail, entertainment, and open space. [15] SOM’s master plan capitalized on the city’s tremendous economic energy and addressed the resulting challenges of improving transportation and air quality. [16] By interlocking various modes of production – economy, research, culture, education- the project seeks to generate productive urban overlaps and greater environmental efficiency. [17] Besides, the ample scale of the design reveals the economic status of Beijing Finance Street that shown the functional use of productive landscape.
14, “Beijing Finance Street”, 2019, https:// www.som.com/projects/beijing_finance_street.
[Beijing, China] [completed in 2007] [complete ] [ 2007 ] [1,030,000 m2] [1,500,000 m2] [SOM] [Commercial + Office, Mixed Use, Residential] [Public and Private] [Architecture, MEP, Structural + Civil Engineering, Urban Design + Planning]
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15, Ibid 16, Ibid 17, Mason White, Lola Sheppard, “Productive Urbanisms From Runways to Greenways”,2009, https://www.researchgate. net/publication/237643560_Productive_ Urbanisms_From_Runways_to_Greenways. accessed Feb 20
Location Year(s) Status Completion time Site Area Project Area Designer Program(s) Funding Streams Service
open space
water
central landscape
Figure 07. The plan of Beijing finance street Jing Jinji Region
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Residential Building
Business Apartment
Figure 08. The Taxonomy of Beijing finance street
Additionally, the production greenway promote economic vitality of the surrounded buildings. For its’ environment, almost all of the buildings that enclosed the central greenway are economic institutions like hotel, bank, insurance firm and so on. And the residential buildings occupied only a little part. Thus, the large scale of the central landscape, 7.4 acre, would be more like a economic functional tools that create the solemn atmosphere of financial district.
Transect
SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
Figure 09. The transect of Beijing finance street
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Office Building
Central Landscape
18, Mason White, Lola Sheppard, “Productive Urbanisms From Runways to Greenways�,2009, https://www.researchgate. net/publication/237643560_Productive_ Urbanisms_From_Runways_to_Greenways. accessed Feb 20 19, Ibid
Block
Infrastructure
The Beijing finance center positions itself as a prototype for future urban development. It integrates comprehensive functions with infrastructure to balance urbanism and nature while also impriving efficiency of productive use. The infrastructures of the twenty-first century respond to impending urgencies with respect to resources and look to efficiencies and symbiotic relationships. Furthermore, it looks at the pairing of infrastructure and landscape, infrastructure and public amenities, and infrastructure and architecture. [18] This integrative infrastructure calls for the engagement of public and private partners, towards a more cultural, economical, and environmentally productive urban realm. [19]
CENTRAL LANDSCAPE
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Figure 10 The image of Beijing Finance Street
Figure 11 The image of Beijing Finance Street
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Figure 12. The collage of Beijing finance street
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XIONGAN NEW DISTRICT URBAN PLANNING [EMPIRICAL URBANISM] The original intention of setting up the Xiongan New District was to ease Beijing’s non-capital function. For the development of Jingjin Ji metropolitan groups, the relieve of overmuch function of Beijing is actually the most important elements for the synergetic development of these three provinces.[20] What we relieve is actually the non-capital functions of Beijing because there are so many kinds of functions concentrated in Beijing which form the urban disease and cause many subsequent problems.
20, Chen Du, Xiaoguang Meng, Hua Chai, “Interpretation of the Planning of Hebei Xiong’an New District (2018-2035)”, 2019.
Compare with the other famous metropolitan groups in the world like New York city groups, North American Great Lakes city groups, Tokyo city groups, London city groups and Europe city groups which developed based on the single strong industry of the core city like finance advantage of New York and automobile industry in Detroit. These diffusion of strong industry would create more development opportunities and jobs for surrounding cities in the groups of metropolitan. However, contrast with the single industry of those patterns, Jingjin ji developed based on the multiple and overmuch non-capital functions of Beijing which would also create more opportunities for surrounding area of Beijing. That’s the innovative points of this case.
[JING JINJI, CHINA] [2018] [ In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [goverment] [technology, industry, education, ...non-capital functions] [Public]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 01. Re volupta turio. Nem volupta spercias maior ad qui blabo. Nem es et laudaer itaesti ut volore ratem num ut harumque
the range of Jingjin Ji
Xiongan new district
Beijing (capital function)
Figure 13. The plan of Jingjin Ji district
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Capital Function
Industrial Function
Figure 14. The taxonomy of Jingjin Ji district
Just like Whatever Urbanism, “Empirical Urbanism reflects a commitment to design within the constraints and conditions of the city asfound.[21] A pragmatic school of thought, Empirical Urbanists work within the political economy of the capitalist city by “rejiggering” the system to produce novel and less contentious results.[22] Empirical Urbanism could be contrasted to visionary, utopian, or totalitarian urban design practices that are precedent on the tabula rasa – the complete erasure of existing contexts – or the top-down projection of ideologically motivated urban design.”[23] According to the case of Xiongan New district, the Beijing trying to adjust its’ already complex system and reconstruct a new serious of system which combined capital functions like political, culture, technology of international sustainable capital. [24] At the same time, some non-capitalized functions like heavy metal industry, retail—Guanyuan wholesale market, many illegal express storage point have moved out of Beijing and carry away a large quantity of acedemic population which would also reduce the stress of civil life in Beijing and contribute to the increase of occupation opportunities in provinces that surrounding the capital like Tianjin and Hebei.
SHI JIAZHUANG Figure 15. The transect of Jingjin Ji district
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21, urbanism edited by UD718 students in winter 2018. 22, Ibid. 23, Ibid 24, “Baojun Yang, Planning a new concept-Xiong’an planning experience”, Chinese Planning (Wechat),
BAODING
ZHANG JIAKOU
Retail Function
25, Ibid. 26, Ibid. 27, Ibid. 28, Ibid.
Acedemic Population
From the regional scale, the establishment of the Xiong’an New District can help to construct the core structure of Jing Jinji. This core triangle is composed of Beijing-Tianjin-Xiong, 110 kilometers apart, and the middle of the triangle is the second airport of the capital which is the future airport portal while Tianjin has a seaport portal. [25] Among Beijing-Tianjin-Xiongan which divide the labor, one is a prominent management center, one is a prominent advanced manufacturing and the other one is prominent scientific and technological innovation, and jointly promote the development of urban agglomeration. [26] In addition, as a science and technology innovation center, Xiongan does not engage in manufacturing itself, but rather spills out innovative technologies to promote industrial upgrading and urban transformation in central and southern China.[27] “Main” refers to the main urban area, “five auxiliary” refers to the five functional groups in the surrounding, and “multi-node” refers to a number of characteristic towns and beautiful villages, which constitute an organic network system.[28] Nowadays, the Xiongan new district is still developing and has many subsequent policies to attract residents.
XIONG AN new district
BEIJING
TIANJIN
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Figure 16. The collage of Jing Jinji District
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HUA MING TOWN OF TIANJIN [NEW URBANISM] New Urbanism reasserts the validity of traditional city structures and characteristics such as walkability, density, connectivity, mixed-use zoning, and aesthetics to build a more sustainable future.[29] New Urbanism has two branches of models which are TOD, transit oriented development, and TND, traditional neighborhood development patterns. Hua Ming Town was built followed the TND model and innovated with the development of Chinese residential area background. It was built on previously undeveloped land involves with the allnew constructions included a range of housing types, convenient transportation system, well connected public and private activity center. Also, with the built of activity center, it will improve the opportunity for residents to meet with each other and promote neighbor relationship. That’s same with the traditional communities with gates of China that form a small society within the gate to make the residents familiar with each other. [Tianjin, China] [Exact or estimated] [Built ] [60,000 people ] [Academic Institution] [government ] [residential, educational...communities] [Public and Private]
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29, Whatever urbanism is edited by UD718 students in winter 2018.
Location Year(s) Status Population Designer Additional Agents Program(s) Funding Streams
water
farm
functional block
Figure 17 .The plan of Huaming town Jing Jinji Region
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Taxonomy
Residential Building
Kindergarten of Community
Community Center
Figure 18 .The taxonomy of Huaming town
Following the disciplinary of New urbanism, Huaming Town adopted the neighborhood-community-residential area three-level systems which make the public infrastructure and open space integrated.[30] Besides, the planning respected the traditional living habits of farmers, the planning used neighborhood to build the family living groups.[31] The panning structure consists of 400 households in a neighborhood, with 7 to 8 neighborhoods combined into one community, and then the 4 communities (about 3,000 households each) forms a residential area; each neighborhood uses 1000m2 green space as a spatial core. While the community is centered with kindergartens, community centers and 5000 m2 green space. The level is clear and systematic.[32] The Huaming Town represents the mix-used characteristic of new urbanism. The site is linked and operated according to the residential zone, commercial industrial park and agricultural industrial park. [33] The development of spatial layout is divided into four parts, peasant resettlement area, business areas, industrial area and the agricultural area, which make the community be a more mix-used zoning suited for the core of New urbanism.[34] The theory of new urbanism is the most popular theory in China now for the development of communities which encourages the mixed use of functions. Huaming community is I a larger scale compare with many other business communities in Beijing which also mixed
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Figure 19 .The transect of Huaming town
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30, LIU Jun, “Research on Tianjin Residential District Planning Development History Based on New Urbanism Concept, Tianjin University�, (2013). 31, Ibid. 32, Ibid. 33, Ibid. 34, Ibid.
Block
Surrounding Farm
Compact Transportation
use but the multiple functions are in smaller scale and inserted in the communities because high land price of the core city like Beijing. Thus, the complementation of Huaming town can be an example for the sub-class community development of China and form the unique system of Chinese community development which really differ from the residential form and culture in west world. Huaming Town has connected characteristic of new urbanism which not only represented in the compact and walkable community within the transportation system of community but also shown in the relationship with the surrounding areas in the larger scale. It possesses obvious regional transportation advantages, and the completed facilities that make it an important hub connecting Tianjin urban area and Binhai New Area, international airport, capital Beijing and the three northeastern provinces. In the traffic planning, on the one hand, the regional traffic situation is fully considered, on the other hand, it applied the green methods to construct a more protection community which provide electrical cars on the road to residents for free which also encourage civil cater to the government’s policy and public transportation development.the area are equipped with battery cars, which can provide services for residents in small towns for free.
500 meters
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Figure 20 .The collage of Huaming town A-376
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FEIDI NEXT C MASTER PLAN [SMART CITY URBANISM] The Smart City is an urban imaginary combining the concept of ‘green cities’ with technological futurism and giving a name to techno-centric visions of the city of tomorrow. [35] At the same time, smart city is a framework for policies supporting technological and ecological urban transitions, a political technology that is currently spreading across Europe and fertilizing national and local political agendas. [36] The concept of smart city is also more and more popular in China which digital, ecology and many other high-tech are combined into the daily life of civil and affect the urban planning in many aspects invisibly. This is a master plan, designed by SOM, for a 66 square kilometer mix-used development zone near Tianjin, with a core goal of restoring natural and seasonal wetland cycles. [37] The development zone is located between two existing canals and will develop a series of canals, islands and wetlands to build a new urban core with a focus on hydrological technology and health care. [38]
[Tianjin, China] [2002] [ Built ] [66,000,000 m2] [ 33,000,000 m2] [SOM] [communities, commercial, education, park...] [Public and Private]
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35, Alberto Vanolo, “Smartmentality: The Smart City as Disciplinary Strategy,” Urban Studies 51, no. 5 (2014): 883898, doi: 10.1177/0042098013494427 36, Ibid. 37, The introduction of project was from SOM official website. “Feidi Next C Master Plan”, 2019, h t t p s : / / w w w. s o m . c o m / c h i n a / projects/feidi_next_c_master_plan. 38, Ibid. Location Completion Year(s) Status Site area project area Designer Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 21 The plan of Fendi next c
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Water Taxis
Solar Plant
Surface Tram
Figure 22. The taxonomy of Fendi next c
The zone was used to be a large pubic infrastructure to protect the site from being destroyed by flooding but it effect the environment and block the channel. Thus the project adopted the method of “slowing water flow” to increase the water level of wetland parks and rivers during the rainy season and the recede water level in the dry season, thus restoring the natural hydrological cycle and improving local ecosystem.[39] I think the core of the smart city is connect the concept of reduce the emission to achieve the goal of environment protection. Like many examples in big city groups like Beijing, New York, European Union and some other cities. They all trying to make plan to combine more and more proportion of ecological elements into their urban planning. For instance, New York has advocate corporations to cut the emissions to half compare with before to reduce the emission also assist with subsidy for those who couldn’t achieve the goals. Beijing, same as many other cities of China, adopt the private cars limitation to reduce emission and encourage civil use public transportation like buses and subway. From my perspective, I think the huge investment for these public infrastructure is necessary and sustainable for urban development.
39, The introduction of project was from SOM official website. “Feidi Next C Master Plan”, 2019, https://www.som.com/china/projects/ feidi_next_c_master_plan. 40, Ibid. 41, Ibid. 42, Ibid.
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Figure 23 The transect of Fendi next c
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“Waste-to-Power” Anaerobic Digestion Plant
According to the plan, each island has a unique business district built around the central lake, and a neighborhood suitable for walking and combined with workplaces, homes, shops and public institutions. [40] The plan focuses on technology-related industries to attract research and development forces in the international hydrological industry that fit the core idea of smart urbanism to construct a green city with focus on technology.[41] A transportation system that integrates the subway, ground trams and water taxis will reduce carbon emissions in the area. [42] I think is important to find the main characteristic of each context to cater the goals of smart city. Actually, the smart city is one of the most necessary theory among the whole urbanism and is still changing and make processes with the development of modern technology. The things happened in the site should also be a gift for the people who live surroundings. That would be a good attraction and key for the site development during a long period. For the aspect of morphology, the transportation system of the project is compact within the range of each communities with road system of grid and each island is connected by permeable streets. The whole road system is like a ‘spider net’ which spread radially.
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Figure 24. The image of Fendi next c
Figure 25. The image of Fendi next c
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Figure 26. Collage of Fendi next c
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MICRO-SPACE DESIGN OF TUAN JIEHU COMMUNITY [EVERYDAY URBANISM] Everyday urban spaces exist in the range of home, offices and institutions which can be physically recognized and connect life of each day together. [43] It has obvious oppositions compare with that the spaces of delicated design. [44] This project is through the recycle station, ground lock and old furniture innovation to research the new possibilities for reconstruction of old community like Tuan Jiehu and how to build public spaces in the context of everyday urbanism. The communities like Tuan Jiehu which build in 18s-19s are in large proportion within the second ring road of Beijing, how to rebuild the public spaces is the questions that planners are always discuss and Hutong is another special residential pattern that need everyday urbanism to innovate base on its original morphology. Many small infrastructure could be reuse to accustomed the modern life of residents and that need deeper research of different people’s hobbies.
43, Zhao Xiaoshuai, Micro-space Design Under the Guidance of “Everyday Urbanism”: A Case Study of Tuan Jiehu Comminity, (Urbanism and Architecture,2017). 44, Ibid. 45, Douglas S. Kelbaugh ,“The three forms of urbanism: New urbanism, everyday urbanism and Posturbanism”, (2014).
“Daily urbanism advocates considering the value of public places and focuses on exploring the neglected activities which happened in everyday life or the events that changed over time (by Margaret Crawford). [45] Undoubtedly, the public infrastructure like recycle stations, old furniture, ground lock are these kind of specific existing that have close relationship with human life but are usually ignored by us. With the population growth and level of urbanism improve, it’s time for us to think how to exploit spaces in the largest degree to use spaces more efficiently. [Tianjin, China] [1980] [ Built ] [1000,000㎡] [Academic Institution] [residential, retails...] [Public]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Program(s) Funding Streams
blocks
open space
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Figure 27 The plan of Tuan Jiehu community
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Figure 28 The taxonomy of Tuan Jiehu community
After the survey of residents, at the design level, waste recyclers need a business location with a shelter function which can keep the waste dry, protected and located on the street for an obvious location. [46] Thus, the X-shaped expandable structure art devices and the shelter which made by light material were designed which can be stored as a bench and hold up during the day which save spaces. [47]
46, Zhao Xiaoshuai, Micro-space Design Under the Guidance of “Everyday Urbanism�: A Case Study of Tuan Jiehu Comminity, (Urbanism and Architecture, 2017).
With the increase of private vehicles in the city, more spaces need to be occupied by them and that would be reduce the public spaces of communities for those who occupied the ground spaces. Of course, the vertical parking lot is another condition but still should be discussed for sustainable development. Here, the Tuan Jiehu project redesign the parking lock on the ground and connect them with the time line to better use the parking spaces on the ground. They changed them into benches, gym infrastructure, tables for residents to use in the day and came back to parking spaces at night. This changeable of spaces in daily life is the main concept of everyday urbanism and to the scale of road system in the larger aspects can also work. Like the transportation system in campus of China, cause the gate surrounding the campus, the site used to enclose the public roads which connect outside and caused many end road, we can also do more research for students time line and limit the road in different time period and open them when usage is low. That would improve the micro recycle of surrounding road system and solve the traffic problems.
47, Ibid.
Figure 29 The transect of Tuan Jiehu community
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Figure 30 The collage of Tuan Jiehu community A-388
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MEDITERRANEAN SEA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Mediterranean Sea
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory “Life is conducted on the Mediterranean: people travel, fish, fight wars, and drown in its various contexts. And the sea articulates with the plains and islands. Life on the plains is diverse and complex...” 1 As Fernand Braudel pointed out in The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, Mediterranean Sea is not independent, which definitely impacted by its adjacency cities. And a number of studies(Figure MS. 03) indicate that, until the 1970s, compactness and high urbanization rate were the key theme of these cities on the Mediterranean coast. Mapping the patterns of these urban areas, with only a few exceptions (Corsica, Crete, Cyprus and Libya), it indicates that the coastline has now become intensively urbanized 2 . But when you look at it specifically, two reasons make the Mediterranean stand out. 1 Compared with spaces of similar dimension over the past 60 years, the Mediterranean-rim countries form one of the globe’s largest urban areas. 2 Most importantly, the coastal cites in the 22 countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea present highly differently urbanization process 3.
Geographic Framework: culture, economy, and sociopolitical thematics The geographic framework of the Mediterranean Sea, the unique geographical position, is an intercontinental sea which act as a highly mixed hub stitching Asia, Europe and Africa. Several ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean shores and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea4. It provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food.5 Thanks to its long history of wars and succession of empires, the Mediterranean is a culturally, economically and sociopolitically heterogeneous region.
Yenişehirlioğlu, Eastern Mediterranean Port Cities: A Study of Mersin, Turkey—From Antiquity to Modernity, 2016 1 Fernand Braudel. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Assesses in 1949. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Fernand_Braudel. 2 Fernand Braudel. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Assesses in 1949. 3 Ibid. pp13 4 V. I. Porter. Mystique Melodies. Assesses in 2018. https://books.google.com.hk/books. 5 Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Assesses in 29 April 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_ Adriatic_Sea_Coast. 6 Daniele Schilir`o. Mediterranean, migrations and economic development. Assesses in October 2015. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen. de/83051/.
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TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2015
European migrant crisis across Mediterranean starts. 2000
1995
1991
[Critical DATA] Area
(965,000 sq mi)
Population
(52.37 million)
Country[es]: Northern shore: Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, Turkey. Eastern shore: Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt. Southern shore: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt. Island nations: Malta, Cyprus. Social Indicators: Urbanisation rate (72,2%) Urban population growth rate (1.7%) In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Environmental Indicators: Average depth (4,900 ft) Max. depth (17,280 ft) Water volume (900,000 cu mi) Economic Indicator: GDP per-capita Western Asia ($8,748) Southern Europe ($27,330) North Africa (N/A)
1990
1986
The total population of the 22 countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea was estimated at 405 million. The most recent phase of urban expansion started. It last between 1991 and 2011. The first phase of Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T), which are a planned set of road, rail, air and water transport networks in the European Union, settled.
1990
Eurocities, a network of large cities in Europe, established to further economic, political and social development in its member cities. 1980
1976
1970
1961
1950
The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, originally the Convention for Protection of the Mediterranean Sea to prevent and abate pollution from ships, aircraft and land based sources in the Mediterranean Sea, and often simply referred to as the Barcelona Convention, adopted. Spatial planning became aware of the environmental problem of uncontrolled urban and infrastructural expansion, the diffusion of industry into coastal areas and the sprawl of mass tourism towards the sea, protected areas began to spread out around the Mediterranean basin.
1970
An intermediate phase of growth started. It last between 1961 and 1991.
44 percent of Mediterranean residence live in urban areas.
1950
1921 The first being characterized by a spatially-heterogeneous deconcentration of inner cities.
1900 1800 1700 1600
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Figure MS. 04 Mediterranean Sea
Economic activities within the Mediterranean area (both on the south and the north) remains at the center of international relations.6 And the role in the field of economic globalization is to connect the continents surrounding Asia, Africa and Europe. But if looking more specifically, there has been an intense quantitative dynamic movement in the Mediterranean urban system over the last half-century, from one country to another, it has always been affected by different time frames, resulting above all from economic changes7. At present, the result is high contrasts between the characteristics and tendencies of the “Northern” cities and those of the South. Under the context of globalization, manufacturing, renewable energy, agriculture, trade and logistics facilitate the steady growth of commercial exchange in this area. Sea trade and market shares of many ports has increased. Exports and investments based co-operation can not only benefit both economic development, but also push the urban sprawl towards the sea. As for the sociopolitical perspective, urban outspread is happening in most southern cities, this outspread is even more evident in the Northern cities A-394
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7 Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp9-11. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf. 8 Ibid. pp10 Yenişehirlioğlu, Eastern Mediterranean Port Cities: A Study of Mersin, Turkey—From Antiquity to Modernity, 2016
Mediterranean Sea
Figure MS. 01 GDP
Mediterranean Sea
Figure MS. 02 Density (Inhabitant)
9 Sophia Antipolis. Urbanization in the Mediterranean Region from 1950 to 1995. Assesses in 2001. https://planbleu.org/ sites/default/files/publications/cahier1_ urbanisation_uk.pdf. 10 Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp10. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf. 11 European Commission. IMMIGRATION, RECEPTION, INTEGRATION: THE HIDDEN PHENOMENON OF IMMIGRANT WOMEN. Assesses in 2010. https://www.google.com/search?.
where, for the last several decades.8 With rising standard of living is encouraging aspirations for individual housing and the development of metropolitanization processes as in the case of Grasse, Cannes, Nice and Antibes. The urbanization and artificialization of coastal strips is becoming commonplace 9 However, this urban sprawl also involves the Balkan countries, since their change to more liberal politics, with intensified one-family constructions, authorized or not, also resulting in coastal sprawl.1 There is an another political moment which can not be ignored is lots and lots immigrants, in different African countries, are trying to escape the Africa by skipping the Mediterranean Sea toward the North. And, actually, the sea is the critical barrier which separates them from Europe and contains the conflicts. All the legal and illegal immigrants create a really important effects on the mediterranean urban development. For example, Spain and Italy are suffering from the immigration issues, which may need to create a lot of refugees to solve this emergency urbanism phenomenon.11
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URBAN DYNAMICS From my own experiences, traveling to Turkey, Europe and Egypt, I feel the Mediterranean coast is highly mixed, challenging and complex because of so many cities which urbanizing, urbanized or barely empty in different degrees. The result is high contrasts between the characteristics and tendencies of Mediterranean coastal cities(Figure MS.01, Figure MS.02).12 In order to learn it more orderly, I categorize them based on the invisible line which separates the Mediterranean coastline into three typologies, coastal cities are growing faster than interior cities which I am calling it GF-Model, the coastal cities are not growing as fast as the interior cities- NF-Model, and coastal belts are almost empty or Intermittent prosperity because of the tourism, EF-Model(empty-fake model). Hence, Mediterranean coastline is of great significance for urban research on a highly heterogeneous region. The area are experiencing diverging trajectories of urban development.13 Spain, Croatia and in contexts of high demographic dynamism in Syria, Morocco, and Turkey, coastal cities are growing faster than interior cities14. In this GF-Model pattern, Mediterranean cities are becoming densified and are verticalized; More generally, peripheral sprawl is suspected of leading to the devitalizing of city centers, with the segregation of urban areas.15 Also the extension of built-up areas is having a mechanical effect of increasing mobility flows and environmental concern about the pollution of the private care16. In this case, all countries facing with the same problem made great effort to revitalize the economic increase of inner city, pushed demographic centre of gravity slip towards the center and connected the inner part with the port cities through planning, the trans-infrastructure may act as a dynamic indicator. On the other hand, it will also cause the dynamic change of the land use along the entire seashore. The disappearance of natural or agricultural space concerns the entire Mediterranean area 17. For example, in France, the loss of farmland is estimated at 50,000 ha/year 18. A more serious event is the extension of urban sprawl toward the hinterland.19 The loss of arable land each year for the last three decades is estimated at: 2,700 ha in Slovenia.20 In Cyprus, because of the urbanization dynamics, the loss of agricultural production can be estimated at more than 8 million dollars.21 However, simultaneously, besides the unbalance between the population boom and the lack of public infrastructure, another unique urban dynamic is the subsequent process of degradation in areas that were already urbanized, especially in the port cities.22 Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt are the prototypes of NF-Model. The obstacle, on the economic side, is the limited capital of the society. On the other sides, these countries are suffering from different barriers to access to the coastline, like, earthquake, war ruins, population degrowth or decayed factories site, all of these elements block the opportunities that the Mediterranean will bring to the hinterland 23. The ambition to encapsulate the benefits, acted as the driver is to develop their coastline and to link once more the city to the sea under the ideology of sustainable development. At the meantime, avoiding the dangers of over-urbanization in the early stage.
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12 Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp7. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf.
13 Ibid. pp30 14 Luca Salvati . Looking at the Future of the Mediterranean Urban Regions: Demographic Trends and Socioeconomic Implications. Accesses in winter 2014. 15 Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp10. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf. 16 Luca Salvati And Vittorio Gargiulo Morelli. Unveiling Urban Sprawl in the Mediterranean Region: Towards a Latent Urban Transformation? Accesses in nov. 2014. 17 Claude Chaline . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp5-6.. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf 18 Ibid. pp14 19 Ibid. pp10 20 Ibid. pp10 21 Ibid. pp10 22 Ibid. pp15
23 Sayas John. Urban sprawl in the peri urban coastal zones of Athens. Accesses in 2016. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/288025547_Urban_sprawl_in_the_ periurban_coastal_zones_of_Athens
24 Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp6. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf. 25 Isabel Cristina Avila. Current global risks to marine mammals: Taking stock of the threats. Assesses in February 2018. https://www. researchgate.net/publication/323424967_ Current_global_risks_to_marine_mammals_ Taking_stock_of_the_threats.
Furthermore, the last dynamic pattern, EF-Model, as in the case of Algeria and Libya, or are the subject of pseudo-urbanization with a tourist goal, as in Egypt, between Alexandria and the Libyan border, or in many coastal sections of Southern Europe.24 Becoming more exposed to tourism will lead to the pressure of natural resource exploitation and pollution. Marine mammal populations, related species and their habitats now face many threats.25 Also, residence do not have the opportunities get access to the seashore. The coast is vacuum, and it has experienced the waste of resources while over-exploiting resources and destroying nature. There is an urgent dynamic need to use appropriate methods to treat waste and sewage from coastal populations and catchments. SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The five chosen projects are trying to show how different models of cities act on Mediterranean coastline. The Trans-European Networks and Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation are trying to represent how coastal cities can revitalize the inner land or whole coastal countries. The Greenhouse Farming In The Area Of El Ejido I identified it as an example about how urbanized cities move back to semi-urban or rural area, meanwhile promote a type of sustainable community. Egypt can be identified as the model of ‘Fake Urbanization’ type, Jefaira Seafront Masterplan transform it into a comprehensive community not only for tourism. Then, new haifa waterfront plan activates the dead-empty coastal belt.
Heba Hussein, Mediterranean Coastal Landscape and Sustainable Tourism Development, July 28, 2016
François Moriconi- Ebrard , Urbanisation in the Mediterranean Region from 1950 to 1995, October 2001 Figure MS. 03 United Nations (World Population Prospects. The 1998 Revision), I.Attané & Y.Courbage (Demographic projections of the Mediterranean countries, 2000), Géopolis 1998, Plan Bleu (2001).
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SPANISH MEDITERRANEAN CORRIDOR PROJECT [INFRASTRUCTURE & NETWORK URBANISM] The Trans-European Networks (TEN) were created by the European Union, it is an infrastructural medium which is continuous, integrated and flow, and builds for future use and creates the conditions for future events. Mediterranean regions, industries in close relationship with harbours, take the role of importing of spares and exporting of cars mainly. Exportations could easily be made across the continent by interconnection of the Spanish and French networks1. Faced with uncontrolled urban expansion, the basic transportation and food supply infrastructure follows with considerable delay can be easily relieved. Furthermore, the Spanish Mediterranean corridor functioned as an axis connects Spanish harbor cities with the hinterland2. It appears as an actor to raise not only the regional economy, but also the whole European including the stagnant inner land. Span, as one of the countries, the coastal cities grow faster than interior,3 can also consider the corridor as an opportunity of urban renewal for peripheral fragmented districts and contribute to the depopulation4. From the data analysis, almost all the peripheral province capitals had a positive demographic growth after the construction, and half of them – especially intermediary cities – increased their population more than 16%. Also the number of companies, along the infrastructure, increased more than 27% in the last decade5. TEN is the development of technical networks and urban development goes hand in hand to deal with the huge challenges facing urban planning with regard to changes of scale and technological progress. Networks can function as physical ‘things’ that re-organize time and space. They coordinate together to achieve the goal of European Union to form a more compact and efficiency structure.
[Spanish, EUROPE] [Jul 2013] [In Progress/ Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Eloïse Libourel, Joan Amorós] [European Commission, Spanish government, Mediterranean regions, Intellectual actors] [Multi-scalar consensus, ] [high-speed rail, territorialisation, stakeholders, local geopolitics, corridors, (TEN-T)] [Lobbies (Ferrmed, Business Eumed, AVE), CCI, Port authorities]
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1 Stan Allen. Infrastructural Urbanism. Accesses in 1999. 2 Eloïse Libourel. Trans-European Railway Corridors Creating New Territories: the Spanish Mediterranean Corridor Project. Access in 2013. https://hal-enpc.archives-ouvertes.fr/ hal-01226793/document 3Claude Chalne . Urbanisation and town management in the Mediterranean countries Assessment and perspectives for sustainable urban development pp10. Assesses in May. 2001. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/ publications/chaline_eng_0.pdf. 4 Laure Criqui. Infrastructure urbanism: Roadmaps for servicing unplanned urbanisation in emerging cities. Access in 2015.https:// www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0197397515000168. 5 Eloıse Libourel, Ibtissem Tounsi-Guerin. TEN-T Projects in their Geo-Economic Context: a Case Study of the Trade Shape of the Spanish Mediterranean Railway Corridor. Access in 2013. https://core.ac.uk/download/ pdf/52994355.pdf
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Copenhagen
Hasselholm Malmo
Duisburg Munchen Insbruck Verona Bologna Berlin Hannover
Freiburg Dijon
Lyon Toulon Milano Genova Perpignan Montpellier Barcelona Tarragona Castello AlmeriaValencia Cartagena Malaga
500km
Benefited Peripheral Province
Infrastructure Network
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Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Biscay
France
France
France
Spain
Spain
Spain
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Political
Socio-Economical
Bay of Biscay
Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Bay of Biscay
France
France
Urban Planning
Main Development Axis
Main Exchange Perspectives Spain
Spain
Main Hubs
Mediterranean Sea
Economical lobbies
Mediterranean Sea
Harbor Oriented Industries
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Corridor Territory Structure
Figure SC. 01
Trans-European Networks
https://www.archdaily.com/
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ANTALYA KONYAALTI COASTLINE URBAN REHABILITATION [SOCIAL URBANISM] For Antalya, the entire coastline is very important. Different cities have different treatment and utilization of the coast. The service-based coast, a transition, is also connected with subsequent societal landscape which can help settle people in the inner city, alleviating the pressure and socializing near the coast. The linear public space will be a highly activated city space located along the edges. Because it can meander, modulate and negotiate varying city terrains. This way, linear spaces would relate to and integrate with many more areas and provide access to the seashore.1 Olbia Square on the Dumlupinar Avenue was planned as a city square that also acts as ‘social infrastructure’ or a gateway with sports, entertainment and cultural activities2. Providing a charming space for people to communicate( Like showing in the next page, from bench seats and an amphitheatre to fully-enabled wifi, a children’s play area, and raised lawns). To strengthen the relationship of the residential neighbourhood with the coastline. The recreational, cultural and sporting activities offered to the residents of the settlements were added to the project along the coast for this purpose. Instead of the old over-expanded commercial booths, (under the guidance of the commercial concept of money supreme, the developer regards the coast as a business district, and in order to attract a large number of tourists, to meet a variety of spiritual needs, excessive commercial development.3 smaller kiosks are proposed in this part of the project to enhance the link between the grove and the coast. The limitations and impetus played by development are also very interesting. The main drive of this project was to reduce the domination of the highway dividing the coast and settlement behind it. While the modern highway and railway system was undeniably a vehicle for economic expansion, it spread the advantages city continiuty.4 For this purpose, a series of thematic focal zones were created between the port and the museum to diversify the city’s existing hub system on the western coast.
[Antalya, Turkey] [2014] [First stage finished on 15th of June, 2018] [Ahmet Mucip Urger, Ali Ozer, Semsettin Tugay, Olgu Caliskan] [Ahmet Mucip Urger, Ali Ozer, Semsettin Tugay, Seda Gecu, Ismet Gungor, Elif Duzel, Neval Tarim, Beyza Derbentoglu, Buket Mucuk.] [The main drive of the project was to reduce the domination of the highway dividing the coast and settlement behind it.] [TURKISH Planning Council]
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1 PK Das. Accesses in August 2015. https:// www.thenatureofcities.com/2015/08/12/ let-streams-of-linear-open-spaces-flow-acrossurban-landscapes 2 MINI Clubman. Antalya Konyaalti Coastline Urban Rehabilitation. Accesses in November, 2018.https://www.archdaily.com/905574/ antalya-konyaalti-coastline-urban-rehabilitationozer-urger-architects 3 Leqi Sun. Try to analyze the problem of excessive commercialization in the development of tourist attractions. Accesses in 2016. https:// wenku.baidu.com 4 Kathryn Holliday. The Road to Disinvestment: How Highways Divided the City and Destroyed Neighborhoods. https:// www.aiadallas.org/v/columns-detail/The-Roadto-Disinvestment-How-Highways-Divided-theCity-and-Destroyed-Neighborhoods/pt 5 Ozerurger. Konyaalti Urban Design And Coastal Regeneration. Accesses in 2014. http:// ozerurger.com/portfolio-item/konyaalti-urbandesign-and-coastal-regeneration
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
Node Plan
Linear Public Space
Master Plan
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Green Belt
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0
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Taxonomy
Maze Garden
Sculpture
Bench
Children’s playground
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Batik Plaza
Beach Mediterranean
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Figure AK. 01
Societal Landscape https://www.archdaily.com/
Belediye Square
Cycling Road
Sidewalk
Car Road
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GREENHOUSE FARMING IN THE AREA OF EL EJIDO [AGRARIAN URBANISM] In Spanish, French and Italian Mediterranean regions verified cover changes include a reduction of utilized agricultural land, an expansion of uncultivated land and built-up areas1. These changes can be summarized as a progressive transfer from agricultural use to other uses. The trend is reinforced dramatically to meet both the new settlement patterns and radical changes in urban structure and the growing demand of tourism and traffic infrastructures. Over urbanization process lead to the loss of arable land2. The disappearance of natural or agricultural space concerns the entire Mediterranean area. Indeed, uncontrolled urban and infrastructural expansion toward the hinterland, the diffusion of industry into coastal areas and the sprawl of mass tourism towards the sea are more noticeable, which will cause irreversible environmental issue. So coastal land arable in Spain provides an profitable prototype to learn, although it is not a traditional mode of agriculture. The growth in greenhouses started in the late 1970s as a local response to an economic opportunity to provide vegetables to the European marketplace4. The transformed landscape has also transformed the economy from a land of farmers struggling in dry rocky soil to an economy of extremely wealthy greenhouse owners. 5 Considering involving food not as a mean of making a living, but as a basis for making a life and structuring the places in which we live. The shift in focus from “agricultural urbanism” or “urban agriculture” promoting a type of sustainable community that intensifies agricultural activity, promoting the associated economic, environmental and social benefits6. The most important part here is to reintroduce the arable land back to the urbanized coastline. Also the ability to grow food has implications for communities on multiple levels: from food security and health issues, to ensuring a local economy, to the vast environmental benefits of local farming, and to the social benefits of a productive activity in which all members of a community can engage.
[Haifa, Israel] [2013] [First stage finished] [Amir Mann-Ami Shinar] [Braudo - Maoz Landscape Architecture Ltd., Yehuda Arie, DEL Engineering, Ran Haklai Urban Economics Ltd.] [The new Haifa waterfront will transform this conflict zone to a place of new opportunities.] [Israel National Planning Council]
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1 Ilaria Zambon. Rural Districts between Urbanization and Land Abandonment: Undermining Long-Term Changes in Mediterranean Landscapes. Accessed in April 2018. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/324488605_Rural_Districts_ between_Urbanization_and_Land_Landscapes. 2 Andres Duany. Garden Cities: Theory & Practice of Agrarian Urbanism. Accessed in 2011. DPZ. https://www.dpz.com/ Initiatives/AgrarianUrbanism?from=Thought. AgrarianUrbanism. 3 Domingo Zarzo. Spanish experience in desalination for agriculture. Accessed in January 2012. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/254226067_Spanish_experience_ in_desalination_for_agriculture. 4 Cori, Berardo. Spatial dynamics of Mediterranean coastal regions. Accessed 1999. 5 Gary Wockner. Europe’s Dirty Little Secret: Moroccan Slaves and a ‘Sea of Plastic’. Accessed in Dec. 18, 2015. 6 Madani Safar Zitoun.The Development of the Bay of Algiers: Rethinking the City through Contemporary Paradigms. Alexandrine Press. Accessed in 1978. https://www.jstor.org/stable/ pdf/23290066pdf ?refreqid=excelsior%3A7.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
0
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Green House
Plants
Farm Land
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Figure GF. 01 El Ejido Region
Figure GF. 02
https://www.archdaily.com/
Greenhouse Farming https://www.archdaily.com/
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JEFAIRA SEAFRONT MASTERPLAN [PRODUCTIVE URBANISM]
Egypt can be identified as the model of ‘Fake Urbanization’ type. The demographic statics of Egypt show that the urban population grows from 31.9% in 1950 to 43.45% in 2010. Tourism, formed from the rapid expansion of resort areas, is an urbanization based on consumption, and the most striking form of the postmodern city, identifies as the mass consumption of pleasure. Compared with Spain, Italy or other northern Mediterranean European countries, the urbanization phenomenon in Egypt is not remarkable enough. However, the coastal cities along the Egypt highly urbanized. City planners and designers should pay for the result from over-developed tourism and reconsider the future of the fake prosperity intermittently and the ecological problem leading by the tourism.1 Jefaira is located on the Egyptian North Coast, with natural beaches and cliffs forming the ideal tourism village. However, Jefaira surpasses the image of a holiday shore2 with the construction development of the local area, which shows the territorial transformations aligned with productive modes. For another, with their production and research sites, density, amenities and social and functional diversity, the seashore are becoming production centres. Diverse range of community facilities including schools and colleges, a sports academy, swimming pools and wellness centre established. Extensive tourism facilities are provided including marinas with promenade cafes, restaurants, retail spaces, hotels, and a convention centre.3 All city material and immaterial resources are activated. Communities are furnishing laboratory zones where full-scale innovations can be produced and tested4. It also give a consideration of permanent residents. The oasis in the desert will not be barely empty on weekdays. The development provides a vast network of public areas that are accessible to all residents. The master plan zoning creates a hierarchy of roads, routs parks and gardens for either public access or residents only.5 As the huge impact on the ecological environment of the Mediterranean region shows, overexploitation and emissions are definitely to impact the supply and demand of ecosystem services. But a well-organized structure in Jefaria is environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable.6 [JEFAIRA, Egypt] [2017] [Partially Built / In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [10 DESIGN] [Relevant to the conceptualization of the project] [masterplan, landscape, sustainability, CGI, sustainable development] [Literally, programs, not only land uses] [INERTIA Properties]
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1 Sue Beeton. Community Development through Tourism. Accessed in January 2006. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/296903049_Community_ Development_through_Tourism. 2 Gordon Affleck. Green buildings. Accessed in Mar. 2017. https://issuu.com/10design/ docs/20170915_jefaira_seafront_masterpla/4. 3 10 DESIGN. Jefaira seafront masterplan. Accessed in 2018. https://www.10design.co/ work/architecture/selected/jefaira-seafrontmasterplan. 4 10 DESIGN. Jefaira seafront masterplan, Accessed in 2018. https://www.10design.co/ press releases/10-design-master-plan-egypt mediterranean-coast. 5 L. Fleming Fallon. Land Use Planning for Public Health: The Role of Local Boards of Health in Community Design and Development. https://www.cdc.gov healthyplaces/publications/landusenalboh.pdf . 6 10 DESIGN. Jefaira seafront masterplan. Accessed in 2018. https://www.10design.co/ work/architecture/selected/jefaira-seafrontmasterplan.
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NEW HAIFA WATERPRONT PLAN [POST-INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] As a port city, Haifa is a post-colonized and post-industrial city. The common Israeli saying, “Haifa works, Jerusalem prays, and Tel Aviv plays” attests to Haifa’s reputation as a city of workers and industry.1 Between 1994 and 2009, however, the city had a declining on industry and aging population, as young people moved to the center of the country for education and jobs, while young families migrated to bedroom community in the suburbs2. Haifa as a coastal city, but with no access to the sea confront with the abandonment and decline. Haifa facing a main problem that is the post-industry ruins, which also means the social structure has change accompany with the decline in the role as regional capital. The role of the city changed from industrial-oriented to economical-oriented. The ambition is clearly to reconnect the city with the sea on which it has turned its back for a long time. Reversing its population decline, reducing emigration while attracting more internal migration into the city, Israeli government is willing to reopen the harbor into a major tourism and nightlife center, as well as a functioning point of embarkation and arrival for sea travel3. Another barrier is train track that bisected the city and separated the city’s beach from the rest of Haifa.4 So, Haifa is a remarkable city which suffered the social and geo-related issues can be identified as the second typology - NF-Modal. Haifa is a dense arena of conflicting interests. In the design process, author re-uses the abandoned warehouses; co-existing with some port activities; maintaining its authentic industrial spirit.5 In order to connect the city with the seashore, by relocating the railway beneath, even though it is a cost-high project, a wide pedestrian can stretch along the water, preserving the long vistas from the city to the sea.6 “Warehouse-like” linear structures, the overhead grain-conveyors and other working port facilities definitely maintain the port atmosphere in the most degree.7
1 Marcel Louza. Hamishiya: The Story of Five Friends. Accessed in 2011. https://books. google.com.hk/books? 2 Alison Furuto. New Haifa Waterfront Plan / Amir Mann–Ami Shinar Architects and Planners. July, 2013.https://www.archdaily. com/398514/new-haifa-waterfront-planproposal-mann-shinar?ad_medium=gallery. 3 Madani Safar Zitoun.The Development of the Bay of Algiers: Rethinking the City through Contemporary Paradigms. Alexandrine Press. 1978. https://www.jstor.org/stable/ pdf/23290066. 4 Haifa – General info. Israeli Ministry of Tourism. Retrieved 20 March 2008. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa#cite_note-tiers-93. 5 Haifa – General info. Israeli Ministry of Tourism. Retrieved 20 March 2008. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa#cite_note-tiers-93. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid.
Compared with other port rebuilt projects, The port retained the industrial architectural style and, on the premise of low investment, reopened to the public and promotes economic growth. The new Haifa waterfront will transform this conflict zone to a place of new opportunities.
[Haifa, Israel] [2013] [First stage finished] [Amir Mann-Ami Shinar] [Braudo - Maoz Landscape Architecture Ltd., Yehuda Arie, DEL Engineering, Ran Haklai Urban Economics Ltd.] [The new Haifa waterfront will transform this conflict zone to a place of new opportunities.] [Israel National Planning Council]
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INDONESIA
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INDONESIA
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY Indonesia, located in Southeast Asia, is a country that consists of thousands of islands and hundreds of ethnic groups.1 Like most other countries in the world, Indonesia is experiencing rapid urbanization (56% urbanization rate).2 While urbanization brings convenience to citizens, problems associated with urbanization may also jeopardize future prosperity of Indonesia. These problems include: social inequity, environmental degradation, lack of infrastructure and even violence.3 The government has published several versions of master plans and have begun to consider strategic planning and integrated design approaches to the cities’ problems. However, these approaches have not achieved the expected effect because the strategic plans are only rough guidelines and there is a lack of public participation so the plans ignore the real needs of citizens.4 Blindly pursuing economic growth while ignoring other factors means the government of Indonesia is not powerful enough to solve the problems mainly caused by uncontrolled population. These problems include: severe natural disasters - big floods have hit the country every five years - and chaotic fringe development which has exacerbated the crisis for the urban poor.5,6,7 The biggest challenge ahead for Indonesia’s urban development are no longer an issue of attracting investments from around the world, but rather demanding for more transparency and real partnership between the citizens and the government. Addressing all those pressures, I argue that urban design is a cohesive method that can connect the planning and community. Through the way of urban design, planning policies can be better implemented into space, residents can have access to participate in the design process, and the design process can be more transparent and humanized. Strict implementation of design results can eliminate the abuses of urban space and lands which can not only shape the urban material environment, but more importantly, optimize and integrate urban social, economic, and political environments to better promote urban development in an ecological way. Faced
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1. Faculty of Geography UGM and The Indonesian Geographers Association,
Urbanization and Regional Imbalances in Indonesia, Indonesian Journal of Geography Vol. 49, No.2, December 2017.
2. Blane D. Lewis, Urbanization and Economic
Growth in Indonesia: Good News, Bad News and (Possible) Local Government Mitigation, Regional Studies, October 2012, p3-4.
3. Abidin Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial. Architecture, urban space and political cultures in Indonesia, 2000, pxi. 4. Florian Sreinberg, Jakarta: Environmental problems and sustainability, Habitat International, 2007, P356. 5. The Statistics Portal. “IndonesiaStatistics&Facts.” Statista.com.
https://www.statista.com/topics/2398/ indonesia/(accessed February 6, 2019) 6. Florian Sreinberg, Jakarta: Environmental problems and sustainability, Habitat International, 2007, p360.
7. Anthony Marcus, Sulikah Asmorowati, Urban Poverty and the Rural Development Bias Some Notes from Indonesia, Journal of Developing
Societies 22, p148.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 2017
The urbanization rate comes to 54.66%.
2011
Jakarta host 18th ASEAN Summit, mark the beginning of Indonesian chairmanship in ASEAN 2011.
1990
2000
30% of Indonesia’s population lived in urban areas. 1980
1966
Indonesia rejoins the United Nations. 1960
[Critical DATA] Country[es]: Indonesia Area: 735, 400 sq mi Island: 17508 (CIA World Factbook) Population: 269 million (2019) Ethnic Groups: Over 300 Language: Over 700 Age Structure: 0-14 years: 25.02%; 1524 years: 16.99%; 25-54 years: 42.4%; 55-64 years: 8.58%; 65 years and over: 7.01% Social Indicators Population Density: 144 people per square kilometer Poverty Rate: Urban 9.8%/Rural 14.1% Environmental Indicators Animal Species: 3305 Plant Species: 29375 Coastline: 54716 km Inland Water: 35907 sq mi Volcanoes: 400 (130 Active) Economic Indicators: GDP: 1016 USD Billion GDP Annual Growth Rate 5.18% Unemployment Rate 5.34%
1950
the federation is dissolved and Sukarno proclaims a unitary state, the ‘Republic of Indonesia’.
1945
Republican government established in Jakarta and constitution adopted. Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) established.
1940
1920
1850
The bankrupt Dutch East India Company (VOC) is formally dissolved and the nationalised Dutch East Indies is established.
1800
1750 1700
First Javanese War of Succession.
1650 1600 De Houtman’s expedition reaches Banten the main pepper port of West Java where they clash with both the Portuguese and Indonesians.
1550 1500
Indonesia
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South China Sea
Medan
Borneo
Sumatra
Sulawesi New Guinea Makassar
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INDONESIA The Green Manhattan The Transformation of Kampung Pelangi Bandung Pluit City Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
India Ocean Australia
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8. “Indonesian Art.” Lumen. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundlessarthistory/chapter/indonesian-art/ (accessed April 18, 2019) 9. Abidin Kusno, Faculty of Geography UGM and The Indonesian Geographers Association,
Urbanization and Regional Imbalances in Indonesia, Indonesian Journal of Geography Vol. 49, No.2, December 2017, p 118.
Figure 01. Cultural Diversity
10. Robi Kurniawan & Shunsuke Managi,
Economic Growth and Sustainable Development in Indonesia: An Assessment,
Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, p339. 11. Abidin Kusno, Faculty of Geography UGM and The Indonesian Geographers Association,
Urbanization and Regional Imbalances in Indonesia, Indonesian Journal of Geography Vol. 49, No.2, December 2017, p1.
with the current needs of the city and the people, using the way of urban design and considering the function of interdisciplinary cooperation is the best choice for Indonesia. Indonesia is a country worth studying because of the many changes are taking place. 02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS Indonesia has a very wide territory with cultural differences, unbalanced economic development and sociopolitical problems. The history of Indonesia’s culture spans more than two millennia. “Situated on the ancient maritime trading routes between the Near East and the Far East,” Indonesia was exposed to a multitude of foreign cultural practices and religions, including India, China, the Middle East, and Europe.8,9 Each of these regions have had a huge impact on the formation process of Indonesia, resulting in a multicultural, multilingual, multiracial country. Every place has its own legends and stories which contribute to the forming of particular landmarks such as temples or natural features. However, it is also noteworthy that this cultural diversity has led to some problems like racism and religious intolerance. Economically, Indonesia has become the world’s 10th largest economy and the “GDP per capita steadily increased from $877 in 1990 to $1,973 in 2014 (UNSD 2016).”10 While Indonesia is attempting to be sustainable, most of the local economic growth is at the expense of destroying environment and exploiting resources. I discuss ecological urbanism as part of this research to address these issues and potential fixes. In addition, unbalanced economic developments are also common, which not only occur between rural and urban areas, but also between Java and the outside of Java, and between western and eastern Indonesia.11 Under the high-speed urbanization process, the demand for housing, transportation, employment, and infrastructure is getting higher. If these issues can not be resolved in time, it will cause serious social inequality and conflicts. On top of this already, “the Indonesian public perceives the level of corruption within
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Figure 02. Indonesia
the government to be very high.” This mistrust slows down urban development and also detracts from the government’s ability to provide public services. In this situation, smart urbanism can come into play to strengthen local government transparency. 03 URBAN DYNAMICS Indonesia is presently one of the more urbanized developing countries in Asia, which has transformed from a largely rural continent to a mostly urban condition in fewer than two generations. Indonesia is both a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and Group of Twenty, or G20, which offer tremendous development opportunities. Faced with the substantial development needs, the country has high demand for infrastructure investment such as: public services, transportation, communication networks, medical treatment, and public health. Although it costs a lot of money in the short term, it can enhance the productive potential of the economy in the long run. For the government, prioritizing urbanization issues in the national development agenda is also important, especially expanding with farseeing design which can offer an integrated approach based on various aspects of the city to build a pleasant, distinctive, dynamic and fair urban environment. Besides, surrounded by the sea, there are both disadvantages and obvious advantages. Making good use of rich culture, natural resources and tourism resources can also be very positive for urban development in Indonesia.12 The urban poverty rate is something that keeps flustering the Indonesia government. Although the poverty rate has declined steadily in the past years, there are still a large number of people struggling for life. Fueling government
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12. The World Bank. “Indonesia’s Urban Story.” Worldbank.org. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2016/06/14/indonesia-urban-story (accessed February 6, 2019) 13. Ella Nugraha. “Indonesian Media in Brief: Indonesia’s poverty rate lowest in history.”
Australiaindonesiacentre.org. https://australiaindonesiacentre.org/ indonesian-media-in-brief-indonesias-povertyrate-lowest-in-history/ (accessed April 18, 2019)
Figure 03. Inequality and Poverty
distrust, the public have also criticized the numbers published by the government because the standard used to measure poverty is too low compared to international standards. If the government used international standards to measure poverty, there would be around “70 million people (26.6 percent of population) recorded to live in poverty as opposed to the 25.95 million people according to official government numbers.”13 Figure 04. Ecological Urbanism
14. Mohsen Mostafavi, Gareth Doherty, Ecological Urbanism, Lars Müller Publishers, 2010, Abstract.
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The five projects about urbanism selected in this paper are The Green Manhattan (Ecological Urbanism), The transformation of Kampung Pelangi (Informal Urbanism), Bandung (Smart City Urbanism), Pluit City (Landscape Urbanism) and Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project (Emergency Urbanism) respectively. These projects try to solve the most acute urban problems in this country from various aspects and the role of urban design is indispensable during this process. From the perspective of improving the living quality, ensuring social equity, responding to natural disasters, these five projects all have achieved great success using sustainable designs and smart technologies but they also have shortcomings. Learning lessons and compensating the shortcomings are the most urgent things need to do for the better urban development of Indonesia. “An ecological approach is urgently needed both as a remedial device for the contemporary city and an organizing principle for new cities.”14
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THE GREEN MANHATTAN [ECOLOGICAL URBANISM] By now, there are more than 10 million people15 living in Jakarta and the number is keeping rising. The influx of migrants, on the one hand, provides sufficient labor for the development of the city, and on the other hand brings a series of problems, such as traffic congestion, environmental pollution, insufficient resources, poverty, etc. These low-income migrants cannot enjoy normal housing, education, public health and other social benefits, and can only be squeezed into slums in the corners of the city. Besides, “North Jakarta has sunk 2.5m in 10 years and is continuing to sink by as much as 25cm a year in some parts”16 due to the wild expansion and groundwater extractions which has seriously put a threat to the citizens’ life and security.
15. Mayuri Mei Lin & Rafki Hidayat. “Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the world.” BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-44636934 (accessed February 24, 2019)
Under the premise of urban development at the expense of the environment, the goal of this project in Jakarta is creating “the most livable, integrated, green and socially-inclusive city”.17 “While climate change, sustainable architecture, and green technologies have become increasingly topical, issues surrounding the sustainability of the city are much less developed.”18 After thinking about the urban problems, the designers try to consider more about the needs of people of all social classes and the relationships and interactions between the urban elements with their environment. The plan is inspired by the Manhattan grid which provides a sustainable framework
17. SHAU. “The Green Manhattan.” Gooood. https://www.gooood.cn/jakarta-jaya-the-greenmanhattan-by-shau.htm’ (accessed February 6, 2019)
[Jakarta, INDONESIA] [2017-2047] [Unbuilt ] [14332 acres] [SHAU] [Island/ Ecological] [Livable, integrated, green and socially-inclusive city] [Jakarta Jaya Foundation]
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16. Ibid.
18. Mohsen Mostafavi, Gareth Doherty, Ecological Urbanism, Lars Müller Publishers, 2010, Abstract.
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for living in the Jakarta’s compact and complex environment. Specifically, more green spaces and affordable housing, convenient public transportation system, zero CO2 emission, etc. Besides, the specially designed fishing villages on the north coast of the island try to meet all the needs of the fishermen. This plan tries to promote economic development and boost employment to provide an ideal living environment not only for the middle class but also for the lower-income people. Ultimately, it is designed as a sustainable and ecological place which provide an ideal living environment for about 1.9 million people.19 The master plan shows us an integrated and well-connected island which has complete transportation system, sufficient public space and housing. The section gives us a vision of permeable building typologies which create horizontal and vertical green connectivity. Grid block system, islands, fisherman housing, green roof, parks, subways and monorails are all important components of the project. There is no doubt that this project is a catalyst for Jakarta’s development and also a great practice of ecological urbanism. We can see that it is the design that shapes this city and creates a complete ecological city operation system which covers all the aspects of people’s daily life. However, it is also special because this is a waterfront project and land reclamation always cost a great deal of money. Design is just a method, strong and effective execution and management are also important. How to ensure the achievement of this ambitious goal and the quality of life of low income people are still worth considering.
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19. SHAU. “Jakarta Jaya - The Green Manhattan.” SHAU. http://www.shau.nl/en/project/25 (accessed February 24, 2019)
Figure 05. The Green Manhattan and The City of Jakarta.
Figure 06. New Tourism. Indonesia
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THE TRANSFORMATION OF KAMPUNG PELANGI [INFORMAL URBANISM] As population growing and massive migration from rural to cities in Indonesia, more and more slums are occurring. People who cannot afford the high price of housing come together to build their own houses which is a kind of informal urbanism. On the one hand it provides people with places to live, but it also has great bad impact on the cities’ environment. Under normal circumstances, slums are always criticized by society as the scars of cities and the only way to solve the problems in slum areas is forced eviction. Yet we can not simply think that informality can be defined simply as the opposite to the formal city, nor directly relate the informal city with underdevelopment, illegality or poverty. “Informal urbanism flourishes in the spatial interstices of the city and produces urban phenomena with a potent impact on the streetscape and urban image.”20 In this project, after referring several urban transformation plans, all of the old shabby buildings become artworks using the way of creative wall painting.21 Cracked walls and narrow corridors are not disadvantages but become attractive and interesting places that bring the village with vitality and energy. A growing number of tourists willing to get there to experience the dynamic atmosphere and the incomes of villagers have also risen because of the souvenir and food sales.22 Thus, the living quality of villagers has been improved and continuous tourist income can always be perfected the village. [Semarang, INDONESIA] [2017] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Slamet Widodo] [Government] [Slum transformation / Painting] [Revitalize the slum using the way of wall painting] [Government]
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20. Kim Dovey, Informal Urbanism and Complex Adaptive Assemblage, International Development Planning Review, 2012, p352. 21. Stella. Rainbow Village: Indonesian Government Invests $22,467 To Paint 232 Slum Houses, And Result Is Amazing. Boredpanda. https://www.boredpanda.com/rainbowvillage-kampung-pelangi-indonesia/?utm_ source=google&utm_medium=organic&utm_ campaign=organic(accessed February 6, 2019) 22. Helen Coffey. Rainbow Village: Indonesian Hamlet is Instagram Hit With Colourful Makeover. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/newsand-advice/rainbow-village-indonesia-neonday-glo-instagram-kampung-pelangi-randusaricentral-java-a7740006.html(accessed February 6, 2019)
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From the site plan we can see it is such a crowded village without rational planning and spatial order. And the section tells us that the topography of the area is quite steep while it established a rhythm of different height of the buildings. However, it still looks crowded and lacks of public space. The rainbow colors, wall paintings, souvenir and food shops are all essential components of the village. From my point of view, it is a great practice that find the underlying values of the slum and just use simple design to create a totally different place. The concept of Kampung pelangi looks beautiful but it is less in line with the principle of sustainability. There is no fundamental improvement of living quality because just the surface of the houses have been changed.23 Kampung Pelangi still suffers from the lack of facilities and infrastructure both in the number and condition. We should apply the concept of sustainability not only highlight the colorful wall paintings but also try to achieve the balance between environment, economic, culture and governance. Urban designers can cooperate with landscape architects and sociologists to work on participatory planning in this place which will be a good way to know the true needs of villagers.
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23.Andang Prasetya, Kampung Pelangi: The Reflection of National Value, International Conference on Arts and Culture, 13 September 2017, p92.
Figure 07. Before
Figure 08. In process
Figure 09. After Indonesia
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BANDUNG [SMART CITY URBANISM] The trend of urbanization is irreversible because of jobs and life convenience it brings to us are attractive even necessary. While as the urban population continues to expand, “urban diseases" have become the primary problem of the construction and management of cities such as traffic congestions, environmental degradation, housing scarcity, social services and so on.24 There are lots of fast growing and vibrant cities like Bandung which are faced with these severe challenges. Smart city is consisted with six main parts: Smart Economy, Smart Mobility, Smart Government, Smart Environment, Smart Living and Smart People.25 60% of Bandung City’s population are below the age of 40. Besides, there are 80 excellent colleges, universities and other institutions which provide rich educational resources to youthful population.26 In short, the city of Bandung has excellent technology and talent foundation. Besides, governments have extremely positive attitude towards tech use and it attempts to use the information and communication technology (ICT) to integrate the city's operation systems and services, connect, monitor and control the existing resources within cities to improve the efficiency of resource utilization and optimize urban management and services.27 The final destination of transforming Bandung into a smart city is to improve the welfare and living quality of citizens, offer more development opportunities and improve government
[Bandung, INDONESIA] [2015-] [In Progress] [64.74 sq.mi] [Bandung government] [imformation System / Smart City] [Use imformation to integrate the city’s operation systems and services] [Bandung government]
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24.Alberto Vanolo, Smartmentality: The Smart City as Disciplinary Strategy, Urban Studies, April 2014, p883-885. 25. Budi Sutrisno, The implementation of Bandung Smart City to improving the Welfare of its Citizens, Adcances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, (ASSEHR), p34. 26. HE Ridwan Kamil, City for Young and Creative People, August 2014, p2. 27. Global Center of Competence Cities, Smart City Bandung the Role of Technology, September 2016, p3.
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efficiency, transparency and responsiveness. Thus, more talented people and creative companies will be attracted to enter to promote the urban development of Bandung even it will become Indonesia’s Silicon Valley. The master plan and section of the center for Bandung show us the organic urban fabric and flexible spatial organization and the components represent the different aspects of smart city. Reasonable designed buildings, attractive public spaces and the proper use of technology make smart city possible. Building a smart city is an objective requirement for transforming urban development methods into more effective and efficient way. It also provides the citizens the right to supervise and make suggestions. However, Although the Internet is more popular among different age of people. The main participants of social survey are usually young and highly educated which will cause mistakes in decision-making and social injustice. Besides, smart cities are the expression of urban informatization but they are by no means a collection of information but an integration of several information systems. Trying to connect and use all the information comprehensively is quite important to a smart city and effective security measures to protecting the information is also necessary. Most importantly, some cities have proposed that smart city slogans are only to attract large companies to invest. For example, if the construction of a smart city is dominated by a large multinational information technology
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Figure 10. Smart City
Figure 11. Bandung Command Center
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PLUIT CITY [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] As the biggest city of Indonesia, there are more than 10 million people living in Jakarta which causes a wide range of social and environmental problems. More than 97 percent of Jakarta is now smothered by concrete and asphalt.28 There are far from enough public spaces for citizens to relax and communicate. Shores of mangroves which help to release the pressure of flood and rain are replaced by slums and apartment towers. People are suffering from the urban water logging. Besides, due to the growing population, government is increasingly powerless to build urban infrastructure, especially the lack of sewer which causes severe water pollution while the water management authorities can provide clean water for only 40 percent of citizens.29 People have to pump up the groundwater but it leads to ground settlement. Under this background of complex urbanization, the theory of landscape urbanism describes a new way taking landscape as core to re-integrate the existing order in cities now rather than keep using buildings as the most basic element of urban construction. Parks and plazas get more attention than buildings and the open spaces system becomes a prominent factor in this project which plays a key role in promoting a healthy urban lifestyle with a green place to live . This project tries to create two new islands on “450 hectares of reclaimed land off the north coast of Jakarta”30 to offer more land for the rapidly growing
[Jakarta, INDONESIA] [2013-] [In Progress] [450 hectares] [SOM] [Islands / Using landscape as the core to design city ] [Mix-used, a comfortable and ecological place for people to live ] [Jakarta Government]
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28. Michael Kimmelman. “Jakarta Is Sinking So Fast, It Could End Up Underwater.” Nytimes. https://www.nytimes.com/ interactive/2017/12/21/world/asia/jakartasinking-climate.html (accessed February 24, 2019) 29. Mayuri Mei Lin & Rafki Hidayat. “Jakarta, the fastest-sinking city in the world.” BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-44636934 (accessed February 24, 2019)
30. “Pluit City Masterplan.” SOM. http://www.som.com/projects/pluit_city_ master_plan (accessed April 19, 2019)
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population while creating a sea defense to protect the city from the sea level rise and storm which could threaten millions of its residents. It uses the landscape to create a network of boulevards, green spaces and plazas to link every districts and develop cities in an ecological sustainable way. Besides, the landscape vision also aims to manage the huge volume of water during the rainy seasons between November and March and provide more recycled clean water for the daily community use. The design of the waterfront area is also a major part of this project which not only creates a series of continuous recreational space serving for citizens but also aims to “address the loss of native flora and fauna from Jakarta’s waterfront by reinstating natural mangroves along the island edges.�31 People gathering in the center of city have a garden to go and the environmental quality of Jakarta has been also improved. The master plan show us two artificial islands, which are connected to Jakarta and adjacent islands, applying organic and grid combined road system. As important components, floating islands, mangroves, water reservoirs, parks, wetlands and piers all make contributions to the ecology and vitality of the project. We can also observe a wide variety of urban atmosphere via the section. However, it is such a huge project that is a big burden for the government finance and it mainly focuses on economical and aesthetic aspects which serve for high-income people. For those low-income people, they have no ability to live on these islands. On the contrary, huge financial investment may cause the insufficient public services they have now decrease again. How to make these two islands more available to all social classes is important rather than become ecological enclaves.
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31. Ibid.
Figure 12. Pluit City
Figure 13. Parks
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COMMUNITY-BASED SETTLEMENT REHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION PROJECT (ACEH) [EMERGENCY URBANISM] Indonesia is located on the “Pacific Ring of Fire, where slabs of the earth’s crust-tectonic plates-clash, creating earthquakes when the plates shove against one another.”32 Earthquakes can always generate tsunamis which have huge threat to the safety of people. Besides, there are some other serious natural disasters in Indonesia including volcanoes, droughts and floods and people are always at risk. After the magnitude 9.2Mw earthquake and tsunami that struck the Indian Ocean on December 26, 2004, hundreds of thousands of people in Aceh lost their homes.33 The most challenging and problematic issues was the large scaled housing reconstruction during the disaster recovery phase. As could be expected, the reconstruction process has been affected by numerous reasons and has been much slower than intended. While lots of help came from all over the world, people can mostly just depend on their own due to the “shortage of human resources, logistical problems, bureaucratic and institutional problems.”34 To faster and better rebuild the community, responsibilities were put right into the hands of residents. With the donation and help from the Multi Donor Fund and facilitators sent by the government, 10 to 15 families formed as a group35 to rebuild their houses to better posit the housing plots, open space and infrastructure which was more resilient toward possible future disasters. This way of recovery was
[Aceh, INDONESIA] [2006] [Built] [CSRRP] [NPO / Government] [Emergency housing, Recycling system, Public Space/ Community based reconstruction] [Housing reconstruction] [Public and Private]
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32. Heather Klinger, Kristy J. O’Hara-Glaspie, Sevil Omer, and Kathryn Reid, “2018 Indonesia quakes and tsunamis: Facts, FAQs, and how to help.” Worldvison.org. https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-reliefnews-stories/2018-indonesia-earthquakefacts#earthquakes (accessed April 19, 2019) 33.Ophiyandri, T, Amaratunga, RDG and Pathirage, CP,Community based post disaster housing reconstruction: Indonesian perspective, 2010, p2. 34. Ibid, p9. 35. The World Bank. “Indonesia: CommunityBased Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project.” Worldbank.org. http://www.worldbank.org/en/ results/2012/04/16/indonesia-communitybased-settlement-rehabilitation-andreconstruction-project-rekompak (accessed February 6, 2019)
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
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reliable and efficient which can more arouse the enthusiasm and responsibility of the people. Aceh has a rich tradition of associations, “ranging from faith-related activities and community-based organizations.�36 This feeling of belonging and sense of community will be really helpful to the reconstruction process. At the same time, the experience can be applied to future housing construction for the survivors because of the high satisfaction, quality, efficiency and lower cost. The new construction area are full of one or two floors elevated housing which can effectively prevent the flood and diseases after severe disaster. The inbetween public spaces, farmlands and recycling system also provide a reliable and pleasant environment for people to live. This is a great example of passive response to disasters. While it is not easy as the earthquake and tsunami had destroyed not only people, homes and infrastructure, but also community structures. Countless community leaders and representatives had been killed during the disasters which caused enormous obstacles to reconstruction. Besides, effective community participation takes time which requires strict practice teaching beforehand. Urban designers should maximize the reduction of disaster damage through participatory, multidisciplinary joint and ecological design before disasters occur which is the most urgent thing we should think over right now.
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36. Florian Steinberg, Housing reconstruction and rehabilitation in Aceh and Nias, Indonesia—Rebuilding lives, Habitat International, 2007, p164.6, 2019)
Figure 14. Tsunami 2004
Figure 15. Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project
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TAXONOMY
TRANSECT
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SINGAPORE
SINGAPORE
SINGAPORE
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
As both a country and a city, Singapore is a unique example to study the methods of dealing with resource shortage and overpopulation, through theoretical methods, planning, and designing interventions. Some efforts, such as those in providing benefits for citizens and assistance programs to the needy are globally-advanced policies, tackling problems that most countries either are facing now or will be facing one day. In the past few decades, in order to seek urban development and accommodate high population density, Singapore has increased the construction of land reclamation projects, by 23% in the past 50 years.1 However, land reclamation will cause unavoidable damage to the marine environment and such projects violate and do not respect the nature. Also, Singapore’s neighboring countries refuse to export sand to Singapore, so the country must find a way out. In fact, Singapore’s population density is the third highest in the world, and the country is facing a shortage of resources. As a small island country, Singapore lacks the water and natural resources to serve its own population and is in constant search of solutions: large water storage plans, seawater desalination, and recycling technology to solve the water shortage problem.2 Almost four-fifths of Singaporeans live in government-funded affordable housing to solve the problem of land shortage.3 The country is also developing enclaves and the underground world, in order to guide its development. Urban planning and design have a huge role to play under these circumstances. In addition, as an immigrant country and a multi-ethnic country, one of the government’s core policies is to promote harmony within various races.4 This also requires the intervention of planning of the design because races and religions can be such sensitive issues that require equal treatment and reasonable arrangement in the city. So urban designers should take the responsibility to design for social inclusion and promote diversity.
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1. Zhou Yun, Chen Tian, Zhang He, “The Spatial Evolution and Scale Trend of Singapore’s Reclamation Area”, Urban Planning International, 2016 31(3):71-77. 2. Ivy Ong Bee Luan,“Singapore Water Management Policies and Practices”, International Journal, 2010. 3. “Statistics Singapore – Latest Data – Households & Housing”. Statistics Singapore, 2019. https://www.singstat.gov.sg/find-data/ search-by-theme/households/households/ latest-data.
4. “Singapore Census of Population 2010”, Department of Statistics Singapore, 2010. https://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/ population/census10_admin.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020 2009
Singapore appears to emerge from its worst recession on record after the economy expands at an annualised rate of 20.4% between April and June.
2002
Japan, Singapore sign free trade agreement.
1993
Ong Teng Cheong becomes first directly-elected president.
1990
Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew stands down after 31 years
1971
Last British military forces withdrawn.
1967
Founder member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Asean).
1965
Singapore pulls out of the Federation of Malaysia. The territory becomes an independent republic and joins the United Nations. Singapore joins the Federation of Malaya, Sabah (North Borneo), and Sarawak in the Federation of Malaysia.
2000
1980
1963
[Critical DATA]
1959
Self-government attained with Lee Kuan Yew as prime minister.
1946
Singapore becomes separate crown colony.
1942
Singapore falls to Japan, which renames it Syonan (Light of the South).
Area: 581.5 square kilometers (1960s), 719.1 square kilometers (2018) Isalnd: 63(Main island: Pulau Ujong) Social Indicators: Population: 5.64 million (2018), 0.52 million permanent residents 1.64 million foreign students/foreign workers/dependants Population density:7915.7 people/sq km(2017) Ethnic groups: Chinese descent(74.1%), Malay descent(13.4%), Indian descent(9.2%) Religion: Buddhism(33.2%), Christianity(18.8%), no religion(18.5%), Islam(14..0%),Taoism and folk religion(10.0%), Hinduism(5.0%) Language: 4 official languages
1922
Singapore becomes main British naval base in East Asia.
1940
1920
1900
1880
1867
Straits Settlements become crown colony of British Empire.
Environmental Indicators: Waters: 1.44% Water demand: 380(2010) to 760(2060) million per day Water sources: 4-Malaysia, rainwater catchments, reclaimes water, seawater desalination Economic Indicators: The total GDP: $349.7 billion(2018) GDP per capita: $61766(2018) Unemployment rates: 2.2%(2019)
1960
1850
1826
Singapore, Malacca and Penang become British colony of the Straits Settlements.
1810 Indonesia
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0
20 km
Punggol 21+
Growth Triangle Jurong Rock Caverns
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100 km
02 Geographic Framework: Culture, Economy, and Sociopolitical Thematics 5. Savage, Victor R.; Yeoh, Brenda S.A. Toponymics: A Study of Singapore’s Street Names, Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2004.
6. “Constitution of the Republic of Singapore. Part I”, Singapore Statutes Online, 1965. https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/CONS1963.
7. “What makes the Singapore economy tick?”, GuideMeSingapore, https://www. guidemesingapore.com/business-guides/ incorporation/why-singapore/singaporeeconomy---a-brief-introduction
8. Baten, Jörg, A History of the Global Economy--From 1500 to the Present, Cambridge University Press. p. 292, 2016.
9. “Freedom in the World 2010 – Singapore”, Freedom House, 2010.
10. William Hofmann, “How Big of a Problem is Income Inequality in Singapore?”,ValueChampion, 2018
Singapore is an island country in Southeast Asia and is located across the sea from Malaysia and Indonesia. It is composed of the city of Singapore and 63 small islands around it, of which Singapore City accounts for 88.5% of the country’s total area.5 So when we talk about Singapore, we usually refer to both the country and the city. An island country consisting of just a single city is very rare, and Singapore is the most prestigious one. This unique city-nation relationship, as well as its diversity of languages and cultures, is of great interest to me. The country’s cultural identity is diversity. It has brought together a multi-ethnic culture, integrated it, and is using it as a basis to develop a new and unique mixed culture, which is reflected in festivals, languages and religions. Singapore’s festivals include Hui’s festivals, Chinese Spring Festival, Indian festivals, Christian festivals, Buddhist festivals and Islamic festivals, etc. The most widely-used language is English, with Malay as the national language, but as a Chinese-dominated country, Chinese is also one of the main languages.6 However, during contact with Singapore colleagues, I can clearly feel the gradual weakness of their Chinese proficiency. They are less likely to write or type Chinese and can only listen and speak, and I personally am a little worried about the fading of their language abilities. As the country develops and becomes more and more globalized, its cultural heritage is quietly slipping away in the form of language. Singapore has great economy and it is the only developed country in Southeast Asia. It has a highly developed free-market economy and its economic model is called “state capitalism.” Together with Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea, it is known as the Asian Four Tigers. Singapore’s economy is mainly driven by exports in electronics manufacturing and machinery, financial services, tourism, and seaport cargo. Its main industry is the manufacturing sector(electronics, chemicals, biomedical sciences, logistics, and transport engineering), contributing 20%-25% of the country’s annual GDP.7 I think that the greatness of Singapore’s economic system lies in its freedom and flexibility. It is always flexible and changes rapidly with the changes of the time. After independence, it took measures to strongly reverse the sluggish economic situation and vigorously develop industrialization in response to the global economic situation. In 2001, the transition to a knowledge economy was proposed and achieved success.8 Singapore is a parliamentary republic led by only one party: The People’s Action Party, the executive power belongs to the Cabinet, and the Cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, while the President have lesser power, and the government is powerful and sometimes even authoritarian, which could lead to social inequality from time to time.9 Singapore is one of the richest countries in the world, but its residents are facing the dilemma of income inequality, and this problem is still growing. In the wealthiest ten percent of households, each member’s monthly income is S$13,215 (2017), while the poorest ten percent of households receive S$554 per month, and Singapore Government blames non-
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Figure 01 City of Singapore Source: http://www.thrillophilia.com/
citizen employees.10 The income gap will also affect education equality, children from poor families could lack educational opportunities and advantages since childhood. Singapore’s government is developing measures to deal with these problems, such as raising the minimum wage, increasing investment in young children, calibrating the number of immigrants, and so on. Although Singapore is known for its free economy and diverse ethnic and cultural heritage, its immigration policy is quite strict. The government requires companies to hire a citizen for every hired foreigner, leading to greatly reduced opportunities for outsiders.
03
11. Lee, Kuan Yew, From third world to first: The Singapore story: 1965-–2000: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore: Times Editions: Singapore Press Holdings, p 188, 2001.
Urban Dynamics
Singapore is a small country with limited resources facing a lot of challenges, and these challenges are becoming the driving force of urban development. Singapore has no turning back so it is treating every issue seriously, and the goals of the country are to develop in terms of economy and society, and to develop for the well-being of its people. As information and communication technology developing nowadays, Singapore is following the world trend of becoming smart nationwide for more convenient lives of people and for better future of the country. The planning policy of the “garden city” is an important dynamic for Singapore’s urban development, the government has adhered to this policy for many years to create a green city.11 Landscape is combined with architecture, infrastructure, and public space, with human psychology taken into consideration and multi-scale design applied, the whole city is like a garden. The recent positioning has changed slightly, becoming “a city in garden,” paying more attention to the sustainability and construction of infrastructure and the coverage
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
12. Lee, J, “‘City in a garden’ plan set out for Singapore”, The Straits Times, p. 3, 1998.
of services.12 The concept of the “garden city� is inextricably connected with landscape urbanism and eco-urbanism. Landscape urbanism runs through the entire process of urban design in the city of Singapore. Therefore, it is inevitable that Singapore’s urban construction also has the inherent drawbacks of landscape urbanism, which requires new elements to be injected and new designs to change the status quo. In order to deal with the severe situation of land and water shortage, Singapore is coming up with as many methods as possible, from acquiring water and other resources from the outside to create its own resources. The country values sustainability and is focusing on innovation, which contributed to a lot of innovative and leading-edge projects, such as forward-thinking projects like the Jurong Rock Caverns, which is the first commercial underground rock cavern for storing liquid hydrocarbons. Taking into account that the population is growing and the country is becoming denser, the resource shortage problem will become more severe, and Singapore is looking at its neighboring countries and underground world. It has imported a lot of resources from Malaysia, and an underground world rudiment was born and is currently in use.
04
Selected Urban Projects
Four projects were selected: involving smart urbanism, new urbanism, landscape urbanism, splintering urbanism and infrastructure urbanism. Since Singapore is both a country and a city, some urbanisms are implemented across the whole nation. I chose these urbanism with the intention to cover economic, environmental, social and political fields, and the choices represent the characteristics of Singapore. It also reflects my impression of Singapore and reflects the future of the country.
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INTELLIGENT NATION 2025 SMART URBANISM
In 2014, Singapore proposed the “Intelligent Nation 2025” 10-year plan to promote smart urbanism nationwide. In 2017, according to the latest report of the 2017 Global Smart City Performance Index published by the research institute Juniper Research, Singapore ranks first among the top 20 smart cities in the world.1 According to the official website of Smart Nation Singapore, existing projects cover many aspects such as strategic national projects, digital government services, urban living, residents’ health, transport, and businesses. Data is collected through public agencies and made available to the public through an online portal so that everyone can participate and provide innovative ideas. The starting point of these projects is not only to provide citizens with a better and more convenient life, but also to promote innovation and promote economic development throughout the country. It is difficult to fully describe and review this plan: because its plan covers almost the entire country.2 Taking the smart transportation system program as an example, the city collects the date to realize dynamic traffic light conversion, obtains the transportation data of all the buses to help not only improve the efficiency of public transportation, but also can facilitate the residents’ travels. An app called My Transport was launched to help residents decide when and how to travel, and another app called Parking was launched to help drivers choose parking space.3 It is hard to deny that this project has brought great benefits to improving traffic efficiency and improving the lives of residents. However, what should not be overlooked is that Singapore is also working hard on self-driving vehicles and is requiring all vehicles to use the same satellite navigation system that the government stipulated and then the location of each vehicle will be monitored. This effort will not only cause the drivers’’ unemployment, but also will harm the privacy of the residents. It will make people feel the horrible desire and ambition of the government to control everything. This ambition is reflected in all aspects of the smart nation project, such as the “Elderly Monitoring System” and “Tele-health” projects implemented by the government to monitor the physical condition of the elderly and patients. It is foreseeable that this monitoring system will be applied to all ages one day. In addition, the government is building a virtual Singapore project, building a very detailed virtual model of Singapore, including the entire city data in the model, real-time monitoring of each car’s movement, real-time visibility of crowd density, and the model is to some extent open to everyone.4 Singapore 2015-2025 In Progress Create a large database and use it to help urbanism via internet. Transport; Digital government;Health;Strategic projects. Public
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. “Smart Nation Progress”, Smart Nation Singapore, 2018. https://www.smartnation. sg/why-Smart-Nation/smart-nation-progress. 2. Ibid. 3. Chua BH, Singapore as model: Planning innovations, knowledge experts, Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 29–54, 2011. 4. Aaron Souppouris, “Singapore is striving to be the world’s first ‘smart city’”, 2016, accessed at Feb 26,2019. https://www. engadget.com/2016/11/03/singapore-smartnation-smart-city/. 5. Heng J, Smart cities, smoother lives. In: Disruption: What Lies Ahead, Singapore: Straits Times Press, pp. 7–14,2016
Location Year(s) Status Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
With the development of digital technology, smart urbanism has become an inevitable trend in various countries. However, the full development of smart urbanism will also inevitably bring about issues concerning network security and data privacy. The more comprehensive the database and the more transparent it is, the more it will make residents feel uneasy, and the various crimes that come with it can be foreseen. In addition, the price that smart urbanism may bring is that residents must live in a society full of sensors, not only in the vehicles, on the streets, under the feet, in the communities, but even in every apartment, residents’ every move and everyday life is perceived and monitored. The power politics of the Singapore government has made me feel creepy. And the day when the smart country is fully realized, the country itself may also become a huge prison, and residents will lose freedom to some extent. Two concerns of this project: As a designer, Smart Urbanism is a relatively abstract concept, as long as it involves intelligent electronic information, etc., it can be related to Smart Urbanism. Singapore is building a huge database and using the information to serve a wide range of industries. However, the results may be uncontrollable and the designer lacks the opportunity to intervene. The process of the collecting of the data to the application of the data is not clear, and the data is changing and is not completely accurate. Excessive dependence on the data may lead to people losing their creation and judgments and the society becomes one which is pure rational guided by data. Smart Urbanism may also involve social equity issues. Many data and services are not available to people who don’t have access to the Internet. Real-time bus Apps can’t serve people who aren’t good at using smartphones.5
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Components
Mobile Apps
Health Monitor
Data Ce
Transect
Solar Panel
Commercial
Public Sp
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Real-time Traffic
Easy Parking
Smart Streetlight
enter
Roof Garden
Residential
pace
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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PUNGGOL 21-PLUS NEW URBANISM
Singapore’s new town planning system refers to the principles of New Urbanism, including “neighborhood units”, “road classification”, etc.,1 together with the application of the TOD(Transit Oriented Development) model, which means the community is trying to create a walkable, mixed-use communities, the public transit stations are the center and communities were created within the radius of 5 ~ 10 minutes’ walk distance. Due to limited land resources and under the requirement of building high-density community, Singapore applies a threelevel public transport system dealing with MRT, lift and bus and it also follows the “new town”- “estate” two-level structure. Since the country of Singapore is also a city, the traditional “new town, community, neighborhood” three-level structure is simplified to two levels. In the 1990s, 23 new towns were connected by subway network to form a new town-level TOD, which is located along the main route of the public transport network, allowing residents from all over the city to quickly reach the central city of Singapore. Taking Punggol New Town as an example, in order to facilitate the travels of residents in the new town, and in order to ensure the quality of traffic, the development of a public transport network based on elevated rails is planned, and buses are also maintained. The bus stops in Punggol New Town are integrated with the railway stations to ensure that the distance between the housing unit and the bus stop is no more than 300m. The “estate” is the basic planning unit of Punggol New Town, with a scale of 1200-2800 residents. The application of TOD mode facilitates the needs of residents in all aspects of life and optimizes the walking experience of residents and has made Punggol New Town a compact, convenient mixed-use community.2
1. “The charter of the New Urbanism”, Congress for the New Urbanism,1993. https://www.cnu.org/who-we-are/charternew-urbanism.
2. Warren Fernandez, “PM Goh urges young to rally behind him”, The Straits Times. p. 1,1996.
3. Cliff Ellis, “The New Urbanism: Critiques and Rebuttals”, Journal of Urban Design, p. 279,2002.
4. Jessica Cheam, “Residents look forward to ‘Punggol 21-plus’”. The Straits Times, 2007.
This case reminds me of Seaside in Florida, which also uses the beach landscape, and, regardless of its original intention, has finally become a community for the rich.3 Punggol New Town applied many principles of New Urbanism such as the principle of diversity, the planning included multiple types of housing,including private houses, executive condominiums, and high-grade Housing Development Board(Singapore government agency) flats, the waterfront houses also feature stepped courtyards, and in the centre of the new town a comprehensive waterfront commercial and residential developments are planned.4 The plan also include mixed-use lands, centers of the community, etc.. But in Singapore, where most people live in affordable housing, there is a considerable price for housing with such high cost and such good view. This project, similar to other New Urbanism projects, is trying to attract people and create a sense of community, but it also seems to be an enclave for the rich, and it might undermine social justice. Singapore Since 2007 In Progress Housing & Development Board A waterfront residential town; Man-made waterway & lake;HDB & flats. Public/Government
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
Indonesia
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Components
Apartment
Townhouse
Transect Apartment
Apartment
Public Space
Public Space
Underground Parking
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
e
Community Garden
Mixed-use
Apartment
Community Center
Public Space
Indonesia
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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PUNGGOL 21-PLUS LANDSCAPE URBANISM Also taking Punggol New Town as an example, the new town has planned two new reservoirs and a 4.2-kilometer artificial river running through the township as a landscape infrastructure crossing the Punggol Waterway Park to connect the two reservoirs. The river connects multiple communities and is the carrier of multiple functions of the town, covering a diverse range of ecological environments, vegetation, animals and people.1 The river extends the ecosystem and road system to the surrounding area. The waterfront landscapes on both sides are diverse and provide a variety of activities for residents to interact with the water. The bicycle lanes on both sides are combined with the slow trails and the hydrophilic green belt.2 The bridges on the river communicate with both sides and provide diverse landscapes.3 With the completion of the river, Punggol New Town has also developed a number of waterfront residential projects and coastal residential projects, as well as landscape promenades, along with a number of recreational facilities. In addition, Eco-friendly housing projects have been carried out in Punggol New Town to implement ecological low-carbon technologies at the community building level. A variety of housing projects have adopted droughttolerant plants for roof greening, and have applied Eco-Deck, automatic irrigation systems, vertical wall greening, and rain gardens. In 2010, Punggol new town was selected as the first eco-city in Singapore.4
1. Steiner, F. R., Landscape Ecological Urbanism: Origins and Trajectories, Landscape and Urban Planning pp. 333337,2011. 2. Peh Shing Huei and Lynn Lee, “The promise of Punggol”, The Straits Times, 2007 3. Jessica Cheam, “Residents look forward to ‘Punggol 21-plus”, The Straits Times, 2007 4. “Punggol”, Singapore government, Housing&development board. https://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/aboutus/history/hdb-towns-your-home/punggol.
The project is relatively successful in terms of the implementation results, the rivers are integrated and connected to the community, residents have various activities and the community is lively, and it appears very harmonious. But the following problems are the problem of cost and benefit and the problem of purpose and method, and these two problems are also what I think the main drawbacks of Landscape Urbanism. Although the original intention of the ecocity is great, roof greening and vertical greening have high requirements for and are expensive to maintain. In addition, Punggol New Town already has this wonderful landscape condition, but in order to create a landscape and in order to give the landscape function, it spends a huge cost and artificially creates a river and reservoirs. Regardless of the outcome, it is the practice of putting the cart before the horse, making ecology for the sake of ecology, making rivers for the landscape effect, using exaggerating methods, and fail to combine the local environmental background and lack respect for the environmental context.
Singapore Since 2007 In Progress Housing & Development Board A waterfront residential town; Man-made waterway & lake;HDB & flats. Public/ Government
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
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Components
Transect
Residential
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Residential
Waterway
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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GROWTH TRIANGLE SPLINTERING URBANISM The“Growth Triangle”, also known as Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle, was established in 1994 between Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore.1 The triangle includes Johore(south Malaysia), Riau(in Indonesia), and Singapore. It aims to promote international cooperation and regional development. It was proposed by Singapore out of its growing needs in labour, low-cost land and water resources and Singapore is providing capital and strategic direction in this partnership, the other two regions are giving Singapore water while Singapore helps clean the water and give purified water back in return. In a word, Singapore is providing advanced technology and is helping to advance resources that the other two regions offer.2 The partnership was formed on 17 December 1994, with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding by the representatives of the participating countries.3 The main goal is to promote economic development though cross-border cooperation, so trans-border infrastructure construction and improvement of transportation are one of the main issues in these border territories. Major projects include the establishment of industrial parks on Batam and Mindan, the relocation of Singapore plants to Kepri, but retaining Singapore’s technology and management structure, etc., Now there are policies including international speedboat shuttle service, Singapore’s extension of its subway into Johore Bahru, a second causeway linking Johore and Singapore, etc., to promote regional cooperation.4 The triangle eased Singapore’s pressure on resource supplies and helped liberalize the economies of Indonesia and Malaysia. This kind of cooperation triangle is not the only one. In fact, there are Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta in China. This triangular cooperation relationship has also been proven effective, and trilateral cooperation is more stable than bilateral. However, unlike the situation in China, the IndonesiaMalaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle is an international one, and the interests of different countries are different and no unified regime can promote and manage such cooperation, thus this kind of cooperation is not very stable. The current situation is far more cost-effective, but it does not guarantee that this partnership will not break down when Singapore clearly dominates this partnership. This kind of partnership now has a new definition and proposal: “borderless world”,5 but this kind of borderless commitment is not likely to be realized. Not only does the countries have cultural differences and differences in residents’ perceptions, but each country is paying the most attention to its own Interest, not common interest. And in the context that Singapore is the most developed of the three, there may be exploitation of developing countries by developed countries, in the cooperation process that Singapore provides funding and technology, while the other two provide lands and labor. Land resources and water resources are precious and limited, while money are not. Also the land resources occupied by Singapore remind me of the concessions and ceded lands forcibly occupied by foreign countries during the war times. The land use right has been handed over. If the industrial production is carried out on this land, who should be responsible for the outcome of the air pollution? Additionally, there is “thriving trade in drugs, illegal immigrants and sex workers”6 among the three sides, these trades are threatening the relationship between these regions and are damaging the public’s confidence.
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1. Yeung, Yueman, Growth Triangle in Pacific Asia: A Comparative Perspective, 1994 2. Matthew Sparke, James D. Sidaway, Tim Bunnell and Carl Grundy-Warr, “riangulating the Borderless World: Geographies of Power in the Indonesia-MalaysiaSingapore Growth Triangle”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 485-498, 2004.
3. Elisabetta Nadalutti, “ Is cross-border cooperation underpinned by an ethical code of values? A theoretical analysis.”, Regional & Federal Studies, pages 41-62, 2017
4. Pangetsu, Mari , “Growth Triangles — As a Model for ASEAN Cooperation: An Indonesian Perspective”, 1991.
5. Long, N, “Bordering on immoral: Piracy, education, and the ethics of cross-border cooperation in the Indonesia-MalaysiaSingapore Growth Triangle”, Anthropological Theory, 11(4), 2011.
6. John C. Henderson, “Regionlisation and Tourism: The Indonesia- Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle”, Current Issues in Tourism, 4:2-4, pp. 78-93, 2011.
Johore (Malaysia)
Singapore
Riau (Indonesia)
Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore Since 1989 In Progress Bridges; International shuttle service; Subway extension; Public
Indonesia
Location Year(s) Status Programmes Funding Streams
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Johor
Johor-Singapore Causeway
Singapore
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Components
Singapore
Money
Labor
Natural Resources
Factory Commercial Infrastructure
Indonesia
Malaysia
Indonesia
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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UNDERGROUND SPACE DEVELOPMENT INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM Singapore’s land resources are limited, and reclamation also has ceilings on efficiency and environmental pollution, but as the economy develops and the population grows, and the demands for public facilities, transportation, and housing continue to rise. As population pressures increase, cities become more crowded, and the scarcity of land resources becomes more severe, and then the country begins to think about building infrastructure underground. In fact, Singapore intends to announce the underground master plan in 2019, which is this year.1 The completed facilities include tunnels, subways, power grids, etc., and an underground oil storage facility: Jurong Rock Caverns has also been built. Jurong Rock Caverns is covering an area of 61 hectares, and the subterranean development of the caverns is located 130 meters beneath Banyan Basin. The first phase of this project include 5 rock caverns and 8km of tunnels, the height of the caverns is 27m, and the tunnel-like caverns are 20m in width and 340m in length.2 The caverns are used to store liquid hydrocarbons, the careens are connected to the ground through access tunnel and operational tunnel, to deal the needs of ventilation and accessibility. In addition, the government is also contemplating the construction of some power stations, garbage disposal systems, and even sidewalks, bicycle lanes, buildings, etc.. their ambition was big towards this vision.3 The deepest underground construction in Singapore is almost 80 meters deep, and some subway stations are located at the depth of the 5th and 6th floors underground.4 The purpose of this plan is to relocate various infrastructure, warehousing and industrial facilities to underground spaces to make more use of ground space for housing, offices and greening, enhancing the image of the city, and improve the livability of the city. 5 Such construction is clear, both in terms of benefits and disadvantages. In the case of limited land resources, Singapore’s underground city is kind of a helpless move, even a good way out. Infrastructure and municipal facilities built underground can effectively avoid some extreme weather damage and make travel more convenient for residents. And my concern here is whether the underground city has a landscape and whether it is recognizable. According to the existing schematic diagram of the underground profile of Singapore, it seems that the underground world has only basic functionality, and it is difficult for people to identify underground space, and it is necessary for them to rely frequently on maps and road signs in order to not get lost. But in some underground passages, such as the underground passage around Orchard Road, there are many individual street performers adding glamour to the passage,6 the passage itself can also have Various characteristics and recognizable colors and decorations, and even shops along the channel, underground cities have unlimited development potential. Singapore [Exact or estimated] Partially Built Urban Redevelopment Authority Energy Market Authority; National water agency PUB Underground transportation systems; Underground pedestrian links; Underground common services tunnel; Underground Ammunition facility Urban Redevelopment Authority and other Governmental facilities A-508
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. “Masterplan of Singapore’s underground spaces ready by 2019”, The Straits Times, 2018. https://www.straitstimes.com/politics/ masterplan-of-spores-underground-spacesready-by-next-year. 2. “Five things to know about the Jurong Rock Caverns”, The Straits Times, 2014. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/ five-things-to-know-about-the-jurong-rockcaverns. 3. Hulme, T,. “Underground space development in Singapore—the past, present and future” in the book edited by Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol, pp. 407–408, 1999.
4. Hulme, T., Burchell, A.J,. “Tunnelling projects in Singapore: an overview” in the book edited by Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. Pp. 409–418,1999.
5. “Digging deep: Singapore plans an underground future”, REUTERS. https://www.reuters.com/article/ussingapore-landrights-planning/digging-deepsingapore-plans-an-underground-futureidUSKCN1ON01J 6. “Singapore visiters guide”, Marina Bay Sands, https://www.marinabaysands.com/.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Funding Streams
Caverns
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1~3m Pedestrian Links 1~10m Utilities
15~50m Road and railway networks
20~50m Deep tunnel sewage system
100m~ Jurong Rock Caverns Reservoirs
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Components
Storage Pedestrian Link
Reservoir
Rail Network
Utility Plants
Jurong Rock Caverns
Figure 02: Jurong Rock Caverns https://www.krugerfan.com/ index.php/en/Projects/2014/10-12/277.html
Common Service Tunnel
However, underground construction is accompanied by higher planning and construction difficulties. Although the high cost can stimulate economic development, things always reverse themselves after reaching an extreme. Singapore is now facing an over-construction situation. It is hard to imagine whether the underground hollowing out will cause unavoidable damage to the environment. For example, Jurong Rock Caverns is requiring water percolating and is causing the wastage of water. Underground cities are unreasonable and lack natural factors which people need to survive and thrive, it is hard to imagine life without sunshine and rain. Commuting facilities such as subways can be located underground, but the experience of underground facilities such as sidewalks is poor. Indonesia
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TOKYO METROPOLITAN AREA Tokyo Metropolitan Area
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY With a population of over 13.8 million in the city, and over 38 million in its greater metropolitan area, Tokyo is the most populous metropolitan region in the world.1,2 The Tokyo Metropolitan Area has experienced rapid rebuilding and growth after World War II with limited land. Tokyo’s development is inseparable from the development of the Tokyo Bay that surrounds it. The coastline of Tokyo Bay has experienced radical transformation through reclamation since the 16th century.3 The tradition of mega-project development in this region can be traced back to the mega-structural and Metabolist movement in the 1960s from which it drew inspiration in planning and design.4 In this study, the Tokyo Metropolitan Area is referred to as Tokyo One Metropolis, with three Prefectures (Itto Sanken) which consists of Tokyo, Saitama, Kanagawa, and Chiba. In a global context, the urban agglomeration developed around the bay area is an important geographical type in urban development with special water transportation condition and open culture. The bay area often forms a highly developed urban circle, which plays a significant role in promoting the development of surrounding areas, similar to New York Bay Area and San Francisco Bay Area.5 In many countries around the world, similar bay areas are also critical to urban development. For example, in China, Outline Development Plan for the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area was formally proposed by The CPC Central Committee and State Council recently to develop an international first-class bay area ideal for living, working and traveling.6 As one of the global bay areas, the Tokyo Metropolitan Area can be a breeding ground of urban innovation. Because of rapid urban growth and a relatively weak planning system, Tokyo is a patchwork of various types of urban space with diverse urban form issues.7 The operation of the Tokyo Bay throughout history varied in different development periods and currently the Tokyo Metropolitan Area can be a breeding ground of urban innovation. At present there are more than 40 mega-projects taking place in the Bay, belonging to different municipalities or counties including Tokyo,
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1. “Population of Tokyo (estimate).” Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Statistics Department. Accessed April 15, 2019. http:// www.toukei.metro.tokyo.jp/jsuikei/js-index.htm. 2. United Nations. The World’s Cities in 2016. PDF. United Nations, March 17, 2017. 3. Ning, Carol. “Influence of the 1960 Plan for Tokyo: Land Reclamation of the Tokyo Bay.” ASIAN CITIES RESEARCH. December 9, 2016. Accessed February 13, 2019. http://fac. arch.hku.hk/asian-cities-research/influence-ofthe-1960-plan-for-tokyo-land-reclamation-ofthe-tokyo-bay/. 4. Lin, Zhong-Jie. “From Megastructure to Megalopolis: Formation and Transformation of Mega-projects in Tokyo Bay.” Journal of Urban Design 12, no. 1 (2007): 73-92. 5. Wang, Lian. Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area: Urban Agglomeration Culture Characteristic and Development Benchmarking. Guangzhou: Flower City Press, 2018. 6. “About the Greater Bay Area - Overview.” Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://www. bayarea.gov.hk/en/about/overview.html. 7. J., Okata, and Murayama A. “Tokyo’s Urban Growth, Urban Form and Sustainability.” In Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability, 15-41. Tokyo: Springer, 2011.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
[Critical DATA]
2013
In September, Tokyo was selected to host its second Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2020.
2011
The Great East Japan Earthquake struck the Tohoku region, and Tokyo was also seriously affected. Using the experiences gained from this disaster, Tokyo is devoting efforts to further strengthening its crisis management system.
1964
The Olympic Games were held in Tokyo, the Shinkansen (“Bullet Train”) line began operations, and the Metropolitan Expressway was opened, forming the foundation for Tokyo’s current prosperity.
1962
Tokyo’s population reaches 10 million. Start of high economic growth period. 1960
1945
In the final phase of the war, Tokyo was bombed 102 times. The heaviest air raid was on March 10, 1945, in which there was great loss of life and material damage. The Japan surrender at the end of World War II on September 2. By October 1945 the population had fallen to 3.49 million, half its level in 1940.
1943
Metropolitan administration system established.
1941
The Port of Tokyo was opened. In the same year, the Pacific War broke out.
Area 14,034 km2 Population Over 38 million (Over 13.8 million in the Tokyo City) Country Japan
1940
Prefectures Tokyo, Saitama, Chiba, and Kanagawa
1935
Tokyo’s resident population reaches 6.36 million, which almost the same as New York City and London.
GDP (nominal) $2.0 trillion (¥165 trillion)
1931
Tokyo Airport was completed at Haneda.
GDP per capita (PPP) $43,664 (2014) Demographic Composition by Age Ages 0 - 14: 11.4% Ages 15 - 64: 68.2% Ages 65 and over: 20.4% Demographic Composition by Industry Primary industry: 0.4% Secondary industry: 15.2% Tertiary industry: 70.8%
2000
1930 1923
The Great Kanto Earthquake claims the lives of around 140,000 people and destroys about 300,000 houses. 1900
1872
First railway line opens between Shimbashi (Tokyo) and Yokohama.
1868
New Meiji government established. Meiji era begins. Edo renamed Tokyo and becomes the capital of Japan. Land reclamation on Tokyo Bay has been carried out along the coast of Tokyo Bay since the Meiji era.
1603
Originally named Edo, the city started to flourish after Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa Shogunate here in 1603.
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1800
1600
Tokyo
Chiba
Tokyo Bay Kanagawa
Saitama Chiba
Tokyo Tokyo Bay Kanagawa
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
8. Lin, Zhong-Jie. "From Megastructure to Megalopolis: Formation and Transformation of Mega-projects in Tokyo Bay."
Chiba, Kanagawa, and Yokohama.8 However, the Tokyo Bay area is also facing great challenges. The limited land is forcing the city to expand and develop in a different way. The rising global sea level, hurricanes, earthquakes, and flooding are also challenging the metropolis. As one of the leading and instructive mega-regions and bay area in the world with both opportunities and challenges, Tokyo Metropolitan Area can be a showcase of different theories and methods of urban design. Studying the Tokyo Metropolitan Area, we can learn how high-density urban centers could proceed to address different urban issues and better understand the relationship between city and water.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS
9. Kikuchi, Toshio, and Toshihiko Sugai. TOKYO AS A GLOBAL CITY: New Geographical Perspectives. S.l.: SPRINGER VERLAG, SINGAPOR, 2019. 10. “The Tokyo Bay Area Development: Lessons to Be Learned.” HKTDC RESEARCH. October 22, 2018. Accessed February 13, 2019. https:// hkmb.hktdc.com/en/1X0AFHXO/hktdcresearch/The-Tokyo-Bay-Area-DevelopmentLessons-to-be-Learned. 11. Berube, Alan, Jesus Leal Trujillo, Tao Ran, and Joseph Parilla. “2014 GLOBAL METRO MONITOR MAP.” Global Metro Monitor. January 22, 2015. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://www.brookings.edu/research/globalmetro-monitor/.
In general, there are three geographical ranges in Tokyo. The most compact one among the three is Tokyo City, which comprises 23 special wards. Tokyo City excels in urban land use and has also become the central area of cosmopolitan Tokyo. Tokyo’s second geographical range is the area covered by Tokyo Metropolis, an administrative division including government facilities and services. Finally, Tokyo’s largest geographical range is the Tokyo Metropolitan Area which also named the Greater Tokyo Area. It is formed by the cities, towns, and villages that accommodate over 1.5% of the employees and students who commute to Tokyo city for work and schooling.9 In this study, the definition of the Tokyo Bay Area covers Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Kanagawa, which is also called the “One Metropolis Three Prefectures.” This smaller area still accounts for almost a third of Japan’s economic output.10 Tokyo has the largest metropolitan economy in the world. The Greater Tokyo Area of over 37 million people had a total GDP of $1,616,792 in 2014 (at purchasing power parity), which topped that list.11 According to the National Census of 2010,
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Figure 01. The Tokyo Bay Aerial View
when employed persons were viewed by the three industrial groups, 22,000 persons (0.4%) were employed in the primary industry of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries; 0.912 million (15.2%) in the secondary industries of mining, construction, and manufacturing; and 4.256 million (70.8%) in the tertiary industry of commerce, transportation, communication, and services.12 With little primary industry, Tokyo relies heavily on imports for its food supply, which may cause food issues but also an opportunity for urban farming. Japan has been one of the world’s top three car producing countries since the 1960s, securing its status as a world leader in automotive manufacturing and technology. In fact, automotive related manufacturing takes up 89% of the country’s largest manufacturing sector: the transportation machinery industry.13 The booming of the auto industry has also influenced urban design and the development of Tokyo after the 1960s. Nowadays, tourism is rapidly becoming a focus of economic policy in Japan, as its contribution is now at least comparable to that of the automobile industry. Especially, after Tokyo won the bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics, prime minister Shinzo Abe decided to step up his government’s efforts to make Japan an ideal tourist destination.14 With little immigration, a rapidly aging population and a very low fertility rate, Japan is expected to experience a rapid decline in its population as a nation, and Tokyo is no exception to the trend of the country. Meanwhile, the Japan Times forecasted that the entire population of the Prefecture of Tokyo, which is the central jurisdiction of the metropolitan region, will be cut in half between 2010 and 2100.15 Also according to the National Census of 2010, child population (ages 0 - 14), the working-age population (ages 15 - 64) and the aged population (ages 65
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
12. “TOKYO’S HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND POPULATION.” Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Accessed April 15, 2019. http:// www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/ABOUT/ HISTORY/history03.htm. 13. Neely, Caylon. “The Japanese Automotive Industry.” Japan Industry News. February 13, 2018. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://www. japanindustrynews.com/2016/03/japaneseautomotive-industry/. 14.Kodera, Atsushi. “Tourism Emerges as New Economic Driver for Japan.” The Japan Times. August 25, 2014. Accessed April 21, 2019. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/ news/2014/08/25/reference/tourism-emergesnew-economic-driver-japan/#.XLu7jOhKhPZ. 15.”Tokyo Population 2019.” Tokyo Population 2019 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs). March 30, 2019. Accessed April 15, 2019. http:// worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/tokyopopulation/. 16. “TOKYO’S HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND POPULATION.” Tokyo Metropolitan Government.
and over) are 11.4%, 68.2%, and 20.4%, respectively, of the overall population.16 This means that Tokyo’s place as an international city will be at risk because of the population aging.
03 URBAN DYNAMICS 17. Hidenobu, Jinnai. Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011. 18. Gutiérrez, Erica. “The Tokyo Model: From Post-War Slum to Superpower.” Planetizen. January 20, 2013. Accessed February 13, 2019. https://www.planetizen.com/node/60311.
19. Endoh, Takeshi. “Historical Review of Reclamation Works in Tokyo Port Area.” Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi) 113, no. 4 (2004): 534-38. 20. Pernice, Raffaele. “The Issue Of Tokyo Bays Reclaimed Lands As The Origin Of Urban Utopias In Modern Japanese Architecture.” Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 72, no. 613 (2007): 259-66.
The present urban structure of Tokyo has largely been shaped by Tokyo’s history. Twice in recent history has the metropolis been left in ruins: first in the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake and later after extensive firebombing in World War II.17 In order to recover from the disaster with limited resources, a collection of semi-autonomous neighborhoods came together through self-reliance.18 The flexibility of zoning and the receptivity of open structure helped Tokyo develop rapidly from post-war slums to global superpower in an incremental way. In the wake of these disasters, Tokyo’s urban design was considered to be more resilient. The radical reclamation along the Tokyo Bay also heavily influenced the urban transformation of the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. In the Tokyo Bay area, about 2,700 hectares had been reclaimed during the Edo era period over 270 years, and about 6,000 hectares from Meiji Era to the present over about 140 years. Because of those reclamation works, the sea area of the Koto region, with the exception of some ship routes, has been replaced by man-made lands.19 Reclaimed land is made up of landfill from waste materials, sand from dredging, and soil removed from construction sites. The 1958 theme of reclamation development became the occasion for the productions on several projects which witnessed the innovative potentials and the talents of a new generation of architects, such as the members of Metabolist Group and Kenzo Tange.20
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Currently, reclamation efforts are still expanding. The total output of household waste in greater Tokyo is huge, and there is little space for traditional waste disposal sites. Household waste is strictly separated, most of which is turned into ash and further recycled to the bay landfill. However, in about 50 years, there will be no more room to extend the landfill farther south into the bay, because it interferes with shipping lanes. The only solution is to make the best use of what is available.21 However, during the high-level economic growth period following the end of WWII, the pollution of Tokyo Bay became grave.22 Contaminated water from paper mills on the Edo River damaged fisheries in the bay. Although industrial pollution has been curbed later, the new reclamation still gave birth to new pollution and the design of Tokyo’s sewer system remains a problem for water in the bay.23 Nowadays, the water quality of Tokyo Bay is still a problem to be solved for the Tokyo government. Additionally, The Olympics also played an important role in the urban development of Tokyo. The Tokaido Shinkansen, the high-speed railway and a network of toll expressways in and around the greater Tokyo area were built for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and have become great examples of positive Olympic legacies. These infrastructure projects promoted the development of the Tokyo economy. Especially for the Tokyo Bay area, the Shinkansen high-speed trains led to the influx of people from across Japan to the Tokyo Bay area, which further boosted the growth of the agglomeration economy.24 The upcoming 2020 Olympic games will be a new opportunity for the urban development of the Tokyo Bay area and it will affect the physical and social structure of the Tokyo Bay Area in a significant way. The Olympics itself is a great example of inherently successional urban projects, which are designed to be put up and to be taken down.25 As was mentioned before, the artificial island will be used and become an important platform for the 2020 Olympic Games and the waterrelated Olympic projects will be an opportunity for the Tokyo Bay to improve its water quality. 04
SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS
The selected projects focus on the diverse urban practice in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area and the Tokyo Bay Area which reveal the potential of this highdense waterfront area. The first project is A plan for Tokyo 1960 which is a utopian project by Kenzo Tange located in the Tokyo Bay. Although this mega-structure project is left only on paper, the idea of Metabolism that thinking of the city as living organisms has become an important idea in the development of Japanese urbanization and also has a world wide influence. The Super Levees is a practical project dealing with environmental threats compared with the utopian one. It is a robust broad river embankment integrating multi-functional structures and has over 30 years history of construction. The Super Levees provide a soft and resilient boundary between the urban land and the water which could be a model for those cities facing similar problems.
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21. Hornyak, Tim. “Wasteland: Tokyo Grows on Its Own Trash.” The Japan Times. February 18, 2017. Accessed April 15, 2019. https:// www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2017/02/18/ environment/wasteland-tokyo-grows-trash/#. XLvCdehKhPY. 22. YAMAZAKI, Kenji, and Tomoko YAMAZAKI. Sustainable Development of Tokyo Bay: Collaboration of Anti-reclamation Movement and Urban Fishery. PDF. University of Kentucky. 23. Hornyak, Tim. “Ensuring Tokyo Bay Is Fit for Swimming Ahead of the 2020 Olympics.” The Japan Times. September 15, 2018. Accessed April 15, 2019.
24. Zhou, Muzhi. “Tokyo Bay Area a Lesson in Development.” China Daily. May 8, 2017. Accessed February 13, 2019. http://www. chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2017-05/08/ content_29241841.htm. 25. Gold, John R., and Margaret M. Gold. “Olympic Cities: Regeneration, City Rebranding and Changing Urban Agendas.” Geography Compass 2, no. 1 (2008): 300-18.
Figure 02. Tokyo Bay Aerial Map
The Yokohama International Passenger Terminal is another project focus on the waterfront landscape. It combines the infrastructural building and the landscape together and integrates the nearby waterfront landscape system, becoming a holistic public space system. Facing the future development, the 2020 Olympic Games is a new opportunity and challenge for Tokyo Metropolitan Area and the Tokyo Bay. The planning tries to find a sustainable approach to make use of the existing legacy and seek development in the bay area. Coming back to daily life in Tokyo, the Sorado Farm shows how Tokyo explores urban farming in the high-dense metropolitan area and the potential of the existing infrastructure. This project utilizes the rooftops of train stations to accommodate urban gardens for passengers. It could be a good example of connecting urban development and people’s daily life. These urban projects show how Tokyo as a global city utilizes its opportunity and urban condition and dealing with its challenge and threats. Coincidentally, these projects are also more or less related to Tokyo’s infrastructure development, and we can learn more about the possibilities of urban infrastructure from these projects.
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A PLAN FOR TOKYO 1960 [UTOPIAN URBANISM] In the 20th Century, Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier started their dream of urban utopias and each of them saw the salvation of civilization in his own particular urban vision. (1) In the later 20th century, on the other side of the world -- Japan, architects also began to imagine the future urban vision of Tokyo, with the post-war urbanism and economic growth. Kenzo Tange’s “A Plan for Tokyo 1960” is a model city for an automobile society with the background of Japan’s rapid urbanization and motorization when many cities in the industrial world were experiencing the height of urban sprawl. This project was driven by the architect’s strong interest in urban infrastructure and his belief in mobility as a fundamental factor influencing the development of postwar Japanese society and Tange considered motorization as an inevitable process and tried to implement a new transportation infrastructure to accommodate it. (2) These proposals reflect their original vision of modern cities, which was inspired primarily by many of the cultural and socio-economic factors that existed in Japan at the time, such as the uncontrolled sprawl of cities. (3) The plan is a city floating on the Tokyo Bay which mainly consists with a linear civic axis and stretching out residential district. The nearly 80 km linear axis
[Tokyo, JAPAN] [1960] [Unbuilt] [Kenzo Tange] [Metabolism] [Housing, Transportation Infrastructure, Office Space, Commercial Space and Public Space] [Japanese Committee for Housing World Design Conference 1960]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. Fishman, Robert. Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016. 2. Cho, Hyunjung. “Kenzō Tange’s A Plan for Tokyo, 1960: A Plan for Urban Mobility.” ARQ: Architectural Research Quarterly 22, no. 2 (June 21, 2018): 139-50. 3. Pernice, Raffaele. “The Issue Of Tokyo Bays Reclaimed Lands As The Origin Of Urban Utopias In Modern Japanese Architecture.” Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 72, no. 613 (2007): 259-66.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
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with complex highway system all the way across Tokyo Bay is the backbone of the redevelopment of the metropolitan area. Various facilities like transportation hub, administrative zone, and office district are located along the axis. Housing districts would grow perpendicularly to the axis with connection of the monorail and highway system. Besides, Tange focus on not only the linear urban megastructure in a macro level, but also the new forms of architecture in a micro level. For example, the office district is an overhead giant bridge structure called “Pilotis and Core Structure” and it separate the pedestrian system and automobile system. All the cars park under the pilotis and pedestrian enter the buildings with elevators. Besides, the residential district is pyramidal structure which is an expanding and growing system along the axis. In the A-shaped tower, the housing units located on its two sides while the parking is at the bottom and the middle part is public space like school, shopping and plaza. (4)
4. Cho, Hyunjung. “Kenzō Tange’s A Plan for Tokyo, 1960: A Plan for Urban Mobility.”
Although this plan had little impact on the actual development of Tokyo (5), the idea of the “Metabolism” is very compelling in the plan. The name, taken from the biological concept, came from an image of architecture and cities that shared the ability of living organisms to keep growing, reproducing, and transforming in response to their environments. (6) The Metabolists rejected the modernist notion of city as a stable mechanical object but considered it as an organic process of ceaseless transformation without physical destination. (7) As is shown in the Tange’s plan, the mega-scale linear civic axis is just like a spine and all the connected residential districts are the blood vessels growing along the axis. The whole floating mega-city becomes a growing organism attached to the Tokyo City and accommodate the city’s continued expansion and internal regeneration.
5. Ibid.
Through the plan, Tange wanted to promote a series of conceptions like mobility, openness, and adaptability to change and growth, which is important elements to be considered in urban design. Tange thinks that organic life of Tokyo lay exactly in the flowing movement of people who engage in the communication of various functions. (8) However, in Tange’s utopian plan, the mega-structured pure automobile system could be very efficient but hardly flexible.
8. Ning, Carol. “Influence of the 1960 Plan for Tokyo: Land Reclamation of the Tokyo Bay.” ASIAN CITIES RESEARCH. December 9, 2016. Accessed April 15, 2019. http://fac.arch. hku.hk/asian-cities-research/influence-of-the1960-plan-for-tokyo-land-reclamation-of-thetokyo-bay/.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
6. Price, Annie. “METABOLIC CITY:A NOSTALGIC VISION OF THE FUTURE.” 2014. Accessed March 11, 2019. http:// thedefiantzine.com/tokyo/content/metaboliccity/. 7. Lin, Zhongjie. “URBAN STRUCTURE FOR THE EXPANDING METROPOLIS: KENZO TANGE’S 1960 PLAN FORTOKYO.” Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 24, no. 2 (2007): 109-24.
Figure 03. Model of A plan for Tokyo 1960 Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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TAXONOMY
Commercial & Office
Residential
TRANSECT
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Civil
Transportation
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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SUPER LEVEES [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] “Infrastructural Urbanism looks to explore how spatial and social forms are being transformed through interventions. It is interested in the interplay between social and spatial aspects of infrastructural systems within the current economic and political context.”(1) As an essential type of infrastructure in waterfront cities, levees and dyke-dams protect urban land from flooding and other natural disasters. However, in Tokyo, levee evolved into “super-levee” to provide more urban interventions. Arakawa River means a wild, rude and devastating river in Japanese. In 1910, Tokyo was hit by huge floods. The damage from the flood was enormous, equivalent to 4.2 percent of Japan’s gross national income at the time, affecting nearly 1.5 million people and flooding 270,000 homes.(2) Then, the government built sluicegates and a 10-meter embankment along the Arakawa River to prevent from the floodwaters. However, those measures are considered not enough later. And so, in 1987, the River Council put forward a radical new solution named “super-levee” to protect the lower 58.2 kilometers of the river. These levees are extremely wide with 1,000 feet wide and 30 feet high with residential, commercial and public spaces along the river. After that, the “super-levee” became a widelyused urban flood protection model of lowland area in Japan.
[Arakawa River, JAPAN] [Since 1987] [In Progress] [River Council of Tokyo] [Combine the infrastructure of levees with landscape and mixused urban space] [Mixuses of residential, commercial, recreational and infrastructural] [Government founding]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. Allen, Stan. Points Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.
2. Mckean, Cameron Allan. “Tokyo Building Enormous “Super-Levees” to Hold Back Its River.” Next City. December 4, 2013. Accessed March 11, 2019. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/tokyo-isbuilding-enormous-super-levees-to-holdback-its-river.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
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Compare to the traditional levee the super levee is more resistant to overflow, seepage and even earthquakes because it provides a flood-protection zone instead of a mere barrier. Even if the water overtops the super-levee, it is slowed as it flows down the long backslope. With their broad bases, the super levees are less likely to effect by the breach and under-seepage and fail during earthquakes that threaten thinner levees. (3) The advantage of the super levee is not only the better protection, but also its combination with other multifunctional urban structures. There are residential buildings, shops, offices, schools, parking lot, landscape and other facilities like water station and electric power station on the super levee. By combining other uses, flood protection is integrated into the fabric of an urban area and other sources of funding, such as transportation funding or private-public partnerships, may be available. (4) Besides, it provides easier access to the river and better view of the river while the traditional levee blocked the river out of urban area. However, the limitation of the super levee is also obvious that the extreme width of the levee needs the waterfront area available for brand new construction. It means that the existing waterfront neighborhoods must be temporary relocated, and the cost will be expansive. As a result, it involves a much larger redevelopment program which raise more economic, social, environmental, and feasibility issues. Areas with an existing public space like park, road, highway, or railway are often more suitable for super levee. The lesson we can learn from super levee is that the infrastructure of flood protection is considered more than a pure infrastructure only used in less frequent emergency event but a space of everyday life with effective use.
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3. Valin, Ivan. “Levee-town (Super!).” The Polis Blog. November 24, 2009. Accessed March 11, 2019. https://www.thepolisblog.org/2009/11/ levee-town-super.html.
4. Burden, Amanda M. “MULTI-PURPOSE LEVEES.” In COASTAL CLIMATE RESILIENCE: Urban Waterfront Adaptive Strategies, 86-87. NYC Department of City Planning, 2013.
Figure 04. A sports festival is held on the banks of a standard Arakawa embankment
Figure 05. Comparison with ordinary levee facing the overtopping, seepage and earthquake Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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TAXONOMY Different programs on Super Levees
Housing
School
TRANSECT
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Commercial Building
Recycling Facility
Pumping Facility
Sport
Park
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Electric Power
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Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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YOKOHAMA INTERNATIONAL TERMINAL [LANDSCAPE / INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] “In pairing landscape with urbanism, landscape urbanism seeks to reintroduce critical connections with natural and hidden systems and proposes the use of such systems as a flexible approach to the current concerns and problems of the urban condition.” (1) Landscape is an essential part of contemporary urban environment, and it can be more than individual parks and open space. Public landscapes could be used as ordering mechanisms in the urban field and it can be combined with buildings and other urban elements. The Yokohama International Passenger Terminal is a representative example that integrating the landscape, infrastructure and architecture together and act as an extension of urban fabric. (2) This infrastructural project is located in Yokohama, which is an important port around the Tokyo Bay area. The Yokohama International Passenger Terminal is a part of Urban Center Reinforcement Project, one of the 6 flagship urban design projects within Yokohama since 1960s. Designed by Foreign Office Architects (FOA) in 1995, the Yokohama International Passenger Terminal represents an emerging type of transport infrastructure while inspiring a strong discourse on the social responsibility of large projects to enrich the Shared urban space. (3) It breaks away from the typical commemorative nature of the passenger terminal and connects with urban daily life, serving as a threshold between land and water
[Yokohama, JAPAN] [2002] [Built] [Foreign Office Architects (FOA)] [Continuity of the Green Axis in Yokohama] [Port Terminal and Public Space] [Government Funding]
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1. Gray, Christopher. “Landscape Urbanism: Definitions & Trajectory.” Scenario Journal. Fall 2011. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://scenariojournal.com/ article/landscape-urbanism/. 2. Jauslin, Daniel. “Infrastructure as Landscape as Architecture.” Research In Urbanism Series 3(1) (2015): 229-51. 3. Langdon, David. “AD Classics: Yokohama International Passenger Terminal / Foreign Office Architects (FOA).” ArchDaily. October 17, 2018. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// www.archdaily.com/554132/ad-classicsyokohama-inter national-passeng erterminal-foreign-office-architects-foa.
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at the same time. As an extension of Yokohama’s urban fabric, this project creates circulation through the shaped rooftop surface, which serves as a multi-functional public space open to the public 24 hours a day. With full accessibility, both travelers and non-travelers can step onto the observation deck to not only enjoy the views of the Tokyo Bay and the terminal’s cruise ships, but also join different public activities like gatherings, car shows, beer festivals, New Year fireworks parties, weddings, and outdoor concerts. Besides, the open and flexible terminal floor is used for pop-up concerts, markets, fashion shows, and book fairs while the parking areas can be used for a flea market. (4) Its openness makes it more than an infrastructure but a social and civic space for both travelers and local residents Besides, the terminal is not an only individual architecture with green roof, it connected to the neighboring public spaces, serving as a peak of Yokohama’s green axis which connecting Odori Park, Kusunoki Square, Yokohama Park and NihonOdori. The terminal is also connected with the waterfront axis of Yokohama which consists with several waterfront park and public space. The organic connection of urban central areas using both the sea and greenery are the main attraction of Yokohama (5) and the Yokohama International Passenger Terminal act as a portal and intersection of it. As a transportation infrastructure, it also connects to the bus system of Yokohama and the underground railway station is within 500 meters. As urban designers, what we can learn from the Yokohama International Passenger Terminal is that it crossed disciplinary borders between infrastructure, landscape and architecture and integrates them to act as a critical urban element that serves different function to different group of people.
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4. Moussavi, Farshid. “Yokohama International Port Terminal.” Harvard Graduate School of Design. 2002. Accessed April 12, 2019. https:// www.gsd.har vard.edu/project/yokohamainternational-port-terminal/.
5. Urban Design Yokohama. PDF. Urban Development Bureau, City of Yokohama, March 2012.
Figure 06. Aerial view of Yokohama International Passenger Terminal Figure 07. The rooftop functions as a promenade, open to the public 24 hours a day Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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TAXONOMY Different programs in the terminal with section relationship
TRANSECT
Yokohama Statian and Yokohama Park
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Street Landscape
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Opening Port Festival Park
Waterfront Road
Yokohama International Terminal with Rooftop Landscape
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Tokyo Bay
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Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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2020 OLYMPIC GAMES PLANNING [EPHEMERAL URBANISM] Ephemeral Urbanism challenges the notion of permanence, as a default condition for cities and the work of designers. As one of the 7 taxonomies identified for the ephemeral city mentioned by Rahul Mehrotra, the transnational events like Expo World Fairs, Olympics and World Cups are also medium for different projects and urban development. (1) Now, the Olympics becomes back to Tokyo again and turns Tokyo into an ephemeral city for global celebration, which will affect Tokyo in urban, social and economic structure again. The Olympic Games is a celebration of sports and an opportunity for a nation to showcases their culture and all it has to offer. The ephemeral event will attract the world’s attention and bring prosperity to the hosting city. However, with the extremely high cost, these host cities are often left with structures that lack the relevance and function of their initial, fleeting lives. In recent years, fewer cities have been taking part in the bidding process, suggesting that the impact of the Games is beginning to catch up with the excitement. As many as 12 cities contended for the honor of hosting the 2004 games; only two were put forward for 2024/28. (2) As the second time holding the Olympics, Tokyo has more opportunity but also challenge to overcome. According to the 2020 Olympic Games Planning,
[Tokyo, JAPAN] [Estimated 2020] [In Progress] [The Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games] [Tokyo Metropolitan Government] [Legacy and Sustainability] [Venues, Transportation System, Olympic Village / Paralympic Village, and Exhibition Centre] [Government Funding]
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1. Mehrotra, Rahul, Felipe Vera, José Mayoral, Richard Sennett, and Richard Burdett. Ephemeral Urbanism: Does Permanence Matter? Trento: LISt Lab, 2017. 2. Dobbins, Tom. “Cities Are Avoiding Hosting the Olympics. They Shouldn’t.” ArchDaily. August 16, 2018. Accessed March 11, 2019. https://www.archdaily. com/900223/cities-are-avoiding-hostingthe-olympics-can-better-architecture-helpbring-them-back.
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Tokyo’s past and future are joined together. Venues are located in two thematic zones, the Heritage Zone and the Tokyo Bay Zone. (3) The Heritage Zone locates in the inland area of Tokyo, where the Tokyo 1964 Olympics was held. In this area, most of the venues are existing and some of them are the legacy of 1964 Olympics. The Tokyo Bay Zone is a model for future urban development of Tokyo. In this area, there will be a lot of waterfront new constructions but many of them are temporary or semi-temporary to decrease the wasting of infrastructure. To connect these two zones, the Olympic Village locates in the intersection of the two zones, which is convenient for the transportation. After the Games, the Olympic Village will become a complex of residential dwellings and sites for international exchange, with activities in education, culture and sports. And there will be a waterfront park adjacent to the complex open to the citizens of Tokyo.(4) In addition to stadiums, other infrastructure like parks, water parks and beaches will be improved and constructed as temporary venues. Besides, the transportation system will be improved for the Olympic. The whole planning of the Games makes use the legacy as an opportunity to bring new development to the Tokyo Bay, connecting the inland area and bay area of Tokyo together.
3. “About ‘Heritage Zone & Tokyo Bay Zone’.” Bureau of Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020 Preparation. Accessed April 15, 2019. https://www.2020games.metro.tokyo. jp/eng/taikaijyunbi/taikai/map/heritagetokyobay/index.html.
4. Candidature File of The Tokyo 2020 Olympic. PDF. Tokyo: The Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Bid Committee, January 7, 2013.
To minimizing the negative effects of hosting the Olympics, the resiliency and sustainability become a critical part to create long-lasting contribute to the development of Tokyo. In addition to the reuse of the existing venues and the upgrading of the urban infrastructure, the new constructions should be carefully planned. For those temporary facilities, reusable and relocatable construction methods should be taken into consideration. For the permanent facilities, how to make them serve the local people in their daily life after the games and become long-lasting legacy will be another challenge. “In terms of hard legacy, it will leave behind facilities and the athletes’ village. Venues like the main stadium and the aquatic center will have a big role to play in Japanese sports.” Japanese Olympic Committee President Tsunekazu Takeda said. (5) We can see Tokyo’s desire to create long-lasting legacy, but it still need further effort in the future.
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5. McKirdy, Andrew. “Tokyo 2020 Olympics Will Come and Quickly Go, but the Legacy Is All-important.” The Japan Times. January 2, 2017. Accessed March 11, 2019.
Figure 08. Rendered image of Japan National Stadium
Figure 09. Rendered image of Olympic Village/paralympic Villag Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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Before the Olympics
During the Olympics
After the Olympics
Existing
Existing with permanent renovation
TRANSECT
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
Tokyo Metropolitan Gymnasium and Olympic Stadium
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Imperial Palace Garden
Tokyo I
Temporary
International Forum
Semi-permanent New
Olympic Village
New Construction
IBC/MPC (Tokyo Big Sight)
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Sea Forest Waterway
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SORADO FARM [AGRARIAN URBANISM] “Agrarian Urbanism is a method of design that incorporates and intensifies agricultural activity across the Transect, promoting a variety of associated economic, environmental and social benefits from a neighborhood’s center to its rural edge” (1) However, in Tokyo, Agrarian Urbanism not only developed in a vertical way, but also made a special incorporation with urban infrastructure. In Tokyo, only 0.4% people were employed in the primary industry of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. (2) However, Tokyo supports more than 13.2 million people and imports 80 percent of its food, making the need for innovative and productive use of urban spaces more pressing than ever. (3) Soradofarm is an urban agriculture project that uses the rooftops of train stations to accommodate urban gardens for train passengers who want to use their daily transfer time to do some farming and gardening and help improve the urban environment of the station, jumping out of their busy but boring commute route The Soradofarm is developed by station entertainment company Ekipara together with JR East trains to contribute to the environmental maintenance and revitalize area along the train line. People can rent a three-square meter garden for JPY 100,440 (about 900 dollars) a year, including the use of tools and equipment.
[Tokyo, JAPAN] [Since 2010] [Ephemeral] [Ekipara (station entertainment company)] [JR East Trains] [DIY] [Rooftop farms] [Ekipara & JR East Trains]
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1. Duany, Andres. Garden Cities: Theory & Practice of Agrarian Urbanism. London: Princes Foundation, 2012. 2. “TOKYO’S HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, AND POPULATION.” Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Accessed April 15, 2019. http://www.metro.tokyo. jp/ENGLISH/ABOUT/HISTORY/ history03.htm. 3. Nink, Emily. “Ten Unique Urban Agriculture Projects in Tokyo.” Food Tank. November 15, 2016. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://foodtank.com/ news/2015/02/tokyos-ten-most-notableurban-agriculture-projects/.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Location of Sorado Farm and Railway System
Sorado Farm on Ebisu Station Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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The renters don’t need to know how to garden at all, and newbies can turn to other gardeners for help. If they are too busy, they can also pay extra for someone to clean up their plot, check for bugs or even harvest their product. (4) Although there are just seven urban rooftop gardens installed at the train stations so far, East Japan Railways plans to open up more of these garden allotments “on top of or near to each one of its stations” in the future. (5) With the great accessibility of train, now the farms are popular recreational spaces for families to enjoy the open green space, have a picnic with kids in the dense urban area in Tokyo Rooftop farms have been set up around the world to grow food in dense urban areas, creating urban foodscapes. However, the decentralized Soradofarm gives a new meaning to urban farming as a strategy. Different from other rooftop farms, Soradofarm creatively combines the urban farming with infrastructure. By building farms on rooftop of train stations, it connects decentralized rooftop farms by rail and forms a network with infrastructure in the urban area. Compare to other urban farms which focus on the food production and the educational role of their farming activity (6), the It connects urban farming with people’s daily life and daily route, making individual citizen involve in the process. However, because of the business operation of the project at this stage, the membership fee is relatively high for about 900 dollars a year so only limited people can participate in the project. But with the future development and optimization of business operation, it is hoped that more people can participate in urban farming to make better contributions to the city.
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4. Meinhold, Bridgette. “Rooftop Farms on Japanese Train Stations Serve as Community Gardens.” Inhabitat. March 25, 2014. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://inhabitat.com/rooftopfarms-on-japanese-train-stations-ser ve-ascommunity-gardens/?variation=d. 5. Markham, Derek. “You Won’t Believe What Passengers Are Doing on the Roof of This Tokyo Train Station, but It Will Make You Green with Envy.” TreeHugger. October 11, 2018. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www. treehugger.com/lawn-garden/you-wont-believewhat-passengers-are-doing-roofs-tokyo-trainstations-it-will-make-you-green-envy.html. 6. Boer, Joop De. “Japanese Commuters Grow Veggies On Train Station Rooftops.” Pop Up City. March 24, 2014. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://popupcity.net/japanese-commutersgrow-veggies-on-train-station-rooftops/.
Figure 10. Photo of rooftop farm on Ogikubo Station
Figure 11. Photo of rooftop farm on Ebisu Station Tokyo Metropolitan Area
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TAXONOMY
Railway Station
TRANSECT
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Commercial Building
Office Building
Rooftop Farm
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
3m² Rental Plot
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PEARL RIVER DELTA CITY CLUSTER
Pearl River Delta CHINA 01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE “The Pearl River Delta is without any doubt the region that has undergone the most radical transformation as a result of the past twenty years of reforms. Previously with low levels of industrialization and urbanization, today it is the primary source of Chinese exports, to which the two Special Economic Zones of Shenzhen and Zhuhai are major contributors. The Delta brings together 12 million inhabitants, and projections are for a tripling of the population by 2020.” [1]
1. Koolhaas, Rem, and Chuihua Judy Chung. Project on the City. Great Leap Forward. Köln: Taschen, 2001.preface.
Rem Koolhaas has made the case of a promisingly urbanized region of Pearl River Delta, and the rapidness of development is even crazier than the projectionAccording to the 2016 Demographic Censor Report[2], the total population has grown to 57.2 million, and we haven’t got to 2020 yet. The Pearl River Delta is an interlinked urban system based on the similarity and cities’ proximity, the crisscrossing transit infrastructures, the close interrelation of industry chains, and the political demographics integrating the territory as a whole.
2. Guangdong Provincial Bureau of Statistics, http://www.gdstats.gov.cn/
Pearl River Delta has been one of the fastest urbanizing regions in China. Its booming economy nurtures a great deal of innovative urban practices on the delta base with plenty of historical heritage, which contributes to the urban design methods through various types of urban projects and experimental cases. Sufficient investments, both domestic and foreign, have been enabling these various urban projects to happen in Pearl River Delta. By 2017, the number of construction enterprises in Guangdong has reached 5,606, an increase of 20.9% over 2012; the added value of the construction industry is 281.882 billion yuan, an increase of 49.1% over the current period of 2012 (current price growth); the total output value of the construction industry is 1,115,133 million yuan, compared with 2012. The growth rate was 76.3%.[3] The constant push on capital leads to a number of urban projects including pragmatic and experimental ones, offering thoughts of the future of the urban area in city clusters.
3. Guangdong Provincial Bureau of Statistics, http://www.gdstats.gov.cn/tjzl/tjfx/201901/ t20190115_421145.html
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TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2020
2017
2008
[Critical DATA] Area Population Country[es]
42,200 km² 57.2 million China
Social Indicators One of the most dynamic economic zones in the Asia-Pacific region, accounting for 70% of Guangdong’s population and 85% of the province’s GDP.
Economic Indicators Together with four other major city clusters in China, they occupy 40% of total population with 11% of total land, producing annually 55% of total GDP. PRD City Clusters creates 12% of total GDP with less than 5% of total population. In this bay area 26,350 billion capital is concentrated, among which 63% is input into Guangzhou and Shenzhen.
In this stage, the spatial structure of the PRD urban agglomeration evolves into the driving stage of the foreign-oriented industrialization mode and urbanization mode. After the reform and opening up, the rise of Shenzhen has made it a central city shoulder to shoulder with Guangzhou, and the double-center urban groups of Guangzhou and Shenzhen have become the structural characteristics of the Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration. The functions of urban groups have diversified and the exchanges have become closer. As a result, Zhuhai has developed into a multi-level urban system with integrated urban and rural areas and complete types.
2015
2010
2000
1990 1987
Environmental Indicators The delta near the estuary is still extending to the South China Sea. It can stretch 10 to 120 meters per year in the estuary area and become one of the key reclamation areas in China.
The Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau bridge saves a lot of time in the transportation between the cities. More convenient transportation, enhanced economic exchanges of vehicles effectively attracted Hong Kong funds to invest in cities on the west bank of the pearl river. the nine cities, including Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions will form an integrated city cluster in the greater bay area. The synergy effect of overall development will be increasingly coordinated, with complementary resources and powerful functions, just as it is within a city.
In this historical period, the spatial structure evolution of the PRD urban agglomeration belongs to the stage of political repression. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, due to political and other reasons, the exchanges between the mainland and Hong Kong and Macau have been artificially limited or almost isolated. The country began to industrialize on a large scale, but coastal towns on the frontier of national defense developed slowly. 1700
1644
1368
After the 16th century, Macau rose as an international trading port after it was occupied by the Portuguese, which changed the development mode of Guangzhou in the Pearl River Delta in the past, and replaced it with the development mode of Guangzhou and Macau, which presented the “T” structure in spatial layout.
In this historical stage, the spatial structure evolution of Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration belongs to the stage driven by ports. With the change of port status and function, the Pearl River Delta city cluster presents different spatial forms. The single urban center stage before the Yuan dynasty. During this period, Guangzhou was a unipolar city, and the convenience of port transportation was the main driving force for the formation of the single center pattern in the Pearl River Delta. The early Ming dynasty to the establishment of new China’s regional dual - center stage.
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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1600
1300
Liede Village
Nantou Village Renovation
High Education Mega Center
H-Z-M Crossbay Bridge St. Anthony Parish
Figure 01. Pearl River Delta territory & Selected Urban Projects 0 A-566
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50 km
Among the foreign investment attracted by the Pearl River Delta, Hong Kong, Macao and overseas Chinese accounts for the vast majority, which plays a leading role in the rapid urbanization in the Pearl River Delta. Natively living in this area and witnessing the urban projects happening and changing the built environment has given me an exceptional experience of a rapidly developing and highly interactive system of city cluster. With distinguished history, each city embodies unique urban atmosphere, and the study of this territory sheds light on how urbanization reflects and compromises with the existing context, future blueprint, and inter-city relationship.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK Figure 02. Shenzhen with backwater, “What China can learn from the Pearl river delta”, https://www.amcham.org.hk/news/what-chinacan-learn-from-the-pearl-river-delta
4. Guangdong Encyclopedia Information Website, http://gd.zwbk.org/lemma-show-38. shtml
5. Vidal, John. “UN Report_ World’s Biggest Cities Merging into ‘mega-regions’ _ World News _ The Guardian.” https://www.scribd. com/document/118889637/UN-report-Worlds-biggest-cities-merging-into-mega-regionsWorld-news-The-Guardian.
Geographically, Pearl River Delta is the low-lying area surrounding the Pearl River estuary, where the Pearl River flows into the South China Sea. The Golden Delta of Guangdong is formed by three major rivers, the Xi Jiang (West River), Bei Jiang (North River), and Dong Jiang (East River). Flatlands of the delta are crisscrossed by a network of tributaries and distributaries of the Pearl River. Culturally, the Pearl River basin is located in the south of the subtropical Wuling Mountains, with mountains and rivers and rivers. The ancestors from the early fishing and hunting, rice production and later trade, are inseparable from the river water transport, happy flow, not conservative, it is the South Vietnamese culture that is different from the inland civilization or river valley civilization.[4] Due to the geographical location as an opening portal of the nation, the Pearl River Delta has a highly inclusive culture. “Lingnan culture” welcomes innovators and talents from all corners of the country without any exclusion, and immigrant talents also fill in the shortage of many local resources. When we look at the development of the Pearl River Delta, the contributions made by outsiders are enormous, and they will play a greater role in helping the Pearl River Delta form a world-class urban agglomeration.
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Figure 03. Zhujiang River View, Guangzhou, Gui yong nian
Demographically, as well as the delta itself, the term Pearl River Delta refers to the dense network of cities that covers nine prefectures of the province of Guangdong, namely Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Foshan, Huizhou, Jiangmen and Zhaoqing, and the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. The Pearl River Delta region has been one of the world’s most wellknown processing, manufacturing and export bases. It is one of the first choices for the world’s industrial transfer. It has initially formed an enterprise group and industrial cluster with electronic information and home appliances. Numerous job opportunities has led to giant population inflow of immigrant workers every year. The 2010/2011 State of the World Cities report, published by the United Nations Human Settlements Program, estimates the population of the delta region at 120 million people. PRD is still undergoing rapid urbanization.[5] Economically, Pearl River Delta has been one of the most economically dynamic regions of the People’s Republic of China since the launch of China’s reform program in 1979. With annual gross domestic product growth of 13.45 percent over three decades since 1978, it is 3.5 percentage points higher than the national average. Since 1978, almost 30% of all foreign investment in China was in the PRD.[6] Much of this output is invested by foreign entities and is geared for the export market. The Pearl River Delta Economic Zone accounts for approximately one-third of China’s trade value. Private-owned enterprises have developed quickly in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone and are playing an ever-growing role in the region’s economy, particularly after the year 2000 when the development environment for private-owned enterprises has been greatly relaxed.
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6.Mius, Clement. A Stronger Pearl River Delta_ Government Initiatives, p.5.
Figure 04. Timescan Product: Pearl River Delta, ESA: Space in images, https://www.esa.int/ spaceinimages/Images/2017/04/TimeScan_ product_Pearl_River_Delta
03 URBAN DYNAMICS
7. Smart A, Hsu J Y. The Chinese diaspora, foreign investment and economic development in China. The Review of International Affairs, 2004, 3(4): 544-566.
8. Yang C.Overseas Chinese investments in transition: The case of Dongguan. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 2006, 47(5): 604621.
Besides the sufficient investment driving urbanization in the territory, one of the dynamics for the formation of the Pearl River Delta interlink system is the advantages of administrative regional planning. The Pearl River Delta is under the jurisdiction of one province, which is superior to the Yangtze river delta or the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region in terms of resource integration and coordination. This factor can make the Pearl River Delta better integrate the resources of each city under the unified planning and arrangement, give play to the advantages of each city, and cooperate with each other, which can make the urban agglomeration carry out a virtuous cycle. Another reason is geographical advantage. The location advantage of the Pearl River Delta is very obvious: the Pearl River Delta is close to Hong Kong and Macao, and in the early stage of reform and opening up, the industrial structure of Hong Kong and Macao is being upgraded and replaced. It needs to rely on the mainland to transfer its increasingly costly light product processing and manufacturing industry, so a large amount of capital flows into the cities of the Pearl River Delta. Facing the South China sea and facing southeast Asia across the sea, the sea can connect with the whole world. The rural industrialization and open policies in the early stage of reform and opening up promoted the accumulation and expansion of the early industrial production space of the Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration.7 With the establishment of two special economic zones in Shenzhen and Zhuhai and the decentralization of the central to local governments, under the guidance of introduction and export-oriented policies, the Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration relies on its location advantages adjacent to Hong Kong and Macao and cheap land and labor.8 The comparative advantage actively undertakes the transfer of labor-
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intensive enterprises in Hong Kong and Macao, and establishes a large number of village and town industrial parks with “OEM production” as the main mode through the development model of “pre-shops and factories”, gradually forming the urban industrial production spatial layout of the urban agglomeration in the early 1990s.
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS Urban projects in the territory imply the diversity, inclusiveness and the experimentalist spirit across Pearl River Delta. These selected projects involve Productive Urbanism, Social Urbanism, Landscape Urbanism, New Urbanism and Empirical Urbanism (see Figures 03-07), and reflect on how the unique socio-economic-political backgrounds of the territory have a hold on the urban development. These projects are both somehow pushed by the city or the region to facilitate the fast-growing population, economic demands and public concerns.
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Figure 05. Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge under construction, GEOSHEN, https:// geoshen.com/posts/the-pearl-river-deltamegalopolis
Figure 06. Zhuhai Bay Area Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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HONGKONG-ZHUHAI-MACAO BRIDGE & PORTAL [INFRASTRUCTURE/NETWORK URBANISM] The two special administrative regions (Macao, Hong Kong) in the GuangdongHongkong-Macau greater bay area connected by the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge and the nine cities in Guangdong will form a super city with a huge scale after the overall integration. For the greater bay area, the Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macao bridge can be said to be its pillar, bringing the western part of the Pearl River Delta into Hong Kong within a 3-hour drive range.[9] The whole country economy develops, also need new structural transition. The potential complementarity of talents and industries in the greater bay area has been stimulated through more efficient logistics and communication. The linkage between the cities tends to be closer, smoother, more efficient and faster, making this an ideal relationship between districts within a city.[10] This project signifies the importance of infrastructure across a region, and the urbanization system following. The fulfillment of the project highly promotes the connection chain between west and east bank of the bay area. Following the construction of mega transit and trade center at the portal, rapid development is taking place in the urban space around. This might bring conversation to the table for network urbanism in the 2020s background as cities are increasingly emphasize on regional and global collaborations. [Hongkong/Macao/Zhuhai, CHINA] [2017] [In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [National Development and Reform Commission of China] [Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge Task Force] [Critical highway passage across the bay Socio-economic-transit connection] [Transit infrastructure/Trade portal] [Government]
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9.Greater Bay Area, https://www.bayarea. gov.hk/sc/about/overview.html
10.Outline of the Reform and Development Plan of the Pearl River Delta Region (20082020), China National Development and Reform Commission, p 8.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
200m
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GUANGZHOU
Highway [2 hrs]
Highway
SHENZHEN Highway [>2 hrs]
Railway
Railway [<1 hr] Highway [<1 hr]
HONGKONG
Ferry [>2 hrs]
ZHONGSHAN Highway [>1 hrs]
ZHUHAI
Ferry [>1 hrs]
Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge [<1 hr] Highway [<1 hr]
MACAU MACAU Figure 07. Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge connecting bay area
City
Sea
Figure 09. Section of Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city of Macau
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Landfill New Town of Macau Sea
Portal
Figure 08. Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city in the background
Terminal
Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge
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Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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HIGH EDUCATION MEGA CENTER [PRODUCTIVE/INSTITUTIONAL URBANISM] Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center(HEMC) makes an educationalbased economical entity. HEMC is an area featured by higher education institutions, located on Xiaoguwei Island in Panyu District, Guangzhou, China. Transforming a capacious island in the city area of Guangzhou, HEMC includes ten universities together with the original locals, reaching a capacity of accommodating 400 thousand people.[11] Higher education institutions bring in a large amount of students, around whom the local economy is established. Restaurants, groceries, entertainment business are developed around universities while enterprises settle around HEMC to recruit graduating students. With about 120 thousands of graduating students each year, HEMC has been the most productive place in Pearl River Delta.[12] HEMC is a controversial planning case of totally masterplanned, densely-built, highly oriented development. It showcases the result of an productive functional district in the city, partly because its geographical isolation, but also the strong control of the government and the finance support to build such a big area.
[Guangzhou, CHINA] [2004] [Built] [Guangzhou Municipal Party Committee and Government] [Universities] [Higher eductation instituition/Residential Quarter/ Park/Commercial Center/Museum] [Government/Public]
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11. Guangzhou Travel Network: Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou People’s Government, http://www.gz.gov. cn/
12. The Southern Datily, “In the 10 years of “Universalization” of Guangzhou University City, the number of college students has quadrupled”, http://www.chinanews.com/ edu/2014/09-01/6548408.shtml
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
150m
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
A-579
University Facility Building
Dormitory Buiding
Shopping Center
Art Museum & Exhibition Hall
Recreational Park
Urban Village [Residential & Hotel]
City
River
Figure 11. Section of HEMC within Guangzhou city area
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HEMC
C Island
Figure 10. Google Earth Aerial Image, Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city in the background
River
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
City
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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LIEDE VILLAGE RESETTLEMENT & RENEWAL [SOCIAL URBANISM] Once a city-centered shantytown, Liede Village has undergone thorough transformation to establish its social identity as a successful case of transforming urban villages in Guangzhou. The strategy of retaining traditional clan temples and the elements of historic Guangzhou style streets, the renewal project in Liede greatly enhances the pride of Guangzhou locals.[13] Upon annual traditional festivals, activities are held in Liede Village, engaging not only locals but visitors as well. Liede Village as a residential neighborhood, by sharing its traditional property to the general public, makes a symbolic site having social impact on Guangzhou, even the entire Guangdong urban villages.[14] Recognized as one of the most successful urban renewal project, new Liede Village has gone beyond its physical attraction of a traditional village sample in Lingnan area, as a symbolic case to demonstrate the cultural identity of Guangzhou. It brings not only tourists and commercial opportunities, but also strengthened sense of belonging by the local people. It provides another option for urban renewal particularly in the case of urban villages, that balance can be reached between local property preservation and dense residential development.
[Guangzhou, CHINA] [2011] [Built] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Guangzhou Municipal Party Committee and Government] [Liede Village Collective Community AACI] [Ancestral Hall/Historic water street/High-rise residential] [Historical exhibition/Catering/Park/Residential quarter] [Public and Private]
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13.Netease News, “The ‘Myth’ of Guangzhou Liede Village”, http:// money.163.com/14/1225/10/ AEA89O0900253B0H.html
14. Southern Metropolis Daily, “The renovation of the village has been completed for five years; The villagers have integrated themselves into the new life of C B D.”, https://gz.news.fang.com/2015-0706/16478223.htm
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Main Rd 50m
Sub Rd
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
A-585
Historical Landmark
Ancestral Hall
Traditional South China Houses
Public School
High-rise Residential
Supermarket
Commercial Center
River
Figure 13. Section of Liede Village
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Vehicular Road
Cultural Legacy
y
Figure 12 Festival Scene of Liede Village
Residential Quarter
Community Center
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
A-589
DOWNTOWN MACAU (ST. ANTHONY PARISH) [NEW URBANISM] Particularly St. Anthony Parish in Macau makes an exemplar for New Urbanism which encourages walkability, density, connectivity and multi-function. Showing the design purpose of pedestrian friendly environment, the tense and woven fabric showcases the idea of New Urbanism within this parish specifically. Walking experience in St. Anthony Parish is about enjoying the contrasting atmospheres, a mix of laid-back Mediterranean and hectic Chinese pace, beautiful and wellpreserved colonial architecture, traditional Chinese temples and ultra-modern skyscrapers.[15][16] Downtown Macau remains its medieval-style urban fabric which results in an intimate urban atmosphere for pedestrians, which I recognize as new urbanism. Under the background of close interrelation across the Zhujiang Bay, Downtown Macau positions its role as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;pure landâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; for walking tourism, fully taking advantage of its rich historical heritage. Small parcels cut out by the woven fabric inhabit a variety of functions and businesses, and in return contributes to the walkability and diversity of the area. It is intriguing to study how zoning, regulation, market together forms the urban context.
[Macau, CHINA] [Since 1887] [Built/In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Portuguese Colonial Government] [Macau Municipal Government] [Historic district] [Tourism/Retail/Church/Park] [Public and Private]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
15. Senado Square, Macao World Heritage, http://en.macaotourism.gov. mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail. php?c=10&id=147#.XNsMeY5KiUl 16. Senado, Macao World Heritage, http:// www.wh.mo/cn/site/detail/12
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
50m
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
A-591
Arch Corridor
Figure 14. Section of the street and plaza
Figure 15. Section of St. Anthony Parish in Macau.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Mobile Vendor / Kiosk
Fountain with Seats
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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A-594
RENOVATION OF NANTOU OLD TOWN [EPHEMERAL/EVERYDAY URBANISM] The Nantou Old Town Preservation and Regeneration Project manifests that only by respecting and preserving the authenticity of the history can we shape a timelessly dynamic urban community, rooted in local history and culture. It is the only precious sample of Shenzhen’s urban culture that displays both millennia of cultural heritage alongside all the optical spectacle of China’s rapid urbanization over the last three decades.[17] Thus this urban intervention of 2017 UABB is highly consistent with the old town regeneration plan, making a smooth transition from one to the other. Plants, streets, plazas, residential buildings, historic buildings and parks – have become the best venues for exhibitions; and the transformation of this series of spaces, the involvement of works of art and activities has provided an alternative to the regeneration of Nantou Ancient City and the transformation of urban villages. [18] The project starts from observing the old town itself and proceed in learning from it, to create innovative alternatives of using the open spaces and obsolete buildings. Yet attempts like this have been happening in urban villages around magacities but the influence ‘enhancing’ the quality of life hardly lasts long. Doubts come along: are these practices touching and trying to promote lives of locals, or are these villages perfect arenas for designers to perform their wild aspirations? [Shenzhen, CHINA] [2017] [Ephemeral] [Consider both landscape and built...] [URBANUS] [Urban renewal] [Exhibition/Community center/Retail/Art installation] [Private]
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17. URBANUS, Nantou Old Town Preservation and Regeneration Project, http://www.urbanus.com.cn/projects/ nantou-old-town/
18. HAN, Shuang, Nantou Old Town Preservation and Regeneration Project+Shenzhen Biennale Exhibition Renovation/URBANUS, Archdaily, http:// www.urbanus.com.cn/projects/nantou-oldtown/
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
20m
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
A-597
Figure 16-18. Nantou Village Transformation Projects [Auditorium, Exhibition Venue, Show Stage], URBANUS
Figure 19. Section of Nantou Village Transformation Projects [Community Hall, Bookstore], URBANUS
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Pearl River Delta City Cluster
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
PRAGUE AND BRATISLAVA CAPITAL AREAS OF CZECH-SLOVAKIA
Prague - Bratislava
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CAPITAL AREAS OF CZECH-SLOVAKIA
Prague
Bratislava
CZECH SLOVAKIA 01
DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY
This project establishes a comparative analysis between two capital cities, Prague and Bratislava, and examines their entangled histories and contemporary urbanisms. While different in size, a closer look at these two river cities offers an interesting window to the historic transformation of Central European territories and the development of national identities. Prague and Bratislava used to belong to one country, Czechoslovakia, “Czechoslovakia was formed from several provinces of the collapsing empire of Austria-Hungary in 1918, at the end of World War I. It separated peacefully into two new countries, the Czech Republic and Slovakia on January 1, 1993.”[1] During this period, it was once colonized by Germany and the Soviet Union, and the industrial economy is relatively developed in Europe, including various machine tools, power equipment, ships, automobiles, electric locomotives, steel rolling equipment, military industry and so on.[2] Due to the political contradictions, the economic development of two cities was affected and unbalanced for a long time. Under the leadership of different ruling parties, they each developed a unique administrative model and different leading national economic industries. Such cases of urbanization by different separatist regimes have occurred all around the world, they experienced violent revolutions and the aggression and baptism of different political parties, then they developed a comprehensive civilization in the long-term unstable historical turmoil. By studying such cases, we can explore the impact of wars and the post-war reconstruction led by different political leaders on urbanization and compare their similarities and differences. For example, post-war Prague is one of the main production centres in the Czech, and its industries include aero engines, automobiles, beer, chemicals, furniture, machine tools and processed foods.[3] During the Second World War, Prague was relatively unscathed, so the city also became a popular filming and tourism base after the war.[4] While Bratislava is the political center of Slovakia. The war has caused great damage to the old city, not only has the war destroyed the exquisite architecture, but also the rule
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1.”Czechoslovakia,” Encyclopædia Britannica, December 20, 2018, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/place/ Czechoslovakia. 2.Independent Thinker, “Czech Machine Tool Industry, A New Stage That Cannot Be Ignored,” Sina.com(blog), Accessed May 12, 2019, http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/ blog_50dee6ca0100hhuy.html. 3.“What are the characteristics of the Czech republic? ” Zhidao.Baidu.Com, October 15, 2010, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://zhidao. baidu.com/question/190932056.html. 4.“ Final assignment for world cities,” Wenku.Baidu.Com, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://wenku.baidu.com/view/ d55f54ffcaaedd3382c4d372.html.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
1995 1993
1980
Two political parties received support in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. After negotiations, Czech and Slovakia were separated and each set up Prague and Bratislava as the capital.[1] “the political, social and economic life of Czechoslovakia has stagnated”[2].
[Critical DATA] Prague Area: 191.5 mi² Population: 1,301,132 Country: Czech Republic Social Indicators: Employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce Environmental Indicators: Has a humid continental climate, and summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). Economic Indicators: Economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country.
1965
1950 1945
The Soviet Red Army liberated the whole territory, the Czech Republic and Slovakia merged again, and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was established later. Under the leadership of the Soviet Union, Slovakia’s economy gradually caught up with the Czech.
1938
“The German occupation of Czechoslovakia began with the German annexation of Czechoslovakia’s border regions known collectively as the Sudetenland, under terms outlined by the Munich Agreement and the First Republic split”[3].
Information cited from wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava
1935
1920 1918
Information cited from wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague
Bratislava Area: 191.5 mi² Population: 1,301,132 Country: Czech Republic Social Indicators: More than 75% of Bratislava’s population works in the service sector, mainly composed of trade, banking, IT, telecommunications, and tourism. Environmental Indicators: Lies in the north temperate zone and has a moderately continental climate. Economic Indicators: It is the wealthiest and most economically prosperous region in Slovakia and accounts for about 26% of the Slovak GDP.
1980
“The Austro-Hungarian Empire was defeated. Because of the same descendants of the Slavs, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and other regions united to form a new country - the Czechoslovak Republic, which once became the most industrialized and economically developed country in Eastern Europe. However, since the Czech region has been an important industrial center during the AustroHungarian period, and Slovakia is still an untapped agricultural area, the development of the two regions is not balanced, and culturally Czech and Slovakia have actually become two nationalities. More and more Slovaks feel that they become ‘secondary citizens’ and began to support the ultra-nationalist movement.”[4]
1905
1890
1875 1867
“Austria and Hungary formed the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Among them, Bohemia and Moravia (the main component of the Czech Republic today) belong to the sphere of influence of the Austrian Empire, and Slovakia is the territory of Hungary.”[5]
1860 1845 1830
Reference: [1]http://www.mxtrip.cn/wenda/71644.html [2]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia [3]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia [4][5]http://www.oushinet.com/europe/other/20170621/265187.html
Prague - Bratislava
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1815 1800
0
Figure 01. Locations of selected urban projects A-606
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
9.6 km
5.“Slovakia Bratislava Map,” World Famous Cities (Catalogue), Accessed May 12, 2019, http://bratislava.top.map456.com/. 6.”Bratislava - The Official Website of the City of Bratislava - Economy and employment,” Archive.Today, September 27, 2007, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://archive. is/20070927201137/http://www.bratislava.sk/ en/vismo5/dokumenty2.asp?u=700000&id_ org=700000&id=2018019.
0
Figure 02. Locations of Prague and Bratislava
198 km
of communist has also introduced lots of large-scale “model buildings” with uniform style, high-rise residential areas as well as some stately new buildings such as the Novy Most and Slovak Radio headquarters.[5] Thus, tourism is not the main economic source of Bratislava. It relies on high-tech industries such as trade, banking, information technology, and telecommunications to make Slovakia’s economy keep growing and even catch up with the Czech Republic.[6]
7.”Bratislava Population 2019,” World Population Review, Accessed May 12, 2019, http://worldpopulationreview.com/worldcities/bratislava-population/.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS
8. “Prague Population 2019,” World Population Review, Accessed May 12, 2019, http:// worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/ prague-population/.
Both Prague and Bratislava share similarities in population composition, with a predominantly native population and some European immigrants.[7] They are all known for being a multinational city, serving as a home to people born from all around Europe and coming from different religious backgrounds.[8]
9. “Historic Centre of Prague,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992-2019, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/616. 10. Lucas Němec, “Prague Drops Off List of World’s Most Visited Cities,” Expats.Cz, October 12, 2018, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://news.expats.cz/weekly-czech-news/ prague-drops-off-list-of-worlds-most-visitedcities/.
Prague and Bratislava are different in the geographic framework. Prague is almost filled with buildings, mainly relying on tourism to drive economic development, while Bratislava breaks the urban structure because of the terrain, and the city spreads along the edges of the mountains and roads, with obvious functional divisions. The urban area of Prague radiates from the center, and the 10 administrative areas are adjacent to each other. Bratislava is made up of villages, villages are not directly adjacent, relying on transportation links. “Historic centre of Prague is a UNESCO World Heritage Site which represents a supreme manifestation of Medieval urbanism (the New Town of Emperor Charles IV built as the New Jerusalem). It has been saved from any large-scale urban renewal or massive demolitions and thus preserves its overall configuration, pattern and spatial composition”.[9] It is the main source of Prague’s tourism economy.
Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 03-04. Bird eye view of Prague and Bratislava
The city receives more than 6 million visitors every year.[10] Bratislava historic center is only pedestrial.[11] “The city receives 1 million visitors”.[12] The development of the service industry fluctuates with the tourism industry. Tourism also drives the development of the art industry along the street and many performance artists open booths here. But there are very few residents who settle here because of the high rents that make people unable to afford their lives here. [13]The southeastern part of Prague has a large number of private garden, city parks or boulevards, and the basic living facilities such as retail shops make this area a popular neighborhood. The southern part of the area is a relatively poor working-class settlement with relatively rough buildings. The northeastern part of Prague is surrounded by green spaces, with relatively few recreational and living facilities, but the area is a well-developed suburban, and a large number of natural green spaces attract people to go on an outing and biking here. “Bratislava has five administrative districts, each of the boroughs has its own mayor and council. The boroughs are responsible for issues of local significance such as urban planning, local roads maintenance, budget, local ordinances, parks maintenance, safety and so on”.[14] The northwest of Bratislava hosts a lots of block of flat complexes for working class, whose altitude is higher than the city center. This area is also the largest educational base in Bratislava, where a large number of local and international students live. Whether Prague or Bratislava, their urbanization is closely linked to the river. Prague has struggled with the flood for many years.[15] After the disintegration of Czechoslovakia, in order to expand the urban economic development, prague continued to incorporate the surrounding suburban areas into the planning which create more jobs and transportation infrastructures.[16] The coverage
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11. “One Giant Pedestrian Zone - Review of Bratislava Old Town, Bratislava, Slovakia,” TripAdvisor, Accessed May 12, 2019, https:// www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviewsg274924-d290671-r148981373-Bratislava_Old_ Town-Bratislava_Bratislava_Region.html. 12. Spectator Staff, “Bratislava Reports Increase in Visitors,” The Slovak Spectator, December 06, 2016, Accessed May 12, 2019, https:// spectator.sme.sk/c/20402512/bratislavareports-increase-in-visitors.html. 13. Lalaine C. Delmendo, “Strong House Price Rises Continue in Czech Republic,” Global Property Guide, March 02, 2019, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.globalpropertyguide. com/Europe/Czech-Republic/Price-History. 14. “Boroughs and Localities of Bratislava,” Revolvy, Accessed May 14, 2019, https://www. revolvy.com/page/Boroughs-and-localities-ofBratislava. 15. Elisabetta Genovese, A methodological approach to land use-based flood damage assessment in urban areas: Prague case study (European Communities, 2006), 22-26, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 16. Martin Ferry, “Case Study Report: Prague Metropolitan Region,” GRINCOH Working Paper Series, no.6.06.03(2014):4.
17. Elisabetta Genovese, A methodological approach to land use-based flood damage assessment in urban areas: Prague case study (European Communities, 2006), 30-31, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 18.Anthony Bond, “Prague under Water as Floods Claim ELEVEN Lives across Europe and Threaten German City of Dresden,” Daily Mail.Com, June 05, 2013, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/ article-2335696/Prague-water-floods-claimELEVEN-lives-Europe-threaten-German-cityDresden.html.
of facilities, infrastructure and concrete floors has caused the city to face environmental problems such as flooding and soil erosion which damage the city in return.[17] The flooding disaster in August, 2002 even destroyed many historical constructions, so that in the later years the city continued developing the infrastructure project for flood issue. “Prague was again flooded in 2013. Many locations within the Vltava and Elbe basins were left under water, including the Prague Zoo, but metal barriers were erected along the banks of the Vltava to help protect the historic city centre”.[18] Similarly, in order to prevent flooding, Bratislava built the Gabčíkovo–Nagymaros Dams on the Danube with Hungary in 1992. This water conservancy project has been completed for more than three years and has exerted significant benefits in flood control, power generation, shipping, water supply, and irrigation.[19] Since both rivers are the birthplace of urban civilization, classical buildings such as castles are located on the higher bank of the river. In addition, many opera houses, dining and entertainment cultural centers have also consist of a tourism belt along the river. What’s more, the river also bears the function of sewage treatment, in Prague, “Forty-four kilometres of sewers were built between 1816 and 1828. The sewers were terminated with thirty-five outlets directly in the Vltava River. And as technology becomes more developed,a licensed sewer cleaning trade was established. The sewers were cleaned at night and the extracted material was transported to Nusle, Vršovice and Záběhlice for composting.”[20]
03 Waldheim, Charles, Landscape as Urbanism: A General Theory(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2016).
URBAN DYNAMICS
The impression of the two cities may have remained in the gorgeous architectural period of Baroque, Rococo or Gothic, but the development of modern urbanism has never stopped in both places. For example, transportation, Prague - Bratislava
A-609
Figure 05-06. Bird eye view of Prague and Bratislava
as the basic skeleton of urban operations, transfers resources and manpower between urban and rural areas and indirectly expands urban boundaries. In other words, it is the continuous expansion of the city that promotes the perfection of the transportation system. “The logic of globalization as well as the domestic demand triggered the demand for real estate, better transportation, housing etc. The city of Bratislava and Prague take care of the pressure of developers, citizens, to satisfy the transport needs and demand for the overall modernization of the facilities.”[21] At the same time, the river culture in the modern sense no longer focuses on quaint agricultural irrigation, but is more inclined to create a nightlife city for leisure and entertainment, changing the way people live. Even so, the actions of cultural protection have never stopped in Prague and Bratislava. The ancient market culture and traditional festivals are spreading in new forms between the streets and the alleys. “For areas like urban or town, village, archaeological and other heritage reservations, as a rule these areas are defined by a compact, historic built-up area with a large share of architecturally valuable structures, of which many have been designated as immovable cultural heritage sites”.[22]
04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The five selected projects show how urbanism maintains the balance of development in the new and old town and how to develop modern infrastructure without destroying the city’s cultural heritage. Some of the projects target the internal population of the capital region, from the perspective of everyday urbanism, the original activities are preserved on the historical site, and new urban activities are superimposed through practical schedules, personnel transfer,
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19. International Finance Corporation World Bank Group, Hydroelectric Power-A Guide for Developers and Investors (IFC, 2015), 5, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 20. Jaroslav Jásek and Jana Almerová, “History of the Sewer Systems,” Pražská vodohospodářská společnost a.s., Accessed May 12, 2019, http://www.pvs.cz/en/history/ history-of-the-sewer-systems/. 21. Daniela spirkova and koloman ivanicka, “Dynamics of Bratislava Urban and Housing Development,” in New Models for Innovative Management and Urban Dynamics, ed. Thomas Panagopoulos (The University of Algarve and COST Office, 2009), 37, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 22. Nomaan Khan, “Prague Heritage Conservation,” Academia.Edu, Accessed March 10, 2019, https://www.academia.edu/5785586/ Prague_Heritage_conservation.
and venue arrangement. Or starting from the new community construction, adding the old form of activity, from the perspective of social urbanism, creatively retains both old and new lifestyles. In addition, urbanism, as a tool for urban development, has reserved some commemorative venues or coordinated development projects, such as memory park and infrastructure development. Finally, based on the needs of human settlements, some private old landscapes were transformed into the public to promote harmonious communication between human and nature.
Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 07-14. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava
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Prague - Bratislava
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THE OLD JEWISH CEMETERY [MEMORIAL URBANISM] “All buildings are formed under specific historical circumstances and backgrounds of the times, they have been given the mark of history through this process, especially the monumental buildings that emphasize the sense of history”. [23] “Monument is that people are pursuing a certain psychological perception produced by the history or legend, which is a solemn and eternal feeling”. [24] Commemoration is manifested in the realistic restoration of historical events. Through the construction of memorial projects, people cherish the memory of the past and form a vigilance to avoid the recurrence of mistakes.[25] Memorial urbanism means that the city retains some historically marked places in the development process, usually the relics of some famous historical events, or the theme parks, museums, etc, which usually combine the functions of city parks. “The contemporary memory urbanism design is not only a simple restoration on the basis of the original, but also an abstract expression based on the relevant content of symbolic semantics. The connotation of the symbol can lead to deeper thinking of the audience. The construction of symbols requires abstract integration of the commemorative elements of the original events, extracting the essence and deep connotation of historical culture, and avoiding the superficial reproduction of the memorial urbanism.”[26]
[Prague, CZECH] [1500-1786] [ Built ] [1.416 Hectares] [Prague Jewish Museum] [Klausová Synagoga, Jewish Information and Reservations Center, Pinkas Synagogue, Vysoká Synagoga] [Exhibition affiliated with the Jewish Museum] [Public and Private]
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23. QiSsheng Design Vocation Collage, “Memorial Landscape Knowledge,” Wenku. Baidu.Com, February 14, 2014, Accessed March 10, 2019, https://wenku.baidu.com/view/ b013eb0aa32d7375a417806b.html. 24. Boqian Beijing Sculpture Factory, “Conceptual significance of monumental sculpture,” Bqdiaosu.Com, March 02, 2017, Accessed on March 10, 2019, http://www. bqdiaosu.com/news/53.html. 25. Malgorzata Kalinowska, “Monuments of Memory: Defensive Mechanisms of the Collective Psyche and Their Manifestation in the Memorialization Process,” Journal of Analytical Psychology57, no. 4 (2012): 425-44, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 26. QiSsheng Design Vocation Collage, “Memorial Landscape Knowledge,” Wenku. Baidu.Com, February 14, 2014, Accessed March 10, 2019, https://wenku.baidu.com/view/ b013eb0aa32d7375a417806b.html.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 15. The Site plan of Old Jewish Cemetery
Prague - Bratislava
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The main manifestations of memorial urbanism are memorial landscapes and monumental buildings, which in most cases combine with each other. “Since ancient times, mankind has come out with the concepts and habits of building monuments for the gods and heroes who have made great contributions to the human life. Some are similar totems built by people to commemorate the gods or ancestors, and some are grand mausoleums built by descendants to commemorate the great figures or major events of an era. The memorial landscape in modern symbol semantic products is mainly the creation of atmosphere and the placement of memorial activities. The construction and protection of this memorial product is the main approach of human memorial behavior, and the significance of memorial is expressed or inherited through the repeated combination of viewers, event landscape and material landscape.”[27] The Old Jewish Cemetery in Joseph Community is a classic example of Memorial Urbanism. “It is one of the oldest surviving Jewish cemeteries in the world and is the most important site of the Jewish city of Prague together with the old and new synagogues. National Geographic magazine listed it as one of the top ten cemeteries in the world.”[28] “It was once the only remaining home of Prague’s jews. 100,000 bodies are buried below the medieval headstones, many of which mark graves with multiple bodies stacked up to 12 deep”.[29] “It was founded in the first half of the 15th century. The earliest tombstone dates back to 1439 and the last burial took place after 348 years”.[30] There are more than 12,000 Gothic and Baroque tombstones.[31] “The Nazis wished to set up a ‘Museum of an Extinct Race’ in Prague, which would inform people of the future about the Jewish race wiped out by the Aryans”.[32] So they collected the most European collections belonging to the Jewish nation. “Today, visitors can pay their respects to the thousands buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery through tours offered by Prague’s Jewish Museum. Hundreds of pebbles and prayers written on tiny papers can be found resting atop the gravestones”.[33]
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27. Meng Meng, “Elementary Discussion On Comparison Of Western and Chinese Memorial Landscape,” Beijing Forestry University Thesis, no.UDC (December 2005): 2, Accessed on March 10, 2019. 28. “Old Jewish Cemetery,” Jewish Museum in Prague, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www. jewishmuseum.cz/en/explore/sites/old-jewishcemetery/. 29. “Old Jewish Cemetery,” Atlas Obscura, January 12, 2017, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/oldjewish-cemetery-1. 30. “Old Jewish Cemetery,” Jewish Museum in Prague, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www. jewishmuseum.cz/en/explore/sites/old-jewishcemetery/. 31. “Prague-guide-1,” hfes-europe.org, Accessed on March 10, 2019, http://www.hfes-europe. org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Pragueguide-1.pdf. 32. “Old Jewish Cemetery,” Atlas Obscura, January 12, 2017, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/oldjewish-cemetery-1. 33. “Old Jewish Cemetery,” Atlas Obscura, January 12, 2017, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/oldjewish-cemetery-1.
Figure 16. The East- West section of Old Jewish Cemetery
Walls Historical Church Different kinds of tombstones with different meanings
Trees Fence
Figure 17. Main consistent elements of Old Jewish cemetery Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
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Figure 18. Collage of the old Jewish cemetery
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Figure 19-22. The tombstones of the old Jewish cemetery.
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FRANCISCAN GARDEN [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] As Charles Waldheim said, “landscape supplants architecture’s historic role as the basic building block of urban form”.[34] Landscape urbanism helps us re-learn the new conditions of urban development through the perspective of landscape, through a creative integration of natural, human and cultural process layers, is committed to creating a more comfortable living environment. In modern society, uncontrolled or poorly managed urban growth leads to severe inequalities in health among the urban population.[35] The role of landscape in this process is often neglected. Landscape, as a buffer zone of the city, provides relief for people’s highintensity spiritual life, helping improve public health by improving mobility and visual enjoyment. Landscape urbanism is not a simple gardening function, agricultural planting, or earthworks, but through scientific means, infrastructure arrangements, terrain adjustment, water management and other means to meet the ecological needs of urban development and people’s recreation needs. It can be a new project start from the vacant land, or can be a transformation of the old landscape project. Regardless of the landscape approaches, their ultimate goal is to contribute to physical and psychological public health. “The idea that development of publicly accessible green space might improve health in densely populated, working-class urban areas, was based on broad consensus concerning overall health benefits of parkland environments. There are multiple potential pathways between environmental quality and wellbeing of life. An urban landscape that offers more than the purely functional, is one that encourages people to get outdoors, to enjoy their time while outside”.[36] [Prague, CZECH] [1989-1992] [Built] [0.6072 Hectares] [IvanaTichá, JosefKuča, StanislavHanzík, JosefKlimeš] [Church of Our Lady of the Snows, Galerie Ambit Art Gallery] [Children facilities, Urban Farm, Wedding Site] [Public and Private]
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34. Charles Waldheim, Landscape as Urbanism: A General Theory (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2016), 13. 35. Spencer Ash, “Notes on Various Aspects of Urban Health,” Medium, May 20, 2017, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://medium. com/@spencer.ash/notes-on-various-aspectsof-urban-health-4e3c8974cde3. 36. Gareth Doherty and Charles Waldheim, “Is Landscape life ?” in Is Landscape... ?, ed. Catharine Ward Thompson (London: Routledge, 2015), Chap. 13.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 03. Franciscan garden night view and surrounding environment
Figure 23. The Site plan of Franciscan Garden
Figure 24. The surrounding residents took the children to play in the Franciscan Garden Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 25. The North-South section of Franciscan Garden
Franciscan garden is a good example of role-changing Landscape Urbanism. “It is located between the Jungmannovo and the Wenceslas square, which is very good to isolate the noise from the city, and is a beautiful and peaceful oasis for surround families with children”.[37][38] “This lovely garden in the vicinity of the Church of Our Lady of the Snow was built in 1348 during the reconstruction of New Town and used to belong to the Carmelites. The Franciscans, who got the garden into their custody in 1604, grew flowers, trees and spices there. Unfortunately, later the Franciscans were displaced from the garden by the Communists in 1950 but soon after the garden became open to the public”.[39] It is aimed to respond to the Prague government’s declaration that making the city filled with impressively kidfriendly and features family-orientated venues.[40]
37. “Playground in the Franciscan Garden (Františkánská Zahrada),” Praguest.Com, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.praguest. com/en/prague1/playground-in-the-franciscangarden-frantiskanska-zahrada.
It is clear that the park brings comprehensive benefits to the surrounding environment. First of all, it retains the historical features of the city as an affiliated garden of the church. Secondly, the quiet and shady benches in this area provide a place for people to read and have a rest, and various of fitness facilities open up a paradise for children. The arrangement and division of the area separate the two from each other. What’s more, The existence of this public garden provides a good view of the surrounding dense high-rise apartments, and to some extent makes the housing resources in this area more popular among the public.
40. “Playground in the Franciscan Garden (Františkánská Zahrada),” Praguest.Com, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.praguest. com/en/prague1/playground-in-the-franciscangarden-frantiskanska-zahrada.
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38. “Franciscan Garden,” Prague Stay, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.prague-stay.com/ lifestyle/review/231-franciscan-garden. 39. “Franciscan Garden,” Welcome to Prague, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www. welcometoprague.eu/franciscan-garden.
Facilities for Children Sand Sink Church Gallery Bushes Urban Farm
Labyrinth
Sculpture Figure 26. Main consistent elements of Franciscan Garden Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
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Figure 27. Collage of Franciscan Garden
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Figure 28-31. Landscapes of Franciscan Garden
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MARKET ACTIVITIES OF BRATISLAVA [EVERYDAY URBANISM] Everyday urbanism aims to re-examine the spontaneous activity of residents from an innovative perspective.[41] The principle of project transformation is to eliminate producing the alienation of the city, creating a environment which is more familiar to local residents.[42] “It is not intended to replace other urban design practices but to work along with, on top of or after them”.[43] Market activities as a classic represent of everyday urbanism play an important role for city life. “Urban development has a close relationship with the rise and fall of the market. With the acceleration of urbanization and the demise of the countryside, the number and scale of national markets are shrinking. The disappearance of the market is not only the disappearance of traditional trading venues, but more importantly the disappearance of traditional culture and communication space. How to make the city develop while at the same time better preserve the characteristics of the traditional market has become the focus of urbanism research”.[44] Bratislava’s Market activity has existed for more than 30 years. With the development of online shopping and the standardization of urban management, it has not disappeared. Bratislava government has consciously retained such market traditional activity and regarded it as an urban cultural feature, provided them with site conditions and turned them into a tourist attraction, with various consumer service facilities to meet the leisure needs of local residents and foreign tourists. Take Old market as an example, “the actual market was run down during the 1980’s but today has regenerated itself with superb market stalls each Saturday showcasing local produce and souvenirs ,some really nice cafes and bars, it is in fact a really popular spot to just chill out and enjoy the local cuisine and drinks”.[45]
[Bratislava, SLOVAKIA] [1910] [Built] [0.423 Hectares] [František Nechyba] [Foodstock Bratislava, Viecha malých vinárov, Výčap u Ernőho] [Street Food Park, The Night Club, Music performances, Salón Piva Beer Salon, Grocery shop, Cafes] [Public]
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41. Margaret Crawford, Michael Speaks and Rahul Mehrotra, Everyday Urbanism: Michigan Debates on Urbanism volume I (New York : Distributed Arts Press, 2005), 48. 42. Margaret Crawford, Michael Speaks and Rahul Mehrotra, Everyday Urbanism: Michigan Debates on Urbanism volume I (New York : Distributed Arts Press, 2005), 22. 43. Margaret Crawford, Michael Speaks and Rahul Mehrotra, Everyday Urbanism: Michigan Debates on Urbanism volume I (New York : Distributed Arts Press, 2005), 19. 44. Ying Pan and Qi Ding, “The Development of Urban Market Space—Unification of Traditional Functions and Modern Demands”, Art and Design (Theory), no.12 (2015):67-69. 45. Neil K, “Impressive Building. - Review of Old Market Hall, Bratislava, Slovakia,” TripAdvisor, December 13, 2018, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.tripadvisor. com/ShowUserReviews-g274924-d7393633r639340861-Old_Market_Hall-Bratislava_ Bratislava_Region.html.
Location Year Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 32. The Site plan of Old Market Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 33. The Section of Old Market Hall
“Every Saturday from 10am until 3pm, people can find a wide assortment of locally produced foods and beverages available in the historic Old Market Hall. In addition to holding a weekly farmers market, the building also hosts music performances and other cultural events. Salón Piva (Beer Salon) is a great annual event with locally produced craft beer tastings and the Festival of Light features a unique display on the facade of the building. Two cafes, a grocery shop, a cooking school, and a soda water manufacturers also operate daily in the large building. The building was constructed in 1910 to an extremely modern design for the time by František Nechyba, and still serves as a central meeting point for locals and visitors in the old town.”[46] Except some all year round activities, it also have some scenic and unique market in Bratislava takes place annually during the month of December in other historical places like the main square in old town, or between some narrow alley,[47] in front of the shop or even uses a decorated van to provide food along the street which is one element of street food park. All of these temporary activities contributes to the inheritance of Bratislava‘s food culture.[48]
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46. Taylor Geiger, “The Best Markets in Bratislava,” Culture Trip, July 28, 2017, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://theculturetrip. com/europe/slovakia/articles/the-bestmarkets-in-bratislava/. 47.Maria Kecsoova, “Winter Events & Festivals in Bratislava,” Welcome to Bratislava, February 22, 2019, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www. welcometobratislava.eu/winter-events-festivalsin-bratislava/. 48. Maria Kecsoova, “Street Food Park: for Food Obsessed,” Welcome to Bratislava, April 23, 2019, Accessed May 12, 2019, https:// www.welcometobratislava.eu/street-food-parkbratislava-2/.
Food Truck Stalls
Steel Structure Figure 34. Main consistent elements of Old Market Hall Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
Figure 35. Old Market Hall interior view
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Facilities
Figure 36. Collage of Old Market Hall
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Figure 37-40. Activities of Old Market Hall
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FORCITY ALFA TRAM SYSTEM [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] “Interest in urbanism has been growing over the last few decades alongside the realization of cities’ economic power, and both the epic challenges and gamechanging opportunities of the global migration to urban centers”,[49] which refer to the importance of infrastructure as the motor of economic development is rising[50], owing to increasing mobility and the need to make urban territories accessible. Therefore, the most difficult questions of urban performance are often inseparable from the functioning and design of urban infrastructure.[51] The Infrastructure urbanism dynamically manages the lives of different people in the city by guiding the flow of people. It acts as a collective project, attracts people to gather and communicate, and carries multiple levels of functions, involving many different industries. “Unlike individual buildings (with the exception of megastructures), infrastructure can be seen as a tangible structuring device that operates at the scale of the city. In embracing infrastructure, designers are extending their agency to look not just at the pieces and parts of the city, but at the design of entire systems and their operations. Infrastructure is also a civic project, and as such just as worthy of design consideration as the vernacular urban fabric and territory to which it gives structure”.[52] All the functions mentioned above can be proved by the Prague ForCity Alfa tram System. Because of its fast speed and large capacity, it is especially suitable for large-scale directional commuting needs between the city and the suburbs. From Figure 41 we can see that the trams system shapes the urban form to some extent. From the central Vltava River area, it radiates all over Prague’s metropolitan areas and farmland areas, and the distribution is from dense to sparse, which proves that the city center is the most densely commuted area and the most prosperous area of the service industry. In order to spread over the various blocks, the multiple tracks are twisted, and there are few long-distance vertical and horizontal lines. This indirectly proves that the planning of the central old town follows the ancient urban form spontaneously generated, not similar to the new town which is checkerboard format. [Prague, CZECH] [1891] [Built] [Dopravní podnik hlavního města Prahy] [Prague Tourism, Prague Integrated Transport] [Public and Private]
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49. Stephanie Carlisle and Nicholas Pevzner, "Introduction: Rethinking Infrastructure," Scenario Journal, October 24, 2015, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://scenariojournal.com/ article/introduction_rethinking_infrastructure/. 50. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Theo Notteboom, "Transportation and Economic Development," The Geography of Transport Systems, February 20, 2019, Accessed May 12, 2019, https:// transportgeography.org/?page_id=5260. 51. Kuntao Peng and Min Zhao, “Urban Spatial performance and Urban Planning Efficiency,” Urban planning, no. 8 (2010): 9-17. 52. Stephanie Carlisle and Nicholas Pevzner, "Introduction: Rethinking Infrastructure," Scenario Journal, October 24, 2015, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://scenariojournal.com/ article/introduction_rethinking_infrastructure/.
Location Year Status Designer Program Funding Streams
Figure 41. The Site plan of Prague Trams Routes
Figure 42. Prague
ForCity Alfa tram realistic photo Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 43. The Section of Street View Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
Compared with other rail vehicles, trams has a quiet environment and is on the ground passing through the most culturally distinctive neighborhood, so that it is a dynamic carrier of urban tourism. The tourist route separated from the commuter lines crosses a series of major landmark areas, and the line crossed the banks of the Vltava River several times, proving that most of the supporting infrastructure for tourism were built along the river. Trams operate even between midnight. “Their routes are different to the daily ones, since in the night the trams have to substitute for the Metro. All lines converge at Lazarská of old town”,[53] which prove that here is also an economic and recreation centre of the city for night.
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53. Csaba923, “Half-Trams,” Flickr, August 23, 2011, Accessed May 14, 2019, https:// www.flickr.com/photos/34682543@ N04/6074357220/.
Tracks on the road surface Trams
Figure 44. Main consistent elements of Prague Tram System
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Figure 45. Collage of Prague Tram System
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Figure 46-49. Specific views of Prague Tram
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VLTAVA WATERFRONT PROJECT [SOCIAL URBANISM] “The social urbanism strategy uses specific projects to inject investment into targeted areas in a way that cultivates civic pride, participation, and greater social impact”.[54] It means transforming people’s lifestyles through project construction or transformation, and guiding the public to actively participate in different activities to create a more diverse cultural or entertainment life. Such projects are more common in urban parks or waterfront innovations, but also include lifestyle transformations for special groups, such as rebuilding slums, improving their quality of life, providing work opportunities for special groups through urbanism, creating economic sources, and building a community with a good environment to eliminate undesirable factors such as violent crimes. No matter what kind of social urbanism, they are all about re-examine the impact of life between buildings on citizens’ social behaviors,[55] so as to guide designers to re-activate urban space and promote the development of interpersonal relationship by adding effective social elements in public space.[56] The transformation of Social Urbanism in residential recreation can be reflected in the Vltava Waterfront project. “Their vision is to transform the currently underutilised space of Vltava waterfront into a valuable public space, which will become integral part of the city character. First they define place as a destination, a place enables activities, a place has character and potential to grow and influence its surroundings. This place will create a momentum for change and inspire people to become part of the transformation, encouraging them to set up small enterprises such as urban gardening, cultural events and education. Particular character zones will emerge from the network of places with different functions for living, working and recreation, creating an ecological membrane along the riverfront. Through the character zones the river suddenly becomes an active source of energy, enabler of mobility and resource for sustainable living. Becoming part of the public transportation network, the river will connect neighbourhoods and communities, activating wider social relationships”.[57]
[Prague, CZECH] [2012] [In Progress] [Chybik Kristof Architects + Igor Marko] [Skanska CZ] [Vltava waterfront historical and recreation constructions] [Tourism, Recreation] [Public] A-638
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54. Duncan McLaren and Julian Agyeman, Sharing Cities: a Case for Truly Smart and Sustainable Cities ( Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2017), 192. 55. Jan Gehl and Jo Koch, Life between Buildings: Using Public Space( Washington, DC: Island Press, 2011), 11-13. 56. William H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces ( New York: Project for Public Spaces, 2018), 10. 57. “Vltava Waterfront, Prague, Czech Republic,” Markoandplacemakers. Com, Accessed May 12, 2019, http:// markoandplacemakers.com/projects/vltavawaterfront-prague-czech-republic.
Location Year(s) Status Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program Funding Streams
Figure 50. The Site plan of Vltava waterfront project
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Figure 51. Perspective of Vltava waterfront project
First of all, this project makes efficient use of the remaining space of the city to provide people with new entertainment venues. Secondly, it is developed in stages, and there are planned arrangements for residents and developers to step into the venue. In the early stage, only some temporary buildings were used to provide people with possible activities. In the medium term, coffee shops, restaurants and other infrastructures were introduced to provide people with places to consume. In the end, enough people flowed can attract developers’ investment. It gradually links the river landscape to the urban bus system, providing an opportunity for people to come. In addition, the landscape along the river will be incorporated into the urban green space system to improve the accessibility of landscape participation.[58] This series of steps leads the residents’ lives to the waterfront, making the vltava river not just a landscape river that can only be seen from the Charles Bridge.
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58. “Vltava Waterfront, Prague, Czech Republic,” Markoandplacemakers. Com, Accessed May 12, 2019, http:// markoandplacemakers.com/projects/vltavawaterfront-prague-czech-republic.
Temporary Construction
floating plate
Step
Ferry
Slope
Plant Bed Facilities
Figure 53. Main consistant elements of Vltava waterfront project Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
Figure 52. The East-West Section of Vltava waterfront project Prague - Bratislava
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Figure 54. Collage of Vltava waterfront project
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Figure 55-58. Programs of Vltava waterfront project
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HISTORIC CENTRE OF PRAGUE [CONSERVATION URBANISM] “Cultural relics are immeasurable resources handed down from ancient times, and it is also irreplaceable wealth and the epitome of the time. The protection of cultural relics is very necessary in this era”.[59] In countries with rich history such as Europe and China, there are some historically damaged or well-preserved items, which may be specific places, parts or facilities,which is usually call heritage, while there are another kind of intangible heritage, that is cultural activities or actions.[60] As mentioned in the book European Heritage, Planning and Management , “Throughout Europe, and much of the world, heritage has become a matter of concern. For well over a century national governments have conserved monuments, built museums, designated national parks, for a whole variety of reasons, and at considerable expense. Today those national heritages, integral parts of national identities, are being challenged by cities, localities and regions wishing to use heritage for their own purposes, by minority groups attempting to reclaim hidden heritages and by international organizations attempting to discover international similarities. Among these international organizations, UNESCO designates World Heritages Sites, some being of cultural significance, some natural and a few Cultural Landscapes which lie between. ”[61]
[Prague, CZECH] [1992] [Built] [450 Hectares] [UNESCO] [ the Old Town, the Lesser Town, the New Town] [Hradcany Castle, St Vitus Cathedral, Charles Bridge, etc.] [UNESCO]
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59. Xiaonan Zhang, “The Importance of Cultural Relic Protection in the New Age,” Shengzhou, no.2 (2018):20. 60. “Definition of the Cultural Heritage,” United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://web.archive.org/web/20160316203151/ http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/ themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/ unesco-database-of-national-cultural-heritagelaws/frequently-asked-questions/definition-ofthe-cultural-heritage/. 61. Peter Howard and Gregory J. Ashworth, European Heritage, Planning and Management (Exeter: Intellect Books, 1999), 4.
Location Year Status Footprint Designer Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 59. Site plan of historic center of Prague
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Figure 60. The section of historic center of Prague
As a witness to the development of human civilization, heritage has a multi-faceted role in promoting human urbanism development. Since there is no accurate definition of such cultural structure protection behavior, we call it conservation urbanism temporarily. “The protection of cultural relics is conducive to the inheritance and promotion of the outstanding national culture and spirit, the enhancement of national cohesion, and the maintenance of national unity. It is also conducive to promoting scientific research and economic development. The spiritual and cultural needs of the people can also be satisfied, which will help improve people’s scientific and cultural quality and facilitate patriotic education”. [62] The profound historical culture is also a testimony of the country’s soft power. It can promote the country’s influence in the world and help maintain the cultural exchanges and friendly relations with the rest of the world.[63] “Cultural relics resources are not only an immortal witness to the exchange of civilizations, but also an intercommunication bridge for the spread of civilization”.[64]Threats to heritage may be imminent, but it can also be potential future threats, including natural, artificial, self - aging and any other factors.[65] Whatever which one it is, they are all call for long-term protection measures, such as regular repairs and limiting travel to tourist attractions. Such practices are common in famous scenic spots like the Church of Our Lady before Týn in Prague Square. “Historic center of Prague represents a supreme manifestation of Medieval urbanism (the New Town of Emperor Charles IV built as the New Jerusalem). Built between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Old Town, the Lesser Town and the New Town speak of the great architectural and cultural influence enjoyed by this city since the Middle Ages. The many magnificent monuments, such as Hradcany Castle, St Vitus Cathedral, Charles Bridge and numerous churches and palaces, built mostly in the 14th century under the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV.”[66] Gorgeous Baroque, Rococo and Gothic architecture make Prague one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. As the birthplace of Christian culture and the exhibition center of art, Prague is also a comprehensive expression of modern developed technology, culture and economy. However, the flooding of the Vltava river in the rainy season and the increase in tourist in recent years threaten the existence of heritage.[67][68] Therefore, in order to protect such great human achievements, we must incorporate conservation urbanism into the consideration of modern urban development.
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62. Shan Peng, “Significance and Requirements for The Protection of Cultural Relics,” Zhazhi. Com, September 25, 2015, Accessed May 12, 2019, https://www.zhazhi.com/lunwen/whls/ wwbhlw/102302.html. 63. Xu Yan and Fei He, “Improve National Cultural Soft Power and Influence of Chinese Culture,” Cpcnews.Cn, April 17, 2019, Accessed May 14, 2019, http://theory.people.com.cn/ n1/2019/0417/c40531-31034666.html. 64. Yufan Xue, “The state administration of cultural heritage held a meeting about briefing on exchanges and mutual learning between cultural heritage and civilizations,” Scio.Gov.Cn, March 27, 2017, Accessed May 14, 2019, http:// www.scio.gov.cn/xwfbh/gbwxwfbh/xwfbh/ wwj/document/1547021/1547021.htm. 65. “World Heritage in Danger,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Accessed May 14, 2019, http://whc.unesco.org/en/158/. 66. “Historic Centre of Prague,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Accessed May 14, 2019, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/616
67. Ricky Yates, “Flooding in Prague,” Rickyyates.com (blog), February 9, 2010, Accessed May 14, 2019, http://rickyyates.com/ flooding-in-prague/. 68. Mark Baker, “Too Many Tourists In Prague?” Mark Baker Travel Writer in Prague, February 07, 2019, Accessed May 14, 2019, https://markbakerprague.com/too-manytourists-in-prague/.
Vltava River
Figure 61. The elements of historic center of Prague Models cited from 3D Warehouse, https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/
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Figure 62. Collage of historic center of Prague
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NEW YORK METROPOLITAN AREA
New York Metropolitan Area
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NEW YORK METROPOLITAN AREA
New York Metro- Area
01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY The New York Metropolitan Area (NYMA) 1 is one of the most ethically diversed and religiously varied urban center in the US. At the same time, the NYMA is facing complex challenges: traffic congestion, boroughs lack of connection, complex ethnic issues, and climate challenges 2. Even five years after Storm Sandy, the metropolitan area is still not ready for the next storm and sea levels continue to rise. The expected requirements of the Metropolitan area are not only to create beautiful urban spaces, but to make an adaptable coastal region that is efficient, healthier and an affordable place to live and work in this fast-paced, expensive metropolis. In this context, a lot of proposals and projects have popped up, particularly the Fourth Regional Plan.3 It has made a very precise and well-considered conception about resiliency metropolitan areas while implementing different urbanisms, such as New urbanism, Landscape and Ecological Urbanism, Everyday urbanism, Industrial urbanism, Infrastructure Urbanism and so on. There are conflicts between existing regional planning and emerging projects as well as conflicts between urbanisms and theory. The New York Metropolitan Area is a historically significant model for Urban Planning & Environmental Sustainability and is considered a perfect place to study for urbanists—not only because of its density, sense of completeness, and well designed projects, but it is also considered a complex urban environment with social, ecology, and economic elements and human care4. 02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIOPOLITICAL THEMATICS The bedrock beneath the New York Metropolis is the cultural attraction generated by New York 5. Numerous major American cultural movements began
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1 https://www.thoughtco.com/new-yorkmetropolitan-area-1435558 2 A Brief Snapshot of Changes in the New York-New Jersey-Connecticut RegionTrends in Population, Jobs, Housing, Transportation and Energy, 2018 3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_ metropolitan_area 4. Regional Plan Association, “The Fourth Regional Plan: Making the Region Work for All of Us,” 2017. 5 http://www.rpa.org/programs/economicdevelopment 6 https://www.census.gov/content/dam/ Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20578.pdf
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
Present
2010s
Environmental Indicators: The average temperature in January is about 31 °F (0 °C) and in June about 72 °F (22 °C).Over the past century average temperatures have increased by 0.25°F per decade, and sea levels by 1.2 inches per decade. Sea level rise will produce some of the most significant climate change impacts on New York City and water quality. Climate change will have important but poorly understood impacts on the wildlife and ecosystems of the New York metropolitan region. Economic Indicators Income:$40,722 Per capita income, 12.8% poverty rate.
RPA helped protect and provide access to the important natural landscapes that sustain our cities and suburbs, increased rail service between New York and New Jersey. the third plan emphasized the importance of the transportation network, and also supported new initiatives to green and revitalize parks and streetscapes in our cities. It also set in motion steps that led to the permanent conservation of open spaces.
[Critical DATA]
Social Indicators: Educational attainment 86.5% high school grad or higher, 39.6% bachelor’s degree or higher.6 Age: Media age at 38.5 years old Language: 39% persons with language7 other than English spoken at home. Birth place: 29.2% foreign-born population
The fourth plan seeks to propose major changes to reverse this trend and create a new type of growth that brings more shared prosperity, equity, improved health and sustainability for the region. Major challenges and areas of opportunity are organized under four action areas: Institutions, Transportation, Climate Change and Affordability.
2000
1996
Area: 11,640 km2 Population:20.3 million in 2017 Country[es]: United States
2019
1960 1960
The second plan, published in a series of reports during the 1960s, called for building the transit network necessary for urban centers to thrive. This central premise came to be reflected in the renewed investment in the region’s transit network in later decades. The plan advanced the idea of economic development of regional centers that in recent years have been revitalized as strong transit connections led to the growth of business activity.
1955
The Verrazano Narrows Bridge effectively completed the regional highway system that had been proposed by RPA in 1929.
1950
At a time when Robert Moses’s ideas about public works went largely unquestioned, RPA opposed Robert Moses’s proposal to build a bridge from Manhattan’s Battery Park to Brooklyn. Instead, a tunnel between Brooklyn and the Battery, a project that was completed in 1950.
1930s
1922
1950
1800
Recommended in RPA’s First Regional Plan, the Whitestone Bridge connecting the Long Island highway system with the Bronx arterial system was completed, in 1939; and the Henry Hudson Parkway was built between 1935 and 1938.RPA assisted local governments to establish planning boards, including a city planning commission for New York City. RPA suggested the location of regional airports, Kennedy, LaGuardia and Newark The first plan, formally titled The Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, proposed an elaborate network of highways, railroads and parks, along with residential, commercial and industrial centers, as the foundation of the physical and social development of the region. The goal was to provide access to more of the region and give options for living beyond the overcrowded core. The plan also identified specific natural areas that could be acquired for public use and persuaded various public agencies to purchase land, doubling the region’s park space.
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1900
Tri-state trail network Tri-boro line
Long Island South Shore Brooklyn Navy Yard the Big U
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100 km
in the city, which is the birthplace of many cultural movements. For more than a century, a steady stream of the cultural elites flows toward the metropolis and in virtually every artistic fieldâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;theatre, music, dance, painting, literature, fashion, film, print, and sports.
2019 report Reimagining the BQE Policy Options to Reduce Traffic on the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway
Shipping and finance secured New Yorkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s international status, but manufacturing provided jobs for its teeming population 6. By the beginning of the 20th century, New York was the headquarters for more than two-thirds of the top 100 American corporations, varies from manufacturing, financing, designing and bio-technology 7. By constantly enhancing its key economic advantages, New York has remained prosperous even as it underwent change, its strength lying in its diversity. There are two long-term social political themes: tensions between city leaders and national superiors, and the desire of municipalities to curb the decentralization caused by their constituent elements. The political goals of the New York metropolitan area achieve greater equity and prosperity, improve the health of residents, and provide a more sustainable environment for everyone. Regional Plan Association (RPA) proposed investments and policies will reduce inequalities, reconnect planning and equity, while creating affordable housing and community, a new relationship between industry and nature to provide dignified, efficient and ecologically sustainable livelihoods8, investment transport connect everyone to more people and reduce the cost of living for low-income families.
03
2018 Report The New Shoreline Integrating Community and Ecological Resilience around Tidal Wetlands
URBAN DYNAMICS
The New York Metropolitan Area is a product of the interaction between cities and regions, which is formed by the objective formation and subjective planning. Since the 1920s, Regional Plan Association has developed groundbreaking long-range plans to guide the growth of the New York metropolitan area. In the history, Immigrants stayed in New York port for
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Figure 01. Sea Level Rising in New York Region
“consumption” reasons. Ethnic neighborhoods made the transition to the new world easier and New York Metropolitan Area acquired over time a remarkable capacity to cater to immigrant needs9. However, the region emerged as the nation’s premier port was not the result of happenstance followed by tourism agglomeration. The most important dynamic of the metropolis is its openness to newcomers, the constant inflow of innovations embodied by newcomers has enabled the city to reinvent itself amid such economic challenges. The superior geographical position and the export-oriented economy are the main driving dynamic for the rise and expansion of the New York metropolitan area—the dynamic of geography in determining New York’s early success. The city enjoyed a natural advantage provided by its port and by its proximity to the Hudson River and a water-borne connection to the Great Lakes. The rise of manufacturing in the city hinged on New York’s place at the center of a large transport hub and the benefits afforded by that prime location. The dynamic is firstly driven by the market, supported by the government and the social linkage for the city integration10. Under this context, the New York Metropolis has been attracting a steady stream of talents and resources. The comprehensive public transportation system has provided support, and the emergence of urban belts is the embodiment of resource allocation. It has formed four major cities centered on New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, etc., and has driven the development of other regions. New York has developed commercial and productive services and is one of the world’s three major financial centers; Philadelphia has a diversified economic structure and port advantages, and the transportation industry is developed; Washington is the political and cultural center of the United States11. The four core cities in the New
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7. The New Shoreline, Integrating Community and Ecological Resilience around Tidal Wetlands, 2018 8. http://www.rpa.org/programs/economicdevelopment 9.https://www1.nyc.gov/site/planning/plans/ region/region.page 10. https://www.newyorkfed.org/medialibrary/ media/research/epr/2005/EPRvol11no2.pdf
Urban Ecology: Science Of Cities by Richard T. T. Forman Landscape as Urbanism: A General Theory by Charles Waldheim
Figure 02. Sea Level Rising in New York Region
11. https://www.citylab.com/life/2016/11/ the-curious-case-of-nycs-dual-economiccenters/494135/ 12. https://wagner.nyu.edu/files/rudincenter/ dynamic_pop_manhattan.pdf
York metropolitan area has a clear division of labor and reasonable functional positioning, which makes the industrial structure in the region diversified and complementary12. At the same time, the economic development path of each region in the metropolitan area is determined according to the degree of association with the major city, and finally forms the spatial organization form of different industrial clusters. 04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS The five projects about urbanism selected are Long Island South Shore (Ecological City Urbanism), The BIG U (Landscape Urbanism), Tri-State Trail Network (Network Urbanism), Brooklyn Navy Yard (Industrial Urbanism), and Triboro Line (Infrastructure Urbanism). These projects are located in the New York metropolitan area, adjacent to the coastline, and surrounded by conflict, abundant economic and environmental resources, representing the development trend of modern cities. I chose these projects not only because they are successful urban projects, but also because they provide a reference for how todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cities respond to current climate change, rising sea levels, and achieving sustainable growth and smart growth.
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RESILIENCY PLAN FOR LONG ISLAND SOUTH SHORE [ECOLOGICAL URBANISM] Climate challenge has been one of the greatest challenges of our time. Along with actions on clean energy technologies and protecting the waterfront, we also need to rethink the relationship between human and water living together. In 2012, superstorm Sandy13 caused tremendous damage to Long Island and its residents. Long Island faces not only storm surge but also serious threats from sea level rise, stormwater, and wastewater. The unfiltered stormwater runoff entering the bay by way of the region’s rivers and creeks caused harmful algae blooms, wastewater, which furtherly threatened the ecology of the bay area. So, how to smartly keep Long Islanders safe from future extreme weather events and sea level rise? How to make living with the bay safe, healthy, fun, and accessible to everyone? The project living with the bay by Interboro14 proposed to build a smart barrier due to their location and topography, among the region’s most vulnerable zones when it comes to sea level rise and storm surges. They proposed a dike landscape and a water retention park to protect the existing critical infrastructure and some of the most vulnerable areas of Long Island Beach9. This green dike also serves as a reserved landscape and bay park. The Interboro's practice is to extend the side of the coast dam with a gentle ramp into a green ecological park, which can be used as an accessible and flexible recreational landscape park, also as a water purification ecological infrastructure. In the central and western bay areas, the Interboro proposed to build a series of swamp islands to reduce the wave action, improve the ecological status of the bay, and provide recreational functions. I see this is a good case for studying ecological urbanism. This proposal introduces ecology through design methods, introduces terrain and water flow under the original ecological conditions to form a natural ecological defense system, and combines vegetation to form a green infrastructure. Now many of the practices respond to sea level rising are actually avoiding water, but the Interboro's proposal gives us a new idea of how to live with the bay and water as a part of our lives. Ecological urbanism here acts as a predictable and viable urban approach, place the design of the ecological factors in the first place, it is an efficeient way to ameliorate the contradiction between urban construction and nature waterfront and to solve problems with ecological resiliency.
[Nassau County, NY, US] [2014] [In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Interboro Partners， Apex, Bosch Slabbers Landscape + Urban Design] [David Rusk, Deltares, H+N+S Landscape Architects, NJIT Infrastructure Planning Program, Palmbout Urban Landscapes, Project Projects, RFA] [smart barrier, sea level]
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13 https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/ind ex.html?appid=d7287d5bbb274900816d164c935 76a25 14 http://www.interboropartners.com/ projects/living-with-the-bay
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components
0
Figure 03. Figure ground of Long Island Seashore
Figure 04. Public Space Along The Outer Dikes. Source: living with the bay by Interboro New York Metropolitan Area
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500 m
Taxonomy
New Dike Landscape
Protective Dike
Side Walk
Room for the River
Continuous Recreational
Storm Water Swales
Figure 06. Section of the park and resiliency dike A-660 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Figure 05. View of the future river park and resiliency dike. Source: living with the bay by Interboro
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THE BIG U [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] After Hurricane Sandy, the New York City hopes to rebuild through design, solve regional defects, and prevent urban areas from hurricanes that may occur in the future. Therefore, BIG is calling for a series of landscape intervention systems, creating a daily leisure space and a buffer zone for floods when needed. It is a modular, replicable system that allows coastal cities to cope with the crisis caused by climate change.15 The BIG U design aims to improve the structural and environmental vulnerability of the area affected by the Hurricane Sandy and to create a flexible solution to protect local community from the threat of floods and heavy rains caused by hurricanes. In this area, a low-lying green space stretching for 10 miles is designed to form a huge “U” shape16, which enables the city itself to have the ability to cope with hurricane disasters and enhance the social and environmental benefits of local communities. The affected area has been added a high-density, dynamic, and resilient resilient protection system. The BIG U is considered to be a transformative and flexible blueprint that effectively maintains the community and economy, and responds to and interacts with the community's livelihoods, transforming the fragile high-density low-lying belts teeming and vibrant. The U Berm provides strong vertical protection17 for the Lower East Side for future storm surges and sea level rise, and also offers accessibility to the park, with many social events and views of the park and river. Not only has it resisted floods, but also improved the public activities and the benefits of society and environment. The landscape urbanism here is closely related to small and simple multiple sub-design projects. These subprojects can be implemented in phases and flexibly adapted to the characteristics of different communities, which expand the investment opportunities of “Sandy” flexible design while providing long-term solutions for the future. The content of Landscape Urbanism is gradually transforming to the level of strategy and public service, fulfilling the higher urban purpose rather than just creating beautiful landscapes. Due to the public extension of landscape architect development, community members are allowed to increase local socioeconomic opportunities in conservation facilities and use infrastructure to increase the diversity of coastal communities.
[LOWER MANHATTAN, NY, US] [2015] [In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [BIG (Bjarke Ingels Group) with One Architecture, Starr Whitehouse, James] [Lima Planning + Development, Green Shield Ecology, AEA Consulting, Level] [Agency for Infrastructure, ARCADIS, Buro Happold] [resiliency landscape, sea level]
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15 http://www.rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/ all-proposals/winning-projects/big-u 16 https://qz.com/1111690/with-moresuperstorms-predicted-theres-a-dream-projectto-keep-new-york-above-water/ 17 http://www.rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/ all-proposals/big-u
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components
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Figure 07. Figure ground of BIG U
Figure 08. The Aerial view of THE BATTERY BERMS New York Metropolitan Area
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Taxonomy
Coast Guard Site
RESILIENCY + ADDITION OF MORE AMENITIES
Protective Berm
RESILIENCY + IMPROVEMENT PUBLIC SPACE
Figure 10. The section of THE BRIDGING BERM A-664 Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Extend as NY Harbor Berm
RESILIENCY + PRESERVATION OF PUBLIC AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING
Figure 09. The perspective view of THE BRIDGING BERM. Source: BIG
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TRI-STATE TRAIL NETWORK [NETWORK URBANISM] Network urbanism is an approach to establish the act of linking and connection of urban areas, independent of their location and beyond different barriers and limits. With the increase of urban population and the expansion of urban scale, the spatial pattern of cities has gradually changed from a single city to an urban area. In this context, the link of network urbanism focuses not only on the physical level, but also on economic development, social equity, and environmental continuity, which were isolated by urban development. The Tri-state(The New York-New Jersey-Connecticut region)18 has abundant natural resources, including large open spaces and natural parks, but lacks the necessary links between them, fragmented rather than being part of the coexist ecosystem. This lack of linkage undermines our ability to capture the natural beauty, openness and geographic location that exist in the region today. It reduces awareness and experience of the natural environment as well as opportunities for environmental management and open space protection. The trail state network proposed by RPA aims to improve the natural and built systems that sustain us. It would link the region’s most beautiful parks and landscapes, from the Catskills to the beaches of Jersey and Long Island. Connecting different open spaces can help us to treat the area as a whole ecosystem, and the road network should be developed in collaboration with the landscape system. It combines natural infrastructure such as pipelines, transmission lines, railways, highways, and beaches and waterways19. When complete, the network would include user-friendly biking, hiking, and walking trails that connect the region’s treasured open spaces to each other and to its communities. Connecting the region’s precious open spaces to regional communities through the network will promote economic development, increase entertainment opportunities, improve health and quality of life, and enhance the biodiversity of natural systems20.
[The New York-New Jersey-Connecticut region , US] [2017] [In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Robert Freudenberg, Sarabrent McCoy,Ben Oldenburg] [Agency for Infrastructure, ARCADIS, Buro Happold] [ecological network] [The Ford Foundation, The JPB Foundation, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The Rockefeller Foundation]
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18 http://fourthplan.org/action/tri-state-trails 19 https://greenumbrella.org/TriStateTrails/ 20 https://www.6sqft.com/tri-state-trailproposal-would-connect-new-york-new-jerseyand-connecticut-with-1650-miles-of-trails/
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Fundations
Figure 11. Diagram of trail network connect the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s open spaces. Source: RPA New York Metropolitan Area
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Taxonomy
Wetland Lookout Deck
Ecological Shore Line
Resilience Dike
Resilience Waterfront
Nature Side Walk
Wetland
Figure 13. Section of PORT + Range for RPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 4C Initiative A-668
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Resilience Dike
Mountain Side Walk
Storm Water Swales
Storm Water Swales
Figure 12. PORT + Range for RPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 4C Initiative. Source: RPA
Resilience Waterfront
Wetland
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BROOKLYN NAVY YARD [INDUSTRIAL URBANISM] Cities and industries have grown and evolved together. However, despite this shared past, industrial development has caused many post-era issues: pollution, environmental degradation, and the exploitation of labor. So in this context, it's our duty to reexamine how industry can create place, sustain jobs, and promote environmental sustainability, all within the urban emvironment. The renovation of the Brooklyn Navy Yard is closely related to the industrial urbanism and regional economic transformation. It integrates the emerging manufacturing development, sustainable development, industrial heritage protection, and many other elements, it is an important sample of industrial urbanism. The Brooklyn Navy Yard is a successful industry renewal case, transformed from what was once a wasteland to today's hub of New York's manufacturing and creative industries. Since the 1990s, the renovation project of Brooklyn Navy Yard21 has received extensive attention from the New York City government and social organizations. The renovation of this traditional industrial area reflects many common features of the post-industrial urban central area, especially the global city or the central area of â&#x20AC;&#x2039;â&#x20AC;&#x2039;a very large city with its own post-industrial characteristics and challenges. With urban manufacturing experiencing a national renaissance, there is an increasing challenge for cities to provide affordable industrial space. The rennovation process brings many innovative manufacturing companies to the industrial area, which enabled urban renewal to transform the regional economic structure while changing the spatial environment. The updating process not only focused on the building and environment construction but also the renovation driven by industrial development. It also proposed a vision for creating a new vertical manufacturing space22 to transform this traditional naval shipyard building into a central area for biomedical, high-tech and micro-manufacturing companies, while providing affordable industrial space and industrial parks. The plan includes the development of 5.1 million23 square feet of vertical manufacturing space, further consolidating Navy Yard's role as a national urban model for sustainable industrial rennovation and job creation. [Brooklyn, NY, US] [2018] [completed] [Consider both landscape and built...] [WXY Architects] [Philip Habib Associates: Transportation Sam Schwartz Engineering: Streetscape Design Grain Collective: Landscape Design] [industrial renovation] [Brooklyn Navy Yard Development Corporation]
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21 https://brooklynnavyyard.org/ 22 http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/ blog_9c5937610102wcwx.html 23 https://www.6sqft.com/new-renderings-forbrooklyn-navy-yards-5-million-square-feet-ofvertical-manufacturing-space/
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components CLIENT
Figure 14. Figure ground of Brooklyn Navy Yard
Figure 15. Aeriel view of Brooklyn Navy Yard. Source: NY.Curbed.com New York Metropolitan Area
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Insert New Units
New Building Form
Warehouse Renovation
Pier Platform
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Public Courtyard
New Working Space
Figure 16. Perspective view of renovated water front.
Figure 16. Section of recreational deck New York Metropolitan Area
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TRIBORO CORRIDOR [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] The Triboro Corridor is over 24 miles in length with 2.6 million current residents24. It extends from Brooklyn to Queens to the Bronx; however all the connections between boroughs are served by the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s old, Manhattan-centric transit infrastructure system, which was mainly designed to bring people into Manhattan, not to connect them between other boroughs, and the public transportation that serves these boroughs are slow and unreliable. As urban designers expand the scale and scope of their projects, we are also recognizing the potential of infrastructure to serve as a better connection to territories and people's life. The Triboro Corrido designed by ONE + Architecture25 aims to develop a comprehensive design for the Triboro corridor, communicate the equity and opportunity to the local community and stakeholders in order to go towards positive transformation. The Triboro Line proposed 24 miles of abandoned railway tracks to become a vital part of the urban transit system and a place for recreational activities. By infrastructural transformation, using a light rail to move passengers between the outer boroughs to ameliorate the overcrowding with delays. The rail lines of the Triboro can efficiently connect people moving between Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx without going through Manhattan, thus greatly reduced travel times along the route. The stations or the infrastructural nodes were designed around multiple events and activities: a revitalized industrial district in Sunset Park, an expanded university campus near Brooklyn College, an expanded mix-used community in eastern New York, and a new multimodal transportation hub near Queensway26. All these infrastructural nodes act as important empowerment engines that connect the community and social lives while keeping their existing and diverse communities intact. The value of often-overlooked infrastructural systems is becoming more and more evident.
[The Brooklyn-Bronx region , US] [2018] [In Progress] [Consider both landscape and built...] [Only If + One Architecture] [Adam Frampton, Matthijs Bouw, Karolina Czeczek, Travis Bunt] [infrastructure renovation] [Barrâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Foundation]
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24 http://fourthplan.org/places/new-yorkcity/triboro-line 25 https://onearchitecture.nl/one-work/oneurbanism-planning 26 https://www.6sqft.com/new-renderingsof-proposed-triboro-corridor-17-stop-outerborough-light-rail-and-linear-park/
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Foundations
Figure 17. Figure ground of Triboro line
Figure 18. Perspective view of Brownsville Source: The Fourth Regional Plan New York Metropolitan Area
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Taxonomy of Infrastructural Nodes
Randal's Island by ONE+Architecture
C0-Op City South by ONE+Architecture
Space under the Subway Avenueby ONE+Architecture
Brooklyn College by ONE+Architecture
New Train Stop by ONE+Architecture
Astoria Ditmars by ONE+Architecture
These large complex infrastructural nodes proposed by ONE+ that happen along the Triboro Line require significant investment to connect to the surrounding urban and social fabric. At the same time , these locations can also greatly benefit from the development of a catalytic project to speed up the transformation of an economic sector. Strategic up-zoning and increased densities may unlock real estate value, attracting public-private partnerships to resolve these complex nodes and provide necessary community benefit.
Figure 20. Diagram of PORT + Range for RPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 4C Initiative. Source: ONE+Architecture A-676
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Figure 19. Perspective view of Infrastructural Node. Source: The Fourth Regional Plan
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SÃO PAULO
SÃO PAULO
São Paulo Brazil
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
The study of the Greater São Paulo region offers an opportunity to reflect on the topic of informality and urban poverty in the production of urban land in the Global South. While the advert of urbanization is widely recognized for its financial and sociocultural benefits, much concern has been about the pace of urbanization and the capacity of local governments to cope with it, especially concerning issues of inadequate housing, infrastructure, and services. Planning and design disciplines can offer tangible responses to ballooning urban issues in metropolitan areas. In order to successfully mitigate issues of rural-urban migration, “recognizing the links between rural and urban people and economies” is pivotal in our “understanding of how policies ranging from national economic strategies to infrastructure development can contribute to rural and urban poverty reduction, or to its production.” The Greater São Paulo region is a relevant case study to assess the impact of dynamic and progressive urban policies responding to the unpredictable and fluid nature of contemporary urbanization in the Latin Global South region. From 1960 to 2010, Brazil’s urban population ballooned from 44.6% to 84.3% as a result of industrialization - alongside growth in social inequality, socio-spatial segregation and unplanned development. Habitation in greater São Paulo is a difficult and complex process in terms of the accessibility of land for habitat and shelter, which is responsible for the continuous and explosive development of favelas and illegal settlements. There are distinct characteristics of the urbanization process in São Paulo: “fast pace, demographic concentration and segregation resulting from unfair distribution of income and public assets in the interpersonal as well as interregional domains.” Created by the Complementary Law No. 14 of July 8, 1973, the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP) is composed of 39 municipalities, including the city of São Paulo (the state capital). The population growth in the MASP was a result of its economic performance. In the 19th century, São Paulo’s economy was lifted
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1. Martine, George, Gordon McGranahan, Mark Montgomery, and Rogelio Fernandez-Castilla. The New Global Frontier: Urbanization, Poverty and Environment in the 21st Century. London, United Kingdom: Earthscan, 2008. 2. Various Authors. Plano Diretor Estratégico Do Município De São Paulo - 2002 - 2012. 1st ed. Bela Vista, São Paulo: Senac SP.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2018 2000s
2003 2001 1990s
[Critical DATA] 1989
Area: 7,947 km 2 Urban area: 2,139 km 2 Population: 23,455,256 Country: Brazil Latitude: 23 533S Longitude: 46 617W Social Indicators: Literacy Rate: 99% Environmental Indicators: Food production: Highest gross production value, at US$10.1bn - Sugar Cane & Oranges. São Paulo accounted for 41,86% of the national production value of sugarcane and 65,10% of the orange crop. Temperature: 55°F to 83°F CO2 concentrations: Annual Rainfall: 1412 mm/year Economic Indicators GDP : R $ 628 billion Inflation Rate: 4.5% Unemployed rate: 12% GDP growth: 1.1% At the end of 2018, the jobless rate stood at 12 percent, or 12.7 million workers. GDP growth was barely 1.1 percent in 2018.
São Paulo gubernatorial election Large-Scale infrastructure planned for an urban retrofit in existing areas. Public space recovery through the city and NGOs. Alternative mobility is discussed as traffic jams worsen. Strategic interventions. Educational centers (CEU), Cultural Centers (SESC), and other initiatives generate local change in poor neighbourhoods (public and privately organized). Favela upgrade: reurbanization and social housing plans Election of President Luis Ignacio ‘Lula’ da Silva Approval of the Statute of the City Violence rises and gated communities spread. Local associations and organisations actively respond to urgent local issues. Urban growth lower. Favela boom. Today, 1.5 million people live in the city’s favelas. De-Industrialization. Organisation of macro-infrastructures and enclave services (shopping malls, supermarkets, etc) Approval of the Constitution
1986
Constituent Assembly
1982
MNRU established
1973 1971 1970s
1964 1963 19601970s
1990s
First experience of participatory budgeting, Porto Alegrev
1988
1974
2000s
First Subway Line Metropolitan area is defined as a conglomerate of 37 cities (39 today) First Integrated Urban Plan aims to control growth Ecclesiastical Base Communities (favela movements)
1970s
Brazilian coup d’état: overthrow of President João Goulart by members of the Brazilian Armed Forces, supported by USA ‘Quintandinha Seminar’, first meeting of urban reform movement Urban Sprawl: rural Migration from the Brazil’s northeast leads to fast growth. The nunber of favelas grows in the periphery. 1960s
1949 1929
Expressways: US American Robert Moses redesigns the Plano de Avenidas Plano de Avenidas: City expansion through radio-concentric boulevards
1920s
Compact city: Dense city center redesigned. Expansion through new districts inspired by the British garden city movement.
1900s
Industrialization in the city: Textiles & Food
1889 1890s
1920s
1900s
Brazilian Independence New urban infrastructures: prokects for avenues and bridges inspired by French Boulevards: Paulista Avenue ad Tee Viaduct. New train station: Luz Station. Tramlines constructed.
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1890s
Figure 1 & 2. Analysis of Open Spaces & Growth of Metropolitan SĂŁo Paulo over the years. From: Correa, Felipe. SĂŁo Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. A-682
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by the coffee industry. In the mid-20th century, heavy industrialization processes became the main driver of the economy. The city of São Paulo has always been the main focus of this development, alongside their neighboring São Bernardo, Diadema, São Caetano do Sul, Santo André, Mogi das Cruzes, Guarulhos, and Osasco, who already had a previous industrialization.
A Graphic Biography by Felipe Correa, Correa presents a comprehensive portrait of Brazil’s largest city, narrating its fast-paced growth through archival material, photography, original drawings, and text.
3. Lima, Gabriela Narcizo De, and Víctor Orlando Magaña Rueda. “The Urban Growth of the Metropolitan Area of Sao Paulo and Its Impact on the Climate.” Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018): 17-26. doi:10.1016/j. wace.2018.05.002. 4. Cazalis, Carlos. Occupy São Paulo. Heidelberg, Berlin: Kehrer Verlag, 2013. 5. Maricato, Erminia. “The Statute of the Peripheral City.” The City Statute: A Commentary. 2010. https://www.ifrc.org/docs/ idrl/945EN.pdf. 6. Rolnik, Raquel. The Statute of the City: New Tools for Assuring the Right to the City in Brazil. São Paulo: Instituto Polis, 2002. 7. Friendly, Abigail. “The Right to the City: Theory and Practice in Brazil.” Planning Theory & Practice14, no. 2 (2013): 158-79. doi:10.1080/ 14649357.2013.783098.
The effects of this unprecedented growth, exacerbated by strong urbanization and lack of proper planning, is social conflict and the contrast of high-rise office towers close to poor informal settlements. It is estimated that over 12% of the city’s population live in slum dwellings while nearly 40% of homes in the city are illegal and informal. Additionally, Brazil’s legal residential market covers only 30% of Brazil’s population. The drastic income and social inequality, characterized by a majority living in precarious urban conditions, highlights the necessity for a progressive urban policy that can challenge the reconstruction of a “redistributive and inclusive” urban order. In the wake of a 20-year dictatorship, the social movements in Brazil, which gained momentum during the 1970s and 1980s, culminated in a robust urban reform movement that garnered international attention. The 1988 Constitution, “promulgated at a time when the social forces were engaged in Brazil’s re-democratisation process, makes municipal authorities responsible for defining the use and occupation of urban land.” The City Statute reinforces the autonomous and decentralizing thrust of the Constitution. The ratification of the “Statute of the City” by the Federal & Municipal government on July 10th, 2001 is an unprecedented and innovative example of a “participatory process leading to enforcing progressive legislation” base on Lefebvre’s concept of the Right to the City (RTC). The incorporation of the right to the city into national laws, such as the Solo Criado, “Special Usucapion rights for urban property” and ‘Zones of Special Social Interest’, facilitates the “concept of social function and the tools to realize these ideals and processes for democratic management.” By democratizing the access to urban land and housing, these legal instruments function as a mandate “to guarantee the well-being of all all city residents and the democratic access to good and services produced in cities.” Despite its apparent “urban irrationality,” the legitimization of informality overcomes the weaknesses of conventional planning approaches by providing a housing solution for a significant portion of urban population with low income and no capacity to investment in an expensive housing market. Leveraging the concept of autogestão that are embedded within mutirão strategies of self-organisation, Greater São Paulo becomes a laboratory of new urban strategies that show the impacts of this landmark Right to the City legislation in Greater São Paulo.
8. Fernandes, Edesio. Urban Planning at a Crossroads: A Critical Assessment of Brazil City Statute, 15 Years Later. The Routledge Companion to Planning in the Global South Routledge. 2017.
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Figure 03. Aerial view of São Paulo. From: Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018.
02 Geographic framework: culture, economy, and sociopolitical thematics The MASP has over 20 million inhabitants, with 11.1 million people living within the administrative city limits of São Paulo, performing as Brazil’s most important economic, financial and cultural center. In terms of landscape, greater São Paulo is dissected by valleys of Rio Tietě and Rio Pinheiros. Between 1870 and 1970, MASP grew from a small town of 23,000 people to become a major metropolis of more than seven million inhabitants. The MASP started to expand rapidly after the 1970s, when a huge contingent of population from the northeast of Brazil started to migrate to São Paulo, with no ability to afford the increasing price of the urban land. The inhabitants of favelas expanded from 1% of São Paulo’s population in the early 1970s to 20% in the early 1990s. This new migratory wave gave birth to an unorchestrated urban process in terms of social housing, in the formation of favelas (shanty towns) and periferias (the suburbs). The 1970s and 1980s marked an urban transformation through urban social movements, for which citizens on the peripheries were “claiming rights to the city they had built and in which they paid taxes,” democratizing the Brazilian society in the process. Urban Planning was revived in the 1980s and 1990s at the municipal level, as part of the intertwined processes of political democratization and institutional decentralization, and within the context of the emerging urban reform socio political process. As a matter of fact, social movements in Brazil were fundamental to shaping the 1988 Federal Constitution, as amendments were incorporated into the constitution through a series of social rights movement and participation. It gave urban planning an enormous boost as “it declared that property rights are only to be recognised when land and property fulfill those social functions determined by municipal master plans and other urban and environmental laws.” This heralded a new chapter for planning for which the A-684
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9. Segbers, Klaus. The Making of Global City Regions. Baltimore, Maryland: John Hopkins University Press, 2007. 10. Kourtit, Karima, Peter Nijkamp, and Roger R. Stough. The Rise of the City: Spatial Dynamics in the Urban Century. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar, 2015. 11. Caldeira, Teresa. “Gender Is Still the Battleground: Youth, Cultural Production & the Remaking of Public Space in São Paulo.” In The Routledge Handbook on Informal Urbanization, 413-27. Routledge, 2018. 12. Caldeira, Teresa. Social Movements, Cultural Production and Protests: São Paulo’s Shifting Political Landscape. Vol. 56. Series 11. University of Chicago Press, 2015.
nature of the urban planning process progressed from its conventional traditional urban planning to include new tools that are inclusive and participatory. The City Statute in 2001 ignited a nationwide process of social mobilization when Lula of PT won the Brazilian presidential election, which ushered the reform movement heavily influenced by neoliberal, new urban management approaches. It allowed municipalities to formulate new municipal master plans (MMPs) according to the new planning and management principles. The Routledge Handbook on Informal Urbanisation & The Routledge Companion to Planning in the Global South: A unrecognised or unmarked in mainstream planning texts
13. Fernandes, Edesio. Urban Planning at a Crossroads: A Critical Assessment of Brazil City Statute, 15 Years Later. The Routledge Companion to Planning in the Global South Routledge. 2017. 14. Oldfield, Sophie. “Negotiating Society and Identity in Urban Spaces of the South.” In The Routledge Handbook on Informal Urbanization, 339-40.
Cultural identities have helped to transform the city spaces and relations between citizens, with a significant proportion of new cultural producers coming from the impoverished peripheries of the city. Art and culture has in turn become forms of political activism. Teresa Caldeira’s narration of public practices — hi hip, graffiti, tagging and writing, for instance — demonstrates the ways in which cultural production, rather than political movements, have re-shaped public space and notions of center and periphery in contemporary São Paulo. These cultural and social identities are negotiated in mutually constitutive processes that interlink individuals and communities, which conveys the complex ways in which “cultural and social identities and practices remake the city, not as subsidiary to the economic and political, but as constitutive of it.”
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Aside from surveying São Paulo, the paper examines Guarulhos and Region ABC. Guarulhos, being the second largest city in the State of São Paulo, is a strategic center for distribution and logistics. Located at the confluence of roads linking São Paulo to Rio de Janeiro, it also houses the largest airport in Latin America, where the country’s largest cargo terminal is located. Guarulhos is characterized by deep social inequalities and environmental injustices, which can be observed in its sanitation infrastructure that poses serious pollution risks for the city’s water supply. The challenges are not restricted to water and sanitation, but also apply to the provision of energy and nutrition, particularly in the informal settlements. Until the 1970s, the ABC region was considered an economic powerhouse, and “was characterized by a complex and relatively diversified industrial structure and a concentration of firms operating in car manufacturing, petrochemicals, machines and equipment, plastics, and metallurgy.” The tables below summarize basic information on how production and employment in Brazil, the state of São Paulo and the metropolitan region of São Paulo (including the ABC region and the city of Santo André) were affected by industrial trends. Table 1 shows that while production levels in São Paulo grew from 100 (in 1970) to 305(in 1996), Greater São Paulo
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Figure 04. Metropolitan growth of São Paulo.
the ABC region lagged behind with 191.6. The city of São Paulo does slightly better with an index number of 232.4 The city of Santo André has been dramatically affected by the impact of economic restructuring, as can be seen by the relatively modest growth figures of 90.1. In an accessibility index for the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo conducted by Renato Vieira and Eduard Haddad, there is a higher accessibility by the private vehicle mode in majority of the city’s zones. However, for a few regions located on the edges of eastern, southern, and southwestern parts of the city, the values for the accessibility by public transportation were higher, probably as a consequence of road congestion and the availability of train and subways. The transport infrastructure of São Paulo privileges the private vehicle mode, with large avenues and urban highways exclusively for cars. This sums up the accessibility problem, as the public system was never a priority for city planners; poorer households on the periphery have been historically ignored by urban planners. The city, hampered by its economic problems, halted an infrastructure construction that was already very slow. Construction began in the early 1970s when São Paulo had seven million inhabitants. By 1990, São Paulo had grown to 16 million people when the metro network was merely forty-five kilometers long, composed of two and a half lines. As a result, traffic jams increased dramatically, and urban mobility remained stagnant. Given the strong interrelationship between urban form and transport, the integration of land use and transportation planning is an important policy opportunity. The provision of strategic infrastructure is one of the most critical A-686
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15. “A Cidade.” Prefeitura De Guarulhos. Accessed April 20, 2019. https://www. guarulhos.sp.gov.br/cidade. 16. “Santo Andre / ABC Region Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, Brazil: City Development Strategy Report.” November 2001. http:// mirror.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/ SantoAndredetailedsummary.pdf. 17. Kourtit, Karima, Peter Nijkamp, and Roger R. Stough. The Rise of the City: Spatial Dynamics in the Urban Century. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar, 2015.
Francisco Morato
Santa Isabel
Franco da Rocha
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Cajamar Pirapora do Bom Jesus
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Figure 05. Metropolitan City of São Paulo.
public policy instruments informing the long-term shape and character of a city at any stage in its development. Transportation infrastructure and services play a key role in determining urban mobility patterns, and these transportation networks function as “connectors and collectors,” defining the intensity of “communication and exchange for people and programs. As infrastructure is by definition a public space, the presence of infrastructure is the defining element in the context of greater São Paulo. There is an important conjunction of transportation and development as the imposition of infrastructure on a territory opens the landscape to “domestication.” 18. Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Shaping Cities: Emerging Models of Planning Practice. Berlin: Hatje Cantz Verlag Gmbh, 2016. 19. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. London, UK: Earthscan, 2003.
A robust public transit system is critical for the sustainability of the region and ensuring that low income workers have an affordable and reliable meaning of getting to their job regardless of their place of living. As this remains as a challenge as some of the lowest paying jobs in the region require the longest commute times, such accessibility has been an integral component of the shaping informality by defining the way of living of local citizens. While the richer households live in regions with better accessibility and closer to the central parts of the city and the poorer households in the distant periphery with lower accessibility. The main exception to this pattern was the area around downtown, which although have high accessibility, is inhabited by poor people, for which employment distribution is centered. They live in corticos (rented rooms in a subdivided inner-city tenement building) as the traditional form of central favela housing. Most corticos are located in the central districts of the city, in areas that are deteriorated but near the city’s jobs and services. This example supports my argument that the spatial distribution of employment and transport infrastructure are the cornerstones of shaping informality in greater São Paulo. Greater São Paulo
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Figure 06. Metropolitan City of São Paulo. From “São Bernardo Do Campo.” Wikipedia. November 07, 2018. Accessed April 20, 2019. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/São_Bernardo_do_Campo.
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Figure 07, 08 & 09. Analysis of Residential Density & Income Distribution of São Paulo. From: 1. Martine, George, Gordon McGranahan, Mark Montgomery, and Rogelio Fernandez-Castilla. The New Global Frontier: Urbanization, Poverty and Environment in the 21st Century. London, United Kingdom: Earthscan, 2008.
Fig. 10. Maximum temperatures (filtered) and major periods of MASP urban growth. From: Lima, Gabriela Narcizo De, and Víctor Orlando Magaña Rueda. “The Urban Growth of the Metropolitan Area of Sao Paulo and Its Impact on the Climate.” Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018): 17-26. doi:10.1016/j. wace.2018.05.002. Greater São Paulo A-689
VALE DO ANHANGABAÚ [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] Given the strong interrelationship between urban form and transport, the integration of land use and transport planning is an important policy opportunity. The provision of strategic infrastructure is one of the most critical public policy instruments informing the long-term shape and character of a city at any stage in its development. Transport infrastructure and services play a key role in determining urban mobility patterns, and these transportation networks function as “connectors and collectors”, defining the intensity of “communication and exchange for people and programs. As infrastructure is by definition a public space, the presence of infrastructure is the defining element in the context of greater São Paulo. There is an important conjunction of transportation and development as the imposition of infrastructure on a territory opens the landscape to “domestication”1. Such large-scale systems can work strategically to define and locate key moments of intervention that possesses a catalytic effect on the city. Such accessibility is an integral component of market mechanisms, which further defines the way of living of local citizens.
Fig 11. View of Landscape for a Public Event. From: https://catracalivre.com.br/agenda/vilamundo/sp-ganha-4-palcos-e-12-horas-de-festagratuita-no-anhangabau/
1 Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Shaping Cities: Emerging Models of Planning Practice. Berlin: Hatje Cantz Verlag Gmbh, 2016.
[São Paulo] [1982] [Built] [Landscape & Built] [Jorge Wilheim & Rosa Grena Kliass.] [Government & Public] [Infrastructural Urbanism, Architectural Monumentality, Public Space Design Cultural Art Programming (exhibitions, installations, performances, etc); Educational Programming (tours, events, etc); Community Programming (festivals, markets, holidays, etc); Revenue Generating Events (rental and leasing of space to private entities for special events)] [Public]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s)
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Fig 12 & 13.. Aevial View of Vale do AnhangabaĂş showing the elevated viaduct. From: https://catracalivre.com.br/agenda/vila-mundo/sp-ganha4-palcos-e-12-horas-de-festa-gratuita-no-anhangabau/ Greater SĂŁo Paulo
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Vale do Anhangabaú divides the boundary between the Centro Velho (Old Center) and Centro Novo (New) the city’s downtown. This project from the 1980s is designed by urbanist Jorge Wilheim and landscape architect Rosa Grena Kliass. It comprises of a city park above a major road, and it attempts to connect the multiple city levels that make up downtown São Paulo. The newAnhangabaú Valley, characterized by Kliass’s geometric landscape design, has since become one of São Paulo’s foremost civil space. Jorge Wilheim created an eight-hectare park with direct access to mass transit, creating a middle ground to connect both sides of the valley. It has successfully “served as an anchor for additional architectural and urban projects along its edges”1. This project is an aesthetic architectural proposition, by drawing citizens through the attraction to the lush greenery, which underlies the imperative role of architecture through its aesthetical qualities and monumentality in Infrastructure Urbanism. This argument is further supported by Reyner Banham, in his book Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. He asserted that when architects are confronted with the problem of the rapidly expanding city, they found the need to response in an ambitious and heroic manner to create “monumental follies”2. Jorge Wilheim succeeded by identifying a strategy that recognized the collective nature of the city and creating a legible icon that not only activated the site through the inclusive participation of the local citizens, but also strengthen the integration of economic opportunities through the new identity of the vicinity.
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1 Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. 2 Banham, Reyner. Megastructure: Urban Futures of the Recent Past. New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
Figure 14. Aevial View of Vale do Anhangabaú showing the elevated viaduct. From: Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. Greater São Paulo
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Figure 15. Types of Informality. From “Theories and Methods of Urban Design 2018.” March 2018. https://issuu.com/taubmancollege/docs/theoriesand-methods-of-urban-desig.
[INFORMAL URBANISM] Laguerre describes the informal as a social construct that can be expressed, either through the intentional behaviour of an individual or group. According to Laguerre1, there are a large number of variables to be taken into consideration when considering the formal definition of informality, such as “its origin, either as preceding the formal system or as growing from it; its relation to the formal system; the participation of its actors in the formal system; time and space factors; the meanings of everyday practices; and the structural location of informal practices in relation to other practices”. In dialogue with contemporary times, there has been a radical shift “towards the defence of informal urbanisation as a viable alternative for urban development”2. Informality is framed as an interesting “laboratory for the study of adaptation and innovation” where “flexibility is the common ground among these approaches, a model of organic development that challenges the assumption of traditional Western planning that man controls his surroundings”3. While informal urbanisation is clearly not a solution for housing shortages, it is necessary to recognize the efforts undertaken by city dwellers “to be included in formal structures of citizenship”. In Greater São Paulo, it is imperative to understand the different types of informality: new settlements located in peripheral areas that are taking shape, and the densification and verticalization of settlements in the central districts of the city. Through “peripheral urbanization”, popular housing in São Paulo has almost always been established in the city’s periphery, with the formation of clandestine plots and houses built by their inhabitants4. Additionally, peripheral formations are characterised by displacement and temporality, which often render such spaces in a precarious and unfinished condition.
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1. Laguerre, Michel S. The Informal City. London, United Kingdom: Macmillan Press, 1994. 2. Pereira, Rocco De Campos, and Jan Van Ballegooien. “Urban Informality and Democratisation in Sao Paulo: The Sinous Road to Citizenship.” 2015, 1-16. http://resolver. tudelft.nl/uuid:5662fe5f-dd7b-4bb6-896cc13bbd308742. 3. Brillembourg, Alfredo, Kristin Feireiss, and Hubert Klumpner. Informal City Caracas Case. Münich: Prestel, 2005. 4. Caldeira, Teresa. Social Movements, Cultural Production and Protests: São Paulo’s Shifting Political Landscape. Vol. 56. Series 11. University of Chicago Press, 2015.
Fig. 16. São Paulo Masterplan, Map 07: Special Zones of Social Interest, From: Secretaria Municipal de Planejamento Urbano Sempia. Rolnik, Raquel. The Statute of the City: New Tools for Assuring the Right to the City in Brazil. São Paulo: Instituto Polis, 2002. Greater São Paulo
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Fig. 17 & 18 General Pla for Urbanization & Existing Building Standards, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_favelas.
Fig. 19 & 20, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www. researchgate.net/publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_favelas.
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5. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. London, UK: Earthscan, 2003. 6. Fix, Mariana, Pedro Arantes, and Giselle Tanaka. The Case of São Paulo , Brazil. São Paulo: Laboratorio De Assentamentos Humanos De FAU-USP, 2003. 7. França, Elisabete. “Slum Upgrading: A Challenge as Big as the City of São Paulo.” Focus 10, no. 1 (2013). doi:10.15368/ focus.2013v10n1.10.
According to the Global Report on Human Settlements, 2003, favelas and cortiços have the following characteristics: • Favela: these are illegal agglomerations of dwellings with limited dimensions that could appear everywhere, built with inadequate materials (old wood, tin, cans and even cardboard) distributed irregularly in lots, almost always lacking urban and social services and equipment, and forming a complex social, economic, sanitary, educational and urban order. • Cortiço: this is a unit used as a collective multifamily dwelling, totally or partially presenting the following characteristics: (i) made up of one or more buildings constructed on an urban lot; (ii) subdivided in several rented, sublet or ceded units on any ground whatsoever; (iii) several functions performed in the same room; (iv) common access and use of non-constructed spaces and sanitary installations; (v) in general, precarious circulation and infrastructure; and (vi) overcrowded population. Most cortiços are traditionally located in the central and semi-central districts of the city, in general in areas that are deteriorated but contiguous with zones with jobs and services. The major difference between cortiço and favelas is that cortiço is legal, and subjected to the laws of the market, to rent and to payment for services, while favela is a much younger phenomenon and represents the illegal market alternative, utilizing invasion and squatting of open and unprotected lands. With public authorities’ constantly repressing and removing favelas in the areas valued by the market, and the action of private property owners in regaining possession, favelas have been driven to the poorest, most peripheral and environmentally fragile regions that have posed serious ecological and safety concerns. Allowing illegality of land ownership to become a norm is a dangerous phenomena it “undermines the credibility of the rule of law” and “the law becomes merely an instrument to suppress instead of securing the liberties of residents”. Hence, the political legitimization of favelas is an essential agenda in granting rights and justice to city dwellers and providing them with social status in terms of citizenship. Greater São Paulo
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JARDIM FLORESTA & IMBUIAS FAVELAS UPGRADING The main purpose of slum upgrading is to “overcome shortages of infrastructure, accessibility, and availability of social facilities and public services, as well as the provision of new suitable housing for families” whose homes are affected by the public works. The main goal is to “respect the existing community and to keep the majority of the families in their locales, assuring the continuity of the investments they have made in building their homes over time”1. By the end of the 1980s, the São Paulo State Government, with the support of the Municipal Government, applied for a World Bank loan for tackling the environmental degradation of Guarapiranga’s water basin. The basin covers 160,000 acres in seven municipalities, where 450,000 people lived at the start of the program. With 6,600 acres, the Guarapiranga reservoir is an important source of potable water for the metropolitan area, supplying 20 percent of its needs. The precarious nature of environmental conditions, the uncontrolled development in the slums and their lack of proper infrastructure and sanitation were pertinent urban issues. The upgrading of slums was a significant Guarapiranga basin recovery plan and resource allocation. [Jardim Floresta & Imbuias I Favelas, Guarapiranga, São Paulo] [1991-1996] [Built] [Landscape & Built] [Paulo Bastos & Architects] [City of Sao Paulo Secretaria de Habitacao (SEHAB)] [In collaboration with: Municipal Housing Secretariat, Municipal Public Works Secretariat, Municipal Secretariat for the Environment and Green Areas, Butantã district administration, Sabesp, Caixa Econômica Federal.] [Urban Informality, Social Urbanism, Public Infrastructure, Social Infrastructure, Landscape Design, Active Public Spaces, Urban Environment, Urban Mobility, Green Walkway] [Public]
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1. França, Elisabete. “Slum Upgrading: A Challenge as Big as the City of São Paulo.” Focus 10, no. 1 (2013). doi:10.15368/ focus.2013v10n1.10. 2. Leite, Carlos. “Reshaping the Metropolitan Territory: Contemporary Urban Interventions in São Paulo.” In Contemporary Urbanism in Brazil: Beyond Brasilia, 246-65. University Press of Florida, 2009. 3. Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_ favelas.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Fig. 21 & 22. Created Public Space Square 1 & 2, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_favelas. Greater São Paulo
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Fig. 23, 24, 25 & 26. Favela Jardim Floresta / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_favelas.
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3. Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_ favelas. 4. França, Elisabete. “Slum Upgrading: A Challenge as Big as the City of São Paulo.” Focus 10, no. 1 (2013). doi:10.15368/ focus.2013v10n1.10.
As the first large-scale slum upgrading program in the city of São Paulo, the program addressed the regularization of land tenure and the upgrading of more than one hundred favelas and illegal subdivisions around the reservoir - its major sources of pollution. This project concentrated on urban improvements, such as installing public facilities and infrastructure, but included the relocation of families from dangerous or unhealthy sites, and the recovery and preservation of environmentally sensitive areas2. The work of Paulo Bastos & Architect and their projects received the grand prize for urbanism at the 1999 International Architecture Biennial in São Paulo. The design process involved resident participation from its inception, “allowing them to participate in the formulation of their public and family spaces, first by identifying the nature of the problems to be solved, then by discussing alternative solutions”3. This process allowed the community to participate not only in the upgrading of their own settlement - from analysis to implementation - but also in its management. In the process, some of the families had to be relocated to new housing, either because they had settled on hazardous areas or allowed for street widening, recreational areas and public facilities. Standard city services were also provided: garbage collection; piped potable water, storm-water, sewage systems and public lighting4. This project serves to demonstrate how favelas in haphazard settlements in dangerous sites could be transformed into a neighbourhood to help society integrate a marginalized society. The provision of public facilities increased social activities and interactions that served to strengthen community relations. Most importantly, this upgrading project promoted the physical integration of the community with the neighboring areas and improve their recognition as part of the formal city. As the first successful major large-scale upgrading project funded by the World Bank, it functioned as a model of inspiration that triggered slum upgrading interventions through the illustration of how slum upgrading is a “fundamental step toward contemporary urban life and full citizenship”5.
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CENTRO DE ACÇAO SOCIAL POR MÚSICA Urban Think Tank’s urban project is a project proposal for the Sao Paulo Secretaria de Habitacao (SEHAB)1 entitled Centro de Acçao Social por Música. The site is located in Paraisópolis, the city’s second-largest favela, which emerged from the failure of a previous urban project. Paraisópolis “is a city within a city, with complex and controversial urban conditions. Its extreme density and lack of spatial and infrastructure planning has resulted in poor living conditions on sites of environmental risk with few local social services or amenities”. It has an area of about one-square kilometer, residing about 60,000 inhabitants2. The success of the project lies in its capacity to harmoniously embed a physical infrastructure with new social activities and programs at the heart of the town along the creek, littered with debris and characterised by the dearth of infrastructure development. The holistic project considers a multipronged approach that tackles the dearth of quality social and urban infrastructure through a design that mitigates the challenging environmental and topographic issues of Grotão. Through the insertion of social programs and infrastructure, it establishes a link between the communities with the rest of the city, breaking the invisible boundaries for social inclusion. The public commission of the project will serve as a catalyst to improve the infrastructure facilities over time (water, sanitation, electricity, etc), once further connections to the greater city is devised as a capillary action to break the heavy stigma that Grotão has, as the first step towards a transparent city. In turn, such schemes help to overcome problems of informality surrounding neglected areas, which helps to heal the area and infuse a sense of dignity and pride in the local residents. [Grotão, Paraisópolis, São Paulo] [2009- Present] [Unbuilt] [1 km2] [Urban Think Tank] [City of Sao Paulo Secretaria de Habitacao (SEHAB)] [Urban Informality, Social Urbanism, Public Space, Social Design, Bottom-up Initiatives, Community Participation, Social Infrastructure, Landscape] [Educational Programming (tours, events, etc); Community Programming (festivals, markets, holidays, etc); Revenue Generating Events (rental and leasing of space to private entities for special events)] [Public]
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1 Alarcon, Maria Arqueno De. “InForma Paraisópolis: Housing & Environmental Conflicts in Informal Settlements.” June 12, 2017. https://issuu.com/marquero/docs/ winter_2017_arch_562_studio_informa. 2. Sherman, Lindsey. “Centro De Acçao Social Por Música.” The Work of Lindsey Sherman. http://lindsey-sherman.com/centro-de-acaosocial-por-msica/. 3 Urban-Think Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fcbe791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 27. Aerial View of Grotão (before) with rampant debris and lack of social and urban infrastructure
Figure 28. Aerial View of Centro de Acçao Social por Música (after) with its integrated infrastructure around the vicinity of Grotão
Figure 29. Sectional Perspective of Terraced Landscape integrated with social spaces and Building Design. From: Urban-Think Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fc-be791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf. Greater São Paulo
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Figure 30. Landscape Circulation & Strategies with Sectional Represenation. From: Urban-Think Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fc-be791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf.
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Figure 31 & 32. Rendered view of Proposed Facility & Proposed spatial interventions and programmatic introductions. From: Urban-Think Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fc-be791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf. Greater São Paulo A-705
[SOCIAL URBANISM] Social Urbanism, with its transformation of public spaces, urban itineraries, and services in individual neighborhoods, was conceived as a strategic tool in the face of developing spaces where emerging local realities and formal processes are integrated1. According to Echeverri2, the objective of Social Urbanism was that “whenever there was an urban intervention, in parallel to the physical transformation, there were new social/institutional programs and activities that complemented the physical change.” Social Urbanism, conceived as an urban strategy that combined simultaneously physical transformations, social/institutional programs and participatory processes, becomes a powerful main framework for all urban projects, especially those located in the deprived neighbourhoods of the city. As a result, there is an increasing promotion of strategies aiming towards poverty alleviation, social inclusion and spatial integration3. It involves “designing a holistic process in order to articulate new public programs that involve different institutions and the community” (Imminent Commons, 2017). Confronting the emerging realities of high complexity between formal and informal, such a process requires a “great deal of innovation and creativity”. Dealing with informality “requires adaptability as well as intuitivity” through a holistic approach, requiring “an open mind” in formulating “flexible spaces of collaboration”. Social and institutional programs and activities, aiming at education, culture, sports and recreation and employment, are reinforced through the active use of the new public spaces and public facilities in coordinated and integrated actions of the different agencies of the municipality and the involvement of the community during the different stages of the projects (Lawrence, Turgut, Kellett, 2012).
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1 Imminent Commons: Urban Questions For The Near Future. Book 1. Seoul, Gyeonggi-do: Actar Publishers and the Seoul Biennale of Architecture and Urbanism, 2017. 2 Echeverri, Alejandro. “La Transformación De Medellín - Urbanismo Social 2004-2007.” 2007. 3 Lawrence, Roderick, Hulya Turgut, and Peter Kellett. Requalifying the Built Environment: Challenges and Responses. Göttingen: Hogrefe, 2012.
Figure 33 & 34. facilities for sports and cultural practices, the SESC Pompeia
Figure 35. A sectional drawing of Bardiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposal. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015.
Greater SĂŁo Paulo
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SESC FABRICA POMPÉIA [SOCIAL URBANISM] The non-governmental organisation SESC (Servicio Social do Comercio) hired Lina Bo Bardi to build a sports and cultural center in an old factory of the working class district of Pompéia in São Paulo. Maintained by the entrepreneurs of the trade in goods, tourism and services, the Social Service of Commerce - Sesc - is a private entity whose objective is to provide the welfare and quality of life to workers in this sector and their family1. The creation of this new multipurpose space proved to be a useful way to reactivate São Paulo’s post-industrial grounds. When Lina Bo Bardi visited the old metal barrel factory, the space had already been occupied spontaneously by neighbors who spent the weekends amidst the warehouses of the industrial complex. The priority was, hence, to “maintain and promote this vital activity” without demolishing the existing structures designed by the French François Hennebique, one of the pioneers in the use of reinforced concrete2. From an architectural, spatial and urban perspective, the building is a masterpiece for its interesting details and qualities. The project demonstrates the collision of bottom-up dynamics (in the form of the emerging local realities of working classes) and top-down processes (commissioned project by SESC) that characterised this project. Lina Bo Bardi successfully implemented her vision of intervening the informal world through her sensitivity for the social context as well as for her reading the people’s daily lives clearly. The project restored dignity to the most common itineraries of life and inspired a chain of activities and programs around the vicinity. By recognizing the values and attributes of the post-Industrial neighborhood’s social and physical realities without erasing its history, the rehabilitation of the former factory has provided a leisure space with notions of nostalgia and memories, which activates the local community and other spectrums of the community without discrimination.
[Pompéia, São Paulo] [1977-1986] [Built] [15,000 SF] [Lina Bo Bardi] [SESC (Servicio Social do Comercio)] [Social Urbanism, Adaptive Reuse, Revitalisation, Heritage Preservation] [Sports & Cultural Activities, Public Space] [Public]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. SESC. “About Sesc.” Serviço Social Do Comercio. http://www.sesc.com.br/portal/ sesc/o_sesc/. 2. AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015.
Figure 37. Conceptual drawings of footbridges with different purposes and building apertures on the facades that permit ventilation.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 36. A series of footbridges, rising up to different heights, onnect the dressing room building and the sports facilities, generating itineraries with open air areas with panaramic views. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015.
Greater SĂŁo Paulo
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[WATER URBANISM] Water Urbanism is an innovative approach to design practice and pedagogy that “holistically joins the study of social and physical infrastructures, public health, and hydrological systems”. According to Kate Orff, Director of Urban Design Program at Columbia GSAPP, she posits that “water and cities must be understood within an expanded notion of a constructed ecosystem”. Hui, a researcher of aquaphilia and water urbanism, purports that the close proximity of human settlements to water necessitates the investigation of “understanding self-determinism in the context of Water Urbanism”. Water Urbanism presents an opportunity to the “systematic and comprehensive integration of waterscapes with urban and suburban fabrics to produce water-centric environments with better synergies of urban form and health outcomes for individuals’ body and mind”.
1. Orff, Kate. “Water Urbanism Rio De Janeiro: Global Cities & Climate Change Studio.” Columbia GSAPP. Accessed March 26, 2019. https://www.arch.columbia.edu/ books/reader/193-water-urbanism-rio-dejaneiro#reader-anchor-0.
São Paulo is the perfect example in illustrating Water Urbanism as much of its urban fabric is interconnected with the “legislation and administration of water and the way in which it navigates physical and social and landscapes”. The natural hydrology of the city has been radically transformed and “instrumentalized into a water supply network” as the city harnesses the hydrological resources to meet the city’s growth and sustenance. However, rampant problems of flooding, water contamination and unsounded engineering practices have posed grim environmental and health threats. Correa has identified two of the major problems, citing the city’s “rapid urban expansion and its accompanying growth of water-intensive industrial sectors” and the disconnected water management strategies “from other city planning initiatives such as mobility networks or the expansion of residential enclaves”. While conventional planning practices have the propensity to “isolate elements of an urban system”, these complex, interrelated issues necessitates a “design-driven, integrative, and systems-based approach” to these geographical enclaves - a resilient system that “engages people with policy and… manages the urban eco-system to promote resilient communities and participatory practices” in alignment with urban socioeconomic agendas.
3. Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018.
The past half-century witnessed a plethora of in situ measures such as the construction of several large wastewater collection and treatment plants and water detention reservoirs, but to no avail. These systems- including rainfall, water retention, water harvesting, industry and agriculture use, re-collection and recycling, culture, water access and sewage, are framed as opportunities within an urbanized ecology with the potential for design interventions along multiple points in the cycle.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
2. Hui Rising, Hope. Water Urbanism: Building More Coherent Cities. Master’s thesis, University of Oregon Graduate School, 2015. Oregon: University of Oregon, 2015. Accessed March 28, 2019. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/ xmlui/handle/1794/19350.
Figure 38. Maps indicating the Network of Urban Support of Arco Tiete & Improvement Strategies
Greater SĂŁo Paulo
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VÁRZEA DO TIETÊ PARK PROJECT Due to longstanding patterns of inequality and residential segregation, flooding disproportionately affects low-income communities, many of which are located in floodplains and on the edge of the city’s rivers and reservoirs. There is a direct relationship between the city’s waterways and broader patterns of environmental justice. Flooding and water management are “intimately connected to broader dynamics of residential inequality and informal housing, meaning that the management of stormwater takes on distinctly political forms”1. The Várzeas do Tietê Park Program - PVT - provides for the implementation of the largest linear park in the world, The PVT is a mega-project involving eight different municipalities: São Paulo, Guarulhos, Itaquaquecetuba, Poá, Suzano, Mogi das Cruzes, Biritiba Mirim and Salesópolis. The Park is being planted along the Tietê River, linking the Tietê Ecological Park (located in Penha) and the Nascentes do Tietê Park (located in Salesópolis), with 75 kilometers of extension and 107 km² of area2. The project aims to increase the water absorption capacity in the Alto Tietê basin. This program is being partially funded by the Inter-American Development Bank - IDB through the Loan Agreement No. 2500 / OC-BR, signed on 13 July 2011. The purpose of the proposal is to enable the implementation of infrastructures that will allow the “consolidation of an efficient urban mobility network, comprehensively linking the north and south, east and west regions of the Tietê Arco”, according to the guidelines proposed by the Strategic Master Plan of the Municipality. The motivation is to “meet the guidelines of the PDE in the quest to improve the quality of life, promote population densities in a region with a large number of jobs and increase the economic and social activities of this region of the city”3.
1. Millington, Nate. “Linear Parks and the Political Ecologies of Permeability: Environmental Displacement in São Paulo, Brazil.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research42, no. 5 (2018): 864-81. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12657. 2. “Parque Várzeas Do Tietê - O Maior Parque Linear Do Mundo.” DAEE. Accessed April 07, 2019. http://www. daee.sp.gov.br/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=565. 3. “Arco Tietê – Plano De Melhoramentos Viários.” Gestão Urbana SP. December 27, 2016. Accessed April 07, 2019. https:// gestaourbana.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/estruturacaoterritorial/arcos/arco-tiete/arco-tiete-plano-demelhoramentos-viarios/. 4. Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018.
The geographic situation of Arco Tiete calls for an opportunity to “reconceptualize the river” by considering the “ecosystem, recreation, identity, public resources, and protecting its boundaries”4. Through the recovery of floodplains, the Arco Tiete project serves as an opportunity for São Paulo to design its river geographies in order to balance the relationship between the city, its economy, its geography and its communities. The transformation of these rivers allow for the potential “designation of new strategic hotspots urban development” , embedding opportunities for leisure, tourism, culture and education and, finally, decent housing relocated by populations, alongside urban mobility developments that integrates with the local road system and public transportation [Arco Tiete, São Paulo] [2011] [Ongoing] [107 km2] [Unknown] [PMU -Floodplains DAEE-SP, the Department of Sanitation and Water ] [Resources of the State of São Paulo, Inter-American Development Bank - IDB] [Water Urbanism, Ecological, Landscape, Mobility Infrastructure] [World Bank, Public] A-712
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 39. Existing routes of reduced capacity are redesigned so that new modes of transportation are incorporated into the network
Figure 40. Roads that connect existing roads to urban support ensure the formation of the road network that articulates neighborhoods of the TietĂŞ Arco. The greater permeability of the urban fabric also encourages non-motorized displacements and promotes the transformation of land use.
Greater SĂŁo Paulo
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Mississippi River Basin
MISSISSIPPI RIVER BASIN
Mississippi River
01
Disciplinary Significance of the Territory
Mississippi River Basin is home to some of the biggest cities in the country. The hinterland riverfront towns of the French and Spanish colonial period served as entrepots for transportation and warehousing of raw materials, agricultural products and as distribution points for manufactured products. The region saw a drastic rise in urban economy when the steamboats were introduced in 1800s. Later the railroads were introduced along the river with key nodes to accelerate the relations between land and water transportation. These key industries are still primary waterfront land use in many of the river towns. The river is part of the self-imposed identity of the communities and just present as an environmental landform in the physical backdrop.1
02 Geographic Framework: Culture, Economy, and Sociopolitical Thematics The river flows through more than 2,000 miles from North to South and hence has very little cultural similarities between the cities in the Upper River and Lower River. But what unifies them is the long mass production as their core economy. On observing the figure-ground diagram of the cities, it would be evident that the town grew with its focal point on the river. This focal point is generally the large industrial hub that supports the blue-collar jobs of the city. With the railway lines laid, the economy of the states fell because the manufacturing units could be in any part with appropriate access to railway lines.2 Post-industrial phase saw a wide scale shut down of many of these industries leading to abandoned building on the banks. However, this is not true for all the cities. Cities like Baton Rouge and New Orleans had housed the petrochemical industries established in 1900s and exist to date. These industries no doubt have contributed to the economy of the states that they exist in but have caused some serious issues to the health of the inhabitants and the environment. The factories release toxic wastes into the air, water and soil causing multiple illnesses ranging
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
1. Urban, Michael A. “Where Is River City, USA? Measuring Community Attachment to the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.” Journal of Cultural Geography, January 2007. Accessed April 19, 2019. 2. Mahoney, Timothy R. “Urban History in a Regional Context: River Towns on the Upper Mississippi 1840-1860.” The Journal of American History, September 1985. Accessed April 19, 2019. Jstor.org.
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS 2019
2010 2005
1993
Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans causing immense damage 2000 Great Flood affected the confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo,Il.
1963 1950s 1930 1927 1910 1902
[Critical DATA] Length - 2,350 Miles Countries - USA & Canada States - Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana Source - Lake Itasca, Minnesota Mouth - Gulf of Mexico Tributaries left - St. Croix River, Wisconsin River, Rock River, Illinois River, Kaskaskia River, Ohio River right - Minnesota River, Des Moines River, Missouri River, White River, Arkansas River
1848
1820 1802
Mississippi River Basin Model was being built
1950
Rivers and Harbors Act Great Mississippi Flood Petrochemical Industries started growing Canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal to address specific health issues by sending waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems.
Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan.
1900
1850
Steamboats entered the trade. United States Army Corps of Engineers took the responsibility to maintain the Mississippi waterways.
1800
1750 1700 1650 1600 1550 1500
Mississippi River Basin
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St Louis Chouteau Greenway
Memphis Harbor Town
New Orleans French Quarter Baton Rouge Cancer Alley Viscksburg Mississippi River Basin Model
Fig 1 : Plan showing Mississippi River with the location of five urbanism projects
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
0
350 miles
Fig 2 : The Mississippi River at New Orleans, 1851. By the mid1850s, railroads running east from St. Louis and Chicago had supplanted the Mississippi as the nations major commercial artery Source: Library of Congress 3.“Mississippi River Water Quality and the Clean Water Act.” National Research Council. Accessed April 20, 2019. 4. Meyer, Han, and Steffen Nijhuis. “Delta Urbanism: Planning and Design in Urbanized Deltas.” Journal of Urbanism International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, July 2013. Accessed April 19, 2019. 5. Turner, Robert Eugene. “Linking Landscape and Water Quality in the Mississippi River Basin for 200 Years.” BioScience, January 2009. Accessed April 19, 2019. ResearchGate.
s
Mississippi Floods By Anuradha Mathur and Dilip da Cunha
from allergies to cancers. Hence the stretch from Baton Rouge to New Orleans is named “Cancer Alley” for this very reason. The “Clean Water Act introduced in 1972, along with subsequent amendments, employs regulatory and non-regulatory measures designed to reduce direct pollutant discharges into waterways, finance wastewater treatment facilities, protect wetlands and manage polluted runoff. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the states are jointly responsible for implementing the act.3 The other most important policy adopted was the river management by the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in the 19th century. The result of this decision was the Mississippi River Basin Model discussed later as one of the projects of infrastructure urbanism.4 The aim was to improve the navigability of the Mississippi and to avoid large scale floods. The channeling and dredging of the Mississippi had two major impacts on the delta. First, it caused sediments to be dumped further out in the Gulf of Mexico, depriving the wetlands of material for dynamic replenishment and for the creation of new wetlands. Further developments eventually lead to the vulnerability of New Orleans to hurricanedriven storm surge.4 Towards the suburban regions, high intensity agricultural—economic system has turned the American Midwest into what is known as the nation’s “breadbasket,” where 65% of the land in the 14 states of the Mississippi River basin is farm land and 25% is harvestable crop.5 The banks are covered with mills and granaries from which they are transported to other parts of the country. Farm land was primarily owned by the white population and labor force primarily black until the early 1900s. Ever since the plains started flooding and damaging the properties it was hard for the labor force to sustain the racial abuse and political disorder. There was a significant movement of the black population away from the farmland to other Midwestern cities like New Orleans, Chicago, etc. where industrial jobs could be easily found. Mass production had caused a significant amount of segregation in the communities, traced even to date in some of the cities.8 Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 3. Steamboats on Memphis water front Source : Library of Congress
03
Urban Dynamics
Urban river corridors are the intersection of two domains, the river and its catchment with the city. For centuries the cities have overused the wetlands and currently they are redesigning the banks for resilience. The figure on the right shows the case of New Orleans and its lost land due to improper treatment of its coasts. St Louis, Louisiana, Minnesota, etc. are all planning landscape projects as a way of protecting their lands. The current policy trajectory for peri-urban coastal areas that relies upon ecosystem-based resilience strategies will be bound up in deeply fraught issues of land rights, sense of place, community displacement and resettlement.6 These initiatives could therefore be forced to confront longstanding tensions and environmental inequalities between urban cores and their coastal peripheries.
04
5. “Mississippi River Facts.” National Parks Service. Accessed February 06, 2019. https:// www.nps.gov/miss/riverfacts.htm. 6. Re volupta turio. Nem volupta spercias maior ad qui blabo. Nem es et laudaer itaesti ut volore ratem num ut harumque. ratem num ut harumque.
Selected Urban Projects
The heavy control systems and continuous infrastructure built along the Mississippi river have given rise to some major issues like flooding, diffuse pollution, crash in economy, brownfield and loss of homes.7 These issues become the foundation of larger issues like threat to health of citizens and animals, depleting wetlands, racial segregation, etc. In this case it is hard to analyze the whole territory and hence is a smarter idea to focus on regional systems of towns and their responses to larger forces of economic changes and responses of various parties to the disruption caused by such external directed change. The projects discussed further are some manifestations of such issues but not limited to it. Through the projects and urban theory, I intend to highlight multiple causes and effects that are unique to river urbanism.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Figure 4. Fisk’s maps of the historical traces of the Mississipp Source : http://www. radicalcartography.net
Figure 5-8 : 19th Century Maps of New Orleans, Memphis, St Louis and Minneapolis- Saint Paul Source : //www.davidrumsey.com
Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 9: The land loss between 1932 - 2000 is historical. Based on historical trending if no further action is taken as documented in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Historical and Projected Coastal Louisiana Land Changes 2978 - 2050 Source : Lacoast.gov/LandLoss/NewHistoricalland.pdf
Figure 10 : Great Flood 1927 Source : smithsonianmag.com
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Figure 11 : Southeastern section of the 2012 Louisiana Coastal Master Plan. The brown shaded areas indicate areas slated to recieve freshwater and sediments via river diversions Source : CPRA (2012)
Mississippi River Basin
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MISSISSIPPI RIVER BASIN LEVEE MODEL [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] Infrastructure along the rivers date back to 4000 B.C. With advanced software in the present day, our rivers are way more controlled than ever before. However, with the heavy development along the rivers, it has been a task to manage the drainage of rainwater and in some instances has led to loss of property and lives during continuous rains. The aftermath of the 1937 floods in the Mississippi basin lead to the construction of a scaled hydraulic model of the Mississippi river basin that would enable the engineers to observe the interactive effects of weather and proposed control measures over time. [1] The project was proposed and lead by the district engineer of Memphis, Major Eugene Reybold who was foresighted and identified the flaw in building infrastructure without strong research basis.
1. Cheramie, Kristi Dykema. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Scale of Nature: Mississippi River Basin Model.â&#x20AC;? Places Journal. March 2011. Accessed April 20, 2019. https://placesjournal.org/article/the-scaleof-nature-modeling-the-mississippi-river/?cnreloaded=1 2. Hornbeck, Richard, and Suresh Naidu. When the Levee Breaks: Black Migration and Economic Development in the American South. American Economic Association, 2014.
In April 1952, the first test was done to determine the flood stages in the Missouri River adjacent to Nebraska. After two weeks of intense tests it was determined that the flood maybe uncontrollable. The respective mayors of the towns were informed about the levees failure and immediate action was to be taken control of the floods. Some areas were evacuated while the others were protected by raising the levees to a certain height. The prediction was accurate, and it saved 65 million in damages to these districts. [1]
[Along the Mississippi River] [1947] [Built] [N/A] [US. Army Corps of Engineers] [None] [The system is in need for review to be able to handle disasters like Hurricate Katrina] [To control the river from overflowing] [Federal funds]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 12. In 1960s the basin model received 5000 visitors annually Source : Vintage postcard via World of Decay
Figure 13. Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Submerged interchange due to failure in levees. Source: US Coast Guard Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 14 Levee in Baton Rouge Source theadvocate.com:
Figure 15 Great Flood 1927, Louisiana
The model eventually was not completed; however, it signifies the unpredictable power of the river and the serious impact it could have on the urbanism surrounding it. The two colliding and often incompatible forces â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a burgeoning, prosperous and settlement- building nation and a mighty river, more than two thousand miles long with its watershed covering half the country. [1]
Source : Hulton Archives/Getty Images
3. Sastry, Narayan, and Jesse Gregory. The Location of Displaced New Orleans Residents in the Year after Hurricane Katrina. Population Association of America, 2014.
Historically much of the river banks are covered by agricultural practices primarily owned by white population and their labor force being black. Before the organized river management was formed, the Great Mississippi Floods in 1927 caused the drowning of 246 people and a loss of 400 million dollars in property damage. The most affected states were Mississippi, Louisiana and Arkansas. The Red Cross established refugee camps out of which 45 % were of black population. These camps came under the control of white farm owners and eventually turned into a forced recruitment ground for cotton farming. [2] This control did not last long, and the region saw a drastic out migration of black labor and the planters were forced to use the agricultural capital and modernize farming practices. The phenomenon of the failed Mississippi levee system affecting mostly black communities was seen even in the recent event â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Hurricane Katrina. New Orleans along the Mississippi river was entirely submerged in water and had to be evacuated. The city was already experiencing poverty with 35 % pre hurricane which was the highest in the country at the time and with the flooding it gave little reason for many residents to return to their damaged homes. They study one by Sastry and Gregory show the location of the displaced population over several years. The study was concluded that young black population was less likely to return to New Orleans in comparison to the non black population. This also proved to the city that it was becoming a whiter city and likely had more chances of growing its economy after the disaster. [3]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
United States Army Corps of Engineers
0 Figure 16 Mississippi River Basin covering about 40% of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land.
Flood Plains Levee
River
Figure 17 Diagram of a levee system Mississippi River Basin
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350 m
HARBOR TOWN [NEW URBANISM] Harbor town is the largest residential development close to downtown Memphis. The neo traditional neighborhood was designed with an intention of providing affordable housing and creating a vibrant community that is served with basic public amenities at a walking distance. Its proximity to jobs makes it one of the most desirable neighborhoods in Memphis.
1. Sadler, Marilyn. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Harbor Town.â&#x20AC;? Memphis Magazine. October 08, 2014. Accessed April 14, 2019. https://memphismagazine.com/features/ harbor-town/.
In early sixties, the island that Harbor town sits on, was just an undesirable sandy, barren and vacant piece of land blocking the city from accessing the riverfront. There were several failed attempts to get rid of it until a developer saw the real estate potential of this island. In the seventies, the mayor approved the highway connection to the north side of the parcel that made it suitable for development. [1] Henry Turley, the developer of Harbor town partnered with Belz Enterprises at the time to revitalize the disrepute downtown of Memphis and turn old historical buildings into housing units. The team then came up with a unique idea of creating a traditional neighborhood that enhances the quality of living and walkability. RTKL was hired to design a neighborhood with mixed housing typologies and basic amenities. The designers had to research this unique idea and understand the standards required to build a community of this sort. The designers proposed to introduce a guidebook that would specify the building heights and sizes and limit the kind of growth that would happen in this neighborhood. Coincidently, at the same time Andres Duany had just started promoting new urbanism as the ideal way
[Memphis, TN] [1989] [Built] [132 acres] [RTKL] [Tony Bologna, Looney, Ricks & Kiss ] [Traditional Neighborhood Development] [Mixed Use, Residential] [Henry Turley Company]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Mississippi River Greenbelt Park
Wolf River Harbor
500 FT Figure 18 . Harbor Town Plan Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 19 & 20. Housing units in Harbor Town Sources: http://www.henryturley.com/harbor-town/
of living. Harbor town ended being one of the first examples of a successful new urbanistic project. The guide provided by the designers describes every bit of the built environment from the width of the landscapes to the façade paint colors. This approach of the new urbanists has been highly critiqued by scholars like Peter Rowe who suggests that the new urbanist designs maybe “potentially culturally calcifying and class bound” and that they “run a risk of being historicist, in the sense of not belonging to this day and age”.[2] The owners have little to no options for adding to or changing the housing units in these projects which makes them a monotonous bunch of buildings with no indication of individual culture portrayed in the community. Other critics like Lehrer & Milgroom have argued that the “New Urbanism is intrinsically oriented to the upper middle class and just perpetuates segregation by class, race and ethnicity”.[2] This holds true because Harbor Town includes a high-end Hotel and is home to influential politicians and athletes. In the 2011 Mississippi River floods, Harbor town being surrounded three sides by the river, was one of the most badly hit. Many residents evacuated their homes in fear of being trapped by the water. The lack of planning for floods makes this the most vulnerable neighborhoods. The water during this flood was recorded to 48 feet high.[3] In case the periphery housing units are not secured with a different set of guides, the future may seem dangerous during another similar flood event.
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
2. Cliff Ellis (2002) The New Urbanism: Critiques and Rebuttals, Journal of Urban Design, 7:3, 261-291, DOI: 10.1080/1357480022000039330 3. “Floods Creep up Memphis Enclave of Mud Island.” NBCNews.com. May 06, 2011. Accessed April 14, 2019. http://www.nbcnews. com/id/42910538/ns/weather/t/floods-creepmemphis-enclave-mud-island/#.XKs7gJhKiUk.
Figure 21. Harbor Town Aerial View Sources: bolognaconsultants.com
Figure 22. Harbor Town during the floods Sources: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42910538/ns/weather/t/floods-creep-memphis-enclave-mud-island/#. XLTmjehKiUk Mississippi River Basin
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CHOUTEAU GREENWAY [LANDSCAPE URBANISM] Like other postindustrial midwestern cities, efforts are being put to revitalize St Louis. In 2017, the city in collaboration with Great Rivers Greenway conducted a competition to design a five-mile greenway in the hope to promote racial integration, walkability and provide the city with a new look. The Chouteau Greenway is proposed to connect some of the major landmarks to one of the most famous monuments – the Gateway Arch located along the Mississippi river. The competition was won by Stoss from Boston who released a set of renders showing different moments on the greenway.
1. Corner, James. “Terra Fluxus.” The Landscape Urbanism Reader.
French fur traders founded St Louis at the confluence of the three rivers – Mississippi, Missouri and Illinois. It had become the second largest port in the country measured by tonnage as early as the 19th century. St Louis lost its vitality post World War II leaving most of its riverfront industrial infrastructure to decay. [1] The establishment of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial and the Gateway Arch revitalized the city’s riverfront and it famously became to be known as the “gateway to the West”. Although, the Gateway Arch project designed by the renowned Eero Saarinen was disapproved by the locals because of its high expense at the time of economic unrest. Chouteau Greenway is second largest project to be proposed for St Louis and the city is looking forward for the transformation from the perceptions of its history of segregation and embrace its strengths through this project.
[St Louis] [Not Known] [Unbuil]t [5 miles] [Stoss Landscape] [Great Rivers Greenway] [Greenway connecting major nodes] [Pedestrian and bike lanes] [City]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 23 : Plan of Chouteau Greenway proposal in St Louis
Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 24 & 25 : Renders showing nodes of Greenway Sources : stoss.net
The project contributes to the existing smaller scaled greenway which connects parts of the city. With the Chouteau Greenway, the city is aiming to create a continuous stretch of pedestrian and bicycle path that touches several locations like schools, churches, transit centers and key employment centers thus creating new nodes to help strategic development for economic growth. The broad diversity of neighborhoods and assets connected by the greenway stretches the project well beyond the city center. This intention coincides with James Corner’s idea of landscape urbanism being “a space-time ecology that treats all forces and agents working in the urban field and considers them as continuous networks of inter-relationships”. [2] Great Rivers Greenway is working with the communities as a bottom up approach to designing the project. Major ecological studies are being done at multiple scales to take advantage of the surfaces and adjacent vacant lots to include programs like urban farming, storm water collection and pocket parks. The quote by Jens Jensen – “Cities built for a wholesome life…. not for profit or speculation, with the living green as an important part of their complex will be the first interest of the future town- planner” – stands true in every sense in this project. [2] However, the practice of landscape urbanism as a design intervention is not a new concept in the post-industrial cities. The High Line in New York is a successful example of a similar concept. It has become one of the most famous tourist attractions and has proven to improve the markets in the West of Manhattan. Many other cities like Detroit, Cleveland, Indiana and Chicago are and have introduced similar concepts to overcome the decaying of cities. This strategy as seen through Jan Gehl idea is – “…a response to conditions of degradation and lifelessness of certain areas, entails an active articulation of public life through transformations at the pedestrian scale – through walking and experiencing public spaces characterized by attending to life and vitality”. [3]
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
2. Hurley, Andrew. “Narrating the Urban Waterfront.” 3. Peruzzo, Janaina K. “Urban Design Opportunities in the Post-industrial City.” Accessed April 16, 2019. http://digitool.library. mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_ id=0&dvs=1555387740308~253.
Figure 26 : Strategies adopted for the design of the Greenway. Sources : stoss.net
Figure 27 : Aerial View of the Greenway Sources : stoss.net Mississippi River Basin
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VIEUX CARRE [POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] The post-colonial French Quarters in New Orleans is popular for its touristic identity that was a result of a sophisticated commodification of the historic preservation and everyday life in New Orleans. The strategy adopted to intensify the cultural image of the city was done by a heavy investment from public and private sectors on reinventing its cultural services. These services required the physical revitalization of derelict areas to improve quality of buildings and public spaces to serve the vibrant night life and pedestrian friendly historic downtown. Hotels, bars, shops, entertainment centers, museums and art clubs have truly transformed the local identity of the French quarters for the sake of increasing demands of tourism. Mega events like World Expo 1884 and 1984, annual Mardi Gras carnival were an alternate strategy of attracting tourists to this city.
1. Podlaszewska, A., and A. Podlaszewska. “Lesson from New Orleans Tourism: Commodification of the Old Quarters and the Dilemma of Local Identity.” Academia. edu - Share Research. Accessed February 05, 2019. http://www.academia.edu/15385580/ Lesson_from_New_Orleans_Tourism_ Commodification_of_the_Old_quarters_and_ the_dilemma_of_local_identity.
Regarding this phenomenon, Podlaszewska describes it as “…there is a blurry distinction between the real and the representation which leads to an altered relationship between culture and economics in the production and consumption of space”. [1] Production and economics were taken over by the large corporations by competing with smaller local businesses further deteriorating the local identity of the neighborhood. These new consumption patterns gave a huge potential for the real estate market leading to a series of tourism gentrification strategies. These waves of gentrification are classified by the different policies adopted by the state to promote housing, tourism and economy. [2] The increasing involvement of global [New Orleans] [1700- 1800] [Built] [1.7 sqkm] [Pierre L Bond de la Tour] [Adrien de Pauger] [Revitalization of Historical urban core into touristic attraction] [Tourism, Residential & Retail] [Public] A-736
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Figure 28. Plan of French Quarters Sources : Inspired by Le Vieux Carre de la Nouvelle Orleans by Stanley Clisby Arthur
Figure 29. Important events in New Orleans history Sources : Tourism Genetrification - Kevin Gotham
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Figure 29. Average Housing Value in Dollars - New Orleans Sources : US Bureau of the Census 1971, 1993, 2001
chains in the neighborhood gave rise a new “highly visual expression of changing patterns of consumption in cities”. [2] In 1974, the state legislature imposed fiscal constraints on income taxes thereby increasing their reliance on sales taxes. [2] This decline in funding for public services coupled with the oil market crash led to the fleeing of families to metropolitan areas dropping the population by about 150,000 people. Hereafter, the situation forced the city to become highly dependent on tourism for revenues and further gentrifying the downtown. Apart from being a tourist destination, the main economy is driven by the Port of New Orleans which is the fifth largest in the nation. It was historically known to have been used to transport cargo within the country and export to other countries. New Orleans is in the Gulf of Mexico where a portion of the United States oil is produced. During Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans was badly hit and displaced tens of thousands of people. French Quarters was not affected as much in that situation but the areas around it were destroyed. The disaster did not have physical effects on the colonial parts of the city but the tourism itself was affected overall. Being the second largest economy, the city did not want loose business, so they dedicated thirty million from their redevelopment budget to help rebrand the tourism and convention marketing. The image of the beautiful city was not one to compromise. They proudly advertised slogans like – “The rebirth of New Orleans: Ahead of Schedule”. [3] In conclusion, issues like gentrification only intensified after Hurricane Katrina in regions like the French Quarters with more and more corporations encouraged to invest in the region. This further increased the real estate value in the French Quarters and its neighboring areas and homogenized the character of post-colonial town. [3]
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2. Gotham, Kevin Fox. “Tourism Gentrification The Case of New Orleans.” Research Gate. June 2005. Accessed February 05, 2019. 3. David Gladstone & Jolie Préau (2008) Gentrification in tourist cities: Evidence from New Orleans before and after Hurricane Katrina, Housing Policy Debate, 19:1, 137-175, DOI: 10.1080/10511482.2008.9521629
Figure 30. Mardi Gras parade 2013 Sources : NY Times Photo Credits: Rusty Costanza/Getty Images
Figure 31. New Orleans Tourism Data visitors and spending 2003-2011 Sources : New Orleans Convention and Visitorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bureau; TMG Consulting Mississippi River Basin
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BATON ROUGE TO NEW ORLEANS [ANTHROPOCENE / URBANISM OF EXTRACTION] The banks of the Mississippi River have been used to set up thousands of industries since the colonial times in 1800s. The strip between Baton Rouge and New Orleans was used to grow cotton, sugar and indigo which then could be easily transported off to other parts of the country via the river. Baton Rouge had an advantage in transportation industry because it sits on a bluff which makes docking ships easy. In late 1800s and early 1900s, 150 petrochemical plants and processors were established along the banks.[1] The earliest oil companies were Exxon and Amoco who had the support of local politicians at the time. The growth curve in this chemical corridor became drastically steeper when the industries managed to get through Industrial Property Tax Exemption Program (IPTEP). [2] This meant lesser money for the states in which these industries were set up, lesser for their services, schools and infrastructure.
1. Allen, Barbara L. “Cradle of a Revolution? The Industrial Transformation of ...” January 2006. Accessed February 5, 2019. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/ handle/10919/25475/47.1allen.pdf. 2. Agyeman, Julian, Robert D. Bullard, and Bob Evans. Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World. London: Earthscan, 2006.
Although the economy in this region grew quickly, the region became the most toxic part of the country and eventually gained the name “Cancer Alley”. After the Civil War, the Freedman’s Bureau made numerous small land grants to extended family groups of newly freed slaves, often or near the plantations they had previously worked. [1] But the larger plantations remained in the hands of white planters. The result was a pattern of large, contiguous blocks of open land
[Lower Mississippi] [1900s] [Built] [Lower Mississippi] [N/A] [N/A] [Large scale Industrial campuses & pollution] [Industrial] [Private]
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Figure 32. Triad Chemical Corporationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s offices are located in the former Riverside Plantation house (1899) which is dwarfed by the immense facility directly behind it. Source : Allen Barbara
Just Sustainabilities Julian Agyeman, Robert D Bullard & Bob Evans
Figure 33. Diagram showing the underground piping systems Source: Petrochemical America Mississippi River Basin
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Figure 34 Plan Showing the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge to New Orleans Image : Inspired by Petrochemical America
under single ownership, many along straight sections of the river, separated by communities of freed blacks and poorer whites clustered in adjacent communities. On the arrival of the petrochemical industries, it was obvious that they would by that larger chunks of land. This explains the how the African American groups ended up living closer to the industries while the white population moved away. The oil industries came with heavy underground piping spread across the state to transport chemicals. The leaks and emissions of these industries lead to some chronic diseases in the region. [3] The health to date is a huge concern in this
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3. Acosta, Darin, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Petrochemical Industrial Complex of the St. Charles Parish Industrial Corridor and its Influence on Urbanization Patternsâ&#x20AC;? (2010). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1265.
region with about 50 percentage of the people effected with allergies to deadly lung cancers. One extreme example of a hazard to the community is the 1973 Shell pipeline blast that killed two people in a house. [2] Despite such drastic incidents, the pipeline still exists to date. There are multiple efforts for re assessing the pollution laws and the companies too are focusing on reducing their pollutants. But until then the people continue to suffer. There is an urgent need for the state and national governments to innovate new ways of engaging residential neighborhoods with these industrial neighbors so that there is justice done to the communities while the economy is not hit by these decisions.
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RUSSIA AND THE EASTERN BLOC
RUSSIA AND THE EASTERN BLOC
Russia and Eastern Bloc 01 DISCIPLINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERRITORY “Russia and the Eastern Bloc” is a body of collected works that examines the history of Russia during the height of its global influence as the United Soviet Socialist Republic. A working title I had for the project was the Moscow-Berlin transect because it framed the relatively large geographic region that Russia had control over at a point in time and, arguably, still influences today. I am tracing ideologies and highlighting radical propositions that caused rapid urbanization of a massive population. The projects, individually discussed and explained more in Section 04, examine the utopian vision that socialism produced during this time period in Russia and how that vision influenced, sometimes forcibly, surrounding nations. To that end, Russia has a particularly violent and ideologically pervasive history, shown best during its transitory periods. The first transition was from an empire, the Tsardom of Russia, to a socialist nation following the Russian Revolution of 1917. The second transition was the collapse of the United Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 and the transformation into the current Russia Federation. This period of history from 1917 to 1991 was marked by conflict and strife, with two major World Wars and several other, smaller wars as the power balances shifted and settled across the globe. The time between the Russian Revolution and the collapse of the USSR and the study of the ideologies and manifestations of these ideologies into built form are the major foci of this body of research. The early USSR, quite literally, remade the country from the ground up. In 1943 John Scott, an American writer that spent 1932 - 1941 in the USSR wrote: “I saw primitive backwards people in Magnitogorsk advance from the 10th century to the 20th century in their personal lives and habits within five years.”1 What John Scott saw and remarked on in 1943 had been in the making since the Russian Revolution more than twenty years earlier. From the beginning, Marxism Theory believed in educating the masses so as to give everyone the
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1 John Scott’s 1943 article for the National Geographic, entitled: “‘Magnetic City,’ Core of Valiant Russia’s Industrial Might,” page 525.
2020
TIMELINE : HISTORY, ACTORS AND EVENTS
2000
Yeltsin steps down as president, Putin takes over.
1991 1989
Collapse of the Soviet Union, creation of Russian Federation. Berlin Wall torn down.
1979
Soviet-Afghan War begins.
1961
Berlin Wall built.
1957
Space race between the USSR and the US.
1949
NATO Pact and Warsaw Pact established. Cold War begins.
2000
1980
[Critical DATA]
1940 1939
Country: Russia Area: 17,125,000 km2 Population (2019 estimate): 146,794,000 Country: Germany Area: 357,386 km2 Area % of Russia: 2.087% Population (2018 estimate): 83,000,000 Pop % of Russia: 56.54% Country: Poland Area: 312,696 km2 Area % of Russia: 1.826% Population (2018 estimate): 38,434,000 Pop % of Russia: 26.18%
1960
Start of World War II.
1920 1917
Russian Revolution and the rise of the Bolsheviks and communism.
1914
Start of World War I. 1900
1861
Russian serfdom abolished.
1850
Country: Croatia Area: 56,594 km2 Area % of Russia: 0.33% Population (2017 estimate): 4,154,200 Pop % of Russia: 2.83% What is shown here through these data figures is just how massive Russia is in geographic influence and how spread out and low density it is compared to other countries I discuss.
1800 1700 1654 1613
Russo-Polish War. Russian expansion, colonization, and conquest. National assembly elects the Romanov Dynasty to power.
1600
1547
Reign of Ivan the Terrible.
1500 1400 1300
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Western-aligned Neutral Figure 01. The USSR at the height of its power in the Eastern Bloc in comparison to the Western-aligned and neutral European countries.
Eastern Bloc, Russian-aligned USSR 0
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250 km
basic right of education: an equal footing in order to make informed decisions. For the new government, education was a logical product of urbanization. This massive cultural and societal shift was simultaneous with massive investment in industrialization and modernization. I argue that this investment should be read as institution building and rebuilding in order to establish a new political regime. The government relied heavily on architects and urbanists for this institution building, and asked both design professionals and design academia to plan: economydriving facilities; entire cities based solely on production and industrialization; the infrastructure to connect the growing economic machine; and the housing for all of the people that would stoke the forge of the machine.
See Figure 01, opposite, that describes the reach of Russian socialism at its peak: as it existed immediately after World War II and into the Cold War era.
2
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Magnetic Cityâ&#x20AC;? article by John Scott, page 525.
3
Another example of influence from the new generation of architects and urbanists under socialism was the Vkhutemas. The Vkhutemas was Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s answer in many ways to the Bauhaus: it was also an art and technical school that was founded under decree from Lenin. Out of the Vkhutemas stemmed the avant-garde art and architecture movements of constructivism, rationalism, and suprematism. Unfortunately, the school lasted only ten years before being dissolved because students who graduated could not procure jobs in the industry. What stemmed from the legacy of the Vkhutemas had significant implication for avant-garde and architectural theory about mathematics, space, and geometry. The USSR was a breeding ground for radical urban experiments, where the urban was taken on as a political project. After World War II, the USSR occupied the power vacuum left by the defeated Axis power. During this era, the Cold War era, the USSR challenged the western ideals of democracy and challenged the United States. Their socialist ideologies permeated through the Eastern Bloc of Europe as the USSR continued to exert control on them.2 The influence on the Eastern Bloc was similar to postcolonialism: a country occupying a colonized territory. Much of this influence has been slow, if at all, to recede. The ideological imprint that socialism made is still seen in European countries that were in the Eastern Bloc, as well as countries in Africa, to which socialist ideology spread during the Cold War. As Critical Urbanism, the postulations of socialism today still serve as a foil and a critique to capitalism and how each ideology continues to shape the global economy. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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“Third World” “Second World” “First World”
Figure 02. Map of the Cold War division. It should be noted that during this specific time, the USSR and China did not have an agreement, but they did share socialism as their political aim. All white areas did not have an alliance between them either, they were unaligned with either the US or the USSR.
02 GEOGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK: CULTURE, ECONOMY, AND SOCIO-POLITICAL THEMATICS In 1931, Stalin made a speech in Moscow where he claimed that Russia was “50 to 100 years behind the more advanced countries, industrially and militarily.”3 To boost an entire country’s means of production and economy to support a war effort is one thing, but to entirely modernize the people helping to generate this war machine across such an expansive geographic is an entirely different beast. In comparing Critical Data of the countries I observe through this study, a country like Germany has about half (50%) the population occupying one fiftieth (1/50th) of the territory. The pure lack of density alone in many parts of Russia (and that is looking at current day, never mind what it could have looked like fifty or one hundred years ago) makes the task that the new socialist regime overtook daunting. This significant change to economy also had significant culture impacts. One way that culture changed was through development and living patterns. During this time, Russia was experimenting with housing typologies to help their industry. All development patterns during the USSR were about speed and efficiency: What does the shape of the facility affect performance?; How could the factory best be connected to a rail line to connect raw material to processing?; How could technology and transportation connect processing to manufacturing?; How could technology and transportation connect from manufacturing to product? This extrapolated into residential developmental patterns as well: What got workers quickest to and from the factory?; What was the standard (minimum) allotment for sustaining the workforce?
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Figure 03. Map of current and past self-proclaimed socialist countries. It is important to note the Third World countries, especially in Africa that professed socialism at one point in history and typically still do.
See Figure 02 and Figure 03, above, which illustrates all countries that have in the past or currently still proclaim socialism. While not in the scope of this research, it is fascinating to see the developing geographies of Africa proclaim socialism.
4
Michael Khodarkovsky’s two part interview with the Institute of Modern Russia, a New York-based think-tank. Khodarkovsky is a professor of history at Loyola University with a specialty in Russian history.
5
Photo of Lukasz Stanek, current Visiting Associate Professor of Architecture at the University of Michigan’s Taubman College.
6
Strangely, although not paradoxically upon further inspection, the USSR strongly advocated for the rights of women as well. With the standard allotment of housing, the government was looking to mobilize their entire population. To leave half their population to secure the home front was a waste of time, energy, and resources they could not afford. Women’s rights were strongly advocated for so that they too could join the factory work and help with nation building. Socio-politically, the era of the USSR advocated for socialism at a global scale and saw several socialism governments emerge (sometimes forcibly) throughout the Eastern Bloc. The effects of these governing strategies can still be seen today.4 One of the more frightening aspects of this era of politics was the USSR’s secret police and their exertion of power by eliminating competition. This type of surveillance state and forcing of influence can be seen in the Soviet Bloc housing, the Berlin Wall, and Warsaw’s Palace of Culture and Science. In the example of the Palace of Culture and Science, the building is too large to demolish and still stands today as an unfortunate reminder of occupation past, despite a multitude of calls for demolition. The surveillance state seemingly has not gone away in the current day, and while fascinating and terrifying to consider, this body of research will only try to unpack that briefly right now: One provocative lens we can look through the rhetoric of Michael Khodarkovsky.5 He argues that the modern security state that is Russia will inevitably evolve into a democracy, not like the United States’ brand of democracy, but still a strain of democracy. Khodarkovsky also believes it will come from the top down once the government and the surveillance state understand how to make that transition while keeping everyone of prominence in their respective statuses in society. This lens is fascinating to apply when we look
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at Russia following the collapse of the USSR into modern day as it has entered the global economy.
Again, reference Figure 02 and Figure 03 for further details.
7
Another provocative lens is through the work of Lukasz Stanek, who imagined a Team Ten East in his forthcoming book.6 While the idea of a Team Ten East was fabricated, the concept that Eastern Bloc architects took socialist ideology with them to Africa during the postwar years was not. This spread of architects, designers, and urbanists has cemented some African countries developments as socialist nations.7 03 URBAN DYNAMICS A major line of thought that I am attempting to trace through this assemblage of works is that a majority of these projects, even if built, have a utopian and critical urbanist theory component to them. The utopian is defined as: “the aim for perfection and the ideal.” Critical Urban Theory is about critiquing a regime through, again, an ideal that the regime should, in the author’s eyes, emulate. From the very beginning of Early Soviet Russian thinking, they were attempting to imagine the city as the perfect machine. This perfect machine was seen through the critique of the foil character of capitalism; socialism has always been the proposed antidote to the prevailing scheme. As seen in Shestakov’s Plan for Greater Moscow and the two linear cities, Sotsgorod and Magnitogorsk, architects and urbanists entered the political to theorize and push the definition of city. While the Plan for Greater Moscow was heavily influenced by the Garden City, Sotsgorod and Magnitogorsk outright rejected Western precedents. Miliutin, the writer of the book Sotsgorod, suggested a push for new typologies, claiming the skyscraper at the epitome of capitalism. The pure linearity of the Linear City paradigm is utopian as it rejects geography and topography, but it is attempting to make manifest the speeches of Lenin, the outright desire for forward progress. And the fastest, most efficient and economic way anywhere is dead straight.
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8 Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present by Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel. The main source of my research into CIAM and Team Ten.
Exodus or The Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture by Rem Koolhaas and Elia Zenghelis with Madelon Vriesendorp and Zoe Zenghelis.
9
The Congres Internationaux D’Architecture Moderne and its offshoot, Team Ten, were always formulated around the proposed and the imaginary.8 The CIAM X congress looked at housing typology, not inconsequently while being held in Croatia, part of the Eastern Bloc. The two Team Ten congresses I studied were held in Berlin during the time of the Berlin Wall. In all cases, the congresses were another means of institution building in order to build and shape society. These discourses were productive ways of testing ideas and projects with the greatest architectural and urbanist minds of the time. The projects discussed, the locations these projects were situated in, the very people that were invited to these conferences strike me as a utopian clash between the West and the USSR. If I were to take the investigations here further, I would love to trace the relationships of the many architects and urbanists that participated in these congresses: where they traveled, whom they talked to and exchanged ideas with, what they took away from each congress, and those they went on to influence. The Berlin Wall is the physical manifestation of the Cold War’s Iron Curtain, but it is also the physical manifestation of Critical Theory. With three other Superpowers occupying the rest of Berlin, and all of them Western-aligned, the USSR really pushed the fringes of their empire in the German Democratic Republic. The Berlin Wall even has a component of the urban imaginary. We can think of the wall as a precursor to Exodus by Koolhaas and Zenghelis: sectioning off a portion of the city in an attempt to better the remaining portion.9 The wall was built overnight and shares similar program to Koolhaas’ Strip: a visitor’s center, although certainly less welcoming, in the immigration gate; elevated positions, guard towers for the case of the Berlin Wall, in which to observe the other side.
International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010 by the International Building Exhibition (IBA)
10
Finally, the International Building Exhibition, or IBA, could be seen as a continuation of the CIAM and Team Ten legacy. The IBA approaches collecting data and ideating similar to that of CIAM and Team Ten, where the role of the exhibition is the same: to examine the role and tradition of architecture and the urban. The IBA equally strives to put that experimentation in question immortalized into physical space. In the specific 2002 – 2010 Stadt Umbau Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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exhibition I studied, the work is aimed to answer questions of population decline and struggles to contain social cohesion at various social and political levels.10 While the role of the IBA is similar to the previous iterations of CIAM and Team Ten, the implementation is novel: the communities had to be self-motivated to participate and the IBA funded the grassroots efforts that came from the workshops versus a top-down approach style of CIAM and Team Ten. 04 SELECTED URBAN PROJECTS Chronologically, early Russian town planning will be contrasted with Sotsgorod in relation to socialist city building. The book, simply titled Sotsgorod, dissects Russian city planning before 1930 and then looks at the (then) contemporaneous planning techniques used in assembling the USSR. To accompany this, I will also discuss the utopian concept of the linear city. Sotsgorod and Magnitogorsk were two idyllic visions of expanding Russia’s industrial empire. The linear city looked at planning the city in relation to infrastructure and transportation, the movement of people and goods, and positing the factory to be along both lines as effectively as possible.11 Soviet Bloc housing, as it currently stands, is regretfully not addressed in this body of research. It is touched upon briefly in the Early Town Planning section, but the work does not examine the evolution of the Soviet Bloc during the period of the USSR. In further iterations of this project, I would examine at a more granular level, the individual unit of the settlements in these factory towns. The main idea of Soviet Bloc housing was this: the government was experimenting with housing typology in order to find efficient, cheap, potentially pre-fabricated construction techniques that sustained the factory worker population. The ultimate aim of these projects were to mass produce the housing units themselves and implement them in every factory town. Still on the concept of city planning, we will look outside of Russia into Warsaw, Poland. The city center was ravaged by World War II and upwards of seventy-five percent (75%) of the center was destroyed. Once Poland was A-754
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11 “Magnetic City” by John Scott. This reading will focus our understanding of the extreme industrial and cultural progress early USSR made between the two World Wars.
freed from Russian control, they began the process of rebuilding. The Polish government placed special emphasis on reconstructing historic centers. Through the use of old photographs, downtown Warsaw was completely rebuilt and restored, a massive historic preservation and restoration victory. What remained from the occupation era, however, was the Palace of Culture and Science. Now an eyesore to much of the country, I will discuss the largely cultural impact this monument had and has in the Polish city fabric. Jumping then to the 1950s are two main streams of thought. We will look at Team Ten, a group of prominent architects, designers, and planners of the time that met regularly during this period of history out of the ashes of the Congres Internationaux dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Architecture Moderne, or CIAM. We will look at three of their meetings, the 1956 Dubrovnik meeting that spawned the group out of CIAM X, the 1965 meeting in Berlin and the 1973 meeting in Berlin. Each of these meetings is significant because they met in countries that were part of the Eastern Bloc and therefore occupied both physically and ideologically by the USSR. While the projects proposed and discussed during these meetings were not always situated in the geographical locations they met in, the projects were certainly discussed within the context of the cities in which they were held and influenced by the political events of the time. We will also discuss the Berlin Wall that divided East and West Germany and the impact that had on Europe. The dates of the Berlin Wall wrap and summarize roughly the years of peak socialist influence from the USSR and the era of the Cold War. The wall was a physical symbol of the Iron Curtain, the clash of democracy and socialism and the dismantling of the wall signified too the dismantling and dissolution of the USSR. Jumping ahead slightly to the early 2000s, we will discuss rural German city planning through several projects sponsored by the International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt. Three cities - Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Hansestadt Stendal, and Wanzleban - are used as case studies for small towns near Berlin that have been impacted by shifting economic centers and industrial needs Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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after German infrastructure dismantling as part of their concessions post-World War II. These areas of largely post-industrial point to larger themes as the rest of the Eastern Bloc moving past USSR influence. I use these three final projects to postulate where the region I looked through this research may be heading architecturally. In reviewing this body of work - a transect that covers almost one hundred years of Russian and a small portion of Eastern Bloc history - the emphasis is on the utopian and critical urbanist proposal and project. In looking back to these projects, how can we move forward, what can we learn from this period of history? In the current political situation, Socialism is coming back into the spotlight once more. In the United States, Democratic Socialism is particularly popular in helping imagine a landscape of free education and healthcare as the costs of both institutions continue to rise. Neo-Marxists are critiquing the ideology they emerged from and the ideology, capitalism, they are hoping to fix. Whether or not you believe Russia influenced the previous United States elections, it is important to understand the roots of socialism and its influence on current politics. What is the architects’ and the urbanists’ role in a changing political climate? Should the design professions strive for agency in these times, acting on the frontlines to shape discourse and physical space or let patrons come to them with their ideas on the future? Will we see a resurgence of typologies from this era: the factory town; the linear city; the garden city; the government housing project? Just a few questions to consider in relation to this body of work and beyond... 05 BIBLIOGRAPHY “Berlin 1965.” In Team Ten: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, edited by Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel, 121-139. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2006. “Berlin 1973.” In Team Ten: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, edited by Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel, 182-201. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2006. “Bitterfeld-Wolfen: Network Town.” In International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, edited by Stadt Umbau, 579-586. Berlin: Jovis, 2010. “CIAM X Dubrovnik 1956.” In Team Ten: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, edited by Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel, 52-59. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2006. A-756
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“Hansestadt Stendal: Central Town in a Rural Region.” In International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, edited by Stadt Umbau, 617626. Berlin: Jovis, 2010. “Lukasz Stanek.” Taubman College. https://taubmancollege.umich.edu/faculty/ directory/lukasz-stanek “Wanzleben: Family Town.” In International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, edited by Stadt Umbau, 717-724. Berlin: Jovis, 2010. Anthony D. King. “Postcolonial Cities.” February 16, 2019. John Scott, “’Magnetic City,’ Core of Valiant Russia’s Industrial Might,” The National Geographic 83, No. 5 (May, 1943): 525-556. N. A. Miliutin, Sotsgorod. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1974. 1-128. Olga Khvostunova. “Michael Khodarkovsky: ‘Democracy in Russia Is Not Only Possible – It’s Inevitable.’” Last modified March 15, 2018. https://imrussia.org/ en/opinions/2931-michael-khodarkovsky-%E2%80%9Cdemocracy-in-russia-isnot-only-possible%E2%80%94it%E2%80%99s-inevitable%E2%80%9D. Olga Khvostunova. “Michael Khodarkovsky: ‘Sweeping History under the rug does not save the country from future problems.’” Last modified March 6, 2018. https://imrussia.org/en/opinions/2924-michael-khodarkovsky-sweeping-historyunder-the-rug-does-not-save-the-country-from-future-problems. Lewis Siegelbaum, “Magnetic Mountain.” Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. Accessed April 7th, 2019. http://soviethistory.msu.edu/1929-2/magneticmountain/. New Courier, “30 Percent of Illiterate...:Terrible Statistics of Ignorance in Poland,” Retro Press. Accessed April 19th, 2019. http://retropress.pl/nowykurjer/30-procent-analfabetow/. Irwin Adams and Richard Franca Vigfia, “Urban Planning in Poland Today,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Volume 41 Issue 4. https://www. tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944367508977888. Warsaw Tour, “Palace of Culture and Science.” Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://warsawtour.pl/en/project/palace-of-culture-and-science-2/. Max Risselada “Berlin (Germany) 25-29 September 1965: Between Understandment and Overdesign,” Team 10 Online. Accessed April 20th, 2019. http://www.team10online.org/team10/meetings/1965-berlin.htm. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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EARLY SOVIET TOWN PLANNING [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] Arthur Sprague did extensive research on Miliutin for his translation of Sotsgorod. With this, Sprague attempted to frame the surroundings from which Miliutin emerged. The introduction to Sotsgorod “is meant to illustrate the limited imagination and scope of planners before Miliutin and to give some indication of the utopian thinking with which Soviet planners were preoccupied.” 12 Soviet planners were asked to aim for the stars during this conception phase. The planners and architects that were active in the early Soviet Union were focused on individual buildings. As Sprague describes: “Prior to 1928, under Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed a considerable degree of free enterprise in the USSR, architects and planners were primarily occupied with the design of individual buildings and problems of style.” 13 These architects and urbanists saw massive population shifts as industrialization occurred, but focused on working housing units, not on large-scale town or urban planning of said units.
Sotsgorod: The Problem of Socialist Cities by Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin, translated and introduction by Arthur Sprague. Pg. 3.
12
13
Ibid, pg 11.
The style of early Soviet architecture is seen in the work of the Vesnin Brothers. Rising to prominence in the 1920s, the three brothers were responsible for several large infrastructural factories and factory housing projects. This factory housing typology, where workers live close to the factories in which they work, [Moscow, Sokol, and Dukstroi, RUSSIA] [1917 - 1930] [Built / Unbuilt] [Individual houses and city master plans] [Markovnikov, Shestakov, and Venderov; Vesnin Brothers] [Restructuring of density across all of Russia to match Socialist ideals] [Buildings are single family units, meant to be replicated across the entire country; Garden City look alikes] [Industrial factory worker housing, efficient cities, equal densification of Russian landscape] [Public, government sponsored]
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Mytishchi
Lobyna
Skhodnya
Shchyolkovo Railway Station
Moscow
Balashikha
Lapino
Malakhovka Vnukovo
Severnoye Butovo District
Bulatnikovo
Central core, “built up area” Large scale planted area, greenbelt around whole New construction area, largely residential Industrial sector
0
Figure 04. Shestakov’s plan for Greater Moscow with space for a central core, industry, residences, and a greenbelt planted area. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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8 km
Figure 05. A project by Shestakov for the All-Russian Agricultural and Handicrafts Industry Exhibition in Moscow from 1922-1925. A-760
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did not appear to be new at this time, at least globally, but Russian builders were slow to realize that designing and building decent housing could increase worker productivity. 14 A Western idea that was particularly infectious to early planning was the idea of the Garden City. This can be seen in Shestakov’s proposal for the Greater Moscow Plan, seen in Figure 04. The proposal called for: “all construction limited to six-story buildings, seventy-seven feet in height. Residences limited to four stories, and construction in the city center was permitted only with government approval.” 15 It is interesting to note, as Sprague does, that this “practice was actually a direct echo of Tsarist building code that had been in force in the imperial capital since before 1840.” 16 Shestakov’s plan was not government sanctioned, but three days after his plan was published, Moscow’s district engineers published new zoning laws that closely conformed. All of these projects occurred under Lenin’s New Economic Policy. The policy was phased out after 1928, when Lenin transitioned to the first of several Five-Year Plans. These plans called for socialist reconstruction “which presumed a full-scale conversion to State-planned economy and the collectivization of agriculture.” 17 The following projects, Sotsgorod and Magnitogorsk, arose out of this type of thinking, as Russia transitioned and rapidly industrialized.
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14
Ibid, pg 4.
15
Ibid, pg. 10
16
Ibid, pg. 10
17
Ibid, pg. 13
Figure 06. (left) V. I. Venderov’s Dukstroi Settlement in 1924-1925. Workers’ apartment house elevation and plans. Figure 07. (right) Markovnikov’s Sokol Suburb project, 1923-1927. Two sets of elevations and plans.
0 Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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SOTSGOROD [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin was a Bolshevik activist that held executive appointments in Communist Russia in planning and finance. At the time of writing Sotsgorod, Miliutin’s primary appointment was chairman of the government commission on the construction of new cities. Arthur Sprague, the translator of Sotsgorod, was a Columbia University professor that studied Russian architecture and town planning between the two World Wars. 18 Miliutin’s focus was on realizing Lenin’s speeches into physical form. He begins Sotsgorod: “The unprecedented rapidity with which our country is being industrialized presents us with the question of creating new large-scale manufacturing centers.” Miliutin is also focused on finding “a more rational construction of industrial enterprises and their contiguous residential areas.” 19 A reader should be quick to note the strong socialist language that Miliutin is using: everything is for the state, the group, the collective. He is also suggesting a push for new typologies, ones that break away from capitalist notions or have remote ties to capitalism. “Erecting skyscrapers is basically a mechanical copying of the usual capitalist forms of residential arrangement. The skyscrapers are the peak – the last cry of capitalism.” 20 This can [RUSSIA] [1930] [Unbuilt] [Ad infinitum, along a railroad line] [Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin] [Socialist city planning and building of settlements] [Linear city, planning, infrastructure, modernization] [Industry, co-located residential units] [Public, government sponsored]
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Sotsgorod: The Problem of Socialist Cities by Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin, translated and introduction by Arthur Sprague. Pg. VII
18
19
Ibid, pg. 47.
20
Ibid, pg. 51.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Rail line
Train station
Ramped and raised on pilotis
Covered walkway
Living space per person: 14 cubic meters Entrance underneath the home
Communal functions on first floor
Figure 08. The plan of Sotsgorod. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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be read at an critical urban theory critique. The critique is that Soviet Bloc uses familiar concepts - social housing, apartment-style, community-based programs - but really hones on the space per person and efficiency. The plan and images of the project are a housing project that is corridorless. Corridors are typically necessary, but program-less wasted space. Sotsgorod tested eliminating them. Sotsogorod is distinct from Mikhail Okhitovich’s de-urbanist conception of a linear city. They are both of the typology linear city, but Okhitovich’s project had termination points, which severely stunted the efficiency of the proposal. Miliutin’s focus is on creating a city that can be extended ad infinitum along a rail line. This conception recognizes the rapid growth and modernization that the USSR was experiencing during this time and this thought experiment looked to use the necessary infrastructure that connected the geographically massive Russia to its advantage. The book “represents a unique effort to draft a physical plan that is the embodiment of a modern social, political, and industrial creed” 21 and obviously the entire project is best read through that lens.
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Sotsgorod: The Problem of Socialist Cities by Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin, translated and introduction by Arthur Sprague. Pg. 1
21
Figure 09-11. (Top) The site plan of Sotsgorod. (Left) Section. (Right) Floor plan.
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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MAGNITOGORSK [INFRASTRUCTURE URBANISM] John Scott wrote about Magnitogorsk in 1943, at the height of World War II. With all the insider knowledge he received, you figure he would not have been able to write about the things he wrote about. For example his knowledge of past industrial locations: “There are many reasons for Russia’s unexpected strength. One of the most important is the modern industrial base built up during the past 15 years in the Urals and Siberia.” And a second quote: “Until 1930 almost all of Russia’s heavy industry was concentrated in the Ukraine and in western Russia.” 22
22 “‘Magnetic City,’ Core of Valiant Russia’s Industrial Might,” John Scott, page 525.
Perhaps it was the fact that Siberia is so massive that even knowing a general location would not be enough to sabotage the operation. However, these locations are important to note: even with all of the desire to expand evenly throughout all of Russia, only specific locations made sense for factory towns at the start of Russian industrialization due to resource allocation. Queue Magnitogorsk. The town was founded in the 1800s the southern Ural mountains in Eastern Russia because of the iron ore mining opportunities but entirely transformed through Stalin’s first, 1930 Five-Year Plan. It was to be modeled after the United States’ most advanced steel-producing cities at the time, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Gary, Indiana. 23 [Magnitogorsk, RUSSIA] [1930] [Built] [City] [Ivan Leonidov] [Socialist city planning and building of settlements, Stalin’s Five Year Plan] [Linear city, planning, infrastructure, rapid modernization] [Iron mining, steel production] [Public, government sponsored]
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“Magnetic Mountain,” Lewis Siegelbaum. 23
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Figure 12-15. Different conceptions of plans for Magnitogorsk. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Because of the Five-Year Plan, for “a decade the entire surplus of Soviet economy was invested in capital construction,” 24 emboldened by Stalin’s speeches at the time about pushing the country out of its backwardness. At the time, other contemporaries admired Leonidov’s plans for the steel factory and surrounding residential settlements. “Miliutin seems also to have favored the controversial and radical young architect Ivan Leonidov, illustrating his project for Magnitogorsk in Sotsgorod, albeit with some criticism.” 25 All of these projects for city envisioning occurred at the same time.
24 “‘Magnetic City,’ Core of Valiant Russia’s Industrial Might,” John Scott, page 525.
25 Sotsgorod: The Problem of Socialist Cities by Nikolay Alexandrovich Miliutin, translated and introduction by Arthur Sprague. Pg. 11.
Mikhail Aleksandrovich Okhitovich is another good contemporary foil to both Miliutin and Leonidov. All were theorizing city planning around the time of the Bolshevik Revolution. Okhitovich’s conception of city planning resembled Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City. Broadacre City favored a low-density, each family to an agricultural unit proposal. Okhitovich’s style of planning, then, is in a slightly different vein than Miliutin, which is in a slightly different vein than Leonidov’s. Miluitin was looking strictly linearly and connecting nodes, Leonidov was looking at the city as the unit of production, and Okhitovich was looking at sprawl as the condition. Three different perspectives with overlapping consequences of the same issues facing Russian modernization. Magnitogorsk’s steel plant was closed to outsiders during World War II, presumably just after John Scott was able to visit and was not reopened again until the 1980s, when the machinery was outdated. 26
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26
“Magnetic Mountain,” Lewis Siegelbaum.
Figure 16-18. Photographs of Magnitogorsk. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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PALACE OF CULTURE AND SCIENCE [POST-COLONIAL URBANISM] During World War II, Warsaw was almost entirely (85%) razed by Nazi troops for resisting German occupation as an attempt to lower morale and erase ideological connection to Poland’s past. The Polish People’s Republic was imposed by the Soviet Union following World War II and was considered a puppet satellite state. During the period of Soviet occupation, there were several positive aspects: the Polish population doubled; the socialist state in Poland supplied free healthcare and education; the illiteracy rate went from thirty percent (30%) in 1931 to two percent (2%) in 1988. 27 These were consistent with the USSR’s initial conceptions of educating and providing for their populations and shows that this practice was at least intended to extend to their satellites throughout the Eastern Bloc. Immediately after the war, there was a giant public concern (both locally and nationally) to restore Warsaw to how it was. 28 The historic city center was entirely recreated from photographs. Separate from the construction, the Soviet Union offered aid in the form of the palace.
[Warsaw, POLAND] [1952-1955] [Built] [Entire city block] [Lev Rudnev] [Approximately 9,000 Soviet and Polish workers; similar in style to Moscow State University] [Historic preservation through photographs] [City market, religious buildings, castle, Old Town, and historic city center preservation; theaters; cinemas; museums; pubs; tourist information center] [Public, USSR-sponsored]
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27
“30 Percent of Illiterate...,” Retropress.
28 “Urban Planning in Poland Today,” Irwin Adams and Richard Franca Vigfia.
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 19. Figure ground of the Palace of Culture and Science and the area surrounding.
1/16" = 1'
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0
300 m
The palace is to this day the notable high-rise in Warsaw, and is the tallest in the city. It is referred to as “The Eighth Sister” because it was built in Seven Sisters style. It was also nicknamed: Stalin’s syringe, the Russian Wedding Cake, and Stalin’s Dick, although the nickname PKiN was what stuck. Constructed in 1955, it is closely related to similar skyscrapers built in the Soviet Union, especially resembling the Moscow State University, also proposed by Lev Rudnev. I posit that the dissolution of the USSR is equivalent to post-colonialism, in the sense that it gave the former “colony” express control back. As Anthony King explains: “In a less-frequent usage, the term postcolonial cities refer to those capitals or major cities of the one-time imperial metropoles. The term can also be used metaphorically to refer, for example, to cities in Eastern Europe, previously under the hegemonic control of the Soviet Union.” 29 The Republic of Poland emerged after the Polish People’s Republic dissolved with a constitutional amendment in 1989 with the USSR to follow in 1991. During this time, Poland “transformed the country into a modern industrial society.” 30 Adams and Vigfia also posit that Polish planners had a strong understanding of the past and concern for smaller towns and cities. The Palace of Culture and Science still remains standing to this day. There are arguments back in forth between prominent Polish political figures about the logistics and cost, how the building may be too big to demolish, and how it stands as a controversial testament to Poland’s past. Some argue is inherent in the history, others would rather see that portion of history buried.
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29
“Post-Colonial Cities,” Anthony King, page 1.
30 “Urban Planning in Poland Today,” Irwin Adams and Richard Franca Vigfia.
Figure 20-21. (Top) Palace of Culture and Science photographs. Figure 22. (Bottom) Google Maps image of surroundings. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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CIAM X, DUBROVNIK 1956 [UTOPIAN URBANISM] The International Congress of Modern Architecture, or CIAM, was started in 1928 by some of the most prominent architects of the Modern Movement. The group held multiple congresses in which they explored architecture through social, economic and political means. CIAM X, hosted in 1956 and the tenth congress, was marked by most of the members as the last congress because some of the eldest and founding members were not present. Team Ten, a group of the younger generation within CIAM organized it under the supervision of CIAM X Advisory Committee. This act was seen as passing the torch to the second generation of architects and planners in the group. “Le Corbusier [who opted not to attend] sent a message in which he described the ‘problem of the generations.’ He proposed that the ‘First CIAM’ had ‘established’ a program that was an international importance. The task of the ‘Second CIAM’ would put into practice the program of the four functions developed by the ‘First CIAM’ and place it on an international level.” 31 Le Corbusier was, for all intents and purposes, stepping away and giving explicit instructions on where he wanted the group to go. [Dubrovnik, CROATIA] [1955-1956] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress] [Varies] [Alison and Peter Smithson, Bakema, Aldo van Eyck] [Housing typologies; neighborhood units; city planning] [Isolate, Hamlet, Village, Town, City; Mammoths; Nagele Grid] [The five housing typologies as an early precursor to New Urbanism’s RuralUrban Transect; The mammoths were a city cross section of high-rises at the entrance to the city, stepping down to low-rise in the city center; The Nagele Grid was looking at a city encircled by trees and a ring road of infrastructure] [Public for van Eycks’ project]
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Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 52.
31
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s)
Funding Streams
Figure 23-28. Spreads from the Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present.
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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The Dubrovnik Scroll was Alison and Peter Smithson’s launch into leadership, setting the stage of the conference. “The scroll revolved around the concepts of identity, association, cluster, and mobility. The problem of identity in a mobile society.” 32 The scroll, then, became the representative of the larger themes of the congress meeting. The tenth meeting revolved around habitat and the projects highlighted here emphasize urban, affordable mass housing units. It is important to note that this meeting was held in Croatia, a communist country, in the middle of the Cold War between the United States and the USSR. Even more important that it focuses on dwelling because the USSR was still very focused on mass urbanization and industrialization as it was now competing against the US as a world superpower. In 1959, CIAM was officially dissolved when Team Ten called a meeting in Otterlo. Team Ten continued on, branching off from CIAM original aims and Le Corbusier’s suggestions for the second generation.
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Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 50.
32
Figure 29. Conceptions of Alison and Peter Smithsonsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s five different dwelling types from their Dubrovnik Scroll. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Figure 30. Aldo van Eyckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Nagele Grid. A-780
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Figure 31. Alexanderpolder Grid conception by Bakema. The neighborhood units are deemed â&#x20AC;&#x153;mammoths.â&#x20AC;? Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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BERLIN WALL [CRISIS URBANISM] After World War II, German infrastructure was essentially completely dismantled. Some infrastructure was shipped elsewhere (particularly to Russia) while other aspects were destroyed. Berlin was quartered by several world powers: France, United Kingdom, United States and the USSR. West Berlin was influenced by the Allies, East Germany influenced by the USSR. The German Democratic Republic, responsible for East Germany, had socialist tendencies and many people defected. Berlin became a major emigration checkpoint as people wanted to leave East Berlin. This also led to a serious loss of intelligent young people on the East Berlin side. This was known as the “brain drain.” In order to contain this emigration and with pressure from Nikita Khrushchev, the German Democratic Republic sprung into action in 1961. Overnight, a wall was constructed along with watchtowers and anti-vehicle measures, and an ample warning track on both sides that signified a kill zone. Soviets were attempting to capitalize on the inexperience of President Kennedy, but they also effectively created the physical symbol of the Iron Curtain
[Berlin, GERMANY] [1961 - 1989] [Demolished] [Surrounded the entirety of West Berlin] [East Berlin and the Soviet Section of Berlin] [Restriction of emigration, Berlin emigration loophole closed, brain drain of the German Democratic Republic] [Iron curtain, representation of the Cold War] [Wall, guard and watch towers, “kill zone” on each side of the wall] [Public, East Germany sponsored with help from the USSR]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 32. Left side of the image is the walled West Berlin separated from the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and East Berlin. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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during the Cold War. The Iron Curtain was the political and ideological clash of democracy versus socialism, the US versus the USSR that included escalated tensions around the entire world. This impacted offensive and defensive strategies of several countries in the nuclear age, effectively spurring development in those sectors globally. For more than twenty-five years the wall stood until a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries caused weeks of civil unrest. In 1989, the GDR allowed people from East Germany to cross into West Germany and over the next several weeks the wall was deconstructed. A year later, German Reunification was officially announced. It is no surprise that the Soviet Union collapsed soon after this physical symbol was torn down. The Eastern Bloc revolutions alluded to above took place in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Romania and are referred to as the Autumn of Nations. The Fall of Nations culminated in a series of protests, typically non-violent, and elections that either outright voted out communist regimes or seriously destabilized those regimes.
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Figure 33-35. Photos of the Berlin Wall.
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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MY GOD, HELP ME SURVIVE
THIS DEADL
Figure 36. Collage of the Berlin Wall. A-786
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LY LOVE Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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TEAM TEN, BERLIN 1965 [UTOPIAN URBANISM] Team Ten came to Berlin in 1965, four years after the Berlin Wall was erected with no specific agenda for their meeting. Fifteen members were present, notably also exclusively European, after extending the invitation to thirty people. The group was still quite young and they spent time discerning what the group would do. 33 The meeting was partially motivated by Candilis, Josic, and Woods setting up a branch office for the design of the Free University but I argue they came to a super politically-charged environment with the hope that the situation would rub off on them and spur creativity. Wood wrote: “The purpose of the meeting would be the exchange of information and opinion on current problems of building and planning.” Many projects brought forth and discussed were unbuilt or unfinished. Of the built work, one main focus was Herman Hertzberger’s industrial building in Amsterdam that “made [use] of prefabricated concrete elements and [was] placed on the roof of an existing industrial hall.” 34 His construction also allowed for growth in the future, an idea that Candilis, Josic, and Woods would expound upon in their Free University proposal a decade later.
[Berlin, GERMANY] [1965] [Unbuilt / In Progress/ Built] [University dorms, city planning] [Giancarlo de Carlo; Aldo van Eyck; Candilis, Josic, and Woods] [Berlin Wall, urban growth, religious architecture, stem metaphor, web metaphor] [University dorm built on a hillside that respected topography, used rough-cast concrete; testing a configurative method based on numbers; web metaphor critiquing post-war European urban development in dense and old cities] [University dorms, pathways; church; city-wide grid] [Private, university funding for Carlo’s project]
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Max Risselada, “Berlin (Germany) 25-29 September 1965.” 33
Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 122.
34
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 37. Schematic overall plan of Giancarlo de Carloâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Collegio del Colle. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Another project that spurred a lot of discussion was Giancarlo de Carlo’s Collegio del Colle. Van Eyck “was especially enthusiastic about the plan, in particular about de Carlo’s attitude towards history and the way this was integrated into the project.” 35 The project was built into a hillside and while respecting the natural topography, linked everything through a series of terraced pathways. Ungers and Wewerka, both from Berlin, presented projects for new housing complexes in Berlin which conformed to an established Berlin tradition concerning the relation between the private and public domains. 36 This nonbreak from tradition was atypical for Team Ten and may have been influenced by the political climate. Arthur Glikson commented after the meeting was done that there were two main design styles involving within the group. The first contingent relegated major design decisions to the future without formal structure. The second was a foil: formal concepts were intended to allow changes in use at the risk of overdesign. Risselada and Heuvel note that this distinction was to crop up several times in at Team Ten meetings. 37
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Max Risselada, “Berlin (Germany) 25-29 September 1965.” 35
Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 123.
36
37
Ibid.
Figure 38-40. Sketches, mass plan and overall site plan. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Figure 41. Collage of van Eyckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s process.
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Figure 42-43. Diagrams representing the ideas of the project. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Figure 44. Before and after of Frankfurt Romerberg by Candilis, Josic, and Woods. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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TEAM TEN, BERLIN 1973 [UTOPIAN URBANISM] Team Ten’s 1973 Berlin meeting was known as the Matrix Meeting, an assembling of the inner team. The meeting marked the completion of the first phase of the Free University ten years later after the competition was won. The theme was the grid or the matrix as an organizational principle of the design process. 38 The grid dictated the structure, spatial, and programmatic layout. This was where Giancarlo De Carlo and Aldo van Eyck both voiced criticism: “De Carlo considered the matrix to be an abstract, conceptual schema. It did help to organize the materials, space and program in relation to one another and in accordance with their own internal logic.” Van Eyck’s criticism concerned “the subordination of the spatial idea to the structural system.” 39 The goal of the grid was to allow multiple layers of space and program, however the organizing principle also led to a lot of constriction of those very considerations.
38 Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 182.
Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Risselada and Heuvel, page 183. 39
The Free University was formed under these assumption. This formation would also allow students and professors to continually build, modify, demolish and rebuild parts of their university. This idea of continual adaptation and change was never really expounded upon at the university, as there were no major [Berlin, GERMANY] [1973] [Built] [University campus] [Candilis, Josic, and Woods] [Construction in Berlin during the period of western and eastern split] [The university is built on a grid, allowing the modular system to control expansion and redesign in the future] [University meant to be expanded upon by students and professors] [Public]
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Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Figure 45. Aerials of the Free University upon completion. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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renovations to the building. In this way, the original aim of the project was largely unsuccessful. Also of significance in the Free University first phase is the use of prefabricated construction that followed Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Modulor proportional system. The themes of grid, of pre-fabrication, and of modularity with the ability to replace should all be framed within the context of institution building. Team Ten was experimenting with various typologies of institutions and how they could expanded and improved upon. This Free University project took place during the time of heated political standoff, with the Berlin Wall still standing and tensions between the US and the USSR still on red alert. Perhaps this idea of replicability and replaceability were postulating on destruction from a supposed war erupting? If that is too far out there for consideration, perhaps try something more standard: institutions are meant to stand for a long time and to become cultural monuments. If the building can be more easily retrofitted and renovated, the cost of maintenance and in improvements go significantly down, which is always a consideration in maintaining public facilities.
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Figure 46. Competition submission boards and models. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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GERMAN RURAL CITY PLANNING [POST-PRODUCTIVE URBANISM] Saxony-Anhalt is a state west of Berlin. The area has seen decline in growth, yet an increase in land area. The area itself has been in decline since the German war effort was dismantled in World War II. The situation came to a tipping point in the late 1900s, sometime between the 1980s and 2000s. The area has been supporting dangerously low density, to the point where the local municipal governments fear community cohesion is at risk. With such low density, the governments are finding it hard to provide community programming and transportation that is able to affect a large enough population to make it profitable. The International Building Exhibition (IBA) was engaged to host a competition and think-tank from 2002 to 2010 to develop solutions on how to solve this crisis. The IBA “consciously set the aim of tackling the specific situation of the shrinking towns and cities in Saxony-Anhalt and to respond with policy objectives.” 40 The important thing to note was that the IBA’s priority of solutions were not buildings. Instead, the focus was on the “software” of the city: understanding and quantifying the educational or social resources the towns and cities already possessed and then amplifying and mobilizing those efforts. [Saxony-Anhalt, GERMANY] [2002 - 2010] [Unbuilt / Partially Built / In Progress/ Built] [Town/city] [Various, IBA] [Smart growth or negative growth, depending on what each city or town needs] [Place-based architecture that responds to the individual town; some projects were defined through competition, through town meeting, or with help from the IBA] [Various programs, centered around density and smart growth] [Public and Private]
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International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, International Building Exhibition, Pg. 19. 40
Location Year(s) Status Footprint Designer Additional Agents Key Project Components Program(s) Funding Streams
Municipal boundaries 2010 Municipal boundaries 1990 Figure 47. Each of the nineteen cities. Outline is the original size, filled area is the current boundaries of the cities. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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Figure 48-49. Site plans of four of the nineteen cities. Will be turned into figure grounds in Draft 03. A-802
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Figure 50-51. Site plans of four of the nineteen cities. Will be turned into figure grounds in Draft 03. Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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It would be too broad of a stroke to categorize the nineteen towns that participated as going through a simple branding exercise, however, each town worked on developing a new self-image as part of the process. Signing up for the program was voluntary and was through an application where the territory needed to sell itself: in what areas did it excel? Where did it need help? This critical self reflection was crucial to defining the types and scales of projects each of the nineteen cities engaged in. Because the municipalities recognized: “The 21st century will be characterized by the demise of this exceptional growth.” 41 They were planning for de-growth, planning for a postproductive society. The good news was at the end of the process, each territory walked away hopeful: “Compared to the rest of the country, [the region] generates a relatively high proportion of energy from renewable resources.” 42 The region, if replanned properly, can set itself up as a series of tight-knit, sustainable, locally-focused communities. I argue that this International Building Exhibition effort can be read as a community-focused equivalent and logical descendant of CIAM and Team Ten efforts. The IBA looked at metrics, hard and soft data, and tried to trace general trends on where they speculated the regions and the design fields to go. The main change (upgrade?) to the process from CIAM/Team Ten is the community design base. This intense grassroots effort definitely prevented the heavy-handed topdown approach that was apparent in previous iterations and efforts.
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International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, International Building Exhibition, Pg. 24.
41
International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, International Building Exhibition, Pg. 28. 42
Figure 52. Family day collage from one of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public meetings.
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
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FIGURE RESOURCES Australian Southeast Coastline, p. 308 Figures 01-02. Course generated. Figures 03-05. Self-generated. Photos by others. Figure 06: The image of Industrial Sydney. Accessed on April 2019, at: http://www. jllapsites.com/research/demand-for-innerwest-sydney-industrial-as-occupiers-recogniseoperating-cost-savings/ Figure 07: The deindustrialized world. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.amazon.com/ Cities-Visitors-Regulating-People-Markets/ dp/1405100591 Figure 08: Cities and Visitors. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://books.google.com/books/ about/Landscape_Infrastructure. html?id=SiSgvfj8HWcC&printsec=frontcover& source=kp_read_ button#v=onepage&q&f=false Figure 09: Seawater desalination in Australia. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.flickr. com/photos/34120957@N04/3430995802 Figure 10: Infrastructure Landscape. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://books.google.com/ books/about/The_Deindustrialized_World html?id=2hEqDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcov er&source=kp_read_ button#v=onepage&q&f=false Figure 11-16. Self-generated. Photos by others. Figure 17: The taxonomy of Sydney Park. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.archoutloud.com/ uploads/4/8/0/4/48046731/985811281.jpg Figure 18-30. Self-generated. Photos by others.
Dutch Waterline, p. 250 Figure 01. Charles Waldheim, Landscape as Urbanism: A General Theory, 2016. Accessed on April 22nd. https://land8.com/landscapeas-urbanism-charles-waldheim-outlines-thegeneral-theory/ Figure 02. Heritage Fort in the Dutch Waterline Area. Source: Utrecht: the Heart of Holland. "the New Dutch Waterline". Accessed on April 20th. https://www.theheartofholland.com/en/ region/nieuwe-hollandse-waterlinie Figure 03. Important Data Analysis of the Netherlands Source: Kersten Nabielek, David Hamers, and David Evers, “Cities in the Netherlands: Facts and Figures on Cities and Urban Areas”, Report of PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (2016): 8-24. Figure 04. Dutch Dikes.
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Source: Holland. Accessed on April 20th. https://www.dutchwatersector.com/newsevents/news/8756-boskalis-and-van-oord-toreinforce-coastline-by-creating-beach-in-frontof-sea-dike-the-netherlands.html Figure 05. Book cover of Utopian Urbanism and Infrastructrual Urbanism Source: 1. Robert Fishman. Urban Utopias in
the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howeard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. (Basic
Books, NY, 1977). 2. Stan Allen. Points + Lines: Diagrams and Projects for the City. (Princeton Architectural Press,1999) Figure 10. Book cover of Utopian Urbanism Source: Robert Fishman. Urban Utopias in the
Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howeard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier. (Basic Books,
NY, 1977). Figure 14. The Utrecht Central Station Source: BNTHMCRWL Architects. “Utrecht Central Station”. Accessed February 24th. http://benthemcrouwel.com/projects/utrechtcentral-station/ Figure 19. The Dafne Schippers Bridge Source: NEXT Architects. “Dafne Schippers Bicycle Bridge”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.nextarchitects.com/ en/projects/dafne_schippers_bicycle_ bridge?c=infrastructure Figure 21. Book cover of Landscape Urbanism Source: Charles Waldheim. The Landscape Urbanism Reader. (Princeton Architectural Press, 2006). Figure 25. Dikes+ Spacial Quality : Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg Source: H+N+S Landscape Architects. “Spatial Quality Guide Gorinchem-Waardenburg”. Accessed February 25th. http://www.hnsland. nl/en/projects/dike-reinforcement-gorinchemwaardenburg Figure 27. Book cover of Ecological Urbanism Source: Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Edited by Mohsen Mostafavi with Gareth Doherty. Ecological Urbanism. (Lars Muller, 2016). Figure 31. Markthal Source: KCAP. “Blaak 31 Rotterdam [NL]”. Accessed February 25th. https://www.kcap.eu/ en/projects/v/blaak_31/
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Former Yugoslavia, p. 130 Figure 02: https://www.historycampus. org/2016/where-were-you-when-tito-died/ Figure 03: https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/ santa-claus-vukovar-1992/ Figure 04: Jelica Jovanović, Jelena Grbić, Dragana Petrović, Prefabricated Construction in Former Yugoslavia. Visual and Aesthetic Features and Technology of Prefabrication Figure 05: https://www.skyscrapercity.com/ showthread.php?t=1551676 Figure 06: http://www.fusion-journal. com/issue/006-fusion-the-rise-and-fallof-social-housing-future-directions/ do-not-throw-concrete-blocks-socialand-public-housing-in-new-belgrade-andtheir-representations-in-popular-culture/ Figure 17:http://business-magazine. ba/2018/07/15/35909/ Figure 07: http://business-magazine. ba/2018/07/15/35909/ Figure 08: https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Po%C5%A1ta_vo_Skopje,_ Macedonia.jpg Figure 11: https://66.media.tumblr.com/ tumblr_m44wkgFWSS1qf8fa5o1_1280.jp Figure 12: https://sovietmodernism.files. wordpress.com/2018/02/hotel-jugoslavija-newbelgrade-serbia-2.jpg Figure 18: https://images.adsttc.com/ media/images/5b3a/cbf2/f197/cc3f/ d600/0090/slideshow/1960_laginjina_street. jpg?1530579945 Figure 19: https://www.telegram.hr/wpcontent/uploads/2017/12/otvor.jpg?w=640 Figure 26: https://www.calvertjournal. com/images/uploads/features/2016_Sep/ Power_and_architecture/OginoKnauss/ oginoKnauss_22.jpg Figure 27: https://www.calvertjournal. com/images/uploads/features/2016_Sep/ Power_and_architecture/OginoKnauss/ oginoKnauss_33.jpg Figure 33: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ XulDDmlFhBQ19ke9XBTzneZ6-LrsiURyPb_ ISF8vr-wcvGrI116V3V-G7SVBW6c41tzHlFd9 RZcXzVZVovnNVj4ihE2wUTET=s750 Figure 34: https://www.viktormacha.com/ photos/zeljezara-zenica-vytlacovaci-stroj-2580. jpg Figure 40: https://66.media.tumblr.com/ tumblr_m1km8q9okL1qf8fa5o1_1280.jpg Figure 41: https://66.media.tumblr.com/ f42f3debe663932c799e75dd23c2d81b/tumblr_ mydx82IvT21qddyq5o1_1280.jpg
Greater São Paulo, p. 678 Figure 1 & 2. Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. Figure 1. Aerial view of São Paulo. From: Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. Figure 2. Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018): 17-26. doi:10.1016/j.wace.2018.05.002. Figure 05. Metropolitan City of São Paulo. Figure 06. Metropolitan City of São Paulo. From “São Bernardo Do Campo.” Wikipedia. November 07, 2018. Accessed April 20, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/São_Bernardo_ do_Campo. Figure 07, 08 & 09. Analysis of Residential Density & Income Distribution of São Paulo. From: 1. Martine, George, Gordon McGranahan, Mark Montgomery, and Rogelio Fernandez-Castilla. The New Global Frontier: Urbanization, Poverty and Environment in the 21st Century. London, United Kingdom: Earthscan, 2008. Fig. 10. Maximum temperatures (filtered) and major periods of MASP urban growth. From: Lima, Gabriela Narcizo De, and Víctor Orlando Magaña Rueda. “The Urban Growth of the Metropolitan Area of Sao Paulo and Its Impact on the Climate.” Weather and Climate Extremes 21 (2018): 17-26. doi:10.1016/j. wace.2018.05.002. Fig 11. View of Landscape for a Public Event. From: https://catracalivre.com.br/agenda/vilamundo/sp-ganha-4-palcos-e-12-horas-de-festagratuita-no-anhangabau/ Fig 12 & 13.. Aevial View of Vale do Anhangabaú showing the elevated viaduct. From: https://catracalivre.com.br/agenda/vilamundo/sp-ganha-4-palcos-e-12-horas-de-festagratuita-no-anhangabau/ Figure 14. Aevial View of Vale do Anhangabaú showing the elevated viaduct. From: Correa, Felipe. São Paulo: A Graphic Biography. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2018. Figure 15. Types of Informality. From “Theories and Methods of Urban Design 2018.” March 2018. https://issuu.com/ taubmancollege/docs/theories-and-methodsof-urban-desig. Fig. 16. São Paulo Masterplan, Map 07: Special Zones of Social Interest, From: Secretaria Municipal de Planejamento Urbano Sempia. Rolnik, Raquel. The Statute of the City: New Tools for Assuring the Right to the City in Brazil. São Paulo: Instituto Polis, 2002.
Fig. 17 & 18 General Pla for Urbanization & Existing Building Standards, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www. researchgate.net/publication/250983751_ Urbanizacao_de_favelas. Fig. 19 & 20, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_ favelas. Fig. 21 & 22. Created Public Space Square 1 & 2, Favela Imbuias / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/250983751_Urbanizacao_de_ favelas. Fig. 23, 24, 25 & 26. Favela Jardim Floresta & Map Location / Guarapiranga. From: Bastos, Paulo. “Urbanização Do De Favelas.” Criação Arquitetura, 47th ser., 17 (2003). https://www. researchgate.net/publication/250983751_ Urbanizacao_de_favelas. Figure 27. Aerial View of Grotão (before) with rampant debris and lack of social and urban infrastructure Figure 28. Aerial View of Centro de Acçao Social por Música (after) with its integrated infrastructure around the vicinity of Grotão Figure 29. Sectional Perspective of Terraced Landscape integrated with social spaces and Building Design. From: Urban-Think Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/ dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fc-be791c80dcf9/ Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf. Figure 30. Landscape Circulation & Strategies with Sectional Represenation. From: UrbanThink Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fcbe791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf. Figure 31 & 32. Rendered view of Proposed Facility & Proposed spatial interventions and programmatic introductions. From: UrbanThink Tank. “Centro De Acção Social Por Música.” Urban Remediation And Civic Infrastructure Hub. https://src.lafargeholcim-
Figure Resources
foundation.org/dnl/81a9eb63-3706-4a25-97fcbe791c80dcf9/Urban Think Tank_Holcim Global_Final Submission.pdf. Figure 33 & 34. Besides facilities for sports and cultural practices, the SESC Pompéia includes breakout spaces like wooden boardwalk known as ‘la praia” (the beach). The interior of the pavilions, where exhibitions and workshops are held, are maintained as they used to be, inserting only a chimney, an artificial stream, a restaurant and a theater. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015. Figure 35. A sectional drawing of Bardi’s proposal. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015. Figure 36. A series of footbridges, rising up to different heights, onnect the dressing room building and the sports facilities, generating itineraries with open air areas with panaramic views. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015. Figure 37. Conceptual drawings of footbridges with different purposes and building apertures on the facades that permit ventilation. From: AV Monografias. Lina Do Bardi. Series 180. Madrid: Arquitectura Viva, 2015. Figure 38 - 40. Gestão Urbana SP. December 27, 2016. https://gestaourbana.prefeitura.sp.gov. br/estruturacao-territorial/arcos/arco-tiete/ arco-tiete-plano-de-melhoramentos-viarios/.
Greater Tokyo Area, p. 512 Figure 01. Tokyo Bay Bird Eye View. Accessed April 12, 2019. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/ news/2013/09/26/national/tokyo-to-buildnew-wharf-for-big-liners/#.XLz4ZuhKhPY Figure 02. Tokyo Bay Aerial Map. Accessed April 12, 2019. Google Earth Figure 03. Model of A plan for Tokyo 1960. Accessed April 12, 2019. http:// www.fabiofeminofantascience.org/ RETROFUTURE/RETROFUTURE14.html Figure 04. A sports festival is held on the banks of a standard Arakawa embankment. Accessed April 12, 2019. https://nextcity.org/ daily/entry/tokyo-is-building-enormous-superlevees-to-hold-back-its-riverRETROFUTURE/ RETROFUTURE14.html Figure 05. Comparation with ordinary levee facing the overtopping, seepage and earthquake. Accessed April 12, 2019. https:// sciengsustainability.blogspot.com/2018/09/
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levee-and-super-levee.html Figure 06. Aerial view of Yokohama International Passenger Terminal. Accessed April 12, 2019. http://www.yokohamajapan. com/things-to-do/detail.php?id=97 Figure 07. The rooftop functions as a promenade, open to the public 24 hours a day. Accessed April12, 2019. https://www. designboom.com/architecture/yokohamainternational-passenger-terminal-foreign-officearchitects-edward-caruso-02-16-2017/ Figure 08. Rendered image of Japan National Stadium. Accessed April 12, 2019. https://www. archdaily.com/898376/kengo-kumas-airbnbexperience-to-include-tour-of-2020-tokyoolympic-stadium Figure 09. Rendered image of Olympic Village/ paralympic Village. Accessed April 12, 2019. http://www.2020games.metro.tokyo.jp/eng/ taikaijyunbi/taikai/kaijyou/kaijyou_other_01/ index.html Figure 10. Photo of rooftop farm on Ogikubo Station. Accessed April 12, 2019. https:// popupcity.net/japanese-commuters-growveggies-on-train-station-rooftops/ Figure 11. Photo of rooftop farm on Ebisu Station. Accessed April 12, 2019. https:// inhabitat.com/rooftop-farms-on-japanesetrain-stations-serve-as-community-gardens/ machinaka-vegetable-garden-soradofarm-2
Indonesia, p. 426 Figure 01. Cultural Diversity. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://happytowander.com/culture-ofindonesia-cultural-experiences-you-cant-missin-indonesia Figure 02. Indonesia. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.liveaboard.com/diving/ indonesiaFigure 03. Inequality and Poverty. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www. elsevier.com/connect/atlas/growth,-inequality,and-poverty-reduction Figure 04. Ecological Urbanism. Accessed on February, 2019 at https://www.gsd.harvard. edu/publication/ ecological-urbanism/ Figure 05. The Green Manhattan and The City of Jakarta. Accessed on February, 2019 at https://www10. aeccafe.com/blogs/archshowcase/2017/12/19/jakarta-jaya-the-greenmanhattan-in-indonesia-by-shau/ Figure 06. New Tourism. Accessed on April,
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2019 at https://www.gooood.cn/jakarta-jayathe-greenmanhattan-by-shau.htm Figure 07. Before. Accessed on February, 2019 at https://www.dailystar.co.uk/travel/travelnews/615013/ Rainbow-village-Indonesia-Instagram-picturesKampung-Pelangi-Randusari Figure 08. In Process. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.goodnewsfromindonesia. id/2017/05/16/ kampung-pelangi-semarang-jadi-obrolan-mediainternasional Figure 09. After. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.spotbaru.com/alamat-kampungpelangi-wonosarisemarang/ Figure 10. Smart City. Accessed on April, 2019 at http://ia-latam.com/2019/03/04/lasciudades-pequenaspueden-ser-mas-inteligentes/ Figure 11. Bandung Command Center. Accessed on April, 2019 at http://vibizmedia. com/2017/09/18/ bandung-menjadi-kota-minim-birokrasi-denganaplikasi-smart-city/ Figure 12. Pluit City. Accessed on February, 2019 at http://www.marthaschwartz.com/pluitcity-jakarta-indonesia/ Figure 13. Parks. Accessed on February, 2019 at http://www.som.com/projects/pluit_city_ master_plan Figure 14. Tsunami 2004. Accessed on February, 2019 at https://baike.sogou.com/ historylemma?lId=4730525 &cId=168241839 Figure 15. Community-Based Settlement Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project. Accessed on February, 2019 at http://www.worldbank.org/en/ results/2012/04/16/indonesia-communitybased-settlementrehabilitation-and-reconstruction-projectrekompak Collage 1 1. Tsunami. Accessed on April, 2019 at https:// nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/65674deadly_ tsunami_strikes_ nunavuts_neighbour_greenland/ 2. Street art in Hongkong. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.timeout.com/hong-kong/ art/best-streetart-and-graffi ti-in-hong-kong 3. Pluit City. Accessed on April, 2019 at http:// www.som.com/projects/pluit_city_master_plan
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
4. Digital Data. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.ihs.com.tr/blog/2016nin-enonemli-4-buyuk-verianaliz-trendi/ Collage 2 1. Beach. Accessed on April, 2019 at https:// cdn-image.travelandleisure.com/sites/default/ fi les/ styles/1600x1000/public/1526065164/thepalms-hotel-and-spa-03-MIAMIHTLWB18. jpg?itok=-5N3TzaQ 2. Hignway. Accessed on April, 2019 at https:// www.abc.net.au/news/image/10398180-3x2940x627.png 3. Fishmen housing. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://ss3.bdstatic.com/70cFv8Sh_ Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=4126083108,1 38931035&fm=26&gp=0.jpg 4. Longlook Beachhouse. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.northcaptiva.com/index. php/islandvacation-rentals/browse-properties/3bedrooms/437-longlook Collage 3 1. Kampung Pelangi. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.tilytravels.com/ uploads/3/7/7/1/37712685/ semarang-1000-192_orig.jpg 2. Tourists in Kampung Pelangi. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://static.boredpanda.com/ blog/wpcontent/uploads/2017/05/rainbow-villagekampung-pelangi-indonesia-2.jpg 3. Tourists in Kampung Pelangi. Accessed on April, 2019 at http://p1.ifengimg.com/ web/2017_20/ a4e2f4a3525ac6c_w800_h313.jpg 4. Tourists in Kampung Pelangi. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://estutrans.com/wpcontent/ uploads/2017/10/Wisata-Selfi e-TerbaruKampung-Pelangi-Semarang-Terpopuler.jpg 5. Wallpainting. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://feedpotato.com/assets/uploads/story Collage 4 1. Bandung Command Center.Accessed on April, 2019 at https://tempatwisatadibandung. info/wp-content/ uploads/2015/11/Bandung-CommandCenter3-750-x-350-1280x720.jpg 2. Ipad. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://i. ytimg.com/vi/jzHHxlpOaw8/maxresdefault.jpg 3. Smart Parks. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://timgsa.baidu.com/ 4. Smart Lamps. Accessed on April, 2019
at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ content/ documents/12659kamil.pdf Collage 5 1. Pluit City. Accessed on April, 2019 at https:// pluitcity.com/uploads/gallery/1415783091.jpg 2. Bedarra Island. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/af/ Bedarra_Island_aerial.jpg 3. Yachts. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://en.cnb-yachts.com/uploads/media/ Block50/06/6-_45R2256_ sq.jpg?v=1-0 4. Pluit City. Accessed on April, 2019 at http:// www.som.com/projects/pluit_city_master_plan Collage 6 1. Farmlands. Accessed on April, 2019 at http://www.farmlandsrealestate.co.nz/pics1/ BL1229.jpg 2. Garbage bins. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://jpninfo.com/wp-content/ uploads/2017/08/garbagebins.jpg 3. Coconut trees. Accessed on April, 2019 at http://bpic.588ku.com/element_origin_min_ pic/16/06/05/145753cc5f46bb5.jpg 4. Emergency housing. Accessed on April, 2019 at https://www.gitec-consult.eu/images/ project_images/39/ medium/39_image_237809.jpg
Jing Jinji Region, p. 348 Figure 01. The image of Beijing. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://ccbc.com/about/offices/ beijing/ Figure 02. The image of Tianjin. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://teach-english-in-china. co.uk/teach-english-in-tianjin/ Figure 03. The image of Hebei. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://i.pinimg.com/736x/8e/be/ f1/8ebef1fcf391a13a114534610b15f7f2.jpg Figure 04. The image of Beijing. Accessed on April 2019, at:https://stock.tuchong.com/image ?imageId=165755629970653192&source=baidui mage#165755629970653192 Figure 05. The image of Tianjin. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.thousandwonders. net/Tianjin+Eye Figure 06. The image of Hebei. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://image.baidu.com/search/ detail?ct=503316480&z=0&ipn=d&word=hebei &step_word=&hs=0&pn=10&spn=0&di=460&
pi=0&rn=1&tn=baiduimagedetail&is=0%2C0& istype=2&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&in=&cl=2&lm=1&st=-1&cs=3625521752%2C1860603100&os= 346774205%2C2314022071&simid=187228298 7%2C673389360&adpicid=0&lpn=0&ln=1839 &fr=&fmq=1555984017592_R&fm=result&ic= &s=undefined&hd=&latest=&copyright=&se= &sme=&tab=0&width=&height=&face=undefi ned&ist=&jit=&cg=&bdtype=13&oriquery=&o bjurl=http%3A%2F%2Fimgsrc.baidu.com%2Fi mgad%2Fpic%2Fitem%2F00e93901213fb80ec8 4b954a3cd12f2eb8389491.jpg&fromurl=ippr_z2 C%24qAzdH3FAzdH3Fooo_z%26e3Bq7w g3tg2_z%26e3Bv54AzdH3Ft42k7yAzdH3Fj wfp-jr-w08-dacdlcc_z%26e3Bip4sa&gsm=0 &rpstart=0&rpnum=0&islist=&querylist=& force=undefined Figure 10. The image of Beijing Finance Street. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.som. com/projects/beijing_finance_street Figure 11 The image of Beijing Finance Street. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.som. com/projects/beijing_finance_street Figure 24. The image of Fendi next c. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.som.com/china/ projects/feidi_next_c_master_plan Figure 25. The image of Fendi next c. Accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.som.com/china/ projects/feidi_next_c_master_plan Figure 28 The taxonomy of Tuan Jiehu community. Accessed on April 2019, at: Zhao Xiaoshuai, Micro-space Design Under the Guidance of “Everyday Urbanism”: A Case Study of Tuan Jiehu Comminity, (Urbanism and Architecture, 2017).
Korean Peninsula, p. 014 Figure 1: http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy.lib.umich. edu/book/23403 Figure 2: https://bit.ly/2UMEhB3 Figure 3: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 4: https://www.ideabooks.nl/media/ catalog/product/cache/1/ image/245x/040ec09b1e35df139433887a97 daa66f/1/6/16279.fargame.9791187071051.jpg Figure 5: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in K orea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 6: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012.
Figure Resources
Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 7: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 8: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 9: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 10: Park, Jinhee, and John Hong. 2012. Convergent Flux: Contemporary Architecture and Urbanism in Korea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. Figure 11: https://www.aljazeera. com/mritems/Images/2018/2/11/ f037802d388f4ba5b7b523701125ce33_8.jpg Figure 12: https://www.architectural-review. com/pictures/1180xany/3/9/3/3097393_ss_ tower_ts_mg_1212.jpg Figure 13: Mollard, Manon. n.d. “City within the City: Sewoon Sangga Renovation in Seoul, South Korea.” Architectural Review. Accessed February 27, 2019. https://www.architecturalreview.com/buildings/city-within-the-citysewoon-sangga-renovation-in-seoul-southkorea/10027358.article. Figure 14: self-generated. Figure 15: self-generated. Figure 16: https://www. architectural-review.com/ pictures/1180xany/8/7/1/3096871_197801_ iv_30_36.jpg Figure 17: https://mir-s3-cdn-cf.behance. net/project_modules/max_3840/ ed4ace46693777.5607df90c7bd0.JPG Figure 18: https://www.architectural-review. com/pictures/2000x2000fit/4/5/1/3097451_ ss_zone_c_ts_mg_1661.jpg Figure 19: https://mir-s3-cdn-cf.behance.net/ project_modules/disp/31ab3046693797.5607d f9041ea0.jpg Figure 20: https://static.dezeen.com/ uploads/2018/01/sewoon-sangga-dezeen-hero852x518.jpg Figure 21: https://www. architectural-review.com/ pictures/980x653fitpad[31]/4/4/4/3097444_ ss_zone_c_ts_mg_1984.jpg
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Figure 22: https://www. architectural-review.com/ pictures/980x653fitpad[31]/4/3/6/3097436_ ss_zone_a_ts_mg_1591.jpg Figure 23: https://www.architectural-review. com/pictures/1240x826/9/5/6/3097956_ pajubookcity1stphase.jpg Figure 24: https://images-na.ssl-imagesamazon.com/images/ I/41OUxx%2B00kL._SX424_ BO1,204,203,200_.jpg Figure 25: self-generated Figure 26: self-generated Figure 27: https://l87r32c95dp1hz05tig4px11wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/ uploads/2016/06/ConvergentFlux.jpg Figure 28: https://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/ wp-content/uploads/2016/01/KB-Paju-BookCIty-1.jpg Figure 29: http://www.korea. net/upload/content/editImage/ OmnFoCcxJXwzpXvymDxc.jpg Figure 30: http://static.dezeen.com/ uploads/2016/01/Kyomunsa-Office_DanielValle-Architects_Paju-Book-City_Seoul_ dezeen_1568_1.jpg Figure 31: https://images.adsttc.com/media/ images/51f1/50a5/e8e4/4ea5/b700/0167/ newsletter/sallim15.jpg?1374769312 Figure 32: http://www.daewhakang.com/ wp-content/uploads/2016/10/15016_DKD_ Rainbow_Building_01_med_zoomin.jpg Figure 33: http://img.koreatimes.co.kr/ upload/newsV2/images/201811/ af4a86b6acbc43d1a9d6336ab910db1d.jpg Figure 34: self-generated Figure 35: self-generated Figure 36: https://www.stripes.com/polopoly_ fs/1.557516.1542794699!/image/image.JPG_ gen/derivatives/landscape_900/image.JPG Figure 37: https://www.stripes.com/polopoly_ fs/1.548302.1537408968!/image/image.jpg_ gen/derivatives/landscape_900/image.jpg Figure 38: https://10mag.com/wp-content/ uploads/2019/02/IMG_2311-1200x800.jpg Figure 39: https://www.army.mil/e2/images/2008/04/23/14843/size0-army.mil2008-04-24-220512.jpg Figure 40: https://images-na.ssl-imagesamazon.com/images/I/81E9oHi4Q-L.jpg Figure 41: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/7/70/Laika_ac_Juche_ Tower_%2812108772354%29.jpg
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Figure 42: self-generated Figure 43: self-generated Figure 44: https://thevelvetrocket.files. wordpress.com/2014/06/juche-tower-2.jpg Figure 45: https://thevelvetrocket.files. wordpress.com/2014/06/grand-peoples-studyhouse-1.jpg Figure 46: https://thevelvetrocket.files. wordpress.com/2014/06/view-from-grandpeoples-study-house.jpg Figure 47: http://www.joinenjoy.com.ph/ wp-content/uploads/2018/08/HANOKVILLAGE.jpg Figure 48: https://images. tandf.co.uk/common/jackets/ agentjpg/978113834/9781138342170.jpg Figure 49: self-generated Figure 50: self-generated Figure 51: https://4.bp.blogspot.com/KuW42BdwNnM/WYkU8kEOwdI/ AAAAAAAAAJs/7CNBCC5eJ4EMtUcXADS aj0nd_2ec_GeeQCEwYBhgL/s1600/ shutterstock_440370100.jpg Figure 52: https://touristsite.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/12/DSC00388-X3.jpg Figure 53: https://599y66h74o-flywheel. netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/ Bukchon-Hanok-Village.jpg
Mississippi River Basin, p. 712 Fig 1 : Plan showing Mississippi River with the location of five urbanism projects Fig 2 : The Mississippi River at New Orleans, 1851. By the mid1850s, railroads running east from St. Louis and Chicago had supplanted the Mississippi as the nations major commercial artery Source: Library of Congress Figure 3. Steamboats on Memphis water front Source : Library of Congress Figure 4. Fisk’s maps of the historical traces of the Mississippi Source : http://www. radicalcartography.net Figure 5-8 : 19th Century Maps of New Orleans, Memphis, St Louis and MinneapolisSaint Paul Source : //www.davidrumsey.com Figure 9: The land loss between 1932 - 2000 is historical. Based on historical trending if no further action is taken as documented in the “Historical and Projected Coastal Louisiana Land Changes 2978 - 2050 Source : Lacoast. gov/LandLoss/NewHistoricalland.pdf Figure 10 : Great Flood 1927 Source :
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
smithsonianmag.com Figure 11 : Southeastern section of the 2012 Louisiana Coastal Master Plan. The brown shaded areas indicate areas slated to receive freshwater and sediments via river diversions Source : CPRA (2012) Figure 12. In 1960s the basin model received 5000 visitors annually Source : Vintage postcard via World of Decay Figure 13. Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Submerged interchange due to failure in levees. Source: US Coast Guard Figure 14 Levee in Baton Rouge Source theadvocate.com: Figure 15 Great Flood 1927, Louisiana Source : Hulton Archives/Getty Images Figure 16 Mississippi River Basin covering about 40% of the country’s land. Figure 17 Diagram of a levee system Figure 18 . Harbor Town Plan Figure 19 & 20. Housing units in Harbor Town Sources: http://www.henryturley.com/harbortown/ Figure 21. Harbor Town Aerial View Sources: bolognaconsultants.com Figure 22. Harbor Town during the floods Sources: http://www.nbcnews.com/ id/42910538/ns/weather/t/floods-creepmemphis-enclave-mud-island/#.XLTmjehKiUk Figure 23 : Plan of Chouteau Greenway proposal in St Louis Figure 24 & 25 : Renders showing nodes of Greenway Sources : stoss.net Figure 26 : Strategies adopted for the design of the Greenway. Sources : stoss.net Figure 27 : Aerial View of the Greenway Sources : stoss.net Figure 28. Plan of French Quarters Sources : Inspired by Le Vieux Carre de la Nouvelle Orleans by Stanley Clisby Arthur Figure 29. Important events in New Orleans history Sources : Tourism Genetrification Kevin Gotham Figure 29. Average Housing Value in Dollars - New Orleans Sources : US Bureau of the Census 1971, 1993, 2001 Figure 30. Mardi Gras parade 2013 Sources : NY Times Photo Credits: Rusty Costanza/ Getty Images Figure 31. New Orleans Tourism Data visitors and spending 2003-2011 Sources : New Orleans Convention and Visitor’s Bureau; TMG Consulting
Figure 34 Plan Showing the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge to New Orleans Image : Inspired by Petrochemical America Figure 32. Triad Chemical Corporation’s offices are located in the former Riverside Plantation house (1899) which is dwarfed by the immense facility directly behind it. Source : Allen Barbara Figure 33. Diagram showing the underground piping systems Source: Petrochemical America
Mediterranean Sea, p. 388 Figure MS. 01 GDP Figure MS. 02 Density (Inhabitant) Figure MS. 03 United Nations (World Population Prospects. The 1998 Revision), I.Attané & Y.Courbage (Demographic projections of the Mediterranean countries, 2000), Géopolis 1998, Plan Bleu (2001). Figure MS. 04 Mediterranean Sea Figure SC. 01 Trans-European Networks https://www.archdaily.com/ Figure AK. 01 Societal Landscape https:// www.archdaily.com/ Figure GF. 01 El Ejido Region https://www. archdaily.com/ Figure GF. 02 Greenhouse Farming https:// www.archdaily.com/ Figure JS. 01. Tourism Village https:// www.10design.co/work/architecture/selected Figure EC. 01. Egypt Coastal Design https:// www.10design.co/work/architecture/selected Figure EC. 02. Egypt Coastal Design https:// www.10design.co/work/architecture/selectedd
Mekong River Basin, p. 054 Figure01. Self-generated Figure02. Rumilo Santiago, https://i. pining.com/originals/68/3a/ f9/683af96a570a8a5ea9a42936a1b01 Figure03. Kelly Shannon, Annelies De Nijs, “(Re)forming Cantho’s as found canallandscape”, Accessed April 19, 2019. https://ign.ku.dk/english/research/ landscape-architecture-planning/landscapearchitecture-urbanism/world-in-denmark/ world-denmark-2010/papers-posters/filer/ reforming-kelly.pdf Figure04. International Rivers. Accessed April 19th, 2019. https://www.internationalrivers.org Figure05. http://media.planum.bedita.net/ e2/42/Book%20_
Figure06. https://www.insideasiatours.com/ southeast-asia/experiences/i-bc0006-12/ninhbinh-sampan-/ Figure07. https://www.mekongeye.com/ climate/ Figure08. Wong Yow Han, CAMBODIA 2015 Protect | Respect | Empower Competition, https://www.eleven-magazine. com/?competition=cambodia-2015-2 Figure09. Marko KeskinenMatti, KummuMira, KäkönenVaris Olli, “Mekong at the Crossroads: Alternative Paths of Water Development and Impact Assessment”. Figure14. https://anywayinaway.com/mekongcrossing-slowboat-thailand-laos/ Figure17. Nguyen Van Long, Yuning Cheng, “Urban Landscape Design Adaption to Flood Risk: A Case Study in Can Tho City, Vietnam” Environment and Urbanization AsiA 9(2) 138–157 Figure18. https://issuu.com/kabirsaimum/ docs/studio_paper_saimum_mahs__last_upda Figure19. Le, T. (2013). Flood adaptive cities: Towards climate change adaption and urban development in the Mekong Delta (Master thesis). Netherlands: TU DELFT. Figure20. Self-generated, source: OSA/ WIT/ LATITUDE 2010 Figure21. Siddiqua, A. (2019) Emergence of Water Urbanism for Water Born “Can Tho”. Journal of Water R e source and Protection , 11, 166-180. https://doi.org/10.4236/ jwarp.2019.112010 Figure24. https://www.history.navy.mil/ content/history/nhhc/our-collections/ photography/numerical-list-of-images/nhhcseries/nh-series/NH-85000/NH-85304.html Figure25. Screenshot from “Vietnam || Sa Dec City Discovery || Dong Thap Province” by Thuan Van Nguyen, https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=7wH0Yku6eh8
Moscow - Berlin Transect, p. 742 Cover. Collage assembled personally, based off of the following images: (Cover.1) James Vincent, “Watch the Russian Rocket Failure that Forced Two Astronauts to Make an Emergency Landing,” The Verge. Accessed April 22nd, 2019. https://www. theverge.com/2018/11/1/18051284/russiansoyuz-rocket-failure-roscosmos-iss-onboardvideo.
Figure Resources
(Cover.2) “Russian Flag,” Heritage Flag and Supply. Accessed April 22nd, 2019. https:// www.heritage-flag.com/products/russia. (Cover.3) “Flag of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed April 22nd, 2019. https://www.britannica. com/topic/flag-of-Union-of-Soviet-SocialistRepublics. (Cover.4) Larisa Epatko, “These Soviet Propaganda Posters Once Evoked Heroism, Pride, and Anxiety,” PBS. Accessed April 22nd, 2019. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/ these-soviet-propaganda-posters-meant-toevoke-heroism-pride. Reference 9. Rem Koolhaas, Elia Zenghelis, Madelon Vriesendorp, and Zoe Zenghelis, “The Strip,” Exodus or The Voluntary Prisoners of Architecture, pg. 239. Figure 04. S. S. Shestakov, “Greater Moscow Project,” Early 1920s. Sotsgorod, pg. 10. Figure 05. A. V. Shchusev, “Project for the AllRussian Agricultural and Handicrafts Industry Exhibition in Moscow,” 1922-1925. Sotsgorod, pg. 5. Figure 06. V. I. Venderov, “Dukstroi Settlement,” 1925. Sotsgorod, pg. 7. Figure 07. N. V. Markovnikov, “Sokol Suburb Project,” 1923-1927. Sotsgorod, pg. 6. Figure 08. Stroikom RSFSR, “One Story Corridorless Dwelling,” 1923-1927. Sotsgorod, pg. 89. Figure 09. Miliutin, “Layout of the Plan,” 1930. Sotsgorod, pg. 88. Figure 10. Miliutin, “Section,” 1930. Sotsgorod, pg. 89. Figure 11. Miliutin, “Minimal Dwelling Unit,” 1930. Sotsgorod, pg. 83. Figure 12. G. B. Minervin, “Scheme for the Planning of Magnitogorsk,” 1929. Sotsgorod, pg. 68. Figure 13. I. I. Leonidov and OSA, “Scheme for the Planning of Magnitogorsk,” 1930, Sotsgorod, pg. 69. Figure 14. RSFSR, “Scheme for the Planning of Magnitogorsk,” 1930. Sotsgorod, pg. 69. Figure 15. Miliutin, “Scheme for the Planning of Magnitogorsk on the Functional-AssemblyLine System,” 1930, Sotsgorod, pg. 70. Figure 16. John Scott, “An Electric Excavator Dumps a Mighty Mouthful of High-grade Iron Ore into a Car at an Open Pit in the Urals,” 1943, The National Geographic Magazine, Volume 83, No. 5. Pg. 530.
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Figure 17. John Scott, “Siberian Coal Baked in a Row of Ovens Emergs as Smelting Coke and Gas,” 1943. The National Geographic Magazine, Volume 83, No. 5. Pg. 531. Figure 18. John Scott, “Towers, Chimneys, Pipes, and Tracks Compose Magnitogorsk’s Sprawling Chemical Plant,” 1943. The National Geographic Magazine, Volume 83, No. 5. Pg. 534. Figure 20. NAC, “PKiN in Warsaw,” 2015, Photograph, Palace of Culture and Science, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20_ PKiN_Warszawa_270915.jpg. Figure 21. In Your Pocket Essential City Guides, “Palace of Culture and Science,” 2019, Photograph, Palace of Culture and Science, https://www.inyourpocket.com/warsaw/ palace-of-culture-science_18453v. Figure 23. Alison and Peter Smithson, “Dubrovnik Scroll,” 1955. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present. Pg. 50-51. Figure 24. Ibid. Figure 25. Bakema, “Sketch of the ‘mammoth’ buildings as proposed by Bakema for Alexanderpolder,” 1955. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 54-55. Figure 26. Ibid. Figure 27. Aldo van Eyck, “Nagele Grid,” 1956. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 58-59. Figure 28. Ibid. Figure 29. Based on: Alison and Peter Smithson, “Dubrovnik Scroll,” 1955. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 50-51. Figure 30. Based on: Aldo van Eyck, “Nagele Grid,” 1956, Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 58-59. Figure 31. Based on: Bakema, “Sketch of the ‘mammoth’ buildings as proposed by Bakema for Alexanderpolder,” 1955. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 54-55. Figure 33. 360b through Shutterstock, “October 1988 - Berlin: the Berlin Wall (Berliner Mauer) in the Tiergarten district of Berlin,” 1988, Photograph, Berlin Wall, https://www. shutterstock.com/image-photo/october-1988berlin-wall-berliner-mauer-161787275?src=SfK7 q0IkIHWspSSntUBZMw-1-6. Figure 34. Scroll Staff through Wikimedia Commons, “If you love somebody set them free,” 1988, Photograph, Berlin Wall, https:// scroll.in/article/687679/the-rise-and-fall-ofthe-berlin-wall-in-two-short-videos. Figure 35. Jennifer Llewellyn, Jim Southney, and
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Stever Thompson, “The Berlin Wall, a symbol of Cold War division,” Alpha History, https:// alphahistory.com/coldwar/wp-content/ uploads/2012/07/dossier-start-bg7.jpg. Figure 36. Collage assembled personally, based off of the following images: (36.1) German State, “Mit Unseren Fahnen is der Sieg,” or “With Our Flags is the Victory,” 1943, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection, https://collections.ushmm. org/search/catalog/irn3728. (36.2) Jnniepce, “USSR CCCP Cold War Soviet Union Propaganda Poster,” Redbubble, https://www.redbubble.com/people/jnniepce/ works/26150009-ussr-cccp-cold-war-sovietunion-propaganda-posters?p=poster. (36.3) Petr Svarc, “Fraternal Kiss (My God, Help Me Survive This Deadly Love) by Dimitri Vrubel, East Side Gallery, Berlin Wall, Germany,” 2013, Alarmy, https://www. alamy.com/stock-photo-fraternal-kiss-mygod-help-me-to-survive-this-deadly-love-bydimitri-58176755.html. Figure 37. Based on: Giancarlo de Carlo, “Schematic Overall Plan,” 1962-1965. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 126. Figure 38. Giancarlo de Carlo, “Early Sketches of the Main Building of the College,” 19621965. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 124. Figure 39. Giancarlo de Carlo, “Mass Plan of the Main Building Mounted in the Plan of Routes,” 1962-1965. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 125. Figure 40. Giancarlo de Carlo, “Site Plan,” 1962-1965. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 127. Figure 41. Aldo van Eyck, “Panel with a Collage of Preparatory Studies,” 1963. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 128. Figure 42. Based on Figure 43. Figure 43. Aldo van Eyck, “Diagrams Presenting the Spatial and Formal Ideas of the Project,” 1963. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 129. Figure 44. Based on: Candilis, Josic, and Woods, “Plan of the Area Before it Was Bombed” and “Plan of the Area Showing the Proposed New Building,” 1963. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 132. Figure 45. Candilis, Josic, and Woods, “Aerial View of the First Part that was Realized,” 19631973. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present,
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Pg. 188. Figure 46. Candilis, Josic, and Woods, “Model as Presented at the Competition,” “Competition Panel with the Site Plan,” “Competition Panel Explaining the Concept of the Project in Relation to its Context,” and “Competition Panel Explaining the Internal Logic of the Proposed Building,” 1963-1973. Team 10: In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Pg. 135. Figure 47. International Building Exhibition, “Municipal Boundaries 1990 and 2010,” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, Pg. 302-303. Figure 48. International Building Exhibition, “Bitterfield-Wolfen IBA Projects,” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, Pg. 581. Figure 49. International Building Exhibition, “Network Town 2030,” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment SaxonyAnhalt 2010, Pg. 583. Figure 50. International Building Exhibition, “Hansestadt Stendal IBA Projects,” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment Saxony-Anhalt 2010, Pg. 619. Figure 51. International Building Exhibition, “Site Plan of the Winning Design for ‘Winckelmanns Hofe,’” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment SaxonyAnhalt 2010, Pg. 621. Figure 52. International Building Exhibition, “Participation Project ‘Children’s Urban Planning,’ ‘Children’s Street Map’ at the Wanzleben Primary School” 2010. International Building Exhibition Urban Redevelopment SaxonyAnhalt 2010, Pg. 720-721.
Mumbai Metropolitan Region, p. 208 Figure 00. Synthesis Collage - Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Accessed on April 10, 2019. At: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/ bandraworli-sealink-rajiv-gandhi-sea-link730571023https://www.shutterstock.com/ image-vector/scene-street-illustration-handdrawnink-392997799 http://creativemoonindia.blogspot.com/p/ militaristic.html https://www.shutterstock.com/imagevector/mumbai-big-city-architecturevintageengraved-304039247 http://obombay.com.au/gallery/
https://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/125765mumbai-landmark-icon https://www.etsy.com/ca/listing/527389497/ mumbai-map-bombay-map-india-map-atlas https://www.shutterstock.com/imagevector/hand-drawn-sketch-bandraworli-sealink-770159116 Figure 02. Time-line Showing Reclamation of Seven Islands. University of Pennsylvania School of Design. “Mumbai Eastern Waterfront Plan”. Fall 2015 Studio. https://issuu.com/ pennplanning/ docs/mumbai_for_web Figure 03. Bombay: The Cities Within by Rahul Mehrotra and Sharada Dwivedi,1995. Accessed on March 15, 2019. At: https://www.amazon. com/Bombay-Cities-Within-Sharada-Dwivedi/ dp/8190060260 Figure 04. Marine Drive, Mumbai. Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: https://www.thehindu. com/news/cities/mumbai/mumbais-iconicmarine-drive-turns-100/article8006021.ece Figure 05. Mumbai Reader ’17 by Urban Design Research Institute, Mumbai. Accessed on April 20, 2019. At: www.udri.org/events/launchmumbai-reader-18/ Figure 06. Mumbai Reader ’08 by Urban Design Research Institute, Mumbai. Accessed on April 20, 2019. At: www.udri.org/events/launchmumbai-reader-08/ Figure 07. SOAK: Mumbai in an Estuary by A. Mathurand D. da Cunha, 2009. Accessed on March 15, 2019. At: https://www.amazon. com/Soak-Mumbai-Estuary-Anuradha-Mathur/ dp/8129114801 Figure 09. Lost Mumbai: Collage of Old Photographs. Accessed on April 10, 2019. At: http://8ate. blogspot.com/2008/02/lostmumbai-collage-of-old-photographs.html Figure 10. Collage unveiling different layers of urbanity in Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Accessed on April 10, 2019. At: http:// brandz.com/admin/uploads/files/BrandZ_ India_2016_Report.pdf Figure 14. Crawford Market Elevation. . Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: https://ebuild.in/gallery/restoration-ofcrawford-market-mumbai-abha-narainlambahassociates? id=84301 Figure 18. Crawford Market Collage unveiling different layers of formal v/s informal. Accessed on March 15, 2019. At: https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/men-
mumbai-crawford.html https://www.tripsavvy.com/topmumbai-markets-1539691?utm_ source=pinterest&utm_medium=social&utm_ campaign=shareurlbuttons https://ebuild.in/gallery/restoration-ofcrawford-market-mumbai-abha-narainlambahassociates?id=84301 https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/ shopping-market-mumbai-indiagm875619168-244438952 https://in.pinterest.com/ pin/468233692482232273/?lp=true https://thecitystory.com/category/ neighbourhoods/dhobi-talao/ Figure 20. Collage highlighting Post-colonial transformation of Lower Parel Area. Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: https://www.mumbailive.com/hi/civic/bmcorders-mumbai%27s-mukesh-mills-shut-downforbollywood- movie-shooting-34401 https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=KLZONLlSgC8 https://issuu.com/niteshkhatod/docs/final_ thesis_publication_nitesh_140/16 https://mythologiesofmumbai.wordpress.com/ about-2/girangaon/ https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=HLgOctMhc0o http://lodhaworldtowers.blogspot. com/2014/12/lodha-world-one-layout.html Figure 22. Worli Fishing Village Panorama. Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: https://www. picswe.com/pics/worli-koliwada-c2.html Figure 27. Collage highlighting ingrained fabric of fishing village in contrast to capitalistic projects. Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: Figure 30-32. LODHA Group 2018 |Palava City. Accessed on March 20, 2019. At: https:// www.palava.in/business Figure 33. Collage showcasing Palava City advertisements used to attract investors and buyers. Accessed on March 20, 2019. At: https://lodha-palava.com/blog/codenamemilestone/ https://www.advertgallery.com/wp-content/ uploads/2018/03/palava-lodha-last-2-days-toown-ahomenear-a-world-class-waterfront-ad-bombaytimes-17-03-2018.png https://www.advertgallery.com/newspaper/ lodha-palava-city-of-opportunity-ad/ https://www.quora.com/How-big-is-Lodha-
Figure Resources
Palava Figure 36. Collage of Eastern Waterfront highlighting different activities, scenarios, agencies and programs. Accessed on March 10, 2019. At: https://www.cityzenbyazin.com/pages/ become-a-cityzen-of-mumbai https://scroll.in/latest/816455/manmohansingh-coined-achhe-din-but-now-it-has-gotstuck-to-thebjp-says-nitin-gadkari https://kaplblog.wordpress.com/portfolio/ the-opportunity-for-the-eastern-waterfront-inmumbaipart-i-2/ https://www.marineinsight.com/shippingnews/indian-ports-association-appointsmanagedserviceprovider-for-five-major-ports/ https://cargocollective.com/mariesagnieres/ Mumbai-s-pavement-dwellers-and-their-homes http://www.udri.org/
New York Metropolitan Area, p. 650 Figure 01. Sea Level Rising in New York Region. Accessed on April 2019, at http:// swetachakraborty.com/5-places-threatened-byclimate-change-nyc-no-3/ Figure 02. Figure 02. Sea Level Rising in New York Region. Accessed on April 2019, at https://us.blastingnews.com/lifestyle/2019/03/ new-york-city-mayor-de-blasio-plans-toprotect-lower-manhattan-from-rising-sealevels-002871995.amp. Figure 03. Figure ground of Long Island Seashore, self-generated Figure 04. Public Space Along The OuterDikes, accessed on April 2019, at http://www. interboropartners.com/projects/living-withthe-bay Figure 05. View of the future river park and resiliency dike, accessed on April 2019, at http://www.interboropartners.com/projects/ living-with-the-bay Figure 06. Section of the park and resiliency dike, self-generated Figure 07. Figure 07. Figure ground of BIG U, self-generated Figure 08. The Aerial view of the battery berms accessed on April 2019, at http://www. rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/all-proposals/ winning-projects/big-u Figure 09. The Perspective view of The briding berm, accessed on April 2019, at https:// www.6sqft.com/first-phase-of-bjarke-ingels-
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big-u-storm-protection-system-begins-planningprocess/ Figure 10. The section of The bridging berm, self-generated Figure 11. Diagram of trail network connect the region’s open spaces, accessed on April 2019, at http://fourthplan.org/action/tri-statetrailsbegins-planning-process/ Figure 12. Diagram of PORT + Range for RPA’s 4C Initiative , accessed on April 2019, at https://www.6sqft.com/tri-state-trail-proposalwould-connect-new-york-new-jersey-andconnecticut-with-1650-miles-of-trails/ Figure 13. Section of PORT + Range for RPA’s 4C Initiative , accessed on April 2019, at https://www.6sqft.com/tri-state-trail-proposalwould-connect-new-york-new-jersey-andconnecticut-with-1650-miles-of-trails/ Figure 14. Figure Ground of Brooklyn Navy Yard, self-generated Figure 15. Aeriel view of Brooklyn Navy yard, accessed on April 2019, at https://ny.curbed. com/2018/9/27/17906392/brooklyn-navyyard-master-plan-wxy-vertical-manufacrturing Figure 16. Section of recreation deck, selfgenerated Figure 17. Figure Ground of Triboro line, selfgenerated Figure 18. Perspective view of renovated water front , accessed on April 2019, athttps:// ny.curbed.com/2018/9/27/17906392/ brooklyn-navy-yard-master-plan-wxy-verticalmanufacrturing Figure 19. Perspective view of Infrastructural Node, accessed on April 2019, at https:// onearchitecture.nl/one-work/one-urbanismplanning/ Figure 20. Diagram of PORT + Range for RPA’s 4C Initiative, accessed on April 2019, at https://onearchitecture.nl/one-work/oneurbanism-planning/
Pearl River Delta, p. 562 Figure 01. Pearl River Delta territory & Selected Urban Projects Author Figure 02. Shenzhen with backwater, “What China can learn from the Pearl river delta”, Accessed on Mar 22, 2019, https://www.amcham.org.hk/news/what-chinacan-learn-from-the-pearl-river-delta Figure 03. Zhujiang River View, Guangzhou
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Gui yong nian Figure 04. Timescan Product: Pearl River Delta ESA: Space in images, Accessed on Apr.15, 2019, https://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/ Images/2017/04/TimeScan_product_Pearl_ River_Delta Figure 05. Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge under construction GEOSHEN, Accessed on Apr.15, 2019, https://geoshen.com/posts/the-pearl-riverdelta-megalopolis Figure 06. Zhuhai Bay Area, VCG, Accessed on Mar 22, 2019, https://finance.ifeng.com/c/7kOqOimrmCN Figure 07. Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge connecting bay area Author Figure 08. Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city in the background HKET, Chan, Qichang, Accessed on Apr.10, 2019, https://wealth.hket.com/article/2188281/ Figure 09. Section of Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city of Macau Author Figure 10. Google Earth Aerial Image, Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Portal and the city in the background Google Earth Figure 11. Section of HEMC within Guangzhou city area Author Figure 12 Festival Scene of Liede Village 21Caijing News, Accessed on Mar 22, 2019, https://m.21jingji.com/article/20180227/ herald/2c4b953834cacd1e56c1443383282060. html Figure 13. Section of Liede Village Author Figure 14. Section of the street and plaza Author Figure 15. Section of St. Anthony Parish in Macau. Author Figure 16-18. Nantou Village Transformation Projects [Auditorium, Exhibition Venue, Show Stage] URBANUS, Accessed on Mar 22, 2019 Figure 19. Section of Nantou Village Transformation Projects [Community Hall, Bookstore] URBANUS, Accessed on Mar 22, 2019
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Prague – Bratislava, p. 600 Figure 00. Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: http://cze.lotour.com/ zj/1666735 Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: http://whc.unesco.org/include/tool_image. cfm?id=111724&gallery=site&id_site=616 Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://theculturetrip.com/europe/slovakia/ articles/the-top-things-to-do-and-see-in-thebratislava-old-town/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://theculturetrip.com/europe/slovakia/ articles/the-ultimate-24-hour-guide-to-bratislava/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.cruiseplus.ca/banner_europe-aerial-cityscape-bratislava-slovakia/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.travelzoo.com/hotel-booking/hotel/3358/hotel-don-giovanniprague/?=&pageId=edbc0aac-7f0a-4b12-a87ca917cc785e70 Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.dreamstime.com/charlesbridge-mala-strana-prague-czech-republic-nightimage102886591 Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://whc.unesco.org/include/tool_image. cfm?id=111720 Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://mobilitylab.org/2012/08/21/thetrams-of-prague-photos-of-a-city-on-the-move/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.eatingeurope.com/blog/public-transportation-in-prague/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.thecrazytourist.com/25-bestthings-bratislava-slovakia/ Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://picswe.com/pics/prague-graveyard-40.html Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://rotaryprague2019.cz/en/fundraising-organ-concert Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: http://www.prague.net/franciscan-garden Collage of cover image, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/top5-streets-to-see-in-prague/ Figure 03. Bird eye view of Prague, accessed on April 2019, at: https://wikitravel.org/en/Royal_Way_of_Prague Figure 04. Bird eye view of Bratislava, accessed
on April 2019, at: https://www.enjoyslovakia. com/destination/latest-news/enjoy-slovakia-dmc-tour-operator-bratislava-dmc-bratislava-incentive-slovakia-incentive-and-conference/ news/bratislava-art-and-wine-programme/?tx_ news_pi1%5Bcontroller%5D=News&tx_ news_pi1%5Baction%5D=detail&cHash=ab3214ba08852a7b145128178df0bda0 Figure 05. Bird eye view of Prague, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.justapack.com/ top-ten-things-to-do-in-prague/ Figure 06. Bird eye view of Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.aviontourism. com/en/destinations/bratislava-798 Figure 07. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. justapack.com/top-ten-things-to-do-in-prague/ Figure 08. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. prague.com/blog/2018/12/27/check-outpragues-best-luxury-hotels/ Figure 09. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. planetware.com/tourist-attractions-/prague-czpr-p.htm Figure 10. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.ifsa-butler.org/program/summerin-prague/ Figure 11. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. gaytravel.com/gay-guides/slovakia/ Figure 12. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. welcometobratislava.eu/flea-markets-bratislava/ Figure 13. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// spectator.sme.sk/c/20137993/bratislava-castlegarden-criticised-photographers-excluded.html Figure 14. Realistic life of Prague and Bratislava, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// www.visitbratislava.com/top10/ Figures 15-17. Self-generated. Figure 18. Collage of the old jewish cemetery, accessed on May 2019, at: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Old_Jewish_Cemetery,_Prague#/ media/File:Praha_Jewish_Cemetery_2003.jpg Collage of the old jewish cemetery, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.atlasobscura.com/ places/old-jewish-cemetery-1 Collage of the old jewish cemetery, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.atlasobscura.com/ places/old-jewish-cemetery-1 Figure 19. The tombstones of the old jewish
cemetery, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/old-jewishcemetery-1 Figure 20. The tombstones of the old jewish cemetery , accessed on April 2019, at:https:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/old-jewishcemetery-1 Figure 21. The tombstones of the old jewish cemetery, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/old-jewishcemetery-1 Figure 22. The tombstones of the old jewish cemetery, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// www.atlasobscura.com/places/old-jewishcemetery-1 Figure 24. The surrounding residents took the children to play in the Franciscan Garden, accessed on April 2019, at: https://praguenow.com/for-children/garden-coffee-shopplayground/ Figure 27. Collage of Franciscan Garden, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www. atlasobscura.com/places/old-jewish-cemetery-1 Collage of Franciscan Garden, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.prague-stay.com/hotels/ hotel/284-franciscan-garden-apartments Collage of Franciscan Garden, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.prague.eu/en/object/ places/460/franciscan-garden-frantiskanskazahrada Figure 28. Landscapes of Franciscan Garden, accessed on April 2019, at: https://pragueu. com/prague-franciscan-garden/ Figure 29. Landscapes of Franciscan Garden, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. prague-stay.com/lifestyle/review/251-churchof-our-lady-of-the-snows Figure 30. Landscapes of Franciscan Garden, accessed on April 2019, at: http://www.prague. net/gallery/summer/pic0.php Figure 31. Landscapes of Franciscan Garden, accessed on April 2019, at: http://praguepalace.com/ Figures 32-34. Self-generated. Figure 35. Old Market Hall interior view, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// theculturetrip.com/europe/slovakia/articles/ the-best-markets-in-bratislava/ Figure 36. Collage of Old Market Hall, accessed on May 2019, at: https://staratrznica. sk/en/home Collage of Old Market Hall, accessed on May 2019, at: https://clipart64.com/fruit-stand.
Figure Resources
html#gal_post_13315_fruit-stand-13.jpg Collage of Old Market Hall, accessed on May 2019, at: http://mbssurfbali.com/portfolio/ balinese-fruit/ Figure 37. Activities of Old Market Hall, accessed on April 2019, at: https://staratrznica. sk/en/street-food-park Figure 38. Activities of Old Market Hall, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// theslovakiatimes.com/text/53--the-1st-beersalon-will-take-place-in-the-old-market-hall-ofbratislava Figure 39. Activities of Old Market Hall, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. tripadvisor.co.uk/LocationPhotoDirectLinkg274924-d7393633-i131427788-Old_Market_ Hall-Bratislava_Bratislava_Region.html Figure 40. Activities of Old Market Hall, accessed on April 2019, at: https://staratrznica. sk/en/home Figure 41. Self-generated. Figure 42. Prague ForCity Alfa tram realistic photo, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague Figure 45. Collage of Prague Tram System, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www. skoda.cz/en/references/tramcar-forcity-alfaprague/?from=prod Collage of Prague Tram System, accessed on May 2019, at: https://wallpaperstudio10.com/ wallpaper-city_europe-84428.html Collage of Prague Tram System, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.diamondlighthouse. com/blog/2015/08/13/best-places-to-proposefocus-on-prague/ Figure 46. Specific views of Prague Tram, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www. prague.eu/en/object/places/535/publictransport-museum-stresovice-depot-muzeummestske-hromadne-dopravy-vozovna-stresovice Figure 47. Specific views of Prague Tram, accessed on April 2019, at: http://www.inspiradmc.cz/tours/historical-tram/ Figure 48. Specific views of Prague Tram, accessed on April 2019, at: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prague_Tram.JPG Figure 49. Specific views of Prague Tram, accessed on April 2019, at: http://www. marys.cz/marysblog/the-nostalgic-tram-lineno-91/87/ Figure 51. Perspective of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on April 2019, at: http:// markoandplacemakers.com/projects/vltava-
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waterfront-prague-czech-republic Figure 53. Self-generated. Figure 54. Collage of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www. countryinnmaine.com/best-things-to-do-incamden-maine/ Collage of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on May 2019, at: https://app.emaze.com/@ ACCFIZFQ#8 Collage of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.freepik.com/ free-photo/blue-sky-with-clouds_903478.htm Collage of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on May 2019, at: https://www.flickr.com/ photos/yogalady/7020981141/ Collage of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on May 2019, at: http://www.hargreaves.com/ work/louisville-waterfront-park/ Figure 55. Programs of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on April 2019, at:https:// www.trover.com/d/1UIEj-old-town-pragueczech-republic Figure 56. Programs of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// hiveminer.com/Tags/cafe%2Cpraha Figure 57. Programs of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on April 2019, at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ darkcloud154/21870885308 Figure 58. Programs of Vltava waterfront project, accessed on April 2019, at: https:// www.pond5.com/stock-footage/87918068/ vltava-waterfront.html Figures 59-61. Self-generated. Figure 62. Collage of historic center of Prague, accessed on May 2019, at: https:// www.exeterinternational.com/blog/top-11landmarks-to-visit-in-prague-czech-republic/ Collage of historic center of Prague, accessed on May 2019, at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/616/gallery/&index=49&maxrows=12 Collage of historic center of Prague, accessed on May 2019, at: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Charles_ Bridge_%28Karl%C5%AFv_most%29%2C_ Vltava_River%2C_Prague%2C_2015.jpg Collage of historic center of Prague, accessed on May 2019, at: https://ceb.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Praha_1#/media/File:Prague_07 2016_ View_from_Petrinska_Tower_img2.jpg Collage of historic center of Prague, accessed on May 2019, at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/ list/616/gallery/
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Ruhr Metropolis, p. 180
Singapore, p. 474
Figure 01, Post Industrial Landscape, accessed on February 2019, at: https://issuu.com/ jsnesbit/docs/pil_coa_ttu Figure 02, The Ruhr Area in 1830, accessed on April 2019, at: http://snailinthecity.blogspot. com/2016/01/ruhrgebiet-or-industrialisationof.html Figure 03-04, Landscape Urbanism, accessed on February 2019, at: https://www.amazon. com/Landscape-as-Urbanism-GeneralTheory/dp/0691167907 & https://www. barnesandnoble.com/w/the-landscapeurbanism-reader-charles-waldheim Figure 05, Post-Industry Landscapes in Ruhr Metropolis, accessed on February 2019, at: https://www.german-architects.com/en/ astoc-architects-and-planners-koln/project/ masterplan-emscher-zukunft Figure 06-09, The Ruhr Metropolis, accessed on February 2019, at: http://thefutureofmycity. org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ infomaterial_emscher_3.0.pdf Figure 10-12, Duisburg Nord Landscape Park, accessed on February 2019, at: https:// www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/ landscape-park-duisburg-nord/ & https://www. locationscout.net/germany/14888-duisburgnord-landscape-park Figure 13-15, Renew of the Deininghauser Stream, accessed on February 2019, at: https:// www.open-iba.de/en/geschichte/1989-1999iba-emscher-park/umbau-des-deininghauserbachs-castrop-rauxel/ Figure 16-18, The Ruhr Museum, accessed on February 2019, at: https://www.metalocus.es/ en/news/ruhr-museum-zeche-zollverein-oma & https://www.detail-online.com/article/ruhrmuseum-14210/ Figure 19-21, Ruhr University West, accessed on February 2019, at: https://www.gooood.cn/ruhr-west-universityby-hppastoc.htm & https://en.hochschuleruhr-west.de/ & https://www.domusweb.it/ en/architecture/2016/11/07/ruhr_university_ west_hpp_astoc.html Figure 22-24, Ruhr Network Metropolis, accessed on February 2019, at: https://www. bureaualisaad.eu/Projects/Ruhr-NetworkMetropolis
Figure 01: City of Singapore, accessed on February 2019, at http://www.thrillophilia.com/ Figure 02: Jurong Rock Caverns, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.krugerfan.com/index.php/en/ Projects/2014/10-12/277.html Cover Collage: 1. Sinpoare Dollar, accessed on April 2019, at http://travel.qunar.com/ youji/6208133?type=allView 2. Singapore Old Supreme Court, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.vcg.com 3. Singapore image, accessed on April 2019, at https://fm.cnbc.com/applications/ cnbc.com/resources/img/ editorial/2018/03/14/105066394-GettyImages498350103_1.1910x1000.jpg 4. Singapore Merlion, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.ft.com/__origami/service/ image/v2/images/raw/https%3A%2F%2Fs3ap-northeast-1.amazonaws.com%2Fpshex-ftnikkei-3937bb4%2Fimages%2F 5%2F4%2F6%2F2%2F16262645-1eng-GB%2FGettyImages-481610425. jpg?source=nar-cms Collage1: 1. On-demand shuttle, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.smartnation.sg/what-is-smartnation/initiatives/Transport 2. Smart lights, accessed on April 2019, at https://knowledge.insead.edu/sites/www. insead.edu/files/images/2016/03/philippe_ bouvier_can_cities_innovate_0.jpg 3. Useful Apps, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.smartnation.sg/what-is-smartnation/initiatives/Strategic-National-Projects 4. Transforming Singapore, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.smartnation.sg/what-is-smartnation/initiatives/Strategic-National-Projects Collage2: 1. Punggol Community, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.straitstimes.com/sites/default/ files/styles/article_pictrure_780x520_/ public/articles/2017/01/16/ ST_20170116_CKPUNGGOL16_2875333. jpg?itok=7AW21wOx&timestamp=1484501405 2. Punggol light rail, accessed on April 2019, at https://www.homeanddecor.com.sg/sites/
Theories and Methods of Urban Design
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South Africa, p. 094 Figure o1: Map of South Africa and regions of study [Gell, 2019] Figure o2: The roads, rails, and administrative boundaries reveal the intimate networks of Cape Town [Gell, 2019] Figure o3: The roads, rails, and administrative boundaries of Johannesburg. [Gell, 2019] Figure o4: Photograph of District 6 in the direction of the CBD [Gell, 2018] Figure o5: Photograph of woman walking in Johannesburg [Gell, 2018] Figure o6: Context Map of Ponte City Apartments in Johannesburg [Gell, 2019] Figure o7: Figure ground of Ponte City [Gell, 2019] Figure o8: Section of Ponte City Apartments [Gell, 2019] Figure o9: A view of Ponte City within the context of downtown Johannesburg [Gauteng Film Commission, South Africa, Accessed April 2019] Figure 10: A taxonomy of Ponte City [Gell, 2019] Figure 11: A view of Ponte City from the core. [Benedict Brook, Accessed April 2019] Figure 12: Collage of Ponte [Gell, 2019] Figure 13: The life of Ponte [Mikhael Subotzky | Patrick Waterhous] Figure 14: Advertisement for the new Ponte City [Mikhael Subotzky | Patrick Waterhous] Figure 15: Map of Orlando Towers in Johannesburg [Gell, 2019] Figure 16: Figure Ground of Orlando Towers in Soweto, Johannesburg [Gell, 2019] Figure 17: Section of Orlando Towers, Soweto, Johannesburg [Gell, 2019] Figure 18: Orlando Towers with Soweto, [Mashalas Travel, Accessed, April 2019] Figure 19: Taxonomy of the neighborhood surrounding Orlando Towers [Gell, 2019] Figure 20: Map of Bo Kaap, Cape Town [Gell, 2019] Figure 21: Figure Ground of Bo Kaap [Gell, 2019] Figure 22: Section of Bo Kaap, Cape Town [Gell, 2019] Figure 23: Photograph of Bo Kaap with Table Mountain and Devil’s Peak in the background
[Gell, 2018] Figure 24: Taxonomy of the neighborhood [Gell, 2019] Figure 25: Bo Kaap neighborhood in Cape Town [City Tours, accessed, April 2019] Figure 26: Map of MOCAA in Cape Town [Gell, 2019] Figure 27: Figure ground of MOCAA. [Gell, 2019] Figure 28: Abstract Section of MOCAA in Cape Town [Gell, 2019] Figure 29: Photo of MOCAA [Royal Portfolio, accessed, April 2019] Figure 30: A taxonomy of MOCAA and the public plaza [Gell, 2019] Figure 31: District 6 within Cape Town, South Africa [Gell, 2019] Figure 32: Figure ground of District 6 [Gell, 2019] Figure 33: A sectional representation of District 6.[Gell, 2019] Figure 34: A collage of historical photos and artifacts from District 6 [Gell, 2019] Figure 35: A taxonomy of the remaining elements of the District 6 neighborhood [Gell, 2019] Figure 36: The void of District 6 adjacent to Cape Town’s CBD. The path in the foreground is one of the few roads remaining from District 6 [Gell, 2018] Figure 37: Black & White, Cape Town [Gell, 2018]
Ancient Origins. April 07, 2014. https://www. ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/ chinampas-floating-gardens-mexico-001537. Figure 12. FARO Oriente. “FARO DE ORIENTE.” Albert Kalach. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.kalach.com/faro-deoriente. Figure 17. UNAM Ciudad Universitaria “Mexico City’s “modernist Haven” UNAM Captured in Photos by Jazzy Li.” Dezeen. January 10, 2019. https://www.dezeen. com/2019/01/08/unam-modernist-centralcampus-jazzy-li-photography/.
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, p.280 Figure 2. Port of Vera Cruz. “Expansion Sets Veracruz Port for Growth.” JOC, 20 Dec. 2018, www.joc.com/port-news/international-ports/ veracruz-port-upgrade-dent-mexico’s-capacitystress_20181220.html. Figure 3. Port of Manzanillo. “MIT Gets $300 Million Equipment Upgrading.” The Bulletin Panama. http://thebulletinpanama. com/2012/06/mit-gets-300-million-equipmentupgrading/. Figure 6. Plaza de las Tres Culturas. “Visit Plaza De Las Tres Culturas in Mexico City | Expedia.” Expedia. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.expedia.com/Plaza-De-LasTres-Culturas-Mexico-City.d501751.VacationAttraction. Figure 9. Section cut of the chinampas. “Chinampas, The Floating Gardens of Mexico.” Figure Resources
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design
Geography
Urbanism
Korean Peninsula
Anthropocene
Mekong River Basin
Crisis / Emergency
South Africa
Critical
Former Yugoslavia
Digital
Ruhr Metropolis
Ecological
Mumbai Metropolitan
Empirical / Everyday
Ruokun Zhang
Dutch Waterline
Ephemeral
Salvador Lindquist
Valley of Mexico
Hinterland / Planetary
Australian East Coastline
Infrastructure / Network
Jing Jinji Region
Informal / Insurgent
Mediterranean Sea
Landscape
Mingyu Chen
Indonesia
Lean / New / Tactical
Jinshu Li
Singapore
Post-City Urbanism
Greater Tokyo Area
Post-Industrial
Yanbo Li
Pearl River Delta
Post-Colonial
Jing Yang
Prague - Bratislava
Productive / Agrarian /
Students Gregory Nathan Monroe Yixin Miao Gwen Carol Gell Kunnong Gu Lei Nie Shourya Jain
Xing Zhou Shuang Liang Yufan Hao
Sang Wang
Yiyang Liu Jamie Lee Snehalatha Reddy Edward John Falkowski University of Michigan Maria Arquero de Alarcon TAMUD 2019
New York Metropolitan Region
Institutional
Greater SĂŁo Paulo
Smart City
Mississippi River Basin
Social
Russia and the Eastern Bloc
Utopian / Visionary
Table of Contents
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Theories and Methods of Urban Design