inForma: Ocupação Anchieta (v2) by Maria Arquero de Alarcon

inFORMA OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

”OCUPAÇÂO ANCHIETA AVANÇA! Housing and Environmental Conflicts in Informal Settlements. Two study cases in São Paulo, Brazil.”

TAUBMAN COLLEGE

architecture+urban planning

University of Michigan

This report showcases the work developed in the interdisciplinary collaboration between the Urban Planning Capstone, UP634, and the Architecture Option Studio, ARCH 562, during the Winter 2017.

STUDENTS

LOCAL COLLABORATORS

Ashish Bhandari, MArch Michelle Bohrson, MUP Cheng Cheng, MUP Abhishek Alark Desai, MArch Laura Devine, MArch Ning Ding, MArch Grant Hong, MUP Xiyao Hu, MArch Sophie Jantz, MUP Sara Pizzo, MUP Alexandra Ramirez, MUP Nikita Sharad Rane, MArch Antonela Sallaku, MArch Yao Tang, MArch Charisma Thapa, MUP Isaac Wolf, MUP Lihang Wu, MUP Shiyu Wu, MArch Yameng Zhang, MArch Anyuan Zhou, MArch

Movimiento Anchieta

INSTRUCTORS Ana Paula Pimentel Walker, PhD. Assistant Professor of Urban Planning María Arquero de Alarcón Associate Professor of Architecture+Urban Planning Director, Master of Urban Design

Instituto Anchieta Grajaú Escola Da Cidade, São Paulo

SPONSORS University of Michigan A. Alfred Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Travel Fund. University of Michigan International Institute, Experiential Learning Fund.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Taubman Team would like to thank our project partners Ocupação Anchieta Association, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú, and the residents of Ocupação Anchieta for hosting us from late February to mid-March 2017. As well as assisting us with conducting field research and providing knowledge and feedback throughout the course of our project. Your dedication to improving your community is inspiring. Thank you to the Taubman College Dean’s Office, University of Michigan’s International Institute Experiential Learning Fund, and the DOW Sustainable Fellowship Committee for their financial support of our project. Their support enabled the Taubman Team to travel to Brazil, thus deeply enriching our project and experience. Our expert interviews and workshops would not have been possible without the support of Escola da Cidade and RADDAR. Thank you for making this possible. Much of the information that we collected we were able to thanks to our translators. We had four translators that tirelessly accompanied our team throughout our time in Ocupação Anchieta. Thank you to Haydar Baydoun, Kleber Pessoa Soares da Silva, Rahisa Donato M. Vieira, and Ana Paula Pimentel Walker. Lastly, we want to extend our deepest gratitude to our faculty advisors, Ana Paula Pimentel Walker and Maria Arquero De Alarcón, for their guidance throughout the semester as well as their dedication to our project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 10 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 14 Recent History of Ocupação Anchieta and Site Description

Ocupação Anchieta Association The Client-Partner

Stakeholder Analysis

Sources 27 HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS: DILEMMAS OF PERIPHERAL URBANISM IN SÃO PAULO .......................................................................................... 28 Housing, Zoning and Tenure Security

Metro São Paulo Environmental Landscape

Peripheral Shelter in the Grajaú District

Sources 42 FIELD METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 44 Introduction Method Limitations

46 49

Client-Partner Interview Summary

Instituto Anchieta Grajaú Interview Summary

Door to Door Household Surveys

Socio-Demographic Profile

Residents Visions

Civic Participation Direct Observation

67 68

Water and Stormwater

Housing

Utilities

Topography 73 Pollution 73 Drone and Observation Based Mapping Water and Soil Testing

74 82

Water Testing Methods

Soil Methods

Community Meeting

Findings and Recommendations Expert Interviews Summary

93 94

Housing 96 98

Zoning 100 Environment 101 Summary 102 Sources

104

CREEK REVIVAL ......................................................................................................... 106 Problem Identification and Relevance

110

Literature Review

116

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Community

Recommendations 118 Short-Term Intervention: Phase One

120

Buffer Zone

120

Constructed Wetland

123

Reforestation 125 Environmental Management

127

Long-Term Intervention: Phase Two

132

Buffer Strip Adjustment

133

Riparian Walk System With Pocket Parks

133

Recreation Area

135

Estimated Cost

139

Challenge To Implementation

139

Conclusion 140 Sources 144 HOUSING NETWORK ...................................................................................................146 Problem Identification And Relevance

148

Literature Review

150

Unsecured Tenure

150

Lack of Affordable Housing

150

Socio-economic Vulnerability

151

Recommendations

152

Tenure Security and Related Legal Frameworks

153

Two Possible Unfavourable Events and Their Countermeasures

155

Upgrading and Structural Durability

156

Prototyping 158 Secure Housing Affordability

165

Countermeasures to Socio-Economic Vulnerability

165

Challenges to Implementation

165

Project Timeline

165

Conclusion 166 Sources 167 SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA ........................................................................................168 Problem Identification and Relevance

170

Literature Review

174

Types of Sanitation

174

Types of Decentralized Sanitation

177

Status of Sewage Infrastructure In SĂŁo Paulo

180 182

Sewage Free Anchieta Campaign

183

Septic System Education

186

Visioning for a Model Sustainable Community

187

Participatory Visioning For Decentralized Sewage Management

188

Design Possibilities for Decentralized Treatment

195

Conclusion 196 Sources 198

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Recommendations

CULTURAL ANCHIETA .............................................................................................. 200 Problem Identification And Relevance

202

Literature Review

205

Importance of Slum Upgrading With Community-Based Planning Method

205

Public and Community Space In Informal Settlements

205

Urban Design of Healthy Community Spaces

207

Physical Design with Social Impact

210

Design Review Process

212

Recommendations 220 Project Timeline

230

Actors 231 Costs 231 Conclusion 236 Sources 234 WASTE MANAGEMENT............................................................................................... 236 Problem Identification And Relevance

238

Literature Review

242

Waste Management History In The Developing World

242

The Role Of Informal Recycling

242

Challenges To Waste Management

242

Establishing A Waste Management System

245

Recommendations 246 Acquire Additional Dumpsters 8

246

Install Trash And Recycling Receptacles In Public Space

248

Install Signage To Encourage Environmental Conscientious Behavior

252

Runoff Mitigation With Rain Barrels

255

Environmental Education

258

Conclusion 265 Sources

266

GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................. 268 Acronyms

270

Translations 271

A. Client Interview Form

274

B. Expert Interviews

276

C. Resident Survey Form

284

D. Direct Observation Form

290

E. Data Analysis On Resident Survey

294

F. Data Analysis On Direct Observation

308

G. Water Testing Field Method Manual

314

H. Soil Testing Field Method Manual

320

I. Community Discussion Manual

328

Sources 331

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................ 272

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation) is a four-year old land occupation located twentynine kilometers southwest of the São Paulo city center in the Vila Nascente neighborhood of Grajaú District. This water-rich district is located between the Billings and Guarapiranga Reservoirs, which are key water supply resources for the city and contain important Atlantic Forest reserves. In recent decades, impoverished families migrating to São Paulo who cannot afford to live near the city center have been occupying available land in Grajaú. The fast pace and intensity of urbanization puts pressure on the environment and compromises residents’ access to infrastructure and the provision of urban services. Between 2000 and 2010, the population of Grajaú grew from 333,436 to 444,593 inhabitants. Residents in this district are low- to mid- income, with most of the district’s population earning a monthly income under R$2920 ($895.49 USD). In 2016, Grajaú’s Index of Human Development was 0,754, the 7th lowest of the 96 districts in the city. This index is a comparative measure of wealth, literacy, education, life expectancy, birth rate and other factors, and provides a glimpse of the great need to provide decent housing, infrastructure, and basic urban services to underserved populations in the district. Ocupação Anchieta is an exemplary case to illustrate these patterns of urbanization and the challenges for residents to gain the right to the city. By examining the dynamics 10

of urbanization, the lessons learned can shed light on areas with similar trends across the Latin American geography and the Global South. Since 2013, this Occupation sits on the property of a local non-profit, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (IAG). Led by the housing rights organization Movimento Anchieta, and our client-partner, the Ocupação Anchieta Association (the Association), the Occupation is home to approximately 650 families living below the poverty line. The property contains natural springs and a seasonal creek in an area of environmental protection that is now heavily disturbed. To make room for the construction of the residents’ homes, the land was severely deforested. The housing units were built with a precarious sewage system or linked to a system that runs throughout portions of the site and illegally connects to the municipal network. These circumstances and the lack of sufficient waste management have posed environmental, health, and safety hazards and threaten land occupiers’ tenure security.

Center of Human Rights, the Association reached out to faculty members, Pimentel Walker and Arquero de Alarcón from University of Michigan Taubman College, to help devise a plan for improving the Occupation’s current conditions as it directly relates to environmental quality and the residents’ tenure security.

In 2015, IAG sued Ocupação Anchieta in an effort to restore environmental quality and evict the residents. This ongoing eviction lawsuit is still open and has sparked initial measures to address the situation on behalf of the residents. Under the leadership of the Association, the Occupation recognizes the need to implement more sustainable practices that will address environmental pollution allowing residents to remain in place. Through the Gaspar Garcia

The actionable framework plan, Ocupação Anchieta Avança! (Ocupação Anchieta Forward!), delves into the mechanisms to ensure the right to a healthy environment and adequate housing, in the spirit of the 1988 Brazilian Federal Constitution provisions. The framework is organized in 08 chapters, and provides a detailed account of all the phases in the initiative, from the initial research and data collection to the diagnosis and

INTRODUCTION

With support from the University of Michigan International Institute’s Experiential Learning Fund and the Taubman College’s International Travel Fund, a group of urban planning and architecture graduate students from Taubman College visited the Occupation in late February to mid-March 2017. To address the needs of the Occupation, the group collected data onsite and gathered community input to devise a framework plan of sustainable practices. To gain a better understanding of the issues at stake, the group also participated in a workshop with local academics, public officials, and practitioners working on a wide range of projects around informal urbanization in São Paulo.

development of recommendations. Overall, through a collaborative process with the Occupation, the plan targets interventions to improve residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quality of life, while minimizing environmental impact, and restoring the ecological functions of natural systems. The first chapter introduces the site and addresses key notions around housing rights, environmental protection needs as well as the complex network of agents involved in the Occupation. The second chapter covers the housing and environmental distress characteristic of the SĂŁo Paulo periphery and issues around informal development in the Latin American context. The third chapter provides an overview of the data collection methods used during the field studies. These methods are modeled after the USAID Rapid Appraisal Approach and include: stakeholder interviews, door-to-door household surveying, direct observation, drone aerial photography, water and soil testing, and a community meeting. During the subsequent analysis and research phases, the data was triangulated and the findings inform the action plan, targeting the following areas of focus: revitalization of the creek, springs and environmental protection area, building low environmental impact housing, upgrading sewage infrastructure, enhancing space for cultural and recreational activities, and implementing better waste management practices. Each area of focus includes an overview of the issues and their 12

relevancy, followed by a literature review, key findings, case studies, and a set of actionable recommendations. Chapters 04 to 08 develop each action plan in detail. Chapter 04, Creek Revival, proposes a twostage plan focused on improving the health of the water bodies and recovering the tree canopy in the environmental protection area. The first stage involves reforesting the area with native species and establishing a 30-meter buffer zone that consists of constructed wetlands in the creek catchment area. The second stage of the Creek Revival begins after the recovery of basic ecological functions in the area. In this stage, recommendations include a buffer strip adjustment, a riparian walk system with pocket parks, and a water-enjoyment area. These components will use affordable, creative designs to enhance quality of life for residents while improving the environment. Chapter 05, Housing Network, targets the problems of unsecured tenure, precarious construction methods, socio-economic vulnerability, and issues of housing affordability. The recommendations tackle residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; immediate housing needs, while considering decentralized and communal sewage infrastructure and different funding sources, including micro-saving schemes. The housing prototypes present an easy-to-assemble kit of parts with simple construction methods and affordable materials that are stronger

Chapter 06, Sewage Free Anchieta, addresses the lack of basic infrastructure in the Occupation. While there is a variety of infrastructural improvements needed, the status of sanitation is the most pressing one due to the public health and environmental implications. The main goal is to address the precarious methods to handle effluent waste water from direct release to the environment and the illegal connections to the municipal system. The chapter aims to promote residents’ organizational capacity while concurrently visioning a more sustainable Ocupação Anchieta. Chapter 07, Cultural Anchieta, describes the design, construction and management of a new community center, church, and playground area. The site is located next to the current Association headquarters, and the design and use of these spaces are based on direct feedback received by our client-partner and residents during the community meeting. Chapter 08, Waste Management, provides five specific recommendations to improve solid waste management practices in the Occupation. These recommendations include deploying additional collection capacity, providing signage to inform on the waste management components, and influencing behavior change through environmental education.

Lastly, the appendices include more detailed information on the design of the data collection components as well as the results. The acknowledgement section and the authors’ biographies close the volume. As part of the efforts to make Ocupação Anchieta Avança! actionable, the Taubman Team is actively engaged in seeking additional funding sources to advance specific components of the action plans. The initiative won a seed grant of $5,000 from the University of Michigan Dow Distinguished Awards for Interdisciplinary Sustainability (Dow Awards) that will fund components of the Cultural Anchieta action plan. This summer, students and faculty will return to the Occupation to present the final report to the client-partner and collaborate on the project implementation. Next fall, students will present the work developed over the summer at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor campus and compete in the second stage of the Dow Awards to further the project’s impact. In addition, the project has been selected as a Top 20 Finalist for the 2017 Ford College Community Challenge. If awarded among the top 10 in the second stage, the Taubman Team will advance additional aspects of the framework to improve environmental and living conditions for residents of Ocupação Anchieta.

INTRODUCTION

than those currently used in the Occupation.

+ City Center

Ocupação Anchieta

01 INTRODUCTION Ocupação Anchieta Avança! focuses on the conflicts between environmental protection and the right to housing of informal settlers who occupy green and environmentally protected areas. The urbanization of areas of environmental value at the peripheries of major cities is one the major wicked problems of the Global South. Ocupação Anchieta represents a pattern of urbanization characteristic of the São Paulo Metropolitan Area, where the lack of centrally located land for low-income housing results in population grown through informal land occupations in the periphery.

6 3 4 16

7 02. Cleared Out Housing by TETO. 03. Child Walks Down Dirt Street. 04. Housing Structures. 05. View of Ocupação Anchieta from Main Entrance. 06. Housing Material in Cccupation. 07. Students Walking with Community Partners.

Ocupação Anchieta formed in 2013 in the Grajaú district, 17 miles southwest of the São Paulo City center. Today the site is home to roughly 650 families that organized and formed a resident association (Ocupação Anchieta Association) and political movement (Movimento Anchieta). The site is owned by the non-profit (Instituto Anchieta Grajaú), who received the land originally by donation from a construction company. Currently, the Occupation faces crises of environmental degradation, a lack of formal services and infrastructure, and housing security.

01 (previous) Map of São Paulo and the Location of Ocupação Anchieta.

Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation) is a four-year old, informal land occupation in São Paulo, Brazil, located 17 miles southwest of the city center in the Grajaú district. São Paulo is the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere, with a population of 11,244,369 according to the 2010 Census (IGBE, 2010). The City of São Paulo adopts a specific typology of informal housing, yet does not distinguish between a favela (informal settlement) and an ocupação de terra (land occupation). As a result, the city has 1.702 favelas registered; defined as precarious settlements that arise from spontaneous land occupations without previous definition of lots and without streets and can take place in public or private property. Favelas in São Paulo suffer from insufficient infrastructure networks, where dwellings are predominantly self-built with

high degree of precariousness. Families living in favelas are low-income families and in situations of social vulnerability (HabitaSAMPA, n.d.). Another important characteristic of favelas or informal settlements is the lack of formal land title (Fernandes 2013). Brazil urban policy prioritizes informal settlement upgrading and tenure security over land titling programs (Pimentel Walker 2016; Lara 2013). Municipalities tend to wait until residents acquire tenure security (not private property rights) before the government launches infrastructure upgrading programs. As a result, more consolidated favelas receive municipal services, while young favelas at the stage of land occupations continue to develop in an unsustainable fashion. São Paulo is the wealthiest and most populated city in Brazil, it suffers high levels of

INTRODUCTION

RECENT HISTORY OF OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA AND SITE DESCRIPTION

19 inequity and precarious access to housing, basic infrastructure, transportation, health and educational services. The city faces a housing deficit of 100,000 to 500,000 units. About 1.2 million people live in either favelas or in downtown abandoned buildings, called “extreme” (Holmes, 2016). As a result, the occupation of new land, usually in the city periphery, has become a pervasive last resort to avoid homelessness. Oftentimes, young land occupations, like Ocupação Anchieta, deforest green areas and erect shacks by water bodies.

Residents began occupying the Ocupação Anchieta site in 2013. The site consists of 220 thousand square meters of land, 136 thousand square meters being primary atlantic forest, a large stretch of forest that extends along the Atlantic Coast from Rio Grande del Norte State to Rio Grande del Sol (Instituto Anchieta Grajaú 2017). The occupied area belongs to Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (The Institute) (IAG), henceforth the Institute, a non-profit organization providing youth educational programs. Currently, between 600 and 700 families live in the Occupation. Families occupied the IAG’s property because they cannot afford to pay rent in more centrally located favelas, as the findings reported in the methodology chapter demonstrate.

08 (left) São Paulo Master Plan.

INTRODUCTION

In 2013, organized land occupations took place throughout the city of São Paulo in response to state and national debates regarding housing and public spending. Nine different occupations settled in the Grajaú district, including Ocupação Anchieta. Many social housing movements led these protests, with the aim to secure affordable housing options for the poorer residents of São Paulo (Gomes, 2013).

09 Current Neighborhood Association Headquarters. 10. Community Meeting. 11. Community Partners: Leonardo (left) and Fernando â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Fleshâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (right). 12. Children Play While Women Wait for Health Services. 13. Visit to Resident Living in the Perimeter of the Environmental Protection Area.

OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA ASSOCIATION THE CLIENT-PARTNER

The contact with the Association came through the Gaspar Garcia Center for Human Rights, longterm collaborators in different research initiatives with faculty member Pimentel Walker. The center seeks to preserve the human rights and dignity of the city’s urban poor. Its mission focuses on assisting informal dwellers with their land rights and access to adequate housing as well as advocating for changes in urban policies that lead to poverty in informal areas. Furthermore, the Gaspar Garcia Center works on applied research projects through partnerships with activists, social movements, professionals, and academic institutions.

The Association coordinators asked Taubman Team urban planning and architecture students for help protecting the creek and water springs by relocating adjacent houses elsewhere in the settlement. The desire to restore the creek area partially stemmed from the fact that the landowner,

motivated by environmental concerns, pressured residents to reconsider the optimal number of families living in the site. However, the relocation of housing near the creek was began before Taubman Team students arrived in Brazil in 2017, with the assistance of the non-profit, TETO. As a result, the Taubman Team reframed the project to focus on the most urgent needs of the community including five main areas of action: (1) strategizing further creek and water springs restoration, (2) designing a new cultural center, (3) developing waste management techniques, (4) improving housing, and (5) infrastructure—especially sewerage.

INTRODUCTION

In October 2016, Taubman College faculty members Ana Paula Pimentel Walker and María Arquero de Alcarón met with coordinators of Associação Anchieta (Ocupacão Anchieta Association) (the Association) and Movimento Anchieta (the Movement Anchieta), and visited the site.

Movimento Anchieta, is a social movement and housing advocacy group formed to occupy the land and advocate for adequate housing for the occupied site. The Movement started with the support of local leftist politicians and currently receive technical and political support from housing rights organizations and social movements. As more families moved to the Occupation, Movimento Anchieta formally established the Ocupação Anchieta neighborhood association, henceforth, the Association, with the goal of achieving the legal and political recognition required to acquire municipal infrastructure and services.

18 22

14 Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (IAG) Facilities. 15. IAG Basketball Court. 16. Informal Gathering. 17. Students and Partners. 18. (from left to right) Moacir, Ana Paula Pimentel Walker, Anderson, Unknown Resident, Elizabeth, Fernando, Two Children, María Arquero de Alarcón.

STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

The Taubman College Team first met the property owners, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (the Institute) (IAG), during the March 2017 fieldwork visit. Instituto Anchieta Grajaú is a non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to a holistic approach towards youth education and development. The NGO provides after school programs for four hours per day to 600 children in Grajaú. For IAG, environmental protection is the next highest priority after serving vulnerable children and youth.

Although IAG built temporary structures to house their educational and recreational activities, the conservation land around the creek had remained undeveloped up until the time of the land occupation in 2013. However, the land was informally used as an illegal

dumping site. Occupants built their homes (from scavenged materials) out of the need for housing without giving much consideration to environmental consequences. The deforestation caused by the rapid settlement of people in the Occupation filled the NGO directors with resentment and IAG filed an eviction claim in court on August 15, 2013. The defensoria pública (public defenders) represented the Ocupação Anchieta Association when they were taken to court to be evicted from the land. Moreover, relationships with local Evangelical churches, such as the Assembly of God and other denominations provided support. A large network of social movements, which serve as a platform against evictions and support for land occupations in São Paulo, were also instrumental in assisting Ocupação Anchieta. After several unsuccessful attempts to serve the eviction

INTRODUCTION

Ocupação Anchieta exists within a complex web of stakeholders. The Movement plays a role in attracting support for Ocupação Anchieta from outside parties, such as NGOs (i.e. TETO), the public defense (defensoria publica), organizational centers (Gaspar Garcia Center for Human Rights) and universities like Taubman College at the University of Michigan.

The land on which Ocupação Anchieta is located was initially owned by Cyrela, a real estate company active in the area. Originally, a developer had planned to build 2,500 houses on the 62-acre plot, but was unable to do so because the area included 250 square meters of protected land surrounding the creek and springs. In 2001, Cyrela donated the land to IAG, for education programming in the Grajaú district. The Institute had recognized the lack of access to housing, education and arts in the southern area of the city of São Paulo and, through community engagement, sought to provide services and activities for residents.

1997

INSTITUTO ANCHIETA FOUNDED

2013

OCCUPATION BEGINS EVICTION LAWSUIT BEGINS (08/15/2013)

2014 NEW RESIDENTS ARRIVE

2015

2016

2017

EVICTION CASE SUSPENDED (08/04/2016) UM FACULTY TRIP TETO NGO RELOCATES HOUSEHOLDS NEAR CREEK U OF LEUVEN STUDENTS ARRIVE UM STUDENTS TRIP EVICTION CASE SUSPENSION EXPIRES (08/23/2017)

19 Oçupacão Anchieta Timeline.

order, the judge and the parts in the process agreed on August 2016 to suspend the legal proceedings for one year. The Institute and the dwellers agreed to temporary use rights for residents. The Institute has also agreed to open negotiations with the Association to come up with solutions to address the deforestation of the area and the accompanying pollution. The relationship between the Association and IAG is based on a mutual understanding that there must be a solution to preserve the conservation area and remedy the pollution there. Instituto Anchieta Grajaú operates in collaboration with LoebCapote Arquitetura e Urbanismo (LoebCapote Architecture and Urbanism) (LOEB), which is an architecture firm founded in 1965 in São Paulo, Brazil. The firm is a convener of large development actors including engineering firms (fluxus); municipal services (Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo) (São Paulo, Brazil Water and Sanitation Utility) (SABESP); electricity and water companies (Empresa Metropolitana de Aguas e Energía S.A.) (Metropolitan Company of Waters and Energy) (EMAE); communication networks (Minha Sampa) (My Sampa); and Environmental NGOs (Vamos Limpar o Rio) (Let’s Clean the River). Architects, Roberto Loeb and Luis Capote, are the presidents of LOEB. Loeb is also the president of IAG. The architecture and urbanism firm also works directly with universities, such as KU Leuven, to help develop Ocupação Anchieta. In addition, IAG also volunteers with Global Care Health Solutions (Global Care) a health facility that provides home healthcare services. Students from Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (University of Leuven) (KU Leuven), in Belgium, arrived three weeks prior to the Taubman Team to create a plan that is in line

with IAG’s vision for the Occupation. Three KU Leuven students lived on IAG’s grounds and engaged residents through the use of interviews, surveys, and other methods to understand Ocupação Anchieta’s current condition. The Institute’s main vision that the KU Leuven project working toward is to recover part of the 200,000 square meters of conservation land lost through settlement by re-arranging existing and abandoned housing units. The proposal includes: a health center, market, permaculture, streets, sewerage and electricity systems. The Institute would like to have the funds to transform the adjacent piece of land occupied by Occupation residents into temporary housing and a workplace colony to provide job training for families in need. The idea is that adults would gain professional skills and

once inserted in the formal job market, families would move out, leaving room for new families in need of professionalization to move in. Furthermore, IAG has a vision for sustainable temporary housing and job training that embodies permaculture, replanting of trees, and green infrastructure, including communal sewage. Nonetheless, IAG does not yet have the funding to finance these innovative ideas. Furthermore, when the 800 families initially occupied the land, they did so with intention to build a permanent home and the Occupation. Although the two sides disagree on specific aspects of land development, for the Occupation, there is a lot of cooperation between IAG and the Association. The points of disagreement include permaculture, the ideal housing size and prototypes, and the temporary nature of the proposed usufruct

INTRODUCTION

20 Diagram of Agents Involved in the Program.

21 Deforestation in Ocupação Anchieta from 2011 to 2016 (SOURCE: Google Earth Pro).

rights. Nonetheless, IAG has been working diligently on building consensus with the Association coordinators on these issues. Furthermore, Ocupação Anchieta residents deeply appreciate the social and educational services the Institute provides for the Grajaú District. For example, approximately 300 kids from the Occupation attend the after-school programs that IAG hosts for children throughout Grajaú. Furthermore, IAG has been pressuring the government to provide further medical services for the area in the future. 26

Taubman Team engaged in conversations with both the client-partner and IAG and a summary of the interviews appear in the methods chapter. As a result, the Team has strategically developed a framework that addresses the concerns of both parties, and embraces the housing and environmental conflict of the Occupation. Next chapter provides context for the Grajaú District and addresses the housing and environmental conflicts in Ocupação Anchieta as well as other informal settlements at the periphery of São Paulo.

SOURCES

Fernandes, E. (2013). The Challenges of Reforming the Urban Legal Framework: A Critical Assessment of Brazil’s City Statute Ten Years Later. Gomes, R. (2013, August 12). Cresce o número de ocupações no extreme sul de São Paulo.Retrieved March 26, 2017, from http://www. redebrasilatual.com.br/cidadania/2013/08/cresceo-numero-de-ocupacoes-no-extremo-sul-de-saopaulo-3246.html HabitaSAMPA. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2017, from http://www.habitasampa.inf.br/habitacao/ Holmes, C. (2016). São Paulo is betting better urban planning can solve a housing crisis. Next City. Retrieved from https://nextcity.org/features/ view/sao-paulo-housing-crisis-master- p l a n zeis-haddad-habitat-iii

Lara, F. L. (2013). Favela upgrade in Brazil: a reverse of participatory processes. Journal of Urban Design, 18(4), 553-564. Quem Somos - Instituto Anchieta Grajaú. (2017). Retrieved March 20, 2017 from http://www. institutoanchietagrajau.org.br/quemsomos Walker, A. P. P. (2016). Self-help or public housing? Lessons from co-managed slum upgrading via participatory budget. Habitat International, 55, 5866.

INTRODUCTION

IBGE. (2010). Instituto Brasilrio de Geografia eEstatística, Retrieved April 25, 2017, from https:// www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/ censo2010/tabelas_pdf/total_populacao_sao_ paulo.pdf

02 HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS: DILEMMAS OF PERIPHERAL URBANISM IN SÃ&#x192;O PAULO

HOUSING, ZONING AND TENURE SECURITY The São Paulo volume produced by the Taubman College Team explains that Brazil has been undergoing a long process of advocacy and implementation of new urban laws, policies, and programs, known as the urban reform movement. For the first time, the 1988 Federal Constitution of Brazil included a chapter on urban policy. Most notably, the principle that urban property must fulfill a social function became constitutional law. Thirteen years later, The City Statute (Law No. 10,257 of 2001) passed Congress as the enabling legislation for the constitutional mandate.

22 (previous) Construction Debris After Demolition and Relocation of a House in the Area of Environmental Protection 23 (left) Areas of Social Special Interest, Strategic Master Plan São Paulo Prefeitura.

The City Statute provides general guidelines on how urban land can fulfill its social function. Social function is fulfilled when urban property “meets the fundamental requirements of organizing urban city growth “…which are set forth in the Master Plan, ensuring that the needs of citizens are met with regard to quality of life, social justice

and the development of economic activities” (Carvalho and Rossbach, 2010, p. 30). The social function of urban property also aims to combat land speculation and idleness (Rolnik, 2013 and Fernandes, 2007), via several instruments, such as progressive taxation of idle land and compulsory land parceling. Brazilian law through its constitutional principles, enabling federal legislation, and international treaties adherence, considers forced evictions a violation of human rights and the right to the city. Therefore, Brazilian law is intended to ensure that municipalities, like São Paulo, use planning to confront injustices regarding land occupations (Carvalho and Rossbach, 2010). The 1988 Federal Constitution and the City Statute establishes different types of tenure security legal tools for public and private property (Macedo, 2007). Adverse possession is a tool available for informal dwellers occupying private property. Nevertheless,

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

The São Paulo Metropolitan Region faces ongoing crises of housing deficit and lack of tenure security. As of 2001, Congress passed a city statute enabling the social function of land in an effort to combat speculation and idleness. Special Zones of Interest (ZEIS) are another mechanism to guarantee housing rights to those living in informal settlements.

Ocupação Anchieta residents cannot file an adverse possession lawsuit because, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (IAG) filed eviction claims within the first few months of occupation. Occupation dwellers have not occupied the land for five consecutive years without contestation from property owners, as the Federal Constitution requires. The goal of the toolset for tenure security is to find other ways to legitimize ownership without formally selling and purchasing land as is seen in the formal land market. The mechanism for public land tenure security is Concessão de Direito Real de Uso (“real right to use concession”). Concessão de Direito Real de Uso (CDRU), protects squatter families through a lease contract, usually spanning 50 years. Under CDRU, families occupying public land are permitted to remain on the parcels where they built their house or transfer this right to someone else and apply it as collateral. At the same time, land is protected from speculation.

24 ZEIS Categories, Secretaria Municipal de Urbanismo e Licenciamento. (2017).

For private land, usucapião coletivo (collective adverse possession) is one tenure security mechanism that allows multiple urban land occupants to form a group, or “condominium association,” that can work to increase legal actions to obtain rights over land. The City Statute has enabled municipal governments to use planning tools to ensure land fulfills a social function and provides tenure security. These tools include Solo Criado (Transfer of Development Rights) and Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social (Special Zones of Social Interest) (ZEIS). It should be noted that the perception of tenure, opposed to actual legal proof, is sometimes more highly regarded and formal legal tenure does not necessarily result in improvements (Macedo, 2007).

25 The Forested Creek Area in Ocupação Anchieta.

Special Zones of Social Interest is another important mechanism to guarantee the housing rights of the population living in informal settlements. These special zoning districts have specific standards to guarantee the current and future availability of social housing. The core concept of ZEIS entails the legal recognition of the “right to use” when “right to property” is nonexistent and unattainable. The long-term objective of ZEIS is to regularize

the area and provide legal titles (Macedo, 2007). Ocupação Anchieta is located in a ZEIS district, specifically ZEIS 4. The Floor Area Ratio (FAR) requirement for a ZEIS 4 is two, making ZEIS 4 the lowest density ZEIS zoning district. The FAR of the highest density ZEIS district is 4 (Montandon, 2017). Additionally, ZEIS 4 areas consist of undeveloped land in headwater or environmentally protected areas. They are suitable for Habitação de Interesse

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

Social (Social Interest Housing) in order to house families relocated from risk or permanent preservation areas. The ZEIS 4 category can also be used to reduce population densities of ZEIS 1 zones in the same hydrologic sub-basin (subject to Lei de Proteção e Recuperação dos Manancias [Headwaters Protection and Recovery Law] (Ribeiro et al., 2015) Given the fact that Ocupação Anchieta is situated in a City of São Paulo zoning district that permits human settlement for social housing and, at the same time, requires environmental protection, land values are low. Then, IAG acquired the land as a donation from a developer. Given the density restrictions on ZEIS 4, these zones are somewhat shielded from land speculation. Nonetheless, zoning in Brazil as in many places can change and land price can increase.

26 Resident Pushes Trash Out of the Way of Stormwater Runoff in Ocupação Anchieta.

Located in the Occupation, the Minas (seasonal creek and natural springs) area is the most environmentally sensitive because of the water pollution. This environmental damage is aggravated by the lack of basic infrastructure. Land occupiers and clusters of land occupiers have developed distinct ways to discharge wastewater and solid waste in the Occupation. Although almost all residents have a toilet inside their home, the Occupation’s sewage system varies. Of the sewerage the Taubman College Team was able to observe, 19% of households use septic tanks and the rest of the site discharges directly into water bodies (assuming pipes discharge directly into onsite water bodies), except for a small portion of households that are informally connected to the municipal system. The waste management system is deficient as well. The Taubman College Team observed dumpsters that were over capacity

27 Resident Dumping Trash.

each day; litter in the roads, trash in the water, and waste dumped and burned in open space and residents’ yards. Therefore, Taubman College Team’s goal is to embrace this housing and environmental conflict in the Occupation. Through the strategies proposed, we hope to give the Ocupação Anchieta Association the tools that they can use to reduce their environmental impact. As well as, advance their living conditions so residents can have an improved quality of life and remain in their homes without threats of eviction.

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

METRO SÃO PAULO ENVIRONMENTAL LANDSCAPE

Many rivers run through the municipality of São Paulo. Among them, the Tietê River, and its tributary, the Pinheiros River, are of the most importance and were once sources of freshwater and leisure for São Paulo.

28 (left) São Paulo Center Skyline.

São Paulo City has two major reservoirs– the Billings and the Guarapiranga. These reservoirs are located on the southern outskirts of the city and serve as power generation, water storage, and leisure activities. Since the 1950s, the City of São Paulo has experienced immense urban growth and expansion. However, the lack of available land for low-income housing near the city center has led to population growth in informal land occupations in the periphery. As a result, settlements began to move to the peripheral areas. Thirtysix percent of the city is in a protected watershed area. In the 1980s, people began to occupy the protected area in the sub-watersheds of the Billings and the Guarapiranga

reservoirs (Jacobi, 2004). Water contamination from informal settlements around these reservoirs poses an environmental concern. The quality of the Guarapiranga reservoir has worsened despite the implementation of the Guarapiranga pollution control program in 1992. The Billings Reservoir has improved since an electricity company was restricted from transferring heavily polluted water from the Pinheiros River (Johnsson, 2005). The lack of proper sanitation facilities and domestic waste that are ultimately dumped into the water bodies and left unmanaged also threaten environmental health of the São Paulo Metropolitan Region (Jacobi et al., 2013). Sixty percent of municipal sewage in the City of São Paulo goes untreated (França, 2017). The dumping of industrial effluents and pesticides from agriculture has resulted in additional pollution.

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

The São Paulo Metropolitan Region faces many environmental conflicts arising from fast urban growth along the periphery, rampant resource consumption and drought, and a lack of proper sewerage.

However, industrial effluents and wastewater discharges in the last half of the 20th century caused the rivers to become heavily polluted.

Grajaú, considered one of São Paulo’s poorest districts, is home to Ocupação Anchieta. This district, the largest in the city, struggles with a lack of municipal services, environmental degradation, and informality, and serves as just one example of peripheral urban growth.

29 (left) Periphery of Ocupação Anchieta, in Grajaú District.

Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation) is located in the Grajaú District. Grajaú belongs to the Capela do Socorro sub-municipal office in the South Zone of São Paulo, 26 kilometers from Praça de Sé, a public square that is considered the center of São Paulo. Grajaú evolved from a collection of informal settlements in the periphery to a formalized and upgraded district. Although new land occupations continue to push the boundaries of urban growth further south, the Grajaú District remains an important site for simultaneous slum upgrading and formalization, while new land occupations continue to break ground. With a population of 445,000, Grajaú is the most populous district in São Paulo, a city of approximately 12 million people. Grajaú is considered one of the poorer neighborhoods in the city. It is less dense than the rest of São Paulo, with 44.55 people in Grajaú and 74.57 people

in São Paulo per hectare; however, Grajaú residents have less municipal public space per capita (2.16 hectares per 100,000 people compared to 2.58 hectares per 100,000 people in the city). When just sports and recreation are considered, Grajaú has 2.71 fields per 100,000 people as opposed to 3.38 fields per 100,000 people citywide (Prefeitura de São Paulo, 2017). Therefore, decreased density does not equate to more green space in Grajaú, but rather land is at a premium. Considered one of the poorer neighborhoods in the city, Grajaú is typical of neighborhoods in the periphery São Paulo. Families and individuals, seeking an affordable place to live, formed human settlements at the edge of the urban fabric (Caldeira, 2016). The peripheral urbanization of Grajaú happened gradually. The original residents built their neighborhoods with the

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

PERIPHERAL SHELTER IN THE GRAJAÚ DISTRICT

30 Urbanized Area of Grajaú, São Paulo, Brazil.

resources they had at the time (de Oliveira, 2005). Formal city services, such as water, sewerage, and electricity, only came after Grajaú was no longer located at the edge of municipal peri-urban growth. The city of São Paulo slowly extended services to follow the spread of informal development. However, services have still not reached all informal areas. 40

Grajaú is just one example of peripheral urban growth and informality in São Paulo. Like many cities across the world, the heart of São Paulo is losing population to peripheral areas, like Grajáu. This migration places stress on municipalities, which play a role in providing peripheral neighborhoods with infrastructure while maintaining services in shrinking central areas (de Oliveira, 2005). The rising cost of

31 Average Monthly income of Residents in the Grajaú District, São Paulo, Brazil

living in and around the city center creates an incentive for people to move further away from Praça de Sé, where infrastructure does not exist (Caldeira, 2016). As people who can no longer afford existing São Paulo neighborhoods continue to form their own, the municipality must extend its reach to these peripheral informal settlements with basic infrastructure and services.

Many informal areas, like Grajaú, suffer from environmental degradation as people occupy the land. Before the Occupation began, Ocupação Anchieta, like most of Grajaú, was a greenfield, or an undisturbed piece of land, rich with vegetation. The legal protection framework has unintentionally contributed to this deforestation. The 1975 “law of water sources protection,” which meant to protect the

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

32 Basic Infrastructure Overview in the GrajaĂş District, SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil.

watershed around the municipal water supply, caused land prices to soar (de Oliveira, 2005). As a result, people moved further south to land that was not as expensive, and thereby caused more water pollution and deforestation. This problem is even more severe in poorer areas, where parks, including ones that are nominally 42

protected, are being occupied and used for housing (de Oliviera, 2005). Consequently, the municipality concluded that it is easier to legalize and upgrade the infrastructure of these areas, instead of destroying them and evicting their residents, which ultimately leads to more environmental degradation.

SOURCES

Carvalho, C. S., & Rossbach, A. (2010). The City Statute of Brazil: A Commentary. Cities Alliance, Cities Without Slums. de Oliveira, Maria Aparecida. “Urban Sprawl, Land Markets and Environment Degradation in São Paulo, Brazil.” Land and Urban Policies for Poverty Reduction (2005): 357. Fernandes, Edésio. (2007). Constructing the Right to the City in Brazil. Social & Legal Studies, 16.2, 201-219. França, E. (2017). Integrated Urbanization of precarious settlements: a panoramic vision on the Brazilian and São Paulo experiences (presentation). 6 March Jacobi, P. (2004). The challenges of multistakeholder management in the watersheds of São Paulo. Environment and Urbanization, 16(2), 199-212. Jacobi, P. R., Paz, M. G., Leão, R. S., & Estancione, L. M. (2013). Water governance and natural disasters in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, Brazil. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 5(1), 77-88. Johnsson, R. M., & Kemper, K. (2005). Institutional and policy analysis of river basin

management : the Alto-Tietê river basin, São Paulo, Brazil. Policy Research Working Papers. Macedo, Joseli. (2007). Urban land policy and new land tenure paradigms: Legitimacy vs. legality in Brazilian cities. Land Use Policy 25, 259-270. Montandon , D. T. (2017, March 2). Legal framework to promote the right to the city: special zones of social interest (ZEIS) and other instruments. Lecture presented at WORKSHOP PARAISÓPOLIS INFORMA: STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTHENING THE COMMUNITY in Brazil, São Paulo. Prefeitura de São Paulo. (2017). ObservaSampa. Retrieved from http://observasampa.prefeitura. sp.gov.br/index.php/indicadores/indicadorespor-regiao/ Ribeiro, S. C., Daniel, M. N., & Abiko, A. (2016). ZEIS maps: Comparing areas to be earmarked exclusively for social housing in São Paulo city. Land Use Policy, 58, 445-455. Rolnik, Raquel. (2013). Ten years of the City Statute in Brazil: from the struggle for urban reform to the World Cup cities. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 5(1), 54-64.

HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRESS

Caldeira, T. P. (2016). Peripheral urbanization: Autoconstruction, transversal logics, and politics in cities of the global south. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 0263775816658479.

03 FIELD METHODOLOGY This chapter explains the different methods used to gather data to inform our design and planning recommendations.

INTRODUCTION

33 (previous) Taubman Team Strategizing Data Collection. 34 (left) Taubman Team During Data Collection.

To ensure that field methods were conducted universally throughout the project Taubman College Team was informed by The USAID Rapid Appraisal (RA) approach. “Rapid Appraisal is an approach that draws on multiple evaluation methods and techniques to quickly, yet systematically, collect data when time in the field is limited” (Vondal, 2010). This approach

is participatory in nature and therefore could be referred to as ‘participatory’ rapid appraisal. Considering the time and budget constraints, using rapid appraisal for field research was the best option. One challenge with rapid appraisal, however, is the validity and reliability of findings, if the goal is to make assumptions about the general population. To increase confidence in the results, findings were triangulated, meaning multiple methods of data collection were utilized so the findings could be checked against each other. The field methods inspired by the RA approach include conducting interviews, doorto-door household surveys, direct observation, and a wellattended community meeting. As a group, Taubman College Team interviewed the clientpartner, Ocupação Anchieta Association (the Association) coordinators, the landowner, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (The Institute) (IAG), and local experts to help students gain

FIELD METHODOLOGY

The Taubman College Team used field methodologies over the course of three days while on-site in Ocupação Anchieta. The variety of methods helped with the triangulation of data and included: stakeholder interviews, door-to-door household surveys, direct observation surveys and mapping, water and soil testing, and a community meeting. These methods illustrated information on current site conditions, the socio-political environment, as well as community interests. Translators assisted the Taubman College Team with interpersonal interactions to overcome the language barrier.

Architecture and Urban Planning Master students from Taubman College and two faculty members from each discipline traveled to São Paulo, Brazil, from February 27 to March 9, 2017, to conduct field research. The Taubman College Team traveled to the community of Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation) and spent three full days there: February 27, March 1, and March 5. While on site, students spoke with the clientpartner and residents to learn more about the community and gather feedback on preliminary recommendations and proposals.

35 Dirt Streets with Trash Slope Down Towards Creek Area.

a better understanding of Ocupação Anchieta and São Paulo. The door-to-door household surveys were led by pairs of Portuguese speakers and Taubman Team students. The direct observation method allowed the students to collect data on physical elements of housing and infrastructure without the dependence of a translator. 200 residents attended the twohour community meeting on our last day in Ocupação Anchieta. No up-to-date map of the community is in existence. In response, the Taubman Team hired a drone to photograph the site. 48

These images were captured to produce an accurate base map of Ocupação Anchieta. Additionally, students conducted water and soil quality tests. The water quality tests were intended to help provide preliminary evidence that there is indeed water contamination in the Occupation. The soil test findings were intended to demonstrate evidence of soil contamination and inform recommendations pertaining to vegetation and design proposals. The water and soil testing are beneficial tools to monitor the impact of the proposed creek revitalization project, further environment initiatives spearheaded by any stakeholder,

49 and can help the community make claims about increased environmental stewardship. The Occupation residents that the Taubman College Team had the opportunity to interact with were welcoming and willing to engage with the team. They extruded openness and availability during door-to-door surveys, direct observation, and the large community meeting. Futhermore, social events such as lunch and dinners with the Association coordinators, provided an opportunity to check-in or follow up after the day’s activities. Through these invaluable conversations, the Taubman Team was able to acquire additional information and receive feedback on potential recommendation proposals. The Association coordinators volunteered to accompany groups of students in the field as students carried out research methods for long hours each day. Everyday three to four fluent translators were present, assisting nonPortuguese speakers to communicate with the Association coordinators and Occupation residents. The cooperation of the community combined with the help of the translators allowed Taubman Team students to collect data more effectively than expected

36 Mapping Exercise with Community.

There are limitations to the data collection process and findings that should be noted. First, the short amount of time spent in Ocupação Anchieta restricted how many surveys, direct observation checklists, informal conversations, and relationship building with the clientpartner and residents could take place. Secondly, language was a moderate barrier. The majority of Taubman Team students could not communicate in Portuguese, and most of the coordinators and residents could not

FIELD METHODOLOGY

METHOD LIMITATIONS

speak English. The translators were extremely helpful. It would have been beneficial to have more bilingualism amongst the students. A few students and faculty had some level of proficiency in Portuguese or Spanish and could use these language skills to communicate with the community. For instance, when students could not converse and there were no translators available, students relied on body language, pre-recorded audios by Portuguese speaking individuals, and voice recording so that information could be translated upon our return.

because we realized that some of the checklist items were not relevant given that the answers were identical for the entire site. Therefore, we dropped three questions about stormwater after the first day. Furthermore, almost all students engaged in the same direct observation activity. Despite the fact that all students received the same training and instructions, the team did not test for inter-observer reliability. Therefore, we cannot assess the degree of human error and inconsistency of observations. In the future, scholars and practitioners using this tool may consider a reliability assessment.

In the field, Taubman College Team Although the community meeting was adjusted the direct observation questions worthwhile and useful, there were a couple of

37 Faculty Members Address Residents at Community Meeting.

38 Resident Survey.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

limitations that should be mentioned. Despite the two-hour meeting, Taubman Team only had time to provide a basic overview of our field observations and receive feedback from residents on the general direction of the themes for potential recommendations targeting existing problems. Also, during the break-out sessions, the maps could have been more user friendly, which would have facilitated precise feedback at the theme tables. Most of the 200+ meeting attendees did not take part in the small group mapping activities, but participated in the general meeting by speaking, show of hands, and clapping or screaming “yes” and “no” to the information conveyed by the students.

CLIENT-PARTNER INTERVIEW SUMMARY

The client for the Taubman team was Movimiento Anchieta, the leadership of Ocupação Anchieta. Shortly after the foundation of the informal settlement in 2013, residents elected nine different leadership positions. The Movimeinto has led the drive for formality, both with the municipality and with other leftist solidarity organizations throughout the city. The team worked extensively with the leaders of Ocupação Anchieta, and guided the Taubman team during the direct observation and client interviews.

39 (left) Client-Partner Interview at Neighborhood Association’s Headquarters.

Due to a lack of internet in the Occupation, Taubman College Team had limited communication with the Association, between the faculty’s first visit to the community in October 2016 and the fieldwork trip with students in FebruaryMarch 2017. When Taubman Team students first arrived on, they first conducted a group interview with four of the Association’s coordinators. This interview provided qualitative data on the Association’s history, challenges, successes, and goals for the future. Additionally, the students asked the coordinators questions regarding relations with other organizations, the landowner (IAG), and the municipal government; their funding sources; housing needs; and the community’s infrastructure. The interview lasted three hours and continued through lunch. The client-partner interview

was flexible, giving enough time for the coordinators to produce their own narratives. Beforehand, students created a list of pertinent questions that were also asked. The interview guide serves to remind the interviewer to ask about certain topics that have not been discussed during the interview (Taylor, J., Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015). The Taubman College Team met with residents Moacyr (Movimento Anchieta president), Fernando, Anderson, Beth, and all coordinators of the Movement and Association. Professor Pimentel Walker acted as the facilitator and translator for these interviews. Conversations were productive and helped develop a better understanding about the site. Prior to the Occupation formation, the land was a dumping ground for stolen car parts, despite IAG’s plans to develop the site. The Association estimates that approximately 600-700 families

FIELD METHODOLOGY

live on the site today. The Association is no longer accepting new residents; newcomers to the community are redirected to another occupation about twenty minutes away. The first association formed at the Occupation charged the residents for dues: R$20 ($6.36 USD) for homes and R$30 ($9.53 USD) for businesses. However, residents grew suspicious of how former coordinators used these funds and called for elections. For these reasons, the Association’s current coordinators do not collect money from residents. Instead, community projects that require funding are funded by donation from campaigning politicians. Ocupação Anchieta has a complicated legal situation. Brazilian law implies that land must serve a social function. If a property owner holds on to land for speculation purposes, the government can apply progressive taxation and/or revoke the land title. For more information on the social function of urban property under Brazilian law, see the São Paulo volume that our team produced. Nonetheless, the property owners attempted to evict occupants three times by filing actions in court. By the third lawsuit, IAG and Ocupação Anchieta, counseled by public defenders, reached an agreement that provided the Occupation with temporary use rights in exchange for dropping the eviction lawsuit. Today, the Association and IAG are in constant negotiation, striving to find the best way to satisfy both of their interests. The community organizes a number of social and cultural activities, which Association Coordinators claim is Ocupação Anchieta’s greatest assets. Residents celebrate Christmas, Children’s Day, Father’s Day, and 54

hold an annual Mother’s Day party with hair and makeup activities. There are a number of businesses within the community, such as hair salons, bars, bakeries, and convenience shops. For some residents, the local businesses are side jobs, but for many the business is their main source of income. In addition to businesses, three churches exist within the community, and the Association is hoping to build a Catholic church soon. The Institute provides after school programming for four hours during school days. IAG receives 600 children from the surrounding communities, 300 from Ocupação Anchieta. There is hope that a new school will be built near the football (American soccer) field in the community. Currently, Ocupação Anchieta children have transit passes to take public transportation to go to school or parents opt for an informal rented van that brings kids to school in the district. Ocupação Anchieta Association manages Movimento Anchieta (the Movement), a social movement formed four years ago at the Occupation. Movimento Anchieta focuses on community organizing and activism, while the Association manages neighborhood planning and daily life activities. The Association has leadership elections every four years. Positions include president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. In total, there are nine coordinators. Both the Movement and the Association operate on a volunteer basis. Coordinators do not receive payment for their work. The Association also holds monthly meetings, through which community members participate intensively. The Association organizes meetings and

protests via WhatsApp, paper flyers, and word of mouth. In its first two years of operation, the Movement was ineffective in serving resident needs. After community elections and a change in leadership, residents continued the Movement and fighting for their rights. The largest complaint about the community is that noise carries from one house to the next because homes are constructed with materials that easily permit the transfer of sound.

Homes informally connect to the municipal water system via rubber hoses, known as gato. Some households store water in blue tanks adjacent or on top of their homes. One blue tank is R$150 ($47 USD). Houses also informally connect to the municipal electricity. Sewage is contained in a septic tank or a network of several septic tanks. For more detailed information, refer to Infrastructure and Creeks and Springs Action Plans.

The coordinators explained various ways households manage water, electricity, and sewage. In some homes, wastewater empties into the creek without treatment. Due to the topography of the community, water runoff also joins the creek, causing further contamination.

On behalf of the community, the Association coordinators say they would like to have sewerage infrastructure because human waste is severely impacting the environment. Coordinators are considering how to relocate houses to establish this system. Waste

FIELD METHODOLOGY

40 Convenience Shops Provide Goods and Services, and Become Gathering Places.

41 Client-Partner Interview with Ana Paula Pimentel-Walker.

management in the Occupation is minimal. The municipality collects the Occupationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste from nearby caĂ§ambas (dumpsters) where residents dispose of their household trash. The coordinators explained that most parents tell their children to walk the trash to the dumpsters; however, children often get distracted and leave trash scattered throughout the community. Two 56

residents informally collect recyclables doorto-door in the community. These residents sell the recyclables to someone outside of the community as their livelihoods. Four water springs (minas) and a creek are located in the community. Some families initially built their homes in these areas,

57 causing deforestation and water pollution. The Occupation is working with residents to relocate these homes to other areas in the community. In October 2016, the TETO NGO assisted in relocating 111 homes by the creek. Today, only thirty homes remain in this area. For seventeen of these 30 remaining houses, construction of new homes has already began. Each house costs the NGO about R$ 8000 ($2,542 USD), of which families contribute R$200 ($63.56 USD).

In conclusion, the client-partner interview was invaluable to learning more about the residents and OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta. The Association coordinators provided narratives about the history, assets and needs of the young community. Furthermore, the coordinators were very receptive and helpful in answering questions.

42 Dirt Streets with Surface Runoff Show Demand for Sewage Infrastructure.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Construction materials for homes are found in the community or surrounding areas. Oftentimes, these are leftover materials from other home construction projects, old furniture, and/or plywood. Some residents may save money to buy materials. Common materials such as plywood and sheets of tin/metal for roofs can cost about, R$70-80 ($22-25 USD). Women typically construct the homes, which take two days to complete. Housing may contain three to four different rooms, with occasional expansion depending on family size.

To gain an understanding of Ocupação Anchieta from a different perspective, students also interviewed IAG, the owners of the land. Similar to the clientpartner interview, the main purpose for this conversation was to gain an understanding of the Institute’s history and their past, present, and future goals for the land. The interview lasted one hour. U-M faculty members, Ana Paula Pimentel Walker and María Arquero de Alarcón, were invited by the Institute to talk about the student project development for the informal settlement. During this meeting the director of IAG, Celso Garbarz informed us of his concerns related to the current population’s health and safety conditions. He explained that even though Grajaú has approximately 500,000 inhabitants, the current health facilities can only serve 10,000 people.

43 (left) Instituto Anchieta Grajaú Social Assistance Building.

Garbarz affirmed that the non-profit organization is seeking ways to maintain the current favorable relationship with the neighborhood association in Ocupação Anchieta. He is also highly concerned about the negative environmental impact from the lack of services like sewage, waste collection, and greywater disposal. According to IAG, these environmental impacts can be difficult to solve with the current high population density in Ocupação Anchieta and wonders if they may need to reduce the number of families living there. Given these concerns, IAG has sought out the help of the Belgian institution, Leuven University, to propose housing, infrastructure, and permaculture recommendations in this area. This collaboration started three weeks before our arrival, when three students traveled to the site. The students lived on IAG grounds for two months, engaging with the community

in interviews, creating surveys, and using other methods to understand the current conditions. Instituto Anchieta Grajaú envisions to develop the area that Ocupação Anchieta occupies as a temporary housing settlement with permaculture, farming, and other workshops that will serve to professionalize adults so that they get training, find, jobs and move out, leaving room for new families. Funding is currently not available for such a project. Furthermore, when Ocupação Anchieta residents first occupied the area, their intention was to permanently stay there. In fact, many coordinators would like a permanent home with tenure security. Overall, Taubman College Team had an important interview with IAG to learn more about the actions they are planning and the community as a whole.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

INSTITUTO ANCHIETA GRAJAÚ INTERVIEW SUMMARY

DOOR-TO-DOOR HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS

44 (left) Participants in Door-to-Door Survey Interview.

The door-to-door household survey had 25 questions, 22 multiple-choice questions and three openended questions, which were divided in the following four sections: housing conditions, infrastructure, (including water, electricity, waste, and sewage), public life, and socio-demographic questions pertaining to the respondent and the household. The goal of the survey was to better understand household composition and capabilities vis-à-vis their housing and infrastructure conditions.

Furthermore, a small subset of questions aimed to elicit residents’ attitudes towards the Occupation and the perceived needs and preferences related to potential infrastructure upgrades and services. Survey questions have been adapted from: the 2015 Taubman College Urban Planning Brazil Capstone, The World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations – Human Settlements Programme (UM Taubman Brazil Capstone, 2015; WHO, 2017; UN HABITAT, 2004). SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE Age, Gender and Education Survey respondents age ranged from 18-81 and 39.4 years old was the average in our pool of respondents. Sixtyone percent of respondents identified as female and 39% as male. The over-representation of female respondents could be explained by the fact that interviews took place during the day and adult men may have

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Door-to-door household surveys provided the Taubman College Team with demographic and housing information of Ocupação Anchieta. Points of interest included education, employment, housing information, household size, family goals and interests, and community involvement. The findings from these surveys help inform housing and policy interventions for the Occupation. Surveys were completed voluntarily with the help of a translator to overcome language barriers.

Conducting surveys was the primary method for gathering data from residents directly. Taubman Team students collected 64 surveys over the course of the three days in Ocupação Anchieta. One student partnered with one of the three to four translators available each day, and the pair traversed a different designated area of the Occupation so that no major sections of the informal settlement would be excluded.

been at work. Alternatively, the Occupation may have a higher level of female-headed households. Given that the door-to-door household survey did not inquire about head of the household by sex, we cannot definitely explain the occurrence. Nonetheless, the literature indicates that in informal settlements, female headed households are a more frequent phenomenon (The World Bank, 2006). The

survey

showed

that

53%

respondents did not finish an elementary level education and 22% of respondents had less than a fourth-grade education. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines functional illiteracy as attending school for less than four years (Schiefelbein, 1995). This precarious level of education contrasts with the averages for SĂŁo Paulo, where 96.4% of the population completed elementary school and 83% completed high school (UNESCO, 2017).

45 Socio-Demographic Profile, Education, Employment and Income Information.

63 Employment and Income

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Fifty-one percent of respondents stated that they are unemployed. Twenty-eight percent of respondents work for formal industries and have a formal contract (meaning an agreement that pays into social security) and the other 21% work for informal sectors. Some common responses for the Occupation include mason, housekeeper, and cook.

The average individual income for all OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta respondents is about R$488 ($156 USD), much less than the average of the Brazilian minimum wage, which is R$937 ($298 USD), including unemployed respondents (Forte, 2016). Excluding unemployed residents, the average income was around R$844 ($270 USD), which is still below the minimum wage. Only 25% of respondents reported that their income exceeds the minimum wage. This is also

46 Information on Current Housing Structure and Past Housing Conditions.

significantly less than the average individual income in São Paulo metropolitan region, which is R$1,533 ($487) per month (IBGE, 2010). As for household monthly income, more than half of the respondents (53%) reported earning less than R$1000 ($320 USD) per month. Another 37% had a household income between R$1000 ($320 USD) to R$2000 ($640 USD). In other words, 90% of households earned less than R$2000 ($640 USD) per month. This is much less than the average household income for the São Paulo metropolitan region, which was R$3054 ($976 USD) (IBGE, 2010) Former Housing Conditions Considering Ocupação Anchieta is a relatively new occupation, the survey included questions about residents’ former housing conditions before they arrived. Findings show

47 Information on Existing Infrastructure in Households.

that 45% of respondents rented houses or apartments, while 16% or less rented a room or were allowed to stay with somebody “by favor.” Conversely, only 13% of respondents reported owning their home or apartment before moving to the Occupation. Therefore, renting houses or apartments was the most common housing situation before arriving in Ocupação Anchieta. During survey data collection, several informal conversations took place and survey respondents explained that they had to move to the Occupation because they no longer could afford rent. Some residents had several months of late rent, while others reported that they were not properly feeding their children because rent was too high. The majority of respondents, about 68%, used to pay R$350 ($112 USD) to R$500 ($160 USD) monthly for their former housing. Considering that more than half of the households earn less than R$1000 ($320

65 USD), the rent for their former living situation became a huge burden. Since residents do not pay to occupy the land, this likely explains why respondents choose to settle in Ocupação Anchieta. The survey also asked residents about the legal status of their former home. As reported, nearly half of the respondents had a verbal rental agreement. Of those surveyed, 21% had no legal documents to prove their rental contract. Furthermore, none of the respondents registered a legal title. Current Housing Situation and Conditions

More than Half of Households include Three or Four Persons Thirty percent of households have three persons living in one home, which is the most common housing scenario. Twenty-seven percent of households have 4 persons in a house, and 11% of residents share a house with more than seven persons.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

About 52% of respondents settled in Ocupação Anchieta within the past three years. The majority, 92% of respondents, came here more than one year ago. These results suggest that more than half of the residents are original dwellers considering Ocupação

Anchieta is only four years old. The housing in the Occupation is precarious. Residents typically use simple and vulnerable materials to build their house, such as plywood, metal, tin and other materials that can be found. Informal conversations during the survey administration reveal stories about residents collecting doors, headboards, and toilets from dumpsters and recycling shops. Residents struggle to acquire new construction materials because of their extremely low-income status.

48 Responses on Most Needed (Popular) Programming for the Occupation.

49 Survey Participants.

50 Children Play with Water.

Majority Families have Less than 3 Bedrooms

toilet located inside their house. However, this is below the metropolitan standard. In the São Paulo Metropolitan Area, only 1.3% of the households do not have an exclusive-use toilet according to the census (IBGE, 2010). Fortyseven percent of households do not have formal access to piped water, while this is true for only 2.3% of households in the metropolitan area (IBGE, 2010). Fifty-two percent of the respondents stated that although they are connected to the municipal water system, and have access to safe and clean water, this connection is “gato,” or illegally borrowed. Ninety-six percent of respondents reported that their connections to electricity are “gato,” meaning illegally connected to the grid. Therefore, residents in Ocupação Anchieta have some basic services, but they are borrowed from the system and do not have guaranteed access to any basic infrastructure.

About 38% of respondents reported they have only one bedroom, while 56% have two or three bedrooms. In other words, 94% of households have three bedrooms or less. In Brazil, three residents per bedroom is considered the threshold of over-crowdedness (Acolin & Green, 2014). The data suggests that most households in Ocupação Anchieta have more than three members and less than three bedrooms. Residents have Basic but Rudimentary Services As an indicator of housing conditions, the Taubman Team chose water supply, access to electricity, private toilet, and trash disposal to evaluate residents’ access to basic services. Only 10% of the respondents do not have a 66

67 RESIDENTS VISIONS

Similar to facilities, the survey also listed several programs for respondents to select their preferences. Again, respondents could choose as many programs as they found to be a priority for the Occupation. Survey respondents also had the option to fill in nonlisted programs. Health and wellness was the most preferred type of programming at 70%, followed by “work and career development” at 69% and “waste management” at 64%. “Risk (flooding) prevention” had the least support at 34%. CIVIC PARTICIPATION Social involvement and community engagement are a crucial aspect of Brazilian culture in informal settlements (Vincent, 2003). The survey results demonstrate that 55% of respondents personally engage in the Association and associated activism efforts. High levels of public engagement suggest that Ocupação Anchieta has a strong sense of community.

51 Civic Participation in Community Center.

52 Children Play in Current Soccer Field.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

In addition to asking about living conditions, the survey asked respondents about their visions for the future of Ocupação Anchieta. The survey listed several types of facilities to consider for the Occupation’s future. Respondents selected as many options as they saw fit or had the ability to add their own. “Playground” was the highest ranked choice (selected 73% of the time). Following playgrounds, respondents selected “football fields” (59%) and “recreational centers” (58%). Other options that respondents selected more than 50% of the time included a “cultural center” and “community center.” Most facility options received greater than a 40% support rate. This demonstrate respondents’ overall desire for more facilities in the Occupation.

DIRECT OBSERVATION

53 (left) Taubman Team Walks Through Occupation Towards Instituto Anchieta Grajaú.

observation around the creek comes from the importance of protecting this water feature, especially as it relates to tenure security. Over the course of the three-day site visit, 110 direct observation checklists were completed. Although we did not observe every house, the direct observation method ensured that most streets within Ocupação Anchieta were covered. Question 17 is open-ended and has been excluded in the analysis.

The direct observation checklist included only measures of physical conditions. Housing and infrastructure indicators from the UN-HABITAT Program and WHO inspired checklist items (UN Habitat, 2004 and WHO, 2017). Students gathered data by filling out a series of checklists approximately every two housing structures near the creek and every six housing structures in the rest of the Occupation. The reason for concentrating direct

The checklists included six questions that addressed the proximity of housing to the creek and stormwater runoff (1 and 8-12). Out of the 110 direct observation checklists collected, the Taubman Team found that the overwhelming majority of houses (91%) have already been relocated out of the creek and springs vegetative area, and only a few foundations remain (Question 1). One-hundred and forty houses surrounded the creek until an NGO,

WATER AND STORMWATER

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Direct observation surveys helped identify current, observable conditions at the Ocupação Anchieta site. Points of interest included litter, sewerage, topography, stormwater and greywater runoff, construction materials and styles, as well as evidence of electricity and other technology. Surveyors supplemented these checklists with written field notes and geo-located phone pic-tures. These surveys were informed by UN Habitat, the World Health Organization, and the 2015 Santa Marta Capstone, also under direction of Professor Ana Paula Pimentel Walker.

The direct observation method allowed Taubman Team students to gather data on housing typologies and materials, prevalence of solid waste and pollution, and types of infrastructure related to sewage, water, and electricity. Students collected data at the parcel level. Although residents had informally delineated lots at the time of occupation, they have never been formalized. Students observed conditions of the housing structures and the lots surrounding it.

54 Students Conduct Direct Observation.

55 Housing Assessment.

called TETO, relocated houses adjacent to the creek from November 2016 and January 2017. Additionally, students looked for areas where flooding may occur (Question 11). It rained the first day on site, which helped the Taubman Team better identify flooding risk and the direction of stormwater runoff. Ninetyfive percent of checklists reported no flooding risk. Slightly less than half (42%) of checklists recorded stormwater as leaving the site and a little over half (58%) reported that stormwater remains within the Occupation. This finding suggests that the creek and surrounding vegetation plays a role in stormwater retention and infiltration. Upon arrival, the Taubman Team discovered that the stormwater information applied to the entire site. Thus, students decided to no longer collect data on questions 8, 9, 10 and 12 after the first day since these questions pertained to the stormwater. Approximately 75% of the Occupation has a rudimentary above-ground stormwater system, including precarious pvc piping and water-carved ditches along this sides of the dirt roads. The Taubman College Team did not use descriptive statistics for analyzing stormwater because questions could be observed for the Occupation as a whole. However, there is no one stormwater infrastructure situation that applies to the entire site. Just as the stormwater systems are informal, so are the ways in which wastewater is managed. Much of the wastewater flowed either into above ground systems or directly into the creek. The evident lack of infrastructure suggests that residents contribute to the pollution of the creek and the surrounding environment.

71 HOUSING Questions 2-5 and 13 addressed housing typologies, conditions, and building materials. Ocupação Anchieta has very similar housing typologies with 94% single level homes (Question 2). The roof typologies observed were mostly flat (46%) or shed roofs (46%) and a few were pitched roofs (16%) (Question 4). About half of the homes are level with the ground (49%) and the other half were built slightly above ground (42%) (Question 5). The Taubman Team found that the majority of homes were constructed precariously with similar materials (Question 3). The overwhelming majority (95%) of houses were constructed, at least in part, with plywood— both those constructed by TETO and existing. Forty-three percent of checklists reported that roofs were made of metal. Other housing materials observed include plastic, tile, and occasionally glass. The similarity in housing materials suggests that residents build their homes from leftover materials that are easy to find

56 Informal Water and Electrical Systems.

The Taubman Team addressed location of utilities including water, sewerage, and electricity (Questions 15-16 and 18-19). Taubman Team students had little prior knowledge about these infrastructure systems, so many of the questions that the Team prepared assumed there would be a variety. However, once we arrived, we saw that 94% of the households observed have access to running water (Question 15) and 86% to electricity (Question 19) by informally connecting to the formal system, otherwise called “gato.”

57 Waste Disposal.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

UTILITIES

58 Aerial View of Ocupação Anchieta.

73 The only utility observation that generated a variety of responses involved sewage disposal (Question 16). Although 41% of checklists reported rudimentary sewage pipes, or no observable pipes at all (37%), the Taubman Team documented a number houses that either had a sewerage or a septic tank (19%). The remaining 12% of checklists showed that sewerage pipes were either in good condition (5%) or broken (7%). In one instance, the Taubman Team documented raw sewage being dumped directly into the creek. TOPOGRAPHY Three other questions on the observation sheet addressed topography and location of garbage throughout the Occupation (Questions 6-7 and 14). The Taubman Team found that 47% of homes are located at the highest elevation and 49% are in between the highest and lowest points in the site. Only 4% of checklists reported homes in the lowest elevation (Question 6). This finding is consistent with TETO’s recent relocation of homes away from the creek.

59 Ocupação Anchieta from Instituto Anchieta Grajaú.

A few checklists dealt with pollution in the Occupation. The largest concentration of solid waste was observed in dumpsters located at the periphery of the Occupation. However, small landfills were visible in 25% of the checklists (Question 7). Additionally, litter was most frequently sighted in roads and streets in 95% of checklists (Question 14).

60 Dumping Site.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

POLLUTION

DRONE AND OBSERVATION BASED MAPPING Mapping is an essential methodology for understanding the current conditions of Ocupação Anchieta. In order to produce an accurate base map of Ocupação Anchieta, the Taubman Team hired a drone to photograph the site. The drone images provide information regarding land-use, road networks, dumping sites, building footprints, and natural features. This information is also critical for providing a targeted action plan to address issues of housing, infrastructure, waste management, culture, and the creek and springs. The Taubman Team was able to develop a basic land-use map of the site. While this map is not yet comprehensive, it provides

61 Drone Equipment.

insight as to how residents have developed Ocupação Anchieta. Taubman Team students noted the location of community spaces such as churches, the existing community center, and the location of a future municipal school. The Team mapped the location of commercial development including restaurants, bars, stores, and hairdressers. However, commercial development was challenging to map because there was often no definitive way to distinguish commercial from residential use, especially from the exterior of the structure. Many more commercial establishments exist in the Occupation; however, it was difficult to identify their location given time constraints. Lastly, the Taubman Team mapped more natural land uses including the area surrounding the creek and small areas of urban agriculture.

Waste was a critical component to map. Students mapped the location of formal, municipally placed dumpsters along the main, paved external roads of the Occupation using iPhone geolocation. The Team identified one main recycling area through direct observation (managed by at least one resident). Through a combination of direct observation and iPhone geolocation, the Taubman Team classified some of the dumping areas around the site as high or low density. This classification, however, was not formal but rather a qualitative judgment regarding the concentration of waste within the Occupation. The Team also notated where housing foundations still remained after the TETO-facilitated demolition and relocation of housing structures around the creek. Lastly, iPhone geolocation allowed for the small areas destroyed by fire to be identified. Lastly, Taubman Team students used drone imagery to map the natural features of the site. This was extremely useful in understanding the extent of the tree canopy and informative for understanding where potential interventions could occur. Taubman College students also used direct observation and water testing to understand the location of the springs and the creek. While the Team struggled to exactly pinpoint the locations of all the springs, direct

observations and interviews provided a decent estimation. Furthermore drone based mapping made the creek flow location clear, however this could vary depending on season and rainfall. In combination with direct observation, the Taubman Team used iPhone geolocation and drone imagery to understand the above conditions. The interviews with our client and partners reveal that density is perceived as a problem for achieving ecosystem recovery at the creek area and environmental protection elsewhere. Residents fear that any upgrading or housing development proposal may require relocation of their homes to make room for roads, infrastructure, and open space. The Association asked the Taubman Team to develop proposals that fit at least 600 houses within the boundaries of Ocupação Anchieta. Thus, it was crucial to develop a more precise map in order to craft the action plan, especially pertaining to waste management, housing, and infrastructure. Hopefully, upon returning to the site, members of the team will be able to confirm and expand upon these maps to make them a more accurate and valid tool for the community and researchers alike.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

The street network and circulation was mapped mostly through drone imagery, direct observation, and informal interviews. The Occupation’s street networks are named using block numbers. The numbering system is not straightforward as some block numbers extend for several blocks and have kinks or turns. This ambiguity made mapping and conversations about block numbers essential. Moreover, the Taubman Team also observed which streets and entrances residents most frequently use.

62 Land Use.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

63 Street Network and Circulation.

64 Waste.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

65 Natural Features.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

WATER AND SOIL TESTING

The Taubman team took water and soil tests in order to identify major pollution areas. The results of these tests showed heavy pollution in the creeks and the soil of Ocupação Anchieta. As a result, the Taubman team recommends that the cleanup of both elements be part of the remediation plan. Although the settlement is connected to the municipal water system, albeit informally, cleanup of the surrounding environment will also allow for a cleaner and more reliable public utilities.

66 (left) Resident Showing Natural Spring Area.

The Taubman College team used water testing as a methodology for data collection in Ocupação Anchieta. These tests better inform the team about the site conditions and confirm the team’s assumptions about environmental quality. Water testing included three stages: water quality testing, flow testing, and evaluation of water accessibility through quantitative and qualitative processes. While water testing was generally successful, the qualitative information obtained through this testing provided the most information for the planning and design processes. The first step in water quality and flow testing was site selection within Ocupação Anchieta. Initially, the team planned to select two sites in the creek: one as close to the source water as possible, and the other at the periphery of the settlement where the creek enters a closed drain.

The team planned to conduct one set of tests before a heavy rainstorm, and one afterwards. Upon arrival, we encountered problems that led us to adapt our original plans. The first problem was that the exact spring locations were unknown. The Taubman Team found one of the locations where spring water starts, but we were not able to collect water directly from this source. Beyond this, students were told different information regarding the number and general locations of all the springs. We suspected there were springs deep upstream in the creek, but the vegetation became too dense to investigate. We were also told there was a spring water source on the south side of the site, but we were unable to find it. Therefore, the team modified the original water testing plan to collect water at four locations of interest: (1) midway through the creek at a crossing area where a small urban farm is located, (2) as

FIELD METHODOLOGY

WATER TESTING METHODS

67 Water Testing.

68 Soil Testing.

far deep into the creek we could access, (3) a gully where water was stagnant near the edge of the Occupation, and (4) right before the creek water flows into a pipe and out of the Occupation. We used empty plastic water bottles to collect water onsite and conducted the rest of the water testing in the hotel later. We used iPhone geolocation to maintain the specific coordinates of these sites.

opacity of the collected water. To evaluate odor, we smelled the top of the bottle and recorded the scent. We then used the First Alert Drinking Water Testing System to test for bacteria, lead, pesticides, nitrates, nitrites, pH, hardness, and chlorine. Everything necessary to complete the testing was available in the kits, which our team purchased off Amazon.com. Moreover, detailed instructions were included with the kit.

Water quality testing began with qualitative assessments of turbidity and odor. To evaluate turbidity, we visually evaluated the color and

Overall, the results of the water tests were informative but not surprising. Most of the water had no distinctive color, but had obvious

85 particles in it, as opposed to being completely clear. Moreover, only the stagnant water at site 3 had a noticeable smell. Every site tested positive for bacteria, which means â&#x20AC;&#x153;it is highly likely that potentially harmful bacteria were detectedâ&#x20AC;? (BRK Brands, Inc., 2005). Given the amount of sewage, runoff, stagnant water, and trash present, this result was expected. We recommend further specific testing to understand how to properly treat the water or improve water quality.

For flow testing, we used methodologies informed by Trimmer (1994). We intended to use the average cross section method, but revised our strategy when we reached the site (Trimmer, 1994). Instead, the Taubman Team considered using the discharge from a pipe method, but then decided this type of testing was not worthwhile as the flow was too variable

69 Water Spring Site.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Each site tested negative for lead (concentration was below 15 ppb) and two different pesticides, atrazine and simazine (concentration below 3 ppb and 4 ppb, accordingly) (BRK Brands, Inc., 2005). Because of the nature of the testing, there could be lead and pesticides present in the water, but not above the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) action levels. We recommend further testing to understand the extent of these particles and nature of the problem. The nitrate and nitrite levels are variable, but not extremely high. This, therefore, does not provide much implication of the source or severity of pollution of the site. No chlorine was found to be present, and the total hardness and pH both increased as the samples moved downstream. While these amounts were not high, they may imply abnormal mineral amounts in the water. We also recommend further testing regarding these.

70 Water Site Near Instituto Anchieta GrajaĂş.

87 depending on the significance of the rain events, and we were unable to access direct spring water (Trimmer, 1994). For the water accessibility estimation, we noted information on how easy (or challenging) it was to access the creek area from the settlement. This helped us to plan accordingly for solutions for the creek and inform future designs. Beyond notating accessibility, team members took pictures to visually capture accessibility around the creek in different areas. Students made qualitative notes about water conditions, such as the trash present in the water, the presence of small fish, and the estimated volume of runoff that flowed into the creek.

72 Soil Testing Kit.

Overall, the water testing methods were most informative for the qualitative aspects of our project, including field notes and photography. Water quality testing confirmed what students suspected, but would need to be conducted more formally to produce actionable data. However, further testing is recommended, especially if the creek is developed as useable natural space.

The Taubman College Team also conducted soil testing to gain a deeper understanding of the environment. Like water testing findings, the results are not completely accurate, but, given the correct use of the methodologies, provide information about the general type of soil and implications about pollutants in the soil. We hope these results can inform our design and planning recommendations for the area around the creek. The first test used to collect data on the soil in OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta was an evaluation of the 71 (left) Household Water Drains Into Streets.

73 Former Housing Sites Leave Housing Debris and Open Sewage Where Children Play.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

SOIL METHODS

We started this test by site selection within the Occupation. We tested four sites focused around the creek â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (1) urban farm, (2) top of the creek near street 17, (3) bottom of the creek near road 15, and the pump site. We used iPhone geolocation to maintain the specific coordinates of these sites. After site selection, three major steps evaluate texture. For step one, we rolled the soil into a golf sized ball, squeezing the ball to see if the soil would stay together (Ritchey, McGrath, & Gehring, 1979). Next, the ball was pressed flat to form a cohesive ribbon (Ritchey, McGrath & Gehring, 1979). The last step involved adding water to create a small puddle of mud and evaluating the grit feel of the soil (Ritchey, McGrath & Gehring, 1979). The ability and results of each test helps to identify the type of soil. The results of the soil type evaluation revealed that there are a variety of different soil types in the creek area of the site, primarily silt and sand. At the top of the creek the soil was found to be silty-clay, at the spring source the soil was found to be sand, at the farm site the soil was found to be silt, and at the bottom of the creek the soil was found to be sand again. Sandy soil has a coarser texture with a larger particle size, implying that there will be fewer

74 (left) Trash Accumulates in Water Disposal.

nutrients and less water retention (Ritchey, McGrath & Gehring, 1979; Growth as Nature Intended, 2011). Clay is the opposite; it has a finer texture with a smaller particle size, a greater number of nutrients, and is better at water retention (Ritchey, McGrath & Gehring, 1979; Growth as Nature Intended, 2011). Silt soil is a moderate particle size and is the middle ground between sand and clay regarding water retention and nutrients (Ritchey, McGrath & Gehring, 1979; Growth as Nature Intended, 2011). This test can reveal what plants might be suggested in our designs moving forward. We then used the Rapitest Soil Test Kit to test for pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potash. We tested soil in the same locations as the soil type evaluation. Everything necessary to complete the testing was available in the kits, which the team purchased off Amazon.com. Moreover, detailed instructions were included with the kit. The results of the soil test indicate that the soil conditions are generally the same in the locations. The top of the creek site is a bit of an outlier, however, with more acidic soil and deficient phosphorus. One challenge was that not all the results were conclusive, makings comparisons and consistencies challenging. Overall, the soil testing confirmed our suspicions about the type of soil and potential pollution, but like the water testing, lacked detail to be conclusively informative. Conducting the soil type evaluation gives the Taubman Team a better basis for potential design and plans for the creek area moving forward.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

soil type on the site â&#x20AC;&#x201C; particularly relating to the creek area. The soil-type evaluation test that we used was from Ritchey, McGrath, & Gehring (1979), which determines up to twelve different varieties of soil. This includes specifics from the broader categories of sandy, loam, and clay.

COMMUNITY MEETING

On the last day in Ocupação Anchieta, Sunday, March 5, Taubman Team students held a two-hour community meeting attended by over 200 residents. The meeting took place at the Ocupação Anchieta Association headquarters from 9:30 am to 11:30 am. At the meeting, students presented the information gathered from the field on February 27 and March 1 and asked community members to provide feedback on the analysis of the Occupation’s existing conditions. IAG requested changes to the original meeting plans, including no longer administering the residential survey with community members, conducting certain interactive activities, and refraining from showing design prototypes to the community to avoid false hope and confusion. These changes greatly limited the ability of Taubman College Team to receive feedback and prioritize in next planning stages. 75 (left) Community Meeting.

The community meeting was divided into five themes: waste management, housing, infrastructure, the springs and creek, and cultural center. Groups of four to five students from Taubman College Team had developed each topic and designed interactive activities, project visions (including architectural prototypes), and maps to communicate ideas and receive feedback from residents.The community meeting included a large feedback session on maps created by each priority area group, followed by feedback in more conversational form in smaller groups facilitated by translators. The large assembly included several rounds of speakers from the Association, Taubman College Team, IAG, and Leuven. Presenters expressed frustration with the current political situation surrounding occupations, as well as hope for a better future. Following the meeting introduction, students had the opportunity to present their

maps to the community. Our professor, Ana Paula Pimentel Walker facilitated a large group discussion between each priority area group and the residents. Students would tell her what question to translate to the community members and then a translator standing next to the student would translate what the residents’ response was for students to take notes. The five priority area groups presented one map each. Students used these maps to collect information from community members, who indicated their preferences via clapping and by raising comments and concerns voluntarily, that were translated to them by one of the three translators with the team. After the large assembly, the students in each priority area group created stations around tables showcasing their maps to community members. The format was more of a conversationalstyle workshop that allowed for one-on-one conversations

FIELD METHODOLOGY

93 with community members who volunteered to participate. Translators assisted in this activity, making conversations possible. Community members were also welcome to draw directly on the maps to better indicate where they experience problems or find solutions. After the community meeting, Taubman College Team joined the OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta Association coordinators for lunch at a restaurant nearby. This lunch was an opportunity to continue conversations about future plans and also to showcase prototypes and other visions. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

77 Mapping Exercise at Community Meeting

Overall, conversations and activities revealed much information about the following five priority area themes: waste management, housing, infrastructure, creeks and springs, and cultural and social spaces. Furthermore, residents also discussed recycling and outdoor lighting. However, there were some missed opportunities to gain feedback.

76 (left) Mapping Exercise at Community Meeting.

78 Students Mapping Trash Sites

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Many maps were not intended to be used for interactive activities and lacked the orientation tools necessary to receive feedback from many residents. Useful orientation tools could have included photos of well-known landmarks on the map to help residents position their locations. Without these tools, it was difficult for the students and residents to identify where in the community certain problems do or do not occur. The amount of community members in attendance also greatly outnumbered the students and translators that were available. The language barrier between the students and residents, and only having four translators made it difficult to receive feedback from all the residents that were willing to engage.

79 (left) Students and Community Members Help Locate Existing Streets.

EXPERT INTERVIEWS SUMMARY

80 (left) Sol Camacho Addresses Taubman College and Escola da Cidade Students in a Working Session at PIPA, Paraisópolis.

Throughout the workshop students had the opportunity to attend lectures and engage in conversations with local experts from the following areas: housing policy, zoning laws, environmental protection, and culture and community organizing. The group of experts encompassed a variety of backgrounds and perspectives, including urban planners, architects, NGO directors, community organizers, developers, and scholars. Our interactions consisted of tailored lectures to Taubman Team’s interests. Students raised questions regarding the real estate market, building construction costs, housing policy, and municipal and private infrastructure related to solid waste management and sewage. Every lecture

followed a question-andanswer session. Some of the questions were unprompted and reflected the information just received in the lectures, while others were based on an interview guide developed by the team of Taubman students before they left Ann Arbor, Michigan. Students also created this interview guide through prior research on what topics the Team wanted to learn more about to gain a better understanding of the context in São Paulo – and how Ocupação Anchieta fits within that context. Students from both universities and disciplines were paired together and challenged to find unique ways to creatively represent an informal settlement through mapping. The workshop was possible because of the contacts of professors Pimentel Walker and Arquero de Alarcón in collaboration with Sol Camacho at RADDAR and the urbanism professor at Escola da Cidade Daniel Montandon.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

In addition to understanding the history of Ocupação Anchieta, and the residents’ way of life, it was important for the Taubman College Team to understand how the Occupation fits within the larger legal, political, and socio-economic context of São Paulo. During the latter half of the field visit (March 2-4 and March 6-9), Taubman Team had the opportunity to partner with the architecture firm, RADDAR, and Escola da Cidade, an architecture and urban planning (urbanism) college in São Paulo, Brazil, to participate in a workshop on community strategies for informal settlements.

The workshop specifically focused on the urbanization of informal settlements and explored themes of cultural identity and urban development.

HOUSING During the workshop, Taubman College Team students heard from housing experts in the City of São Paulo, Brazil. The first speaker related to housing was Mário Reali. From 2009-2012 he served as mayor for the city of Diadema, which is located in the São Paulo Metropolitan Area. He is currently a public servant for the City of São Paulo and serves as a mentor and champion of the new housing plan. He explained the history of municipal and federal housing policies in Brazil. First, he discussed the 1988 Federal Constitution. This Constitution introduced multiple changes, such as conceptualizing social function of urban land and introducing the right to a healthy environment. As a result, the City Statute, a federal law passed in 2001, served as the enabling legislation to implement the urban planning tools relevant to social housing.

natural population growth and new household formation is estimated at 27 million units, including the need to urbanize thousands of favelas where 15 million people live. In Brazil, 85% of the deficit is in cities and 85-90% of it is related to families with an income equal to or less than three minimum wages (the minimum wage was R$510 [$275 USD] in 2011). Given the reality of informal settlements, the government commenced Programa de Alceleração do Crescimento (Growth Acceleration Program) (PAC) in 2007. PAC has a slum-upgrading scheme for Brazil and the São Paulo Metropolitan Area to improve public and private investments in large-scale infrastructure projects. Municipalities or states are direct users of the funds, which they use to apply for work procurement and project execution, usually through bidding processes.

The National Housing Plan, or PlanHab, projected that there would be a demand of 35 million housing units between 2008 and 2023. The future demand generated by

As a response to the housing deficit and inequity, Brazil established a new social housing program, “My House, My Life.” This programed aims to create jobs in the construction sector in an effort to combat the 2008 global financial crisis. It also increases the housing stock for

81 Fernando Botton.

82 Pep Pons.

97 the most impoverished, who earn between 0-3 minimal wages and working classes who earn between 3-6 minimal wages (Reali, 2017). Reali described a 16 year-long plan, which will reduce social rental vouchers and replace it with temporary housing. Ocupação Anchieta is a potential site for temporary housing. Instituto Anchieta Grajaú envisions using the property as a career development, permaculture, and educational hub for communal living on a temporary basis.

In São Paulo, 30% of the population lives in favelas that constitute 9% of the land (Leite, 2017). In an attempt to upgrade informal settlements, different organizations collaborate in diverse experimental projects for new housing design. These projects mainly focus on improving the quality of space and density in the favela. The Municipality of São Paulo started an upgrading program in 2005, which foresees exemplary project implementations by international renowned architecture firms that introduce new strategies for informal cities (Pons, 2017). Persons who suffer from tenure insecurity and fear of eviction, like residents in Ocupação Anchieta, participate in Atividades em Paraisópolis (Activities in Paraisópolis) and other social movements. They try to map the legal cases of eviction and pressure the government for better affordable housing in the city (Rolnik, 2017).

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Elizabete França holds a master degree from Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo (Architecture and Urbanism College, University of São Paulo) and Machenzie Presbiterian University, with more than 25 years of experience in urban, environmental, housing, and participatory projects. The program is considered a milestone in introducing social housing as an issue of national importance for governmental policy and action. The municipality received $300 million USD from the Inter-American Development Bank for the upgrading efforts, and 50,000 housing units were constructed

under this program in São Paulo from the late 2000s to early 2010 (França, 2017).

83 Elizabete França.

84 Monica Mation.

85 Thiago Vinicius.

COMMUNITY Regarding community organizing in São Paulo’s informal settlements, the Taubman College Team met with community leaders from informal settlements. Thiago Vinicious, a community organizer, talked to the Taubman Team about current trends in grassroots organizing in the city’s periphery. Milton Braga, an architect talked about integrating informal settlement residents into the design process.

Vinicius lives in a neighboring favela south of Paraisópolis, called Campo Limpo. He is driven by activism to make a difference in his community, working to change the negative connotations that are often associated with favelas and to celebrate their culture and identity, which is commonly marginalized.

The speaker shared some of his strategies in community organizing. He believes that in any community the youth should not be forgotten, but communities should also embrace the elderly. He recognizes that the elderly put their homes together, take care of their grandchildren, and can be very influential. Communities need to provide more services to the elderly and appreciate their presence more. He also makes the point that in community organizing they are key allies in dialoguing with the government. The elderly are much more available and willing to speak their mind to tell the government what is wrong and what they need. Additionally, the government seems to react less harshly toward the elderly compared to younger generations (Vinicius, 2017).

99 Once people come to informal settlements they struggle to find education for their children. Vinicius mentions how proud he is of his mother, who was very engaged in community organizing. Through her efforts of engagement in the community, she was able to build a school and provide education. He believes that you do not need actual buildings â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is the people occupying the buildings bring about the education. This education is not formalized, but rather serves as a form of liberation from the political economic system that represses many Brazilians. Paulo Freire wrote the book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, and was an educator who worked a lot with low-income communities. He is an inspirational figure in Viniciusâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life and sees Freire as a model of education for liberation from oppression (Vinicius, 2017).

86 Milton Braga.

A large aspect of the favela culture is baile funk. It is a controversial dance and music scene that occurs in favelas across the country. The movement is a contemporary protest against militant policing of black people. Peaceful protests in the name of baile funk have occurred, including silent sit-ins at city malls (Vinicius, 2017). Favelas incorporate unique ways to include the environment as well such as utilizing recyclables for art within the community (Milton Braga, 2017).

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Liberation theology is related to life in the favela, the stigma of residing in one, and social movements. Social movement groups in favelas offer support for residents that is not guaranteed from the government (Vinicius, 2017). Liberation theology began as a religious movement in the late 20th-century â&#x20AC;&#x201C; centered in Latin America. Then, it aimed to apply religious faith through aiding those who are poor and oppressed in society through participation in political and civic affairs (BBC, 2011).

The speaker talked about his generations’ challenges and possibilities to build community in informal settlements. Possibilities include a solidary economy, internet, and community resources for residents. Providing multifunctional space that offers areas for residents to gather for social and cultural activities is also important. Incorporating themes of social, environment, culture, and everyday necessities into an area are ways for residents to use the space and care for their environment simultaneously. These themes span across favelas around Brazil and help negate the negative connotations that are often associated with them. ZONING Taubman College team had the opportunity to learn about a very peculiar type of zoning in Brazil that targets social and informal housing. The team heard from the expert Daniel Montandon on Brazil’s and São Paulo’s zoning regulations. Since the 1960s, urban growth in São Paulo has furthered the

87 Mario Reali.

100

division and marginalization of the population. In response, urban reform has played a major role in the recent evolution of the national agenda. In 1988, urban reform took shape in the Federal Constitution, which incorporated a provision regarding the function of property and land use in an effort to reduce segregation in many of Brazil’s cities (Reali, 2017). As early as the 1980s, municipalities have considered using zoning as a tool to reduce segregation, specifically through Special Zones of Social Interest (ZEIS). In the 1990s, some cities began incorporating ZEIS zones into their zoning ordinances. In 2001, ZEIS appeared in the City Statute (Federal Law 10,257). One year later São Paulo introduced ZEIS into the Master Plan (Municipal Law 13,430/02). It was later revised in the 2014 Master Plan and then improved in the Zoning Law in 2016 (Montandon 2017). Although these legal documents addresses social injustices, social movements continue to fight to make urban reform more accessible (Reali, 2017). Within ZEIS zones, land use is categorized two different ways depending on occupancy. In occupied areas, ZEIS zones guarantee tenure for residents in irregular (informal) settlements until slum upgrading or an urbanization plan is created. In vacant areas, ZEIS zones are reserved for social housing. There are five different types of ZEIS zones. ZEIS 1 is used to regulate occupied areas and ZEIS 2 through 5 regulates vacant land. Ocupação Anchieta is located in a ZEIS 4, meaning it falls under the vacant land category and is situated in areas of protected water sources. More specifically, the 2014 Strategic Master Plan designated the region that includes Ocupação Anchieta as an Urban Vulnerability Reduction and Environmental Recovery Area (Montandon, 2017).

101 ENVIRONMENT

88 Pedro Jacobi.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Sรฃo Paulo faces a conflict of urbanization and the environment. Topography, politics, and a lack of information are a few of the barriers that the city faces in addressing water, sewerage, and waste concerns. Landowners are responsible for connecting to the sewage, water, and electricity infrastructure that currently exists, even in occupations. Informal settlements in environmentally protected areas require permits to build proper infrastructure. Further, urban upgrading in informal settlements is an expensive government task that is informed by official government statistics (Franรงa, 2017). Elisabete Franรงa warns that these statistics do not include informal settlements and should be viewed with skepticism. In this context, self-empowerment strategies may be the most immediate solution to waste management problems for informal settlements (Jacobi, 2017). Private firms, such as MMBB, also provide urban upgrading solutions to informal settlements (Braga, 2017).

SUMMARY

KEYWORDS: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) • Design • Infrastructure • Mapping • Water and Soil Testing • Community Engagement • Stormwater • Sewage •

89 (left) Kids Playing Soccer in the Streets.

In sum, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a method that builds off of RA and is used in informal areas to incorporate participation in collecting data and gathering community input. These rapid appraisals emphasize sourcing local knowledge and enabling people to make their own decisions. The PRA approach encourages stakeholders to work together, transfer knowledge, and come to a consensus. It motivates residents to collaborate and learn-by-doing through transparent procedures. This was an effective method for the Ocupação Anchieta field visit to ensure that residents were active and participating throughout the planning and design process (BinswangerMkhize, 2010). To analyze the data, the Taubman Team triangulated the results and found five major categories of findings. First, the creek and springs is the most polluted and environmentally threatened area of the Occupation. Wastewater and

stormwater runoff threaten the water and soil quality of this area. Secondly, infrastructure is lacking, or precarious where it exists. Upgrading sewerage will help improve the Occupation’s environmental impact, especially as it relates to the dwellers’ tenure security. Third, housing is built by residents and made of many types of reused materials. Living conditions, however, could be improved. Fourth, the findings show that there is a strong sense of community in Ocupação Anchieta. Residents seem to have a high interest in adding certain facilities and programs to the Occupation. Lastly, the lack of an efficient waste management system is evident through the pollution in the Occupation and will help guarantee tenure security. It will also improve the environment as well as the community’s health and wellbeing. These findings inform the Ocupação Anchieta Advança! Plan.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

103

SOURCES Acolin, A., & Green, R. K. (2014). Measuring housing adequacy in São Paulo metropolitan region. (Working Paper 9387). USC Lusk Center for Real Estate: Los Angeles.

Brazil, São Paulo. Growth as Nature Intended. (2011). 5 Different Soil Types—Know Your Soil Type. Retrieved March 25, 2017, from http://agverra.com/ blog/soil-types

B. (2011, July 18). BBC - Religions - Christianity: Liberation theology. Retrieved April 26, 2017,from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/ beliefs/liberationtheology.shtml

IBGE. (2010). Instituto Brasilrio de Geografia e Estatística, Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http:// www.ibge.gov.br/home/

Binswanger-Mkhize , H. P., De Regt, J. P., & Spector, S. (2010). Local and Community Driven Development: Moving to Scale in Theory and Practice. New Frontiers of Social Policy - The World Bank, 1-276. Retrieved from http://documents. worldbank.org/curated/en/128661468343731149/ pdf/533000PUB0comm1B1Official0Use0Only1.pdf Braga, M. (2017, March 6). Socio-Environmental integration and urban qualification:The project along the Antonico River. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo. BRK Brands, Inc. (2005). First Alert Drinking Water Test Kit. Forte, A. (2016, December 30). Brazil’s Government Raises 2017 Monthly Minimum Wage to R$937 | The Rio Times | Brazil News. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http://riotimesonline.com/brazilnews/rio-business/brazils-government-raises-2017monthly-minimum-wage-to-r937/ França, E. (2017, March 6). Housing. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in

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Jacobi, P. (2017, March 3). Scientific Management Division, Science and Environmental Technology. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo. Leite, C. (2017, March 2). São Paulo: Urbanism. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo. Libby, P., Ridker, P. M., & Hansson, G. K. (2011). Progress and challenges in translating the biology of atherosclerosis. Nature, 473(7347), 317-325. Pons, P. (2017, March 7). Housing. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo. Monitoring sanitation. (2017). World Health Organization (WHO), 1-2. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/ monitoring/coverage/monitoring- sanitation/en/ Montandon, D. T. (2017, March 2). Legal Framework and instruments for urban planning: ZEIS and associated tools. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo.

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Reali, M. (2017, March 2). Plano Municipal de Habitação. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo. Ritchey, E. L., McGrath, J. M., & Gehring, D. (2015). Determining Soil Texture by Feel. Schiefelbein, E. (1995). The Major Project of Education in Latin America and the Caribbean. Santiago, Chile: Unesco. T. (2015). Together we can make Santa Marta home. University of Michigan Taubman College. Retrieved from https://taubmancollege. umich.edu/sites/default/files/files/mup/capstones/ SantaMartaReport_English_Web.pdf Taylor, S. J., Bogdan, R., & DeVault, M. (2015). Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource. John Wiley & Sons. The World Bank. (2006, September 21). Kenya - Inside informality: poverty, jobs, housing and services in Nairobi’s slums. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/2006/05/7066075/kenya-inside-informalitypoverty-jobs-housing-services-nairobis-slums rimmer, W. L. (1994). Estimating water flow rates. [Corvallis, Or.]: Oregon State University, Extension Service. UNESCO, (2017). Education in Brazil. Retrieved

April 25, 2017, from Education_in_Brazil.htm

http://www.unesco.vg/

Urban Indicators Guidelines Monitoring the Habitat Agenda and the Millennium Development Goals. (2004). United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 1-68. Retrieved from h t t p s : / / unhabitat.org/urban-indicators-guidelinesmonitoring-the-habitat-agenda-and-the millennium-development-goals/ Vincent, J. S. (2003). Culture and customs of Brazil. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Vondal, P. (2010). Using rapid appraisal methods. Performance monitoring and evaluation TIPS. Washington, DC: USAID. Vinicius, T. (2017, March 3). Experiences on Solidary Economy. Lecture presented at [Workshop] inForma Paraisópolis: Strategies to Strengthen with the Community in Brazil, São Paulo.

FIELD METHODOLOGY

Ribeiro, R. (2017, March 7). Program Educational Cities. Lecture presented at Program Educational Cities in Brazil, São Paulo.

04 CREEK REVIVAL The creek and springs, located in the center of Ocupação Anchieta, are the major natural features of the site. Deforestation and pollution from household waste are two major problems in this area. Therefore, the Taubman Team proposes a two-stage plan. The first stage involves the establishment of a buffer zone in the creek catchment area. Within and beyond the buffer zone, constructed wetlands should be built to filter and absorb pollutants from runoff. Reforesting the area with local species will also help improve the site’s water quality. Additionally, a Creek Revival Steering and Management Committee should be formed as the entity responsible for implementation. In the second stage, once the environment has recovered, the Taubman Team proposes further strategies to enhance human-nature interaction around the creek. These strategies include a buffer strip adjustment, riparian walk system with pocket parks, and a water-enjoyment area. These components will use creative designs to attract residents to this area, enhancing quality of life for residents while protecting the environment simultaneously.

108

90 (previous page) Aerial Image of the Creek from Drone. 91-96 Images from the Creek Taken During the Site Visit.

109

2009

97-98 Site in the Larger Context of the Two Main Adjacent Water Reservoirs: Guarapiranga and Billings.

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Ocupacao Anchieta Property Area Surrounding Community Vegetation Coverage Environmental Protection Area Electricity Wire Area

Deforestation and pollution from household waste are two major environmental problems in this area. Contaminants usually flow into the creek through surface water runoff. If the problems are not to be mitigated, local residents are likely to be evicted from the community. Thus there is a great need to reduce these relevant problems around the creek.

99 (left) Site with Adjacent Neighborhoods.

The creek runs from southwest to northeast through the center of Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation). About 25 meters (82 feet) of dense local vegetation surrounds the creek area. This green space contains three springs, which are referred to by the residents as minas (springs). The presence of these springs forms a valley, the lowest point being the creek, which characterizes the varied topography in the Occupation. Pollution from household waste and deforestation from the construction of homes negatively impact the creek and springs areas. Inadequate waste disposal contaminates the soil and groundwater. During heavy rains, stormwater catches these pollutants and carries them downhill into the creek, further impacting water quality. Over the past 4 years, the vegetation coverage of this area has significantly decreased, which also hinders this area’s ability to filter out and recover from pollution.

The environmental degradation of the creek and springs area is a critical problem, both in terms of environmental stewardship and in terms of housing security. Current Ocupação Anchieta residents may be evicted from the site because of the settlement’s negative impact on the environment. If residents do not succeed in mitigating this pollution, their tenure security will become even more fragile. The Taubman College Team plans to work with the Occupation to restore the creek and springs area, and to ultimately help residents improve tenure security. Project goals include: reducing the existing pollution in and around the creek area; protecting the natural environment in the future; and facilitating proper human interactions with the area. Although human and nature interactions fulfill a significant educational and leisure need, these interactions must prioritize

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PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND RELEVANCE

111

113 the conservation and restoration of natural resources. To solve potential conflicts between “protection” and “human interactions” needs requires time and careful planning. For instance, in the springs, the environment is still very vulnerable due to uncontrolled pollution and deforestation. Thus, it is risky to allow people into the area until the environment has been restored and an environmental education program has been implemented. Creek revitalization must precede the planning for recreational activities. If the springs open to the public too soon, even with restrictions, environmental recovery may be compromised. For instance, due to the pollution and deforestation, soil quality has changed substantially and may not be suitable for even tiny constructions (recreational purposes such as paths, benches, parks, etc.).

Storm Water Collecting Rainwater Runoff 101 Stormwater Running Down to the Creek

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The Taubman Team proposes both short term and long term plans for the site. In the short term, we suggest limiting human activities in the area, giving the springs recovery time from pollution and deforestation. In the long term, after some recovery, the plan offers

Creek and Springs Dissipation

Deforestation Area Existing Houses Creek and Springs 100 (left) Aerial Image of the Creek from Drone.

102 Deforestation and Existing Houses.

EVOLUTION OF THE SITE SINCE 2011

2011

2012 104 Aerial Images from Google Earth Pro.

114

2013

115

2015

2016

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2014

LITERATURE REVIEW Many of the major problems humans face in the 21st relate to water crises (UNESCO, 2009). Water crises directly impact more than a third of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population in terms of public health. People may develop health problems due to low water quality through food chains or recreations (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). In developing countries, such as China, wastewaters are still untreated or not treated effectively to remove micro-pollutants. Water pollution remains an enormous problem in industrialized countries, too. For example, triazines or chloroacetanilides are frequently detected in U.S. rivers (Tilman et al., 2001). A Gallup poll taken in 2009 indicated that water pollution is one the most concerning environmental issues in the US (Gallup, 2009) as 100,000 chemicals have been detected in polluted water (Schwarzman and Wilson, 2009). The presence of arsenic in groundwater is also a global concern. In Bangladesh alone, arsenic-contaminated groundwater affects between 35 and 75 million people (Chen et al., 2009); in West Bengal, India, around 6 million people are at risk for arsenic poisoning (Haque et al., 2003). Other regions of concern include the highly populated river deltas in Cambodia and Vietnam (Berg et al., 2007). Arsenic pollution also affects developed countries, such as United States and Eastern Europe (Jamison, 2006). Groundwater contamination is often related to municipal solid waste landfills, hazardous waste sites, and accidental spills. Some 116

typical approaches to mitigate groundwater contamination include permeable reactive barriers and phytoremediation. However, many remediation approaches are either too expensive to implement or too inefficient because the treatment requires years or even decades (Henderson and Demond, 2007). Apart from chemical pollution, viruses and microbial pathogens also pose public health concerns. On a global scale, the restricted access to safe water and improved sanitation causes 1.6 million deaths per year (World Health Organization, 2009). More than 99% of these deaths occur in the developing world. Nine out of ten incidents affect children, and 50% of childhood deaths happen in sub-Saharan Africa (World Health Organization, 2006). According to the World Health Organization, waterborne diseases top the lists of infectious disease outbreaks in 132 countries (from 1998 to 2001). Waterborne pathogens spread primarily via feces-contaminated water, suggesting that a clear separation between wastewater and drinking water systems is crucial (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). Centralized drinking water production and distribution systems are economically favorable and used in industrialized countries, while household-level solutions are more suitable for low-income countries (Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). Rapid urbanization and the everincreasing poverty in cities exacerbate the problems of water contamination (Earthscan,

CASE STUDY: Suzhou Creek Rehabilitation Project, Shanghai, China

117

Before 1980s in old Shanghai, people occupied vast slum ar, one of which is the Suzhou Creek slum. At the time, the Suzhou Creek was a cesspool of human and animal waste, factory sludge, as well as boat pollution. The water became so polluted that all water life ceased to exist by the 1960s. The Shanghai municipal government didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t intervene to assist with rehabilitation until the 1990s. With help from the Asian Development Bank, the government cleared the creek of barges and factories and built sewage treatment facilities. This creek restoration effort was so successful that eventually duckweed and freshwater fish returned to the waters (Grescoe, 2016).

103 (right) Suzhou Creek Slum.

Most developing countries have very few wastewater treatment facilities (Kivaisi, 2001) due to the high costs of equipment and technologies. Often, effective environmental pollution control policies are absent or not enforced (Kivaisi, 2001). Some cities and regions have spared no efforts to explore solutions for water issues, especially in informal settlements. The case

of Suzhou creek slum in Shanghai reveals the importance of a joint effort between government and society. Organizations like United Nations and the Asian Development Bank play a critical role in this effort by provide funding and technology guidance (Grescoe, 2016). Communities also use wetlands to relieve water contamination. Watson et al. (1989) and Kadlec and Knight (1996) discuss the advantages of wetland technology for wastewater treatment, arguing that compared to conventional treatment systems, wetland technology is cheaper, more easily operated and more efficient to maintain (Kivaisi, A. K., 2001). Especially for developing countries, wetlands are low cost and low technology systems that are potential alternatives or even supplementary systems for wastewater treatment. Bioswales or biofilters are the most commonly used wetland approach.

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2001). According to a report from the UN, over one thousand million people live without adequate shelter and access to basic services, such as clean running water (Earthscan, 2001). The deterioration of water resources intensifies the adverse situation for the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban poor (Kivaisi, 2001). Liquid wastes, such as untreated sewage or industrial sewage, are the major pollutant sources in developing countries (Kivaisi, 2001).

119

RECOMMENDATIONS

105 (left) Image from the Site.

The Taubman Team envisions short term and long term plans. The shortterm plan prioritizes pollution reduction and environmental protection. Strategies include: creating a forested riparian buffer, constructing wetlands, reforestation efforts, environmental education programming, and the establishment of a Creek Revival Steering and Managing committee. The long-term plan prioritizes environmental protection

and human interaction with the site. The Taubman Team proposes landscape designs to enhance human interactions with nature, including a riparian sidewalk system with pocket parks. TIMELINE Once implemented, forested buffers require 5-10 years to successfully improve the environment (Klapproth and Johnson, 2001). The Taubman Team suggests a five-year recovery period during stage one as the springs site is relatively small and the local climate permits quick vegetation growth. Water quality needs to improve before moving to stage two (Osborne and Kovacic, 1993). Success in stage one depends on the Ocupação Anchieta Association (the Association) coordinators’ and residents’ continuous commitment to revitalize the creek. If the environmental problems with waste management and deforestation persist, the riparian area should not open to the public as a recreational area.

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Our recommendations are composed of two phases: a shortterm plan within five years, and a long-term plan afterwards. The short-term plan aims to protect the natural environment from negative human impacts, while the long-term’s goal is to enhance positive human interactions with the nature.

A traditional way to cope with water pollution involves three components: prevention, treatment, and management (Pollution Prevention (P2), 2017). These components work to prevent pollution from the very beginning, addressing pollution with technical skills and management skills. The Taubman Team and the clientpartner believe that the Creek Revival plan should fulfill three goals: reduce pollution, protect the environment, and improve human interactions with nature. Based on these goals, we developed the recommendations below.

Bridge Path Existing Vegetation Creek Spring Existing Vegetation Reforestation Vegetation Constructed Wetland Vegetation

120 0

SHORT-TERM INTERVENTION PHASE ONE

The short-term intervention is a five-year period that helps the riparian area recover from the previous deforestation and pollution. In this period, human activities are basically prohibited. This intervention includes a buffer zone, constructed wetland, reforestation, and environmental management.

Actions on Phase One Buffers Biofilter Reforestation Self-organized Committee

106 (left) llustration Phase One Site Map.

The first step for this project is to establish buffer zones around the creek to limit human activities in the springs. In the short run, the plan suggests a buffer with a distance of 30 meters (98 feet) from the creek to establish an area of undisturbed forest. The short-term buffer zone requirements are strict and prohibit human and construction activities, except for paths connecting each side of the forest (see figure 25). Beyond the 30-meter line, normal activities are permitted. The proposed buffer will effectively trap sediments, stabilize streambanks, moderate water temperature, and allow for woody debris contribution as a form of natural input into the soil (Sweeney, 2014). For example, in Iowa, researchers found that it only took four growing seasons for the buffer to reduce 8090% of sediments and 90% of nitrates from runoffs (Schultz, 1995). Even in areas with

high organic matter soils, it took only five to ten years for the land and water quality to recover (Lowrance et al., 1997). After the short-term recovery period, the long-term plan suggests altering the buffer width to accommodate human interactions with the creek area. In the long-term vision, two strips of buffer zones will coexist (see figure 26). The first strip (Zone 1) is within 10 to 15 meters from the creek, where human activities are generally prohibited except for a designated by-water recreational spot is within a distance of 10 to 15 meters to 30 meters, where light human and construction activities could be permitted, such as bridges, trails, pocket parks, etc (see long-run part for details). Beyond the 30-meter line, daily human activities are permitted. The buffer zone will protect the natural resources and scenery from negative human impact by restricting

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BUFFER ZONE

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107 Phase One Actions.

CASE STUDY: Scenic Creek Valley Buffer Ordinance in London County, Virginia, US. In the 1991, London County, Virginia, created scenic creek valley overlay districts to protect scenic nature and water quality. These special zoning districts create 300-foot buffers around the banks of all streams in the county. The goals of these buffers are to: 1) to promote water quality and preserve significant environment, wildlife habitats, and local vegetation; 2) to protect the natural capacity of vegetative areas along rivers and creeks that filter stormwater runoffs; 3) to preserve riparian trees, and prevent the area from solar radiation warming effects to protect aquatic environments; 4) to maintain the scenic beauty of the streams (Forest & Riparian Buffer Conservation Case Studies, 1996).

108 (right) Scenic Creek Map in London County, VA, USA

122

123 use and activity. As environmental conditions improve, buffers can become more flexible to allow residents into the area to enjoy the scenery. CONSTRUCTED WETLAND

110 Two Buffer Strips in the Long Run.

The constructed wetland has several benefits that can be compared to a conventional treatment system (see figure 28). Constructed wetlands are a robust and reliable technology, easy to maintain and operate, financially sustainable, and environmentally sound (Constructed Wetland in Vidrare, Bulgaria, 2011). Wastewaters flow through the wetlands, filtering suspended solids and trace metals. Plants and organic material also provide many benefits, such as absorbing trace metals, providing food and nutrients to organisms, and producing oxygen. This complex biochemical process filters and purifies the wastewater (Constructed Wetland Factsheet, n.d.). Referring to similar cases (Constructed Wetland in Vidrare, Bulgaria, 2011) and landscape engineering requirements

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109 Phase One Buffer.

The constructed wetland is another important strategy to prevent further pollution in the creek area. Constructed wetlands are â&#x20AC;&#x153;engineered systems, designed to utilize the natural functions of wetland vegetation, soils, and their microbial populations to treat contaminants in surface water, groundwater or waste streamsâ&#x20AC;? (Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document for Constructed Wetlands, 2003) The Taubman Team proposes constructed wetlands surrounding the periphery of the creek as the first line of protection, which can filter and absorb the pollutants from the runoff water that reaches the creek.

CASE STUDY: Constructed wetland, Vidrare, Bulgaria In 2007, a center for people with disabilities in Vidrare, Bulgaria, wanted to build a treatment plant for the domestic wastewater. They decided to build a constructed wetland for wastewater treatment on the centerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s property, recognizing the great advantages of this efficient low-tech strategy. The construction began in October 2010 and was finished in April 2011. An appointed staff member is responsible for the maintenance of the constructed wetland. The total cost for the project was â&#x201A;Ź45,000; however, the center took into consideration both, the initial investment and the longterm benefits, when deciding to implement this project. Long-term benefits include the constructed wetlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness and efficiency to deal with wastewater issues (Constructed Wetland in Vidrare, Bulgaria, 2011). 111 Constructed Wetland in Vidrare, Bulgaria.

112 Benefits of Constructed Wetland.

124

125 (Constructed wetlands treatment of municipal wastewaters. (2000). Cincinnati, OH: Environmental Protection Agency), the Taubman Team envisions that the constructed wetland design will be like a green belt circling the area, as is shown in figure 22. Proper plant species are crucial as they will provide a more sustainable impact for the wetland (Bioswales, Vegetative Buffers, & Constructed, n.d.). The selection of native species can provide year-round vegetative cover without the need for supplemental irrigation or fertilization. Native plants are the best option as they belong to the local ecosystem and provide high eco-value for local animals and plants (Bioswales, Vegetative Buffers, & Constructed, n.d.). Options for OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta include: aquatic plants, grass, wild flowers, and groundcovers (see figure 32). Local municipal agencies, such as the Department of Agriculture, or environmental restoration groups may be able to provide guidance on more specific plant species.

113 Removed Houses.

We recommend planting vegetation on vacant land at the periphery of the riparian area, the site where 119 homes were recently removed in collaboration with TETO NGO (see figure 29). Reforestation will aid in the establishment and design of buffer zone(s). Current vegetation should not be disturbed because the forest has not been completely dilapidated and still contains many desired trees and shrubs. Some of the major functions of reforestation include: 1. Work as barriers to prevent residents from entering 2. Help the soil and groundwater recover from

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REFORESTATION

former pollution, and prevent pollutants from entering the creek 3. Fill in the vacant land and beautify the landscape 4. Facilitate the Environmental Education Program initiated by Cultural Anchieta

114 Areas Dedicated to Education Purpose.

115 Green Clusters in the Whole Community.

126

Trees and grasses should be planted within the riparian area. Researchers argue that forested buffers are more effective in reducing nitrate level, while grass buffers can better dissolve phosphate (Osborne and Kovacic, 1993). Water quality tests conducted by the Taubman Team found both nitrate and phosphate in the creek and springs area; thus, buffers with trees and grasses may be the most successful. Existing local vegetation can be a good indicator of which species grow well on the site. Native species that are fast growing and easily established are good choices for reforestation (Klapproth and Johnson, 2001). A collection of multiple species can contribute in landscaping, as well as resilience in the face of insect or disease epidemic (Hairston-Strang, 2005). Reforestation also involves planting aesthetically pleasing trees with flowers, fruits, etc. to encourage educational use and appreciation. Recommended species include tabebuia heptaphylla, avocado, and heisteria silvianii (see figure 32). As previously mentioned, the Steering and Management committee should refer to the local agencies and environmental groups for guidance and instructions on plant species. This committee should also monitor and maintain the creek area after reforestation (see below).

127 The Creek Revival plan designates some land for Tree Planting Educational Program that could be initiated by the Steering and Management committee. The main goal of this plan component is to involve the Occupation, especially children, in the process of environmental recovery. Taubman Team suggests using the vacant land along the north side of the riparian area for the educational tree planting activities (see figure 30). However, the vacant land along the south side of the riparian area is not suitable for this program as it contains dumping areas and is in urgent need of undisturbed cleaning and reforestation. For the depleted and polluted southern side of the springs, grown tree planting can quicken the reforestation process. The Taubman Team also recommends consolidating several green vegetative clusters outside the riparian area (see figure 31). The vegetative clusters mainly consist of various native trees and will serve as supplementary components to preliminarily water filtering and will help manage surface water. Slowing surface water runoff helps wetlands sufficiently filter water by reducing the burden of infiltrating water for the entire site before it reaches the creek. This reduces water contaminates and soil erosion. These clusters will also improve the residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; living environment.

CASE STUDY: Bangladesh - Integrated approaches to promoting sanitation In 2006, Practical Action began a three-year project in Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka to reduce environmental threats to the health and livelihoods of urban slum dwellers. In Faridpur, Bangladesh, community organizations and the municipality joined together to prepare plans for improved toilets, water points, filling of land depressions, waste bins and drainage. Project staff assisted the community organizations in choosing between available options and appropriate designs, and residents made the final decisions. Community organizations were responsible for monitoring the quantity and quality of construction materials. Slum improvement committees meet monthly to discuss maintenance of the toilets and water points and negotiate with the municipality for funds for infrastructure. This project demonstrates collaborative and participatory approaches for dealing with environmental issues (Ali, M., & Stevens, L., 2009).

Environmental management is a critical component in mitigating water pollution (Pollution Prevention (P2), 2017). The Taubman Team suggests creating a Creek Revival Steering and Management committee to be directly responsible for the Occupationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environmental management (see box 4. for a case study).

116 Installation of Toilets (SOURCE: Practical Action).

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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Giant Cutgrass

Biofilters Species

Tree Species

Selections of biofilters plants for the site

Selections of trees for the site Water Willow

Water Primrose

Astrocaryum

Brachiaria grass

Tabebuia

Giant Cutgrass

Water Primrose

Wild Radish Astrocaryum aculeatissimum

Euterpe edulis

Water Willow

Brachiaria grass

Tabebuia heptaphylla

Avocado tree

Cupania racemosa

Heisteria silvianii

117 Planting Palette

Wild Radish

128

118 Phase One Rendering.

Cupani

Biofilters Species Selections of biofilters plants for the site

Giant Cutgrass

Selections of trees for the site Water Primrose

Tree Species Selections of trees for the site Water Astrocaryum aculeatissimum WaterPrimrose Willow Brachiaria grass

Euterpe edulis Tabebuia heptaphylla

Water Willow Water Primrose

Brachiaria grass Wild Radish Astrocaryum aculeatissimum

Tabebuia heptaphylla Euterpe edulis

Avocado tree Cupania racemosa

Willow

Wild Radish grass Brachiaria

Tabebuia heptaphylla

Cupania racemosa Avocado tree

Heisteria silvianii

Cupania racemosa

Avo

Heist

Heisteria silvianii

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Giant Cutgrass

utgrass

adish

Eute

Astrocaryum aculeatissimum

129

pecies

ofilters plants

Tree Species

This committee could be composed of 7-8 selected volunteers from the Occupation, IAG, and local NGOs that the Association or IAG identify as partners. For instance, on May 26th 2012, IAG planted trees on their site next to Ocupação Anchieta, in collaboration with the global network ENO Environment Online (Sousa, 2012). Although Ocupação Anchieta should have the majority of seats, they can benefit greatly from including NGOs and government agencies. Each committee member should have his/her own designated duties. The committee should have regular meetings with representatives from the Association and pre-determined meetings with the entire steering committee. The Creek Revival Steering and Management Committee is responsible for three main activities: 1. Decision-making on environmental issues 2. Planning implementation, maintenance, and supervision

buffer

3. Building partnerships

for initiating all action-steps to support the creek treatment plan, including funding. It should contribute to the maintenance of buffers, as well as plan on a period of 3-5 years for follow-up cares for the newly planted forest (Hairston-Strang, 2005). As for supervision, members should maintain buffer restrictions, making sure there are no improper human activities or land uses within the buffer zones, and no dumping along and inside the riparian area. Committee members from Ocupação Anchieta committee must ensure that other committee members, such as IAG, local municipal agencies, and NGOs remain engaged. For example, members from the Occupation can consult environmental specialists for expert knowledge, such as techniques to reforest, wetland maintenance, and water quality evaluation, etc. Perhaps, the greatest impact that the Steering committee can have is to increase residents’ awareness on their responsibility for the shared natural environment.

In terms of participatory processes, the committee should be responsible for including all residents in key decision-making moments. Keeping the Occupation involved and aware of the importance of environmental stewardship is fundamental for the success of the Creek Revival effort. The composition and professions of the committee should be diversified to represent different voices, but also reflect expertise. The committee should speak in the interest of stakeholders to the municipal government and other authorities. The Creek Revival Steering and Management Committee should be responsible 130

119 (right) Cross Sections.

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131

Seating Area

Community Space Water Play Area Forest Walk

Playground

132 0

The long-term intervention aims to encourage humannature interactions by proper development after the five-year recovery in the last phase. Some human activities may be allowed under control. This phase includes buffer strip adjustment, riparian walk system with pocket parks, and a by-water recreational area.

Actions on Phase Two Buffer Strip Adjustment Riparian Walk System Pocket Parks By-water Recreational Area

120 (left) Illustration Phase Two Site Map.

BUFFER STRIP ADJUSTMENT

RIPARIAN WALK SYSTEM WITH POCKET PARKS

As mentioned previously, there will be an adjustment of the buffer zone when the action enters the second (long-term) stage of the project. After a certain level of environmental recovery, we recommend a series of welldesigned infrastructures to facilitate positive interaction with the nature. Proposals include a Riparian Walk System with incorporated pocket parks, and a special by-water recreational spot. These infrastructures should abide by buffer requirements. The walk system is built within the second buffer zone (15m - 30m), while the by-water recreational spot is built close to the water body as an exception (see figure 37). During the soil-testing process, we found that most soil type in the riparian area is sand, which indicated that the land is suitable for some light constructions (Admin, P. B., 2015).

The Riparian Walk System (see figure 37) is an expansion of paths that are renovated during the first stage (see figure 25). The whole system (including path surface, supportive structures, and railings) is made of wood. The system includes two major components: a circling path and three pocket parks. The path has a total length of 1250 meters (4100 ft), and an average width of 2 meters (6.6 ft). And the area of the pocket parks is around 1,000 square meters (10,764 square feet). The parks are for the people to gather and enjoy the scenery. Most of the Riparian Walk System will be built following the topography at relatively the same height, with rare slopes, which will help prevent undesired stormwater runoffs on the path during heavy rains. The paths will be built at ground level with some stair segments.

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LONG-TERM INTERVENTION PHASE TWO

133

121 (left) Phase Two Actions.

134

122 Riparian Walk System with Pocket Parks.

135 will

Some be

sections of the parks elevated for three reasons:

1. To limit human activity off the path system

CASE STUDY: Termas Geométricas Hot Springs Complex, Los Ríos Region, Chile

2.To protect soil permeability to encourage water circulation and prevent overflowing runoff 3.To overall lessen any negative impact to the environment We also suggest putting some furniture in the Path System, such as some benches in the parks. We also encourage putting some trash bins at the entrance of the path, at the entrance of the parks, and at the entrance of the by-water recreational area. Constructing a path system will increase the opportunities for residents to engage with the creeks area and appreciate the environment. A path system can also accommodate commutes between each side of the valley. RECREATION AREA

At the recreation area, there will be a staircase traveling from the middle park down to the ground. The proposal designates a meandering pebble road at the foot of the stairs to access to the spring. Here, children can learn about waterways through environmental education programming, and also have fun and be more close to the spring. The plan also proposes a shelter spot near the pebble road where people can rest. Landscaping will assist

123 Termas Geométricas Hot Springs Complex

124 Termas Geométricas Hot Springs Complex This project was designed by Germán del Sol and built in 2009. Visitors may confidently stroll along a wooden footbridge and contemplate the wild natural surroundings (Wenborne, G. 2009).

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Finally, the Taubman Team suggests a recreation area that will enhance humannature interaction. This area will be located around the middle of the creek, close to a spring located downstream (see figure 37).

136

in creating a sustainable, enjoyable viewing area. Possible landscape elements include: a stone pave, water steps, and bioswale. Fences may be needed in some spots.

The proposed recreational area will be located around the middle of the creek, close to a spring, which among all of the three springs is most near the downstream part(see figure 12).

The bridge path is another option for the viewing area. The 10-15 meters long bridge has two functions: connection and enjoyment. Firstly, the bridge will connect both sides of the creek, a convenient and typical commute by residents. Secondly, the bridge will serve as a platform to allow residents to view and enjoy the water.

There will be a stair from the middle park down to the ground. A meandering pebble road will be designated for the access to the spring, connecting the end of the stair and the spring source. Children can touch water, have fun and be more close to the spring. Near the pebble road there will be a enjoyable

125 Section Diagrams.

137

The bridge path nearby is another nice spot for by-water enjoyment. It is designed as 10-15 m long. It mainly has two functions: connection and enjoyment. Firstly, It serves as

a walking passage connecting both sides of the creek. During the field trip, capstone team recognized that residents had the demand to commute across the creek as it was the most convenient route to reach the other side. So setting a bridge could qualify this practical need. And at the same time, the bridge could also work as a platform to allow residents to take the enjoyable water view of the spring.

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shelter spot where people can have a rest. The landscape setting is an another effort to create a sustainable and enjoyable water space through the landscape design. Some landscape elements may be applied, such as stone pave, water steps, bioswale, and so on. Fences may be needed in some spots.

Biofilters

Stormwater Blocking

Forest Walk 138

126 Riparian Walk System.

Creek Walk

Education Boards

Creek Rest

Rest Area

Crossing Bridge

Playground

139 ESTIMATED COST ITEM

UNIT

Constructed Wetlands

US$58

/ linear feet

Reforestation

US$ 5

/ feet

Riparian Walk System

US$ 2

/ feet

Pocket Parks

US$ 2.3 / feet2

2 2

ESTIMATED QUANTITY 2,600 feet

ESTIMATED COST

US$ 150,800

120,000 feet

US$ 600,000

25,000 feet

US$ 50,000

10,800 feet2

US$ 24,810

CHALLENGE TO IMPLEMENTATION

Considering the topography of the site, some designs may need adjustment. For example, the Riparian Walk System will cover some areas with deep, varied slopes. During construction, routes may be altered for feasibility, cost, and safety. Lastly, pollution treatment will require substantial financial support. Finding funding is crucial to the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success. The Occupation could look for financial support from governmental grants, NGOs, donations, and so on.

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The Taubman Team recognizes potential difficulties and challenges during implementation process. First, mitigating creek pollution requires participation from all stakeholders. Therefore, it is necessary to build consensus within the Occupation, and to invite all residents to join the effort. Committee leaders and members, albeit selected, may not have the expertise of managing a committee. Education on organizing such a group may also be needed.

CONCLUSION If the pollution in the creek and springs area is not properly addressed, residents may be evicted from OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta. Beginning three years ago, residents began occupying the site because of a scarcity of land. The settlement homes discharged wastewater and produced trash that would

140

127 Phase Two Rendering.

accumulate in the creek areas. Moreover, due to the Occupation topography, stormwater runoff also carries contaminants into to the creek. Natural vegetation was sacrificed in the rapid construction of homes. These intense human activities and behavior contribute this environmentally precarious situation.

141

recommends the Occupation creates a Management and Steering Committee to ensure project oversight and success. Stage two of the plan encourages residents to engage with the site with a riparian path system and a designated by-water recreational spot.

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To mitigate water pollution and ultimately secure land tenure, we suggest a two-stage action plan. Stage one prohibits human activities in creek area by establishing a buffer, which is supported by constructed wetlands and reforestation. The Taubman Team also

142

128-135 Cross Section Model Illustration.

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143

SOURCES Admin, P. B. (2015, August 31). Retrieved April 06, 2017, from http://www.ramjack.com/blog/2015/ august/different-soils-how-they-affect-foundations/ Ali, M., & Stevens, L. (2009). Integrated approaches to promoting sanitation: A case study of Faridpur, Bangladesh. Desalination, 248(1-3), 1-7. Berg, M., Stengel, C., Trang, P., Hungviet, P., Sampson, M., Leng, M., Fredericks, D. (2007). Magnitude of arsenic pollution in the Mekong and Red River Deltas — Cambodia and Vietnam. Science of The Total Environment, 372(2-3), 413-425. Bioswales, Vegetative Buffers, & Constructed ... (n.d.). Retrieved April 5, 2017, from www.deq.state. or.us/wq/stormwater/docs/nwr/biofilters.pdf Chen, Y., Parvez, F., Gamble, M., Islam, T., Ahmed, A., Argos, M., . . . Ahsan, H. (2009). Arsenic exposure at low-to-moderate levels and skin lesions, arsenic metabolism, neurological functions, and biomarkers for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases: Review of recent findings from the Health Effects of Arsenic Longitudinal Study (HEALS) in Bangladesh. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 239(2), 184192. Cities in a globalizing world: global report on human settlements. (2001). London, England: Earthscan. Constructed Wetland Factsheet. (n.d.). Retrieved April 05, 2017, from https://engineering.purdue. edu/~frankenb/NU-prowd/cwetfact.htm Constructed Wetland in Vidrare, Bulgaria. (2011). Retrieved April 05, 2017, from http://www.wecf.eu/ download/2011/june/WECF_Constructed_Wetlands.

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engl..pdf Forest & Riparian Buffer Conservation Case Studies. (1996). Retrieved April 5, 2017, from http:// www.chesapeakebay.net/content/publications/ cbp_12364.pdf Gallup, I. (2009, March 25). Water Pollution Americans’ Top Green Concern. Retrieved March 31, 2017, from http://www.gallup.com/poll/117079/ waterpollution-americans-top-green-concern.aspx Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. (2009). Geneva: World health organization. Grescoe, T. (2016, November 26). Shanghai’s Suzhou Creek cleans up its act. Retrieved April 20, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/ travel/2016/nov/26/shanghai-suzhou-creek-cleanup-redevelopment Hairston-Strang, A. (2005). Riparian forest buffer design and maintenance. Annapolis, MD: Maryland Dept. of Natural Resources, Forest Service. Haque, R., Mazumder, D. N., Samanta, S., Ghosh, N., Kalman, D., Smith, M. M., . . . Smith, A. H. (2003). Arsenic in Drinking Water and Skin Lesions: Dose-Response Data from West Bengal, India. Epidemiology, 14(2). Henderson, A. D., & Demond, A. H. (2007). LongTerm Performance of Zero-Valent Iron Permeable Reactive Barriers: A Critical Review. Environmental Engineering Science, 24(4), 401-423. doi:10.1089/ ees.2006.0071

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Kadlec, H.R., Knight, R.L., (1996). Treatment Wetlands. Lewis, Boca Raton, New York, London, Tokyo, 893. Kivaisi, A. K. (2001). The potential for constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and reuse in developing countries: a review. Ecological Engineering, 16(4), 545-560. Klapproth, J. C., & Johnson, J. E. (2001). Understanding the science behind riparian forest buffers: planning, establishment, and maintenance. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Cooperative Extension. Lowrance, R., Altier, L. S., Newbold, J. D., Schnabel, R. R., Groffman, P. M., Denver, J. M., . . . Todd, A. H. (1997). Water Quality Functions of Riparian Forest Buffers in Chesapeake Bay Watersheds. Environmental Management, 21(5), 687-712. Meeting the MDG drinking water and sanitation target: the urban and rural challenge of the decade. (2006). Geneva: World Health Organization. Nelson, K. L., & Murray, A. (2008). Sanitation for Unserved Populations: Technologies, Implementation Challenges, and Opportunities. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 33(1), 119-151. Osborne L. L. and Kovacic D. A. (1993) Riparian vegetated buffer strips in water-quality restoration and stream management. Freshwat. Biol. 9, 243– 258.

Peter-Varbanets, M., Hammes, F., Vital, M., & Pronk, W. (2010). Stabilization of flux during dead-end ultralow pressure ultrafiltration. Water Research, 44(12), 3607-3616. Pollution Prevention (P2). (2017, February 15). Retrieved April 06, 2017, from https://www.epa.gov/ p2 Samuel Y. Liang. 2014, July 25. Remaking China’s Great Cities. Space and Culture in Urban Housing, Renewal, and Expansion. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://crevilles.org/items/show/40188 Schwarzenbach, René P.; Egli, Thomas; Hofstetter, Thomas B.; von Gunten, Urs; Wehrli, Bernhard. (2010, November 21). Global Water Pollution and Human Health, Annual Review of Environment and Resources. Retrieved March 31, 2017, from https:// www.deepdyve.com/lp/annual-reviews/globalwater-pollution-and-human-health-08007qXr19 Schwarzman, M. R., & Wilson, M. P. (2009). New Science for Chemicals Policy. Science, 326(5956), 1065-1066.

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Jamison, D. T. (2006). Disease control priorities in developing countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the World Bank.

05 HOUSING NETWORK This chapter discusses housing issues in Ocupação Anchieta and provides recommendations to address them. The housing issues in Ocupação Anchieta are exemplary of the general problems throughout the City of São Paulo. Interestingly, this area also includes a conservation area protecting the main drinking water source for the city. However, the residents of the Occupation are much poorer than those in other upgraded favelas such as Paraisópolis. In terms of housing, all these circumstances make the place unique and require more creative approaches. The Taubman College Team classified the housing issues into four categories, and suggests recommendations with new housing prototypes.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND RELEVANCE UNSECURED TENURE Both the interviews with Association coordinators and the collected household surveys express residents’ concerns with unsecured tenure. The Occupation residents fear a sudden eviction from the site by the landowner or the government. Tenure security, perceived and factual, allows residents to establish themselves as regular citizens who have access to public services. UNSUSTAINABLE HOUSING PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

221-232 (Previous) Images from the site.

148

The data analysis of the door-to-door household survey, as well as interviews with Association coordinators, demonstrate that residents worry about the unsustainable housing quality and the low levels of habitability due to weak materials and poor housing design. For instance, poor temperature control is a common problem and survey respondents complained about a lack of private

life and disruptive noise because of poor soundproof materials. Furthermore, residents voiced concerns about the influx of stormwater and sewage when it rains. LACK OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING The residents want to spend less on construction costs than the rents they used to pay before moving to the Occupation. According to our household survey, 90% of the households earn less than R$2000 ($634 USD) per month (two minimum wages), while 53% of them earn below R$1000 ($317 USD) (one minimum wage). None of the survey respondents earn equal to or more than R$4000 ($1,269 USD) (per month). The survey also shows the rents that residents paid before coming to Ocupação Anchieta: 71% of the households paid rents ranging from R$251 ($79 USD) to 500 per month, and 19% paid from R$501 to 700 ($158 to $222 USD). Thus, the Occupation households

149 UNSECURED TENURE ---

Fear of eviction Desire of permanent ownership

UNSUSTAINABLE HOUSING PHYSICAL STRUCTURE --------

Inconvenience of using exposed kitchens and toilets Weak and/or poor quality materials Influx of stormwater and wastewater in rainy season Poor wastewater management Poor temperature control+ ventilation Noise and lack of privacy Poor foundation and structural systems

LACK OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING ---

Heavy construction cost High Rental Costs

SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY ---

Socio-spatial segregation Lack of public services

used to spend between 21% and 25% of their income in rent before moving. Although the percent shares of housing burden to income seems low, saving rent makes a move to the Occupation economical because the income earned is used towards clothing and food. SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY In general, Occupation residents experience socio-spatial segregation and a

lack of most public services (such as police, fire, health care, and infrastructure) because they do not live in formalized area. Furthermore, residents suffer from housing insecurity and are unable to move to better built environments. According to our interviews and household surveys, most households earn income below the poverty level. Our survey findings report a low employment rate of 50%. Of these employed residents, half work only part-time jobs.

HOUSING NETWORK

233 Housing Problems in Ocupação Anchieta

LITERATURE REVIEW UNSECURED TENURE Tenure insecurity is a major issue in many informal settlements. Brazilian land use law recognizes informal settlements and other nontraditional legal property. Thus, the legislation provides alternative ways to prove land tenure (Macedo, 2008). Despite the fact that Brazil is known for privileging slum upgrading programs via land titling programs (Lara 2013; Pimentel Walker, 2016), the lack of tenure security can still delay municipal services and lead to evictions. Indeed, in rapidly urbanizing areas in the urban periphery, recognition of land occupations in green areas is a barrier to the upgrading of informal settlements. Furthermore, when residents and landowners alike cannot prove land ownership, it is very difficult to achieve municipal recognition and services (Macedo, 2008). As a result, the first step must be to secure land tenure, even if legal title is not a requirement for upgrading. The difference in housing standards between informal and formal areas is huge throughout Brazil. Although most houses throughout the country are made out of brick, informal houses are simply built on top of each other. Moreover, the limited technical training of many local builders suggests that these buildings are constructed haphazardly (Bustillos, 2009). As a result, the differences between formal and informal housing stock in most Brazilian cities are usually quite stark. Although the government does not usually construct housing itself, it can incentivize the private sector to build good quality housing for low-income residents (Osorio, 2007). In this way, the private sector can seek a profit, and the municipalities can meet their obligations towards their citizens.

150

Although both the federal and the local governments have programs dedicated to house the urban poor, some of the tools unintentionally lead

to land speculation. For example, housing financing only benefited the middle and upper classes. Governmentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; efforts to extend infrastructure increased the value of formerly uninhabited zones on the new routes into and out of the cities (Osorio, 2007). Naturally, the classes with sufficient finance rushed to the newly developed land for investment and the land price skyrocketed, while the poorer classes were penalized by the soaring land price. As uninhabited land changes in value, it encourages different types of development. When land decreases in value, it is more likely to be settled as an occupation. The government must then provide services to ever more distant places in the metropolitan area, fueling urban sprawl, deforestation, and other issues. LACK OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING One of the biggest challenges for municipalities is to provide the federally mandated guarantee to adequate housing. Although urban and housing policy reforms made social housing more accessible, they have also raised the price of housing in many cities across Brazil. Most housing price increases only affect the wealthy, but there is also evidence of an increase in squatting. Low-income urban dwellers simply cannot afford rising land and building costs; thus, they turn to occupying land or renting in informal areas (Morais, 2005). Piedade Morais explains that the limited housing stock in formal areas coupled with high levels of inequality mean that more lower class residents resort to the informal market to find a home.When neither the private nor public sectors are able to address the issues of affordable housing, the urban poor often take it upon themselves to create solutions. Many occupations, such as OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta, started because urban dwellers did not benefit from social programs (De Souza, 1998). Although land occupations are not legal, the

CASE STUDY: Favela Bairro Program. Rio de Janerio, Brazil

Another prominent favela in Rio de Janeiro is Nova Baixada. This informal area is at the edge of the metropolitan area, and is not well-connected to the city center. Moreover, existing municipal services are limited as the government has prioritized sanitation and social services above all others. One intervention sought to connect Nova Baixada to existing service infrastructure in the surrounding area instead of the central system (MagalhĂŁes, 2012). Although this plan sought to connect nearby informal areas in order to make best use of money and services, it did not work very well. Instead, some of the more urbanized areas around Nova Baixada had higher-quality services, with pockets of other peripheral areas with much poorer quality. This experiment mostly failed because the lack of a connection to the central system meant that the informal areas were dependent on each other alone without any backup (MagalhĂŁes, 2012). As a result, access to municipal services increased, but other problems remained the same.

The City of Rio de Janeiro has come up with many different policies in order to ensure that residents of favelas have access to municipal services. One of the best-known programs, Favela Bairro, has sought to provide a large investment in public infrastructure, public spaces, services and community facilities in order to improve quality of life in the favelas (Fernandes, 2011). However, this program had mixed results. The program won acclaim for its widescale improvement, but only yielded 2,333 land titles, and only 145 families fully completed the registration process for their land (Fernandes 2012). Although this plan sought to connect nearby informal areas in order to make best use of money and services, it did not work very well. Instead, some of the more urbanized areas around Nova Baixada had higherquality services, with pockets of other peripheral areas with much poorer quality. This experiment mostly failed because the lack of a connection to the central system meant that the informal areas were dependent on each other alone without any backup (MagalhĂŁes 2012). As a result, while access to municipal services increased, but other problems the remained the same.

municipal government has decided to upgrade and formalize sites rather than promote slum clearance. Informal settlement upgrading and legalization strategies are usually more humanitarian, yet are also very expensive. The municipal government must invest in formalizing these settlements by constructing the necessary infrastructure and providing the residents with services.

areas, this is even more apparent as residents may choose to occupy land based on income, wealth, or other economic conditions (Piedade Morais and Olivieira Cruz, 2009). In Brazil, the wealthier the person, the more likely that a person lives and participates in the formal economy. Although the Federal Constitution of Brazil and other laws, such as the City Statute of 2001, seek to reduce the socio-economic vulnerability of favela and otherwise informal residents, governments need assistance from social movements, NGOs, and the private sector to create true change that will bring tangible benefits.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY Where a person lives is a major indicator of his or her socio-economic status. Indeed, in informal

HOUSING NETWORK

151 CASE STUDY: Nova Baixada. Rio de Janerio, Brazil

153

RECOMMENDATIONS

234-245 Images from the site

Legal education can help Association coordinators to understand the complex legal frameworks and corresponding policies in place. Legal information can help residents to anticipate and respond to possible actions by other stakeholders, such as Instituto Anchieta Grajaú, the Federal prosecutors, and the several agencies within the municipal government. Without a thorough understanding of these facts, it would be difficult for residents to respond to any change of circumstances.

TENURE SECURITY AND RELATED LEGAL FRAMEWORKS The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that urban land should fulfill a “social function”, and in 2001, federal enabling legislation passed to put the concept into practice (Macedo, 2008, p. 259). The right to property is guaranteed, except in cases of expropriation for public need, or social interest, with advance and just indemnification. (The Constitution of Brazil, chapter II, article 141, paragraph 16, Macedo, 2008). Thus, in Brazil, land occupiers can access land but also ensure relative tenure security without a formal land title. Further legislation has established the preemption rights of local governments for the projects of social housing. It also has enabled residents of informal settlements in urban areas to act as a group (such as a condominium association), and to demand possession of tracts that have been occupied for at least five years (Macedo, 2008).

HOUSING NETWORK

Ocupação Anchieta Association needs to strengthen its legal status by developing an action plan to better comply with the municipal master plan, especially regarding environmental protection. Furthermore, the Association should remain in contact with the Defensoria Pública (Public Defenders) and the Center Gaspar Garcia for Human Rights in order to remain informed about their rights and legal means to achieve tenure security.

246 In 2015, My House My Life Program has already delivered 103,079 houses.”

Supported by these legal frameworks, the municipality of São Paulo created a municipal master plan, which includes zoning ordinances that guide the residents’ tenure. Based on the new master plan, the city could, theoretically, take the land from the landowner, IAG, if the city considers the property “vacant property” that does not comply with its social function. If the city perceives the land to be an underused, unbuilt, or unutilized property, it gives the landowner a deadline to comply with the assigned social function. If this deadline passes without any changes, however, the city charges an-ever increasing tax, and, 154

after five years, can expropriate the land as payment of government bonds. In addition, the master plan stipulates implementing housing policies for vulnerable social groups that can be applied to Occupation residents. The municipal master plan clearly classifies Ocupação Anchieta as Special Zones of Social Interest, four, or ZEIS 4. (see the Chapter X, pXX). In general, ZEIS districts address the location of affordable housing in informal areas, especially for residents who earn less than three minimum wages per month (equal to or less than R$4650) ($1475

155 USD). However, this zoning classification does not guarantee legal tenure or the offering of infrastructure. Specifically, ZEIS 4 designates vacant or underutilized land for housing of social interest. Unlike other ZEIS, the type 4 ZEIS only allows low-density housing development due to environmental concerns. In the case of Ocupação Anchieta, it is to protect the watersheds.

that, combined with the Team’s environmental recommendations for the creek running through Ocupação Anchieta, could help boost tenure security. These recommendations can help residents deal with events that are currently beyond their control. Additionally, the residents’ ideas and efforts to clean the creek area are critical to advance their cause. The two concerning events are as follows:

According to the current zoning of the site, the city can develop the area to build social housing for families living in areas of environmental risk at any time. The municipality would need to relocate residents currently living in areas of risk. In fact, the municipality had a plan to build social housing at the site, which would be funded by My House, My Life program (Minha Casa Minha Vida) (MCMVP), but the city did not proceed (City of São Paulo Strategic Master Plan, 2014, UN-Habitat, 2013).

1. Public prosecutors (Ministério Público) may initiate a civil investigation on the area of environmental preservation and conclude that residents have been damaging the environment. Theoretically, public prosecutors can sue the municipality to force relocation of the residents in order to preserve the environment.

TWO POSSIBLE UNFAVORABLE EVENTS AND THEIR COUNTERMEASURES Beyond the scenario of land expropriation by the municipal government, the Taubman College Team identified two possible scenarios

The Association can circumvent the negative effects of these scenarios by embracing environmental stewardship. The Taubman Team developed specific action steps regarding housing upgrades to aid the Association in the process towards more sustainable housing arrangements. As a result, residents’ tenure security may increase. The Association will need to carefully monitor the change and success of legal and political dynamics with the area and tenure security. All priority areas in this report have the goals of increasing tenure security, restoring the environment, and improving infrastructure and living conditions.

HOUSING NETWORK

No stakeholder can change the legal process or prevent the municipal government from taking the land to develop social housing. In this situation, residents of Ocupação Anchieta would not immediately benefit from a government social housing program, such as MCMVP, because of the environmental precariousness of the site, and because they simply have not been on the waiting list long enough. In 2015, IAG encouraged Occupation residents to enlist in the housing program. The Occupation may receive public housing eventually, but it cannot receive governmentbuilt social housing at the current site.

2. IAG files another adverse possession lawsuit against the residents, requiring eviction. Property owners may insist that the land is a preservation area, and the residents are damaging it by polluting the creek and deforestation. The current eviction lawsuit has been suspended for twelve months, which expire in August 2017.

UPGRADING + STRUCTURAL DURABILITY To address the abovementioned problems, the Taubman Team proposes the Housing Network project. Presented as an easy-toassemble kit of parts, the proposal includes a step-by-step guide to tackle immediate housing needs of the residents, while addressing the need for decentralized sewage treatments and the formalization of water and electric systems in Ocupação Anchieta. On the domestic scale, the proposal for community spaces is more incremental and flexible. It seeks to address the needs for adaptable spaces, and the maintaining of a sense of community among the residents. This toolkit illustrates the process of housing construction and requires that Occupation members and the Association coordinators work together to support the project into the future.

247 Housing prototype 1: single storey

These proposals deploy simple construction methods suitable for stronger materials than those currently used in Ocupação Anchieta. Housing prototypes 1 and 3 use wood, while prototype 2 uses brick facing a busy street and helping formalize the Occupation. Kitchens and toilets are incorporated in each housing design. Wastewater plans envision that housing units located at the border of Ocupação Anchieta will be connected to municipal sewage, while housing units in interior sites would be connected to septic tanks or communal decentralized sewage treatment systems. Regarding temperature control, the housing design planned for the cooling of buildings through ventilation and windows that ensure crosswinds. As a result, the new houses would be more structurally stable, especially when built with materials that are more durable and appropriate for the residents’ needs. 156

248 Housing prototype 2: commercial

157 958mm x 3658mm tin roof

Gutter

Windows

25mm x 150mm pine siding

Second floor addition

6mm thick, 1220mm x 2438 mm gypsum board

Inflow piping into the house Out flow piping from gray water adajacent into garden Biofilter / rain garden Out flow piping from toilet leads to septic tank 50mm x 150mm floorbeam 300mm x 300mm concrete foundation 200mm x 200mm studs

249

Size of Plot: 5m x 15m

Housing components of one of the prototypes

HOUSING NETWORK

Water tank for the house

PROTOTYPING To work with as much detail as possible, the Taubman Team selected different locations within Ocupação Anchieta to test out these housing prototypes. Two locations are near the border of the settlement in order to test out the porosity of the site plan. Another site is an open field, where the Taubman Team proposes the client-partner and other stakeholders test out our new concept design ideas. First, the site adjacent to Rua Alziro Pinheiro Magalhães tests the mixed-use twostory housing prototype. The location of the site allows for the perfect commercial interaction between the street and the household, and to also create space for public use. Second, The Taubman Team proposes the site adjacent to Rua Bilac for the houses designed for single use. Site selection aims to incorporate the harsh topography. These houses have been designed in a way in which one can upgrade them for bigger living accommodation. Third, the proposal for the last site is located in the open field, which provides enough space to test new modular and cluster homes.

250 Mixed use- two story

251 Rua Bilac single family use.

158 252 Experimental Modular Housing

su l

ilac

159

Sã o

Ca e

ta no

R. B

Cohab Brg. Faria Lima

R. Alziro Pin

lhães heiro Maga

R. D om ingos

da Co sta Fil g

ueira

Institutio Anchieta Grajau Parque Sao Miguel

253 Map of Ocupação Anchieta

HOUSING NETWORK

Jardim Novo Jau

MAKER HOUSE HOUSING PROTOTYPES The second part looks at the use of prototypes. The Prototypes include easy to assemble materials that can be constructed by the residents. The housing also looks into the use of wastewater for a garden to reduce the footprint of the2.5mgray water in the area. After visiting the houses in the area, I tried to imagine the life of that house as needed and used by the residents. Looking further1m into the future, 1m

this prototype also looks to be transformed by the residents for their own use, one is changed to have commercial in the front and another can use the whole plot, 5m x 15m in a single story. While looking at the housing, I tried to imagine the possibility of using modules to give the residents more creative ability in their housing. This prototype looks at combining modules as needed to create a their personal housing.

Bar Prototype

Module 4 Living

Module 1 Bedroom

2.5m

Unit 1 [47 m²] Module 2 Bedroom

Module 5 Kitchen + Bathroom

“L” Prototype 2.5m 2.5m

Module 3 Kitchen 4m

Module 5 Bathroom

2.5m 2.5m

4m 1.5m

Scale:

Module 4

160

254 Living Experimental Modular Housing

1/8”

Unit 1 [30 m²] 2.5m

Mixed Prototype

1’0”

SING PROTOTYPES

KER HOUSE KERPROTOTYPES HOUSE SING Bar Prototype

SING PROTOTYPES

Bar Prototype Bar Prototype

2.5m

161

BAR PROTOTYPE 1m

2.5m

4m 2.5m 4m

2.5m 4m 2.5m

Unit 1 [47 m²]

Unit 2 [47 m²]

Unit 1 [47 m²]

Unit 2 [47 m²]

Unit 1 [47 m²]

Unit 2 [47 m²]

4m 4m

“L” Prototype

4m 2.5m 4m

“L” PROTOTYPE 2.5m

“L” Prototype “L” Prototype

3m 2.5m

4m 2.5m 4m

2.5m 4m 2.5m

Unit 1 [30 m²]

Unit 2 [30m²]

Unit 1 [30 m²]

Unit 2 [30m²]

Unit 1 [30 m²]

Unit 2 [30m²]

4m 2.5m 4m

2.5m

MIXED PROTOTYPE

Mixed Prototype

4m 3m

Mixed Prototype Mixed Prototype

HOUSING NETWORK

2.5m

3m 2.5m 3m

2.5m 2m 2.5m

255 Experimental Modular Housing Assembly Examples

ts: Ashish Bhandari

2.5m

Unit 1 [50 m²]

Unit 2 [60m²]

Unit 1 [50 m²]

Unit 2 [60m²]

Unit 1 [50 m²]

Unit 2 [60m²]

2.5m

1.5m 2.5m

1.5m

inFORMA inFORMA

Everyday life as imagined in one of the prototype houses. This resembles the average family partaking in their daily lives. The child enters the home after playing outside with their friends. Two adults watching television to pass the time. The father taking care of the child in the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; room.

162 256 Life Imagined inside the house

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163

SECURE HOUSING AFFORDABILITY To increase housing affordability, the Taubman Team designed the housing prototypes for construction with cheap yet sustainable materials, as well as a low level of construction skills. The estimated cost of building the prototypes is summarized here: Prototype

Description

Material Cost (USD per unit)

Model House 1

Basic type

1,864.00

Model House 2

Mixed-use type

2,151.00

Model House 3

Module type

2,867.00

COUNTERMEASURE TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY To improve the socio-spatial segregation and inequity in the provision of public service, infrastructure, income and affordable housing, the Association should do the following: 1. Leverage and maximize voting power of residents to achieve better government support and in turn improve the general socioeconomic condition of the area. 2. Participate in decision-making and participatory planning processes of the municipality. 3. Build and strengthen solidarity with larger interest groups, such as the public defenders, housing movements, and other NGOs who can help. 4. Connect with international institutes, such as UN-Habitat, and build channels to communicate with other experts to get any necessary information. 164 257 Diagram of Incremental Housing

165

Recommendations for housing prototype feasibility of the prototype by the stakeholders TheTesting combination of these activities Funding for the prototypes will push the of the municipal Construction prototypes government to Testing Association address theby the various issues in Ocupação Recommendations for Tenure Security Anchieta, and to use ofmunicipal funds to Adopting the construction suggested environmental implement structures the goals of the master plans Educate the residents to prevent pollution of the that ensure the right to adequate housing. preservation areas Building channels with legal and policy experts to get precise information CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENTATION Building channels with IAG and the municipal govern ment to monitor strategy and policy

Challenges to the implementation of these recommendations include labor, time, and costs. These recommendations also require extensive community organizing and the enhancement of residents’ self-management. Political representation is yet another challenge for the Occupation of approximately 650 residents to gain a voice in local politics. The network of public spaces may be difficult to implement because of labor, material, and cost considerations. Residents would likely construct the network themselves, as well as find the materials and funding to implement the project, which will take time. Facilitating the design process of these public spaces within the Occupation may also be challenging.

PROJECT TIMELINE

01 SHORT TERM

of the

perts to get

pal govern

02 MID TERM

Stren Crea

02 MID TERM Recommendations for housing prototype Planning the extended application Funding for the extended application Establishment of micro-savings schemes to fund housing construction for the entire site Construction of the extended application units Recommendations for tenure security Continue the actions for the short-term period Requesting usucapião coletivo (collective adverse possession)

Recommendations for socio-economic vulnerability Leveraging residents’ voting powers for government support Participating in participatory planning processes of the municipality Strengthening solidarity with NGOs Creating connection with international institutes

vironmental

Parti

Recommendations for housing prototype Testing feasibility of the prototype by the stakeholders Funding for the prototypes Construction of the prototypes Testing by the Association Recommendations for Tenure Security Adopting the construction of suggested environmental structures Educate the residents to prevent pollution of the preservation areas Building channels with legal and policy experts to get precise information Building channels with IAG and the municipal govern ment to monitor strategy and policy

03 LONG TERM

akeholders

Recommen Leve

Recomme Plan Fun Esta

Con Recomme Con Req pos

HOUSING NETWORK

5. Create micro-savings scheme to match with 01 SHORT TERMhousing and fundraising for incremental sewage construction.

CONCLUSION The Taubman College Team’s housing proposals are informed by the fieldwork findings and case study research. The trip to Brazil allowed the Taubman Team to better understand the options given the circumstances in Ocupação Anchieta. Indeed, from the literature review, the Taubman Team discovered few case studies that focus on wide-scale favela upgrading at the earl(y stages of land occupation. The Taubman Team hopes that these housing recommendations, once implemented, will spur further academic research and case studies on how to best integrate newer land occupations into the rest of the urban fabric.

166

167

SOURCES de Bustillos, L. A. Technological Transference of Sustainable Housing Construction in Urban Informal Settlements. City São

of São Paulo

Paulo (2014), City of Strategic Master Plan.

De Souza, F. A. (1998). Land tenure security and housing improvements in Recife, Brazil. Habitat International, 23(1), 19-33.

Piedade Morais (2005). The Housing Conditions in Brazilian Urban Areas During the 1990s. Piedade Morais & Oliveira Cruz (2009). Housing Demand, Tenure Choice, and Housing Policy in Brazil. Walker, A. P. P. (2016). Self-help or public housing? Lessons from co-managed slum upgrading via participatory budget. Habitat International, 55, 58-66.

Fernandes, E. (2011). Regularization of informal settlements in Latin America. Cambdridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Lara, F. L. (2013). Favela upgrade in Brazil: a reverse of participatory processes. Journal of Urban Design, 18(4), 553e564. Lonardarini, F., Claudio, A., & French, M. (2013). Scaling-Up Affordable Housing Supply in Brazil the “My House My Life” Programme. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat).

Macedo, J. (2008). Urban land policy and new land tenure paradigms: Legitimacy vs. legality in Brazilian cities. Land Use Policy, 25(2), 259-270. Magalhães, F. (2012). Slum upgrading: lessons learned from Brazil. IDB Publications (Books). Mumford, L. (1937). What is a City? (pp. 92-96). na. Osorio, L. M. (2007). Positive policies and legal responses to enhance security of tenure in Brazil.

HOUSING NETWORK

Macedo, J. (2008). Urban land policy and new land tenure paradigms: Legitimacy vs. legality in Brazilian cities. Land Use Policy, 25(2), 259-270.

06 SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA Sewage Free Anchieta addresses the lack of basic sewage infrastructure in Ocupação Anchieta. While a variety of infrastructural improvements are needed, infrastructure related to sanitation is amongst the least developed. Currently, Ocupação Anchieta residents deploy a range of methods for handling effluent wastewater from direct release into the natural environment to illegal municipal connections. Moreover, addressing the lack of sanitation is a priority because of the public health and environmental implications. Therefore, the Sewage Free Anchieta chapter aims to promote the organizational capacity of Ocupação Anchieta residents to develop a decentralized, communal sewage system while concurrently visioning a more sustainable Ocupação Anchieta.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND RELEVANCE

195 (previous image) Current Sewage Condition. 196 (left) Site Image Illustrating the Lack of Stormwater Management Options.

Each of these concerns pose specific problems for the public health and safety, quality of life, and resilience of residents. Most critically, the lack of complete sewage infrastructure is arguably one of the biggest problems for human health and the environment. Without every house being connected

to a form of sewage or decentralized waste disposal process, the Occupation has increased risk of disease and a vastly decreased quality of life. Moreover, the lack of sewage infrastructure in Ocupacão Anchieta has environmental consequences for the City of São Paulo. There is a set of natural springs that flow into a creek bed located in a lower elevation of the settlement. This creek drains directly into the larger watershed of São Paulo; ultimately to the Billings Reservoir, which is a highly polluted secondary source of water for the city (Schneider, 2015). Therefore, not only is the lack of sewage infrastructure negatively affecting human health in the settlement, it is polluting the wider ecosystem of the São Paulo Metropolitan Region. The Occupation residents also voiced their concerns about the precarious street conditions. When it rains, unpaved streets become

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

Infrastructure in Ocupação Anchieta is limited and lacking in many aspects. Drinking water and electricity are provided to most of the houses through illegal connections to the municipal system. There are also extremely poor street conditions, a range of sanitation infrastructure problems, and limited street lighting. The lack of an improved sanitation infrastructure is of particular concern due to the public and environmental health risk to the Occupation. Residents voiced their infrastructural concerns to Taubman Team and therefore infrastructure became a high priority and component of the action plan.

Ocupacão Anchieta (the Occupation) has a critical need for basic infrastructure revision and the improvement of current infrastructure. Infrastructure in the Occupation is completely informal. Almost all the electricity and drinking water networks and most of the sewage is gato, meaning they are connected illegally to the formal municipal network. Street infrastructure consists of an informal network of narrow and unpaved roads without sidewalks. Additionally, the Occupation has no systematic management for storm water. Other absent public infrastructure includes street lighting, waste facilities, and public space.

171

nearly impossible to traverse and cars very easily get stuck in the mud. The lack of storm water management exacerbates these problems associated with the mudding of roads and the lack of sewage infrastructure. Following urbanization patterns occurring globally, Occupation residents informally install basic electricity and drinking water infrastructure (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003).

197 Water Tanks with Stored Municipal Water.

198 Example of Septic Tank Pipe.

172

The current sewage system in the Occupation is simple and to a certain degree centralized. There are different methods by which residents deal with their household sewage. As previously discussed, many houses are connected through the gato methodology. For sewage, this means individual households save up to install septic tanks and waste management professionals who live in the Occupation assist small groups of residents in hooking up their houses together. This creates a series of gradually larger septic tanks, which ultimately connect to the municipal system illegally. In this way, the Occupationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s infrastructure is not up to the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design standards but instead hooks up to the centralized system for dealing with wastewater. Other houses in the settlement are either connected to a septic tank without an outlet hole, a septic tank with an outlet hole that is not connected to a final destination, or not connected to any form of improved sewage at all. Currently, the infrastructure in the Occupation is primarily lacking because every house is not entirely connected to the municipal system. In some cases, houses are releasing sewage into the Occupation without any form of treatment.

199 (right) Existing Infrastructure Conditions.

173

Direct Release Direct Release Direct Release

Septic Tank Septic Tank (No Outlet) (No Outlet) Septic Tank (No Outlet) Septic Tank Septic Tank Septic Tank

Septic Tank Septic Tank (No Outlet) Septic Tank (No Outlet) (No Outlet)

Septic Tank Septic Tank Municipal Septic Tank Municipal System Municipal System System

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

Direct Release Direct Release Direct Release

Municipal Municipal System System Municipal System

LITERATURE REVIEW Peripheral urban development has caused significant issues with sanitation around world. There are distinctions in types of sanitation used in the urban environment, centralized vs. decentralized and conventional vs. simplified. Decentralized technologies are often optimal for sites like OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta. This is because there are a variety of options including biogas digesters, waste stabilization ponds, and constructed wetlands. Understanding these distinctions helps to determine the appropriate solution for the Occupation, especially in the context of wastewater treatment in SĂŁo Paulo city and state. Increasing urbanization, coupled with rising land prices, has led to increased settlement in the peripheral urban areas. These informal areas in the periphery pose a particular problem for sanitation provision because the increase in population and space required creates pressure on current sanitation systems and requires an investment by cities to adequately adapt existing infrastructure. However, the cost of upgraded sanitation systems is largely unaffordable for residents. This precarious mode of informal, peripheral urbanization has led scholars and practitioners to develop methods for sanitation that are cheaper and can be implemented without the assistance of the government. TYPES OF SANITATION Typically, wastewater treatment involves multiple stages including primary and secondary treatment. Primary treatment uses physical methods (e.g. sedimentation or 174

screening) in order to purify the water (Masters & Ela, 2008). Secondary treatment uses chemical processes to further remove bacteria and nutrients from water (Masters & Ela, 2008). Both processes are critical in order to produce effluent that is safe for release back into the watershed. On a broad level, there are variety of different types of sanitation systems, most of which have extended beyond the conventional, centralized model for city sewage service provision. Many of these alternative models are potentially suitable for use in poor, peripheral urban areas. There are two fundamental divisions in sanitation systems for wastewater disposal: centralized versus decentralized systems. Centralized methods of sewage disposal involve the collection of wastewater from an area that is then moved off site to be treated (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). In contrast, decentralized methods involve collecting and treating wastewater on-site, close to the point of generation (HophmayerTokich, 2006). Determining what kind of sanitation service provision might be suitable to construct depends on the current conditions and sanitation history of a particular site or location. Most cities, particularly in the Western world, use centralized methods of sanitation provision (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). This is because the concentration of people in cities provides an opportunity to reap the benefits of the efficiency of the centralized systems (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). However, urban population growth leads to a concentration of

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waste and an overextended network (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). To solve this critical issue, major infrastructure improvements are required. These can be challenging to plan for, and even more challenging to fund. Decentralized methods provide a cost-effective alternative for major infrastructure improvements that can serve peripheral urbanized areas. While decentralized technologies have the reputation of being less effective than centralized approaches, this notion is incorrect and leaves many communities around the world left without any sanitation at all (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). Due to this challenge and general discrimination of the urban poor, it is critical to recognize how local institutions and

communities can play a role in the provision of decentralized sanitary services (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). However, decentralized technologies for sanitation require a lot of land; which given the context of a rapidly urbanizing city is extremely hard to find (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). Moreover, while considered ‘simple’ technology, decentralized sanitation systems require a degree of expertise to build/maintain and institutional capacity to oversee (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). This issue is particularly critical in these transient environments when land tenure is unclear and there is little incentive for residents or the government to invest in communities (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003).

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

200 An Example of a Sanitation Pipe Connection in Ocupação Anchieta.

201 Example of Scale of Centralized Treatment (Allen 2015)

202 Example of Scale of Decentralized Treatment (Apptech Solutions n.d.)

176

Another fundamental difference in sanitation system design is between conventional and simplified systems. Conventional sewage systems have strict and conservative design specifications (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). Again, these systems are typical in western cities where systems are designed and constructed by certified engineers. In contrast, simplified systems have more relaxed design specifications (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). These relaxed design specifications change some of the assumptions made in the engineering equations used to calculate specifications such as pipe thickness, size, and depth of pipe placement (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). Changed assumptions may include water usage in the community and vehicle traffic near the pipe. The benefit is that by using more accurate specifications for the design of the technology, materials can be saved, decreasing the cost of infrastructure. Simplified systems have been shown to be an effective sanitation method for low-income, urban areas (Paterson, Mara, & Curtis, 2007). The final difference that will be discussed is the type of water being treated. There are two classifications of wastewater: grey water and black water. Grey water is water that has not been mixed with human faeces but contains a mixture of drinking water, cooking oil, soap, etc. Black water is water that has been mixed with human faeces. Black water and greywater can be treated differently and have different potential for reuse. Depending on the existing conditions in the urban region, separating grey and black water can lead to increased efficiencies because grey water can be more quickly treated and reused for purposes like irrigation, for example (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003).

177 TYPES OF DECENTRALIZED SANITATION Anaerobic Treatment Decentralized anaerobic treatment technologies sanitize wastewater by utilizing the power of microorganisms to break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen. One of the biggest benefits of this form of decentralized treatment is the production of energy (biogas) (Lettinga, 1995). Additionally, the technology is easy to implement and sludge is stable (Lettinga, 1995). However, this methodology is less effective at pathogen removal (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). There are a variety of specific technologies under the umbrella of anaerobic treatment including septic systems, anaerobic waste stabilization ponds, anaerobic filters, up flow anaerobic sludge blanket digesters, and baffled reactors.

203 Example of Anaerobic Treatment in Another Community (Gobar Gas plant at Aman Bagh n.d.)

Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are a series of man-made shallow ponds that utilize natural processes of bacteria to treat and sanitize wastewater (Kayombo et al., 2005, Parkinson and Tayler 2003). They are manmade structures that utilize natural processes. Waste stabilization ponds are cheap, easy to develop and maintain, and require little energy (Kayombo et al., 2005). Given their long retention times, WSPs effectively remove pathogens from the water rather than break down organic material (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). Moreover, the ponds are an ideal location for reuse of produced resources, such as aquaponics systems (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). However, WSPs require a long retention time and a lot of space, which may not be available in the peripheral urban environment (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003).

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

Waste Stabilization Ponds

179

CASE STUDY: Al-Dewaniyah, Iraq This case discusses experimental provision of waste stabilization ponds. This is for the Al-Dewaniyah province in Iraq with a sample population of about, 10,000 people. The province of Al-Dewaniyah has a wastewater treatment plant, but it is beyond capacity so the proposed WSPs are a method of expanding capacity. Al-Hashimi & Hussain

205 (left) Example of Anaerobic Treatment in Another Community (Build a Biogas Plant n.d.)

(2013) concluded that WSPs are a promising method for water treatment as they are easy to operate and maintain, and use very little energy in the treatment process. Overall, there are advantages to WSPs, but they may not be the most sensible option for OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta given the space required to treat water.

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

204 Aerobic Pond Process.

Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands utilize the processes of natural wetlands to clean wastewater. While a cost-effective solution, constructed wetlands require pre-treatment, so they cannot stand on their own (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). Moreover, in environments where waterbased diseases are a concern, constructed wetlands require vector control as to not further perpetuate public health problems (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). 206 Example of a Waste Stabilization Pond ([Waste Stabilization Ponds] n.d.)

207 Example of Constructed Wetland (Braeckevelt 2007)

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STATUS OF SEWAGE INFRASTRUCTURE IN SÃO PAULO Proper wastewater management is a challenge for the City of São Paulo. São Paulo is surrounded by water, with a series of tributaries in the north for drinking water and water storage reservoirs in the south; yet, wastewater treatment is mismanaged at best. Water and wastewater is managed be the Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo S.A. (SABESP) owned by São Paulo state. SABESP serves areas of São Paulo city and state. The network extends to approximately 3.9 million households (Stepping, 2016). While reported values can vary, approximately 70% of the total sewage is collected and approximately 95% of the urban sewage is collected (Stepping, 2016). Critically however, only about 51% of the total sewage collected is treated (Stepping, 2016). This clearly indicates that while approximately one third of sanitation investment in Brazil is directed towards SABESP, the sanitation system may be overcapacity or in need of repair to be functioning properly (Stepping, 2016).

181 CASE STUDY: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Favela Vale Encantado is a peripheral favela of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil which has developed a sustainable model for their community including new sewage infrastructure and an eco-tourism industry. They recently installed a biogas system, which is the second of two in the community. This is a combination of a biogas digester that uses anaerobic methods to generate biogas producing sludge and liquid waste, and a small constructed wetland area to purify the effluent (Lepercq, 2015). Ocupação Anchieta, like Favela Vale Encantado, is not an isolated situation, as an informal settlement looking to improve their infrastructure. Decentralized sewage was an effective option for this community. Looking ahead – the idea of ecotourism could be a vision of the Occupation.

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

208 Lepercq (2015)

183

RECOMMENDATIONS

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA CAMPAIGN Sewage Champions

209 Site Image Illustrating the Lack of Stormwater Management Options.

One of the most critical issues related to sewage management in the Occupation is the lack of a complete sewage infrastructure system.

One of the simplest ways to improve sanitation is through the development of a plan to hook up every household to the municipal system. Given the current barriers for sewage improvement in the Occupation, including cost of materials and level of expertise, improving capacity for sewage management will be crucial for improving the environmental health and livelihood of residents as well as improving tenure security. Currently, comprehensive knowledge regarding the state of sewage infrastructure in the Occupation is uncertain. In fact, Taubman Team members received different explanations about which houses have open sewage disposal, which are either connected to rudimentary septic tanks, and which are informally connected to the municipal system. This is problematic because even if one house is disconnected, negative externalities impact the entire Occupation. Thus, it is important for every house to be serviced by improved sewage.

SEWAGE FREE ANCHIETA

This component is an outline of a plan to build community capacity for decentralized sanitation options. In addition, it proposes participatory visioning in order to begin to consider how OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta can become a model for sustainability. Community capacity will be built by developing a volunteer role of sewage champion. The role will involve conducting surveys to understand the status of infrastructure in the Occupation and develop an educational campaign. The visioning responds to design and project questions to how a sanitation project may be sustainable.

Decentralized sanitation technologies are a particularly good option for the Occupation to explore. The inexpensive nature of these technologies, coupled with their ability to clean the wastewater before it enters the municipal system or watershed, makes this type of technology ideal. Technologies can range in design from individual household level interventions (similar to the septic systems already in place) to clustered larger systems (Gutterer et al., 2009). The Taubman College Team proposes two stages of recommendations: one stage to address the status of sewage in the settlement and one to address future sewage visioning with the goal of cleaning wastewater before it leaves the Occupation.

Infrastructure Survey: Sample Questions What is your house number? How many people live in your house? What type of sewage do you have if any? (pipe leaving house, Septic tank with outflow, septic tank without outflow, septic tank with connection to the municipality) Can we take a picture of your sewage system? If there is a septic tank, how large is it? Has it been filled to capacity yet? Have you had your septic system pumped? If so, how much did it cost? Did you construct your sewage system yourself? If not, who helped you construct the system? How much did it cost to construct your sewage system? How do you maintain your sewage system? Would you prefer a different sewage system?

One of the primary recommendations of the Sewage Free Anchieta plan is to find residents willing to volunteer as “sewage champions.” These residents should be relatively experienced with current wastewater systems and see the benefit connecting the entire Occupation to improved sanitation. This recommendation first requires conducting a comprehensive sewage infrastructure study. The study may be completed with members from the Taubman Team upon their return this summer. Ideally, the survey will be administered in every Ocupação Anchieta house. Survey questions should assess several conditions outlined in the call out box and should be further developed with the sewage champions once they are selected. Given this information, the sewage champions will be able to identify target areas to strategically plan improvements to household sewage infrastructure. Another task for the sewage champions will be to understand residents’ capacity and ability to install sewage infrastructure. During Taubman Team’s site visit, students informally interviewed one of the residents who installed gato connections to the municipal sewage system. This indicates that there are members of the Occupation who have the capacity to assist in implementation. When one household or block does not have the specific skills to install a septic tank or connect to the municipal system, the sewage champions will be able to organize assistance. If new residents move to the Occupation, the sewage champions can assist them in installing improved sewage infrastructure. Next, the sewage champions, in conjunction with Ocupação Anchieta Association (the Association) coordinators, can act as mediators and motivators, working

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185 CASE STUDY: Tiruchirappoali, India

In this study, microfinancing was examined as a tool for funding improvements in water and sanitation technologies in a city in India. Tiruchirappoali has a severe lack of sanitation infrastructure with only 37% of residents have access to a toilet (Barenburg 2009). Microfinance loans were given through women’s selfhelp groups averaging around $91 in this study to build latrines, toilets, bathing facilities and water faucets (Barenburg 2009). This study illustrates the potential for microfinance in the previously underutilized realm of water and sanitation infrastructure development.

with households who are unable or unwilling to improve their sewage infrastructure. In the case that residents feel they cannot afford to build a septic tank, the sewage champions can present accurate costs of construction and a savings plan. In the case that residents are unmotivated to connect, the sewage champions can talk with the resident about the importance of improved sewage infrastructure and provide further informational material that is developed in conjunction with the sewage champions. Lastly, the sewage champion(s) will oversee the organization and maintenance of the septic tanks. Septic tanks need inspection and pumping approximately every three years to prevent the risk of overflowing and not working properly (EPA, 2013). Moreover, the tanks need to be pumped out when

they become full. Depending on the size of the tank and family, pumping may need to occur every 3-5 years. This comes at an expense. It is unknown how much pumping would cost in Ocupação Anchieta, but in São Paulo, a septic tank of about 10,000 L would cost approximately R$320, or the equivalent of USD $102 (Limpa Fossa, n.d.). Although local sewage experts have been helping neighbors set up their sewage systems, these volunteers do not yet have a vision for comprehensively connecting the entire site. Thus, the major challenge regarding this recommendation pertains to the logistics of developing a comprehensive understanding of the Occupation and insuring that the volunteers understand the job they are taking on and are willing to follow through with it. Secondly, the

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210 Ssriram mt (2014)

complicated street layout presents a challenge for undergoing a comprehensive site analysis. Moreover, this is a large task—particularly for volunteers to undertake alone. To ease this challenge, the Taubman Team proposes conducting the survey in collaboration with the Association coordinators, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (IAG), and resident volunteers. SEPTIC SYSTEM EDUCATION

211 Example of an Open Ditch in the Community.

Infrastructure Education: Septic Tank Maintainence Inspect your septic tank for leakage and fill level at least every three years Pump your septic tank every three to five years Avoid putting cooking grease, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, or anything solid (feminine hygiene products, condoms, floss, diapers, cigarette butts, cat litter, paper towels) into the pipes that flow to the septic tank Avoid using too much water at one time which can overflow the system Maintaining the proper septic system can improve the Ocupação Anchieta environment

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Given that the construction and maintenance of septic systems require a certain degree of expertise, one of the most basic ways to improve the environmental health of the Occupation is education. Septic systems are sensitive and without proper care they can leak or not treat the effluent of sewage. While expert knowledge can be utilized to maintain septic systems, users can do their part to maintain their own systems. To improve user behavior related to septic tanks, the Taubman Team can work together with the sewage champions to develop appropriate and effective septic system education. Depending on the advice of the sewage champions, the components could range from simple handouts to short videos or interactive sessions. The main message of the components should include septic system maintenance tips. Example of tips to include in the educational flyers are in the call box inspired by EPA 2013. There may be challenges to implementing this recommendation. First, effective communication is crucial. Residents use three WhatsApp accounts for daily communication with each other and the Association; therefore, this is most likely the best medium for communication and deploying information. Beyond identifying effective methods for

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conveying information, content development is important. The success of the educational component depends on the quality of data collected in the future, ideally, over the summer. Additionally, effective implementation depends on engaging the Association, who may play a critical role in helping edit the contents of septic tank maintenance tips and other educational materials. This will ensure that content is culturally appropriate and suitable for residents. Moreover, residents will be critical stakeholders for true implementation of an educational component.

VISIONING FOR A MODEL SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY In the long-term, residents should consider changing the way that they handle sewage; moving away from informal connections to onsite decentralized treatment. This can provide better quality control for the treatment of sewage that leaves the site. This benefit of decentralized sewage will particularly appeal to IAG, the landowners, who expressed concern with the quality of SĂŁo Paulo cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wastewater treatment, and who have been working with

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212 Community Member, Leonardo, Helping the Taubman Team with Water Testing.

a local consulting firm FLUX to understand options for the site. Furthermore, prior research has confirmed IAG’s concern that not all sewage in São Paulo is treated (World Bank, n.d.). Furthermore, on-site decentralized treatment systems are cost-effective, provide options for resource reuse, are more accountable than larger service providers, and can strengthen local government capacity (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003).

213 Example of Water Use Hose.

214 Example of Water Use for Laundry.

Decentralized sewage systems can also be an ideal form of environmental education, providing residents with the opportunity to understand the full lifecycle of waste rather than perpetuating the “out of sight, out of mind” concept that current centralized infrastructure systems embody. However, decentralized treatment technologies are by no means perfect. They require land, expertise to maintain, and may create a complex system for local governance. Nonetheless, the literature and a number of case studies demonstrate that proper planning and maintenance can alleviate these challenges (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003). More importantly, these challenges should not preclude the Occupation from simply considering these solutions, so long as the technologies are accurately presented. Therefore, participatory planning methods should be used to engage the Occupation in considering other options for sewage infrastructure. PARTICIPATORY VISIONING FOR DECENTRALIZED SEWAGE MANAGEMENT The Taubman College Team did not gather sufficient data during fieldwork to recommend a specific decentralized sewage technology, even though some residents have been responsible for installing the current informal system of wastewater disposal. Thus, the

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Selection of appropriate technology is critical for implementation of wastewater infrastructure. The appropriateness of technology heavily depends on the sustainability of the project, or more specifically the environmental, economic, and social sustainability of the project (Massoud et al., 2009). Without considerations in each of these categories, the project, like many water and sanitation projects implemented across the globe, will quite possibly be doomed to failure. The environmental sustainability of the project is in some ways the most obvious requirement for a successful project. Massoud et al. (2009) discuss factors such as environmental protection, resource conservation, water reuse, and nutrient recycling to be critical to understanding if the project will be environmentally sustainable moving forward. Moreover, the authors describe how specific information about the environment should be gathered to properly design wastewater systems including: surface and groundwater quality, soil quality, air quality, ecosystem processes, and energy use in the

215 Farm Area That Will Be Positively Impacted By Sewage Management.

216 Creek Area That Will Be Positively Impacted By Sewage Management.

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goal of this visioning is to provide a couple of potential alternatives for decentralized sewage that explain how these systems work, their benefits and drawbacks, and the management capacity involved for system implementation and maintenance. The visioning provides discussion points, so that local stakeholders and the Association can assess their options and share information with residents to involve the Occupation residents from the very beginning of the visioning and planning process. The goal of the visioning process is to understand more about the type of system that might be appropriate in the Occupation and ideas of what these systems may look like.

217 Community Mapping Exercise with the Community and Taubman Team.

ecosystem (Massoud et al., 2009). While the Taubman Team collected basic data related to surface water and soil quality, to develop the best recommendations moving forward, it is clear that more data should be collected. This data will critically tell engineers and designers what type of system is most necessary. Designing systems to be appropriate for the context allows for the wastewater to be treated as minimally as is considered safeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;thus reducing the ecological footprint and price. 190

Economic sustainability is truly related to affordability for residents. Affordability includes capital and operating costs as well as potential replacement costs (Massoud et al., 2009). Massoud et al. (2009) discuss factors such as investment, population density, technological efficiency, and cost of operations, management and maintenance as being critical for understanding the affordability of technology. These factors are especially useful when comparing the true cost of centralized vs. decentralized technologies in the Occupation.

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Participatory Visioning: Economic Sustainability

Participatory Visioning: Social Sustainability

Are you willing to pay a tariff for sewage collection and treatment?

What is the residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal for sewage treatment?

If so, how much are you willing to pay? What frequency are you able to pay this tariff?

Who should oversee maintenance and evaluation of the decentralized wastewater system?

Would you find it worth it to pay ____ Reais a month for sewage collection?

What role should the Association play in sewage collection and treatment?

Would you be comfortable paying this tariff even if the entire Occupation was not able to contribute?

What role should IAG play in sewage collection and treatment? What role should the SĂŁo Paulo government play in sewage collection and treatment?

Will the treated water be released in the watershed or reused for a purpose? Would residents be willing to restructure their community if there was not enough space for treatment options?

Is there community capacity to inspect and monitor the functionality of the technology implemented? Who should collect money required to maintain the project? What happens if there is a required tariff and people do not pay?

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Participatory Visioning: Community Goals

Is there resident willingness to learn how to maintain the technology implemented?

218 A Community Member Discussing the Community with the Taubman Team.

For this type of sustainability, we gathered very little information. To thoughtfully design a decentralized wastewater system for Ocupação Anchieta, we would need to gain a better understanding of the Occupation’s ability to invest in this type of project. Even if the initial investment for the system could be funded by an external source, it is critical to understand the capacity of residents to pay for the system. Taubman Team recognizes that on average residents used to pay R$ 350 per month before moving to the Occupation. Thus, any monthly contribution for a common sewage system cannot come close to this amount; otherwise housing will become unaffordable once more. Returning to the Occupation to complete another series of surveys with 192

residents will be necessary before suggesting any concrete solutions. Questions that need to be answered are noted in the callback box. Lastly, addressing social sustainability ensures that the people who live in Ocupação Anchieta will sustain a decentralized sewage system. Massoud et al. (2009) discuss factors such as public health, government policy and regulations, community lifestyle, habits, acceptance, and planning as necessary considerations for planning a sustainable sewage system. These factors vary depending on the specific community, urban condition, city, and country. Given the context in the Occupation the management of the improved system will be a major factor for

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determining if the project is social sustainable. Massoud et al. (2009) state that centralized management of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems is essentialâ&#x20AC;? for these systems to be effectively managed. However, we have little information about the capacity, appropriateness, or willingness of the average resident to centrally manage a wastewater treatment system. To gain a better understanding of the potential social sustainability of the project, additional questions should be added to the survey as outlined in the call out box. Taking all the considerations for sustainable systems discussed above into account, design considerations must also be considered prior to construction. The design requirements

include volume of wastewater, quality of wastewater, temperature, available land, legal effluent requirements, and final handling of the effluent (Gutterer et al., 2009). For basic design purposes some of these considerations could be further researched or estimated. Community engagement is also fundamental during the design process to better understand what residents want and can accomplish. This will require asking questions such as: Without the answers to these questions related to sustainability, a system cannot be fully recommended. Given the Taubman Team site visit and pending the potential answers to the questions above, options for decentralized systems can be suggested in the section below.

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219 Community Member Contributing to the Meeting Held with the Taubman Team.

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

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Actions

Actors

Finding the Sewage Champions

Movimento Anchieta

Completeing Sewage Infrastructure Survey

Sewage Champions & Taubman Team

Developing appropriate educational materials with Movimento Anchieta

Sewage Champions & Taubman Team

Conduct participatory visioning community surveys

Sewage Champions & Taubman Team

Pass out septic tank educational materials

Sewage Champions

Developing target areas for infrastructure improvement

Sewage Champions

Developing infrastructure capacity team

Sewage Champions

Develop possible prototypes for decentralized sanitation prototypes

Sewage Champions & Taubman Team (Additional Technical Team)

Working with the community to get every house online

Sewage Champions & Movimento Anchieta

Maintain systems that are already constructed

Sewage Champions and Infrastructure Capacity Team

Installation of decentralized sanitation prototypes

Sewage Champions & Taubman Team (Additional Technical Team)

195 DESIGN POSSIBILITIES FOR DECENTRALIZED TREATMENT

To tackle design and implementation of decentralized treatment options, additional technical engineering assistance will be required as it is beyond the capacity of Taubman Team. The participatory visioning event will be critical for the engineer to understand what the Occupation wants and is capable of. The engineer can work with Taubman Team and sewage champions to design prototype decentralized communal options to test in the Occupation. Then, the prototypes can be modified and improved after initial testing.

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Taubman Team considered both design and implementation of decentralized treatment options in the Occupation. While students have limited knowledge of community capacity and vision for sanitation in the Occupation, the most promising similar case was the case of Favela Encantado in Rio de Janeiro. This system would provide direct benefits of wastewater sanitation while having a positive externality of production of energy in the form of biogas. A well-designed treatment system could utilize the energy for public benefit, such as to power a street light. A biogas system can be modified to work at multiple scales and is relatively simple to build and maintain. Taubman College Team has begun brainstorming ideas to include secondary treatment in a biogas system with grey water treatment for increased efficiency.

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CONCLUSION

220 Site Image Illustrating the Lack of Stormwater Management Options.

This range presents an institutional challenge for the Occupation to begin to address sanitation infrastructure. Without understanding the current state of sewage infrastructure, it is a challenge for the Occupation to efficiently improve the scenario. To solve this problem and increase organizational capacity, this section of the action plan proposes development of a new position in the Movement

of sewage champion. This volunteer(s) job would conduct an infrastructure survey, co-develop a sanitation education campaign, and work with Occupation residents to improve the state of infrastructure overall. Participatory community meetings led by both Taubman Team and the sewage champions will increase understanding of the financial and social capacity of the Occupation. Also, how the residents envision sanitation in the Occupation moving forward. Prototypes for a decentralized sanitation system will be developed after visioning and tested to achieve optimum design. The organizational capacity and community visioning of Sewage Free Anchieta will become a pillar of a sustainable model community.

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Community capacity building and participatory visioning addresses the lack of basic sanitation infrastructure in Ocupação Anchieta. Currently, not everyone in the Occupation has access to improved sanitation. This is detrimental to public health, but also environmental health and the larger water system of São Paulo. São Paulo is not alone in tackling this issue - rapid urbanization has led to many cities around the globe needing to innovate to solve these issues. Sewage Free Anchieta will encourage the Occupation to strive for a sustainable community.

Addressing the lack of improved sanitation is of utmost importance in Ocupação Anchieta. While sanitation is not completely ignored in the Occupation, there is a great range in how sewage is handled, ranging from direct release to municipal connections. Some houses are directly releasing sewage into the environment. This is both a public health and environmental health issue for both the Occupation and the larger ecosystem of São Paulo.

SOURCES Allen, N. (2015, November 21). Marlborough East Wastewater Treatment Plant Aerial [Digital image]. Retrieved May 3, 2017, from https://commons. w i k i m e d i a . o r g / w i k i / F i l e : M a r l b o ro u g h _ E a s t _ Wastewater_Treatment_Plant_Aerial.JPG Al-Hashimi, M. A. I., & Hussain, H. T. (2013). Stabilization pond for wastewater treatment. European Scientific Journal May, 9(14), 1857–7881. Apptech Solutions. (n.d.). Inceptor 4 [Digital image]. Retrieved May 3, 2017, from https://i1.wp.com/ www.apptech-solutions.com/wp-content/uploads/ Inceptor-4.jpg Barenberg, A. (2009). Microfinance for water and sanitation: a case study from Tiruchirappalli, India. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Mulisectoral Approaches. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Retrieved from http://medcontent. metapress.com/index/A65RM03P4874243N. pdf%5Cnhttp://www.cabdirect.org/ abstracts/20103078363.html Braeckevelt, M. (2007). Investigations on the biological transformation of chlorinated benzenes in a pilot scale constructed wetland . Leipzig University. Build a Biogas Plant. (n.d.). Balloon Digester as seen in Costa Rica. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from http:// www.build-a-biogas-plant.com/balloon-digester/ EPA. (2013). Do Your Part, Be SepticSmart. Gobar Gas plant at Aman Bagh [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved May 3, 2017, from https://amanbagh.org/ gobar-bio-gas-plant-references/

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Gutterer, B., Sasse, L., Panzerbieter, T., & Reckerzügel, T. (2009). Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and Sanitation in Developing Countries. Retrieved from http://www. sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/ DEWATS_Guidebook_small.pdf Hophmayer-Tokich, S. (2006). Wastewater Management Strategy: centralized versus decentralized technologies for small communities. Kayombo, S., Mbwette, T. S. A., Katima, J. H. Y., Ladegaard, N., & Jørgensen, S. E. (2005). Waste stabilization ponds and constructed wetlands design manual. … Center,(Jan. 11, …, 1–59. Lepercq, C. (2015). Sustainable Favela Vale Encantado Begins Sewage Treatment Biosystem Construction. Lettinga, G. (1995). Anaerobic digestion and wastewater treatment systems. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 67(1), 3–28. http://doi.org/10.1007/ BF00872193 Limpa Fossa. (n.d.). Compare preços e serviços de limpeza de fossa antes de contratar! Retrieved May 03, 2017, from https://www.limpafossasp.srv.br/ Massoud, M. A., Tarhini, A., & Nasr, J. A. (2009). Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: Applicability in developing countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(1), 652–659. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvman.2008.07.001 Masters, G. M., & Ela, W. P. (2008). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science (3rd ed.).

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Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. MercadoMineiro. (n.d.). Pesquisa de Preços de Desentupimento e Limpeza. Nidumolu, A. (2015). Vale Encantado: An Emerging Example for Sustainable Communities. Retrieved April 22, 2017, from http://www.rioonwatch. org/?p=21210) Paterson, C., Mara, D., & Curtis, T. (2007). Pro-poor sanitation technologies. Geoforum, 38(5), 901–907. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2006.08.006 Parkinson, J., & Tayler, K. (2003). Decentralized wastewater management in peri-urban areas in low-income countries. Environment and Urbanization, 15(1), 75–90. http://doi. org/10.1177/095624780301500119

Schneider, K. (2015). The wealthy megacity on the brink of disaster. Stepping, K. (2016). Urban Sewage in Brazil: Drivers of and Obstacles to Wastewater Treatment and Reuse. [Waste Stabilization Ponds]. (n.d.). Retrieved May 3, 2017, from http://www.constructedwetlands.net/ images/SDC15623.jpg

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Ssriram mt. (2014, September 2). Trichy Panorama. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Tiruchirappalli#/media/File:Trichy_pano4. jpg

07 CULTURAL ANCHIETA This section of the action plan describes the design, construction and management of a new community center, church and playground area within Ocupação Anchieta. The site is located next to Ocupação Anchieta Association’s headquarters. The Ocupação Anchieta Association commissioned the project. The design and use of these spaces are based on direct feedback received by the client-partner and residents during the community meeting. The Taubman Team also incorporated questions within the door-to-door household survey that asked residents to list their priorities for recreational, cultural and educational spaces within the Occupation. Therefore, Cultural Anchieta is a very community-driven chapter. Its components are further explained in the following pages.

Every month, the Association organizes a general meeting open to all residents, usually highly attended with some 300 residents, in their headquarters. During these meetings, the Association facilitates decision-making processes among residents through consensus-building mechanisms. Occasionally, external non-profit organizations and religious groups approach the Occupation to offer educational and cultural programming for children and youth, and residents decide on which of these organizations they will engage. To house these opportunities, our partners voiced the need for a larger, multi-purpose space within the Occupation that can foster educational and cultural growth. Therefore, the Cultural Anchieta plan aims to build a new community center that incorporates a church, environmental education, cultural space, and an open space playground. 165 (previous) Residents Enjoying Time Together.

167 (left) Residents Taking Care of Child Playing.

Taubman College Team recognizes that a community center is an important place for community building, public engagement and organizing. Ocupacao Anchieta lacks public spaces, recreational centers, and playgrounds (Aulicino, n.d.). Taubman Teamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s survey results demonstrate the Occupation residents placed playgrounds at the top of the facilities and public spaces they would like to see built first. Furthermore, during our client-partner interview, informal interviews, and the community meeting, Association residents and coordinators alike informed the Taubman Team of the plans to build a cultural cluster next to the headquarters of the Association. The facilities and spaces consist of a Catholic church, a cultural center with a dance area, and a playground. The Occupation residents identified and prioritized these three facilities before Taubman Team arrived. Residents prioritized the cultural center with an

accompanying dance floor is a priority to the Occupation because children and youth practice Capoeira, and hold dance classes, on the patio of the Association headquarters. Although, the patio has a roof, the lack of walls prevents classes from taking places when in the cold, windy or strong rainy days. Furthermore, students no changing rooms or adequate floors for the lessons. The Occupation has only one football field and no playgrounds. There is are also no designated spaces for children to gather together and play. Children often play around their homes and in the roads, which explains why residents selected playgrounds as their top facility in the survey. Between 600 to 700 families live in the Occupation, with hundreds of children, building a playground is important. Social events in the Occupation currently take place in the Association headquarters. The headquarters is the only facility of this kind in the

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PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND RELEVANCE

203

settlement, and its small size does not allow for more than one event at time. For instance, the Association headquarters is also used for healthcare providers to conduct free eye exams, dental checkups, and preventive care. Additionally, there is a proposal for a Catholic church in the Occupation. There are currently three evangelical churches on-site. The request to build the Catholic church is a desire reflected from both the Association and residents. The Association already has a space near the current community center that has been designated for the proposed church site. The Cultural Anchieta plan is grassroots led from the beginning and incorporates a participatory methodology to ensure that residents continue to engage during the design and implementation process.

168 Residents in Local Bar on Sunday.

166 Children Playing with Shopping Cart.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

Community-based planning methods incorporate participatory practices where a range of stakeholders are involved in the upgrading process. In many cases, this includes local government, communities and nonprofit organizations that are involved in the infrastructure improvement and programming, with the objective to diminish the state of vulnerability experienced by residents living in informal settlements (Arcila, 2008). In a recent exchange program between the South African municipality eThekwini and São Paulo, one of the stated lessons learned was the need to integrate social strategies with urban design to create negotiating opportunities between diverse stakeholders (eThekwini Municipality, 2014). These opportunities are important to develop solutions that will consider multiple interests, including the increasing demand for affordable housing, as well as develop areas where very low-income people can thrive in a safe, clean and healthy environment. Consequently, informal settlement upgrading strategies have to “meet the daily needs of its residents, including education, culture and recreational areas that promote and reinforce residents’ sense of community and identity” (eThekwini Municipality, 2014). According to a recent study that compares multiple projects using community-based planning methods, these proposals are based on solving specific problems in the informal settlement. Within this framework, stakeholders prioritize their areas of intervention, and

determine how to proceed using available resources. Thus, problem-solving is based on developing partnerships amongst internal and external stakeholders. The process is most successful when it is transparent and accessible, and interventions should be documented to promote best practices and knowledge-sharing. They also focus on the implementation process, using workshops with experiential-learning strategies, and develop programs and projects rather than research (Arcila, 2008). Participation is an important component for this method, and effective community engagement is necessary to develop trust amongst stakeholders (eThekwini Municipality, 2014). There are four different structures of participation to consider in method-based planning: 1) stakeholder and consensus decision-making; 2) partnership between community and government; 3) community-based participatory planning; and 4) community development support that involves individuals in the decision-making process (Abbott, 2002). Furthermore, design and planning professionals can serve a role as facilitators and partners within these processes and develop designs that tackle the differences between private, semi-private, social or collective and public space (Abbott, 2002). PUBLIC AND COMMUNITY INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

SPACE

Informal settlements exist outside of the regularized city planning structures in many

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IMPORTANCE OF SLUM UPGRADING WITH COMMUNITY-BASED PLANNING METHOD

CASE STUDY: Beit Iksa, Palestine The project is an adaptive re-use, upgrading an abandoned space into a women’s center and playground. It is part of a larger plan to revive an existing historical center in Beit Iksa, a small Palestinian village near Jerusalem. The project incorporates both social and cultural aspects as well as responds to the isolation and lack of resources in the village. The project involves two abandoned buildings for reuse as working spaces and an eco-kitchen. There will also be interactive educational playgrounds for children, all-season seating areas, and a protected bird habitat. The efforts are motivated by the community to take an abandoned area and make it functional for the residents of Beit Iksa (Safi and Sharif, 2015). 169 Adaptive Re-use: Women’s Center and Playground.

Latin American cities. The term ‘informal’ alludes to this characteristic. In Latin American countries where property has a social value and where there are high levels of inequity, most of the built environment is being shaped by “largely unskilled, low-income people” (Hernández-Garcia, 2013). This production of space questions the idea of what is formal and informal, who should design space and how it should be designed. However, these types of urban developments are becoming more prevalent in rapidly urbanizing cities like São Paulo. Furthermore, there is an opportunity for professionals in planning and urban design fields to support the production of sustainable developments within the informal settlement context. The production of public and community space in informal settlements involves a wide range of stakeholders who are negotiating 206

their own interests against collective ones. But during this exchange, residents of informal settlements are at the center of the process, participating in the control and development of space (Hernández-Bonilla, 2008). Through these participatory planning processes, residents can also protect themselves against “external and internal agents who want to privatize a collective property” (HernándezBonilla, 2008), by empowering collective decision-making. Consequently, it is crucial for residents to be involved in the decision-making of these public spaces. Placemaking is defined as a “social and political process” through which residents give meaning to a particular site they created. This planning and design framework is commonly used in Western countries, however, it has not been widely used in the production of public spaces in informal settlements (Beza

207 et. al, 2014). This process focuses highly on the experience and involvement of residents, incorporates the context of the development areas and tailors the project’s design to their needs and values (Beza et. al, 2014). Public space provides areas for children and residents to engage in recreational and cultural activities. When it is a communal space, these areas can also centralize community services like medical facilities and a church (Beza, et. al, 2014). For example, in the town of Caracoli, in Colombia, these spaces are called “parque del barrio” and acquire special meaning for residents who view this as the “central focal point’ of their community (Beza et. al, 2014). Here, the success of the public space project was measured by “the resident’s positive perception of spaces”, especially the public space of the “parque del barrio”. This perception is highly dependant on “incremental development and the available resources that work together to produce a particular aesthetic” that is designed through the community’s vision (Beza et. al, 2014).

170 Resident’s Front Garden.

It is common for architects and urban designers to come up with large development projects for community spaces. Although the design of these spaces are innovative and creative, the large scale of the development project is difficult to manage in terms of costs and construction. In the most successful cases, designers have promoted small incremental construction and favor simple designs that are easy to build or use recyclable materials (see Laguna Chapel in Case Study section).

171 Children Playing Outside Local Bar.

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URBAN DESIGN OF HEALTHY COMMUNITY SPACES

Another strategy that is used is the creation of networks of public spaces that are coupled with social services to promote access to urban amenities in the poorest areas of cities (see Medellín in Case Study section). Although many of these community projects vary in scale, they share the common goal of providing a central space for communitybuilding activities, where social interaction and integration can thrive (see Ballet Paraisópolis in Case Study section).

172 Residents Gather Under Tree.

173 Children with Rollerblades Pose for Picture.

The lack of public space increases health risks in people of all ages, but it is particularly harmful for children. Without access to safe places for recreation, children turn to areas that are neglected and polluted for play, and increase their risks of contracting illnesses. Furthermore, studies show that the cognitive growth of children is stunted when they do not have access to open-space activities (Conradson, 2005). The interaction between environmental, social and symbolic dimensions impact the positive perception of spaces. Depending on the conditions of the physical environment, people’s sociality can have a significant beneficial change (Conradson, 2005). Hence, the physical well-being of both places and people are tied together, and also exist “within broader cultural narratives” where building a good relationship to their environment can also provide a “possibility for personal renewal” (Conradson, 2005). “Urban form has much to do with health” (Frumkin, 2003). Although the concept of ‘sense of place’ is usually used to denote social dimensions, it has very important health implications as well. Specifically, four aspects impact people’s health: “nature contact, buildings, public spaces, and urban

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174 Klong Toey Community Lantern.

Klong Toey is both the oldest and largest informal settlement in Bangkok, Thailand. The area is home to over 140,000 people, who live in poorly-built housing with few to no tenure rights or government support. There is a serious lack of public services, and a high rate of drug usage, unemployment, and crime. This project functions as both a football court and a public playground, “the project will work as a tool for the community to tackle some of the social issues in the area” (TYIN Tegnestue Architects, 2012). This project is a small part of a longterm strategy that is the Klong Toey Community Latern (TYIN Tegnestue Architects, 2012).

The team working on the project engaged with the community through interviews, workshops, and public meetings to determine the highest priorities of the communities in both the design and function of the space. The site had limited space, giving most priority to the size of the football field. The structure measures 12m x 1.2m and the height of the building is about 5 meters. The team focused on constructing for the residents enabling them “to make adaptations that fit with their changing needs,” understanding that the project was a component in the larger development of the Klong Toey community (TYIN Tegnestue Architects, 2012).

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CASE STUDY: Bangkok, Thailand

CASE STUDY: Bogotá, Colombia The use and functions of public spaces in informal settlements can have varying meanings. Informal settlements have very limited space available for public use. However, in the barrios (informal settlements) of Bogotá, Columbia, “public spaces in the barrios play an important role from the beginning of the settlements, and connect closely with the people, influencing social relations but also transforming places” (Hernández-García, 2013). Therefore, the barrios of Bogota are different from most other informal settlements because public spaces are considered from the beginning. Based on our communication with our clientpartners and field methods in Ocupação Anchieta this is also important in informal settlements in Brazil. It is critical for the community to have inclusive spaces for social engagement and connection (Hernández-García, 2013).

175 Children Playing in Barrios.

form” (Frumkin, 2003). The design of healthy spaces depends on the collaboration between designers, planners and health professionals who can impact the creation of community areas that promote a ‘sense of place’ (Frumkin, 2003). PHYSICAL DESIGN WITH A SOCIAL IMPACT One of the main goals in informal settlement upgrading should be to diminish the level of vulnerability experienced by residents. By implementing educational and cultural programming in community spaces, residents can own the projects implemented and learn how to improve their quality of life. According to Abbott, there are four elements 210

of vulnerability: physically marginalized environments, lack of opportunity of asset retention and growth, household relations and composition, and perception of poverty (2002). Without a functioning community area that can be used for the multiple community needs, it is difficult to ascertain the sustainability of the implementation of design components. Community-building activities can provide an opportunity to “enhance the awareness of the beneficiaries of the interventions (...) so that the systems, materials and solutions that have been deployed are absorbed by the resident populations of the intervened areas” (Aulicino, n.d.). This way, residents will use community space to continue to

211 build and share knowledge, as well as use the physical transformation of their shared spaces to enhance their new sense of identity as an environmentally sustainable occupation (Abbott, 2002). Our recommendations aim to enhance the existing community-building and engagement mechanisms in Ocupação Anchieta. Through the cultural design component of our plan, Taubman Team proposes to provide a space for cultural and educational activities that focuses on sustainable development and environmentally conscious practices related to the Occupation’s site. Our goal is to highlight the importance of the natural and social environment throughout the informal settlement, and for residents to share knowledge about how to maintain infrastructure, waste management and green infrastructure interventions. 176 Cable Car System in Medellin.

In Medellín, Colombia the local Administration created the project “Proyecto Urbano Integral – PUI (Integral Urban Project), a slum upgrading model (Arcila, 2008). The project’s objectives include to ‘empower community based organizations’, ‘improve of public space’, and construct and improve community facilities.’ Specifically, these objectives focus on training community leaders and building off of existing local knowledge and projects, generating a system of informing residents about what is going on in the community, creating public parks, incorporating and upgrading facilities such as libraries, schools, and sport areas (Arcila, 2008). The PUI model seeks to address concerns that are widespread across informal settlements, such as Ocupação Anchieta. The objectives of empowering community based organizations, improving public space, and constructing community facilities can be expanded upon and incorporated towards the Cultural Anchieta project as it develops (Arcila, 2008).

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CASE STUDY: Medellin, Colombia

DESIGN REVIEW PROCESS

177 Mapping Exercise between Taubman Team and Residents.

The Association coordinators accompanied students to the site of their desired cultural center. Students took pictures of the site and started the initial envisioning process. Considering the small size of the property, the Taubman Team architects began sketching different designs based on the Association and residents’ feedback. The Association had a very clear vision that they shared with Taubman Team. Specifically, incorporating bathrooms, changing rooms, a dance

floor, and separate buildings for the two structures. The Occupation also requested that the playground be placed in the visible front part of the property so that residents would not use the space for anything other than its purpose. The church will be placed on a space where currently there is a house that will be relocated. Taubman students shared the first renderings with the Association coordinators March 5th and received feedback for further changes. They wanted to ensure that the church was a separate building structure from the cultural center and playground. Conversations with residents and the Association coordinators continued during Taubman Team’s field work. The door-to-door household surveys had questions that specifically related to public life, which addressed what programming and facilities residents would like to see in the future. Direct observations allowed students to directly

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The residents and Association coordinators made it very clear to Taubman Team that they wanted to incorporate spaces for worship, children’s play, dance and culture next to the Association headquarters. While at the Occupation, students engaged with the residents through mediums of informal conversations, a community meeting, door-to-door household surveys, direct observation surveys, and community mapping. These methods informed the Taubman Team of the components to be included in the Cultural Anchieta design.

The entire process was participatory and clientpartner driven. The architect and planning students worked with both the Association and residents of the Occupation. Upon arriving to the Occupation, Taubman Team first met with the Association coordinators for a clientpartner interview. These initial conversations informed the Team of the strong desire of spaces for worship, culture, children, and dance.

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178 Original Rendering for Community Center Project.

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179 Rendering of Church.

180 Cultural Anchieta Site.

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181 Layout 1 for Community Center, Church and Playground.

182 Layout 2 for Community Center, Church and Playground.

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183 Layout 3 for Community Center, Church and Playground.

notice the lack of spaces for residents to come together as well as spaces designated for children. The community meeting allowed for residents who feel strongly about incorporating the Cultural Anchieta components into their Occupation to share their concerns, what they would like to see, and what activities they currently do that do not have a designated space to house them.

184 Children Playing.

185 Local Evangelical Church.

With the help of translators, Taubman Team documented the input received from the Occupation on-site, which informed the revisions of the first designs once back at the University of Michigan campus. The series of different forms of communication both inperson and through mediums of email and WhatsApp continued the design process well after Taubman Team left the Occupation. Although our client-partners did not have frequent access to the internet, they were able to contact Taubman Team through Pimentel Walker. Upon returning to University of Michigan, two architect students in Taubman Team created four different plan options based on the feedback from the Occupation. All four designs have different components that incorporate the feedback from the residents but also are functional and make sense structurally. The main differences between the designs is the location of the bathrooms and changing rooms in the layout. Taubman Team critically analyzed these plans, with the Occupationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s visions in mind and chose a design that was most appropriate for the space. Based on the designs and the costs estimates that the Association coordinators provided, the Taubman Team put together a budget to determine how much each component of the final design

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would cost in total as well as the costs of individual components. This chosen design will be shown to the residents when faculty and students from the Taubman Team return to the Occupation this summer. Residents will be able to review the design once more, provide feedback, and initial construction of the Cultural Anchieta project can begin. In April 2017, the Taubman Team was awarded a $5,000 USD DOW sustainability grant, it is anticipated that a majority of this money will be for the construction of the Cultural Anchieta project.

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186 Children Posing for Picture.

Existing Community Center

Cultural Center Catholic Church

Playground/Park

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RECOMMENDATIONS

187 (left) Architectural Design of Community Center, Church and Playground.

donations from the produce warehouse to distribute them to the Occupation as well. Regarding the need for a cultural center, the Taubman Team also learned from the Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (the Institute) (IAG), the need to provide communal spaces and programming for toddlers and preschoolers. The Institute after-school program is for children who are six and older – so there is a lack of programs for children up to five years old The cultural center and the playground will also promote environmental health and education. Based on our residential survey health and wellness is one of the most desired programming components within the Occupation. An anti-smoking campaign, as well as an Earth Day Celebration, are just two of the many possibilities that Taubman Team suggests as ways to encourage health and wellness as well as to promote environmental education.

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The objective of the Cultural Anchieta project is to promote sustainable and participatory public space design in Ocupação Anchieta. It is important to promote educational and cultural activities for the Occupation as a whole, which can be achieved through a community-action planning framework. In informal settlements where people have a high sense of agency and responsibility for the construction of their own space, it is crucial to promote design solutions that will provide safe and healthy spaces. This point is especially true for children who lack recreational areas which can deteriorate their health in important development stages. The Association is a very strong mechanism for community organizing and participation, and is an excellent resource to promote environmental amelioration practices and education.

Based on residents’ input, from both our client-partner interview, informal meetings, residential surveys, and our community meeting, Taubman Team seeks to expand the areas devoted to social and cultural programming, and introduce environmental education activities. The Cultural Anchieta project will incorporate a Catholic church, a cultural center and dance area (to house capoeira classes and more) and a playground. Right behind the space where the current Association headquarters is located the residents would like to build three specific spaces in the respective location. It was the idea of Movimento Anchieta, our client-partner, to build in the space next door to the Association headquarters. The effort to build a Catholic church residents’ desire for religious inclusion since the Occupation houses three evangelical churches. For example, the local congregation of Assembly of God members works on religious services, and gathers

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188 Rendered Image of Architectural Design for Cultural Anchieta.

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189 Library Park Spain-Panoramic View.

CASE STUDY: Medellin, Colombia

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In Medellín, Colombia library parks are places that emphasize libraries as spaces for cultural and social activities. Library parks in Medellín aim “to cater to some of the most disadvantaged sectors, which most of the time, consist of informal settlements” (Sertich, 2010). The intervention of placing these library parks in informal settlements “since favelas are considered the areas with greater educational, cultural, public spaces, and basic

public services deficit” (Sertich, 2010). The EDU (Empresa de Desarrollo Urbano) (Urban Development Corporation) is the organization leading the library park formation, construction, and management. The EDU sets criteria for the location of the library parks and they enable informal settlements to have some of the amenities that are typically catered to those living in the city center (Sertich, 2010).

The anti-smoking campaign will encourage residents to quit smoking both for health and wellness for themselves as well to reduce the overall environmental impact. Tobacco awareness can be incorporated into the educational programming so that users are informed of the negative externalities associated with tobacco use. An additional benefit is the financial burden that comes with purchasing cigarettes. Through this campaign, the Occupation can discourage residents to smoke through signage, modelling, and education. It will also negate residents from littering cigarette butts throughout the Occupation and Cultural Anchieta space.

The Cultural Anchieta space will have many residents gathering frequently therefore, having some signage within the building as well as hosting the educational programming there will help promote the campaign. The environmental education will be encouraged by the Taubman Team, however, we hope that the Occupation will take initiative in the further education and workshops. One event that we will specifically encourage to initiate is an Earth Day Celebration. This event would be a fun way to promote a culture of environmental sustainability and engage residents in a conversation about the

225 successes of solid waste management and how it could be improved each year. Taubman Team would encourage residents to have the celebration be interactive with food, music, and games. One potential activity could be a game that teaches residents how to separate recycling from trash, for example. This would give residents something to look forward to every year that promotes environmental education and engagement in their Occupation. The Association can start identifying NGOs that could co-sponsor the event.

Based on these findings Taubman Team has some recommendations for the Occupation so that they are able to utilize these spaces to their full capacity and have a space where they are able to come together. Ensuring that they encourage and promote social/cultural events

190 Community Center in Rio de Janeiro.

CASE STUDY: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil The Favela-Bairro program consists of “large public investment in infrastructure, services, public spaces, and community facilities, and continuous housing consolidation by residents (Fernandes, 2011). A number of favelas – one specifically noted in northern Rio de Janeiro have been able to invest on new community centers for residents through the program. Although the Favela-Bairro program does not end poverty, it is still a good model of social and environmental upgrading. In sum, the program demonstrates progress on how federal and municipal governments came to understand the role of public spaces and facilities in favelas. Although the pending lawsuit and consequent tenure insecurity does not allow Ocupação Anchieta to apply for similar programs, the coordination should pay attention for changes on these upgrading programs as the community improves its tenure status (Fernandes, 2011).

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Trash receptacles are also incorporated throughout the proposed design in hopes that these trash receptacles will be placed throughout the Occupation. Since the spaces in the Cultural Anchieta design will be heavily trafficked having receptacles for trash and recycling is crucial to maintain cohesiveness with the Waste Management plan. This will also encourage residents to take care of the space and keep it environmentally friendly and clean for all residents to feel safe and welcome to. The trash receptacles are black, recycling of plastic receptacles red, and the recycling of glass receptacles green. These colors are defined by the Ministério do Meio Ambiente (Ministry of the Environment) (MMA) to help with the collection of recyclables (Utsumi, 2015). The above receptacles will also include relevant signage to encourage people to use the receptacles rather than litter or throw in garbage bins.

CASE STUDY: Zoh Laguna, México In 2014, two Mexican architects, Andres Soliz Paz and Lazbent Pavel Escobedo Amaral, submitted a design for a church and community center in Zoh Laguna, in the state of Campeche, Mexico. The main features of this project is to use recycled timber to build the structures, a system that represents local building customs. Furthermore, the design incorporates cross-ventilation systems and natural lighting to promote efficient energy consumption and adequate atmosphere for the community activities. The project also adds a public space area (plaza) between the church and community center for educational and cultural activities related to the religious practices (Paz and Amaral, 2014).

191 Recycled Timber Church and Community Center.

to frequently occur and that all residents feel safe and welcome in these spaces. Currently, there are a number of activities that the residents participate in, usually in the space managed by the Association. Because of the lack of a dance area in the Association headquarters, residents play Capoeira and practice dance lessons either on the patio reserved for community meetings or at the IAG. The Occupation hosts big celebration events for a few holidays, Christmas, Children’s Day, Father’s Day, and Mother’s 226

Day. The Mothers’ day party includes hair and makeup treats. These are all celebrated in the existing Association headquarters. These events are co-sponsored with local civil society organizations. Taubman Team believes that the Association should continue and expand its networking in order to further increase programming for residents. The residents have specific items that they would like to see in each of the components of Cultural Anchieta. In the Catholic church the residents have requested that there be

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bathrooms as well as a changing area. For the cultural center, they have requested a dance floor, bathrooms, and a changing area. The playground is requested to be open and in the same area with plenty of equipment for children to play on. The designs of these spaces all take this into consideration, creating areas that all residents feel welcome to and safe in. The design prioritizes the needs of the Occupation and incorporates them well considering the small space available. The dance area is 6.9 x 12.6 meters, the church

is 6.3 x 12.9 m, and the playground is 5.5 x 11.5 m. There are two toilets in the dance area and one in the Catholic church. There are two changing rooms in the dance area and one in the Catholic church. There are separate entrances to every building in the design. There are windows in the Catholic church as well. The playground will have playsets that will cater to the interests of the children in the Occupation. Taubman Team recommends that a schedule be created for the sites as to when

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192 Cultural Anchieta Base.

CASE STUDY: São Paulo, Brazil The Ballet Paraisópolis Company was established in 2012 by Mónica Tarragó and Gilson Rodrigues in Paraisópolis, an informal settlement located in the heart of the city of São Paulo. The objective of this dance company is to “incorporate children into the world of dance” (Ballet Paraisópolis, 2017). In this small community center of approximately 200 square meters, children ages 8-18 come practice ballet at least twice a week. The classes are free of charge, giving youth from this very low-income sector an opportunity to learn, dance and teach others. Children come from all parts of the settlement and many have started their professional careers in dance, practicing for up to eight hours a day. This is an example of a small building with a large community impact (Ballet Paraisópolis, 2017). 193 Ballet Paraisópolis.

they are being occupied by a workshop/event/ or something of the like so that the spaces are being utilized by residents to their full capacity. In addition to the schedule we recommend that a network of community activities be created so that residents are informed of when cultural or social activities are taking place. The Occupation currently uses a number of ways to stay informed and connected. The members of Movimento Anchieta shared with us that they have a WhatsApp group as well as a system of flyering to advertise events. 228

The Catholic Church is a space that could have multi-use beyond serving its religious purposes. The church should be considered a multipurpose space that residents can reserve ahead of time to use for whatever social or cultural activity they may be hosting. Church members and residents within or outside of the church community who would like to utilize the space could facilitate meetings with church members to create a schedule of what activities outside of religious could take place within the church.

229 Taubman Team recommends that a project assessment be conducted. Within this project assessment we recommend that the number of educational and cultural programs and numbers of attendees be assessed every time that there is a gathering in one of the spaces, number of people and frequency of use of the new cultural center, creation of surveys on user satisfaction with the community center, and the frequency of community-building activities.

Lastly, in the future there is hope to create a network of public spaces. This is a project that Taubman Team recommends that residents provide feedback on the prototype so that the spaces are designed most appropriately suiting the needs/desires of the residents. We also will engage the Occupation for feedback on where they believe the best places will be for these public spaces to be located throughout the community. The Creek Revival plan incorporates some landscape design ideas that center on human interactions with nature. Two of the components is the riparian sidewalk system as well as pocket parks. The system would encourage the Occupation to incorporate bridges, trails, parks, etc. Taubman College Team recommends that these spaces are created so that they serve a combination of storm/wastewater purposes with a playground. This will integrate with the project plans of the Creek Revival plan recommendations. For further detail please reference the Creek Revival plan. After the creation of a manual on how to create these public spaces and we encourage residents to build more.

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The project assessment will help determine what educational and cultural activities are most popular/least popular amongst residents, have an idea of what activities may be missing, who is utilizing the space, is it being utilized to its full capacity, what changes if any need to be made to the space for user satisfaction?

PROJECT TIMELINE Short-term --

Some data has been obtained through informal interviews and resident surveys, however further this conversation to determine what event/workshops residents would like to see in the future

Mid-term --

Creation of an activities schedule, WhatsApp group, and flyers around the spaces that are being utilized

Some exist already but create these tools specifically focusing on the cultural/social aspects of the Occupation

Encourage a facilitation of conversation between church members and those members within or outside of the church community who would like to host events other outside of religion in the space

Conduct a project assessment on the number of educational and cultural programs and numbers of attendees be assessed every time that there is a gathering in one of the spaces, number of people and frequency of use of the new cultural center, creation of surveys on user satisfaction with the community center, and the frequency of communitybuilding activities

Long-term

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Feedback provided by residents on the prototype of the network of public spaces matching the needs/desires of the residents

Residents through community engagement are able to design and construct their future public spaces keeping in mind serving a storm/wastewater purpose and providing space for the children in the Occupation

231 ACTORS Actors: Ocupação Anchieta Association, Ocupação Anchieta residents, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú, and Taubman College Team.

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COSTS

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CONCLUSION

194 (left) Community Center, Church and Playground Site with Material Stored for Construction.

The case studies, similarly focus on actions that our project can incorporate to strengthen the community and participatory design methods that take place, specifically in environments that would be considered slums. Furthermore, Taubman Team devised recommendations that will monitor how the areas are being utilized, who is utilizing them, creating a schedule so that areas are optimized for their best use, making areas multi-purpose, and conducting a project assessment once buildings

have been built and are utilized. The timeline breaks down these recommendations into short, mid, and long term goals for each of these recommendations as well as the challenges to the implementation of them. The actors as well as the costs for implementation of the project are also included with hopes for funding through grants that Taubman College Team has already applied for. The Cultural Anchieta project, since its start has been emphasizing communitybased planning and design. As the project progresses the Taubman College Team hopes to continue to work closely with the Occupation to ensure that their voices are being heard and their needs are being met. Taubman College Team looks forward to the continuing partnership between Movimento Anchieta and residents throughout this process.

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The Association, has voiced its desire for a larger, multipurpose space that will foster educational and cultural growth. Cultural Anchieta plans to build a new community center, church, environmental education, and cultural space for residents. By integrating the social aspect of the project into a participatory design model so all residents are able to share their input.

The literature review that was conducted talks about communities similar to the Occupation. Incorporating community-based planning methods, social integration and environment education in slum upgrading, and creating physical designs with a social impact. All of these ideas help inform our participatory, and community based efforts in OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta.

SOURCES Abbott, J. (2002). Method-based planning framework for informal settlement upgrading. Habitat International, 26(3), 317-333. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0197397501000509 Arcila, C. A. (2008). Learning from Slum Upgrading and Participation. KTH Architecture and the Built Environment, 1-128. Retrieved from http://www.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:126733/FULLTEXT01. pdf Aulicino, P., Abiko, A., & Andrade, M. H. (n.d.). The sustainability guidelines for slums upgrading projects. 1-6. Retrieved from http://www.pcc. usp.br/files/files/alex/SB11FinlandiaPatriciaAulicino. pdf Ballet Paraisópolis. (2017). Retrieved from http:// www.balletparaisopolis.com.br/ Beza, B. (2014). Informal Settlements and Placemaking: The Case of Caracoli barrio in Bogotá. 7th International Urban Design Conference “Designing Productive Cities”. Retrieved from http://dro.deakin.edu.au/view/DU:30069992 Conradson, D., 2005. Landscape, care and the relational self: therapeutic encounters in rural England. Health & Place 11, 337–348. Durch, J. S., Bailey, L. A., & Stoto, M. A. (1997). Improving Health in the Community: A Role for Performance Monitoring. National Academy of Sciences, 1-497. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK233010/pdf/Bookshelf_ NBK233010.pdf

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eThekwini Municipality. (2014). Mentoring on upgrading informal settlements. Metropolis Initiatives, 1-21. Retrieved from https://www. metropolis.org/sites/default/files/durban_initiative-

final-web.pdf Fernandez, E. (2011). Regularization of Informal Settlements in Latin America. Policy Focus Report –Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 1-52. Retrieved from http://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/ pubfiles/regularization-informal-settlements-latinamerica-full_0.pdf Frumkin, H., 2003. Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health 93, 1451–1456. Hernández-Bonilla, M. (2008). Contested Public Space Development: The Case of Low Income Neighbourhoods in Xalapa, Mexico. Journal of Urban Design, 33(4). Retrieved from h t t p : / / w w w. t a n d f o n l i n e . c o m / d o i / abs/10.1080/01426390802191162 Hernández-García, J. (2013). Public Space in Informal Settlements . Cambridge Scholars, 1-30. Retrieved from http://www.cambridgescholars.com/ download/sample/60114 Improving Health in the Community: A Role for Performance Monitoring. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Using Performance Monitoring to Improve Community Health; Durch JS, Bailey LA, Stoto MA, editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1997. Madan, R. (2007). Demystifying Outcome Measurement in Community Development. Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, 1-66. Retrieved from http://www.jchs.harvard. edu/sites/jchs.harvard.edu/files/w07-5.pdf Paz, A. S., & Amaral, L. P. (2014). Holcim Awards 2014 Latin America. Next Generation 2nd, 1-2. Retrieved from https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.

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Rejuvenating Neighborhoods and Communities Through Parks—A Guide To Success. (2011). National Recreation and Park Association, 1-72. Retrieved from http://www. nrpa.org/uploadedFiles/nrpa.org/Publications_ and_Research/Research/Papers/RejuvatingNeighborhoods-White-Paper.pdf Sertich, A. N. (2010, February 21). Library Parks as urban catalysts. Retrieved April 21, 2017, from https://favelissues.com/2010/02/21/library-parks-asurban-catalysts/ T. (2003). A Resource Guide for Municipalities: Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America. World Bank, 1-80. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank. org/INTLACCRIVIOPRE/General/20835611/ CommunityBasedCV.pdf T. (2012, February 29). Klong Toey Community Lantern / TYIN Tegnestue Architects. Retrieved from http://www.archdaily.com/212214/klongtoey-community-lantern-tyin-tegnestue-architects U. (2003). The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), pg. 164, 1-345. doi:10.1108/meq.2004.15.3.337.3

IMAGE SOURCES (in order of appearance) Image: Adaptive Re-Use Women’s center and playground [Digital image]. (2015, June 29). Retrieved from https://www.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/Projects/adaptive-re-use Image: Bangkok, Thailand Image: Klong Toey Community Lantern [Digital image]. (2012, February 29). Retrieved from http://www.archdaily. com/212214/klong-toey-community-lantern-tyintegnestue-architects Image: [Public Space in Bogotá, Colombia]. (2003). Retrieved from http://skuor.tuwien.ac.at/wp-content/ uploads/Presentation-image-1.jpg W, J. (2010). Comuna Nororiental, Medellín, Columbia [Digital image]. Retrieved from https:// photos.travelblog.org/Photos/21734/532952/ f/5471014-Comuna_Nororiental-_Medell-n-0.jpg Image: Library Park Spain-Panoramic view [Digital image]. (2010). Retrieved from https://favelaissues. files.wordpress.com/2010/02/biblio-espana-panfrom-park-decending.jpg Image: Community Center in Rio de Janeiro [Digital image]. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.lincolninst. edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/regularizationinformal-settlements-latin-america-full_0.pdf

Utsumi, I. (2015, May 13). Solid Waste Policy in Brazil. Retrieved from http://thebrazilbusiness. com/article/solid-waste-policy-in-brazil

Recycled timber church and community center, Zoh Laguna, Mexico [Digital image]. (2014). Retrieved from https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/dnl/ b662895c-0315-4c45-890b-3065291c9e09/HA14_ LATAM_A4_Next_Generation_2_EN.pdf

Safi, S., & Sharif, Y. (2015, June 29). Adaptive ReUse: Women’s center and playground, Beit Iksa, Palestine. Retrieved from https://www.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/Projects/adaptive-re-use

Image: Ballet Paraisópolis [Digital image]. (2017, April 14). Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/ pg/BalletParaisopolisSP/about/?ref=page_internal

CULTURAL ANCHIETA

org/dnl/b662895c-0315-4c45-890b-3065291c9e09/ HA14_LATAM_A4_Next_Generation_2_EN.pdf

08 WASTE MANAGEMENT This section of the Action Plan includes a description of the issues pertaining to waste management in Ocupação Anchieta (the Occupation) and the relevance of including a waste management plan in our recommendations. Then, a literature review that describes the general history of solid waste management in developing countries, the role of the informal recycling sector, barriers to an effective waste management system, and suggestions for overcoming challenges to providing these types of services. The Taubman College Team proposes five specific areas of intervention to improve solid waste management in the Occupation. These interventions include adding additional dumpsters to the Occupation periphery; installing trash and recycling receptacles throughout the Occupation’s most frequented public spaces; providing signage to encourage environmentally conscientious behavior; and influencing behavior change through environmental education.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND RELEVANCE

136 (previous image) Residents Carry Trash to Dump Site. 137 (left) Dumping Site at the Entrance of Ocupação Anchieta.

In addition to this broader relevance, the findings and general observations that resulted from the site visit

demonstrate a localized and immediate need for a better waste management system. The Taubman Team noticed that the communal dumpsters, located on the periphery of the Occupation, were consistently full each day on site. These dumpsters are located outside and surrounding the Occupation. Municipal trash collection trucks do not enter the site because of the Occupation’s poor street conditions. Nonetheless, overflowing dumpsters could be an indication that the current number may not be providing a sufficient level of service. According to the doorto-door household survey, a high percentage of survey respondents (98%) reported disposing of their solid waste in a communal dumpster that is regularly collected. Although the survey also showed that 0% of respondents burn, bury, or throw their waste into the streets, the Taubman College Team observed all three of these waste disposal methods on-site. Ninety-five percent of

WASTE MANAGEMENT

There are two interconnected reasons waste management is a relevant and pressing issue in Ocupação Anchieta. The first relates to the Occupation’s zoning designation and relation with the landowner, Instituto Anchieta Grajaú (the Institute) (IAG). The second justification stems from deficiencies in current waste management practices that threaten the environment and, consequently, the Occupation’s health, wellbeing, and tenure security.

The site is located in a Special Zone of Social Interest (ZEIS), specifically ZEIS 4. This zoning designation has environmental protections that allows for social housing projects (Ribeiro et al., 2015). Environmental protection more specifically refers to protected water supply areas (The Cities Alliance, 2009). Therefore, the land on which Ocupação Anchieta sits can be used to house people, but must also maintain a certain level of environmental quality. If environmental quality is not maintained, residents could face eviction. Considering IAG has attempted to evict the Occupation residents multiple times, it is crucial for residents to have a waste management plan. In an effort to increase tenure security, the proposed waste management plan will improve environmental conditions in Ocupação Anchieta.

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observation checklists indicated that garbage was in the streets throughout the Occupation. Forty percent of checklists recorded garbage sightings in the sewerage system and eighteen percent of checklists identified garbage in water. The Taubman Team also documented small landfills scattered throughout the Occupation.

138 Garbage in Rudimentary Wastewater System.

139 Burned Garbage.

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There are a number of reasons why trash may not be making it to the collective dumpsters. First, dumpsters are not evenly accessible to Occupation residents. Some residents have to walk up to one kilometer to access a dumpster. Second, during the clientpartner interview, the Taubman Team learned that children are often responsible for taking out their householdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trash. Children doing this will sometimes become distracted along the way, leaving trash scattered on the ground. A third possibility may be due to the lack of trash and recycling receptacles located in public spaces, such as near recreation hubs, bars, and major pathways. By designating proper places for public waste disposal, receptacles may discourage dumping throughout the Occupation. Also, having color coded receptacles using the standard colors for different types of waste in Brazil, may also inform users of what and how to recycle. This will help to promote new behavior towards waste management in the Occupation. The Taubman College Team conducted water testing at four different locations in the Occupation: (1) midway through the creek at a crossing area where a small urban garden is located, (2) as far deep into the creek we could access, (3) a gully where water was stagnant near the edge of the Occupation, and (4) right before the creek water flows into a pipe and out of the Occupation. Water test results found potentially harmful bacteria. Only the site tested

241 with stagnant water emitted an odor. Although the test did not identify any lead or pesticides above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) levels, there is a possibility that these elements may be present in lesser amounts, undetectable by the testing kit used. Although more scientifically reliable water testing would need to be conducted before making any viable claims, the abnormal mineral levels in the water support the general claim that the Occupation’s creek and springs are affected by the site’s pollution to some extent. 140 Landfill and Burnind Site.

141 Dumping Site.

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On March 5th, 2017 Taubman College Team and the Association organized a meeting to explain the student project and get residents’ input. At the community meeting, residents voiced a desire to live in a clean and healthy environment. One resident had the idea to install signage to encourage residents to keep the Occupation clean. Another resident talked about the importance of recycling and the benefits of having a recycling program. Prior to the community meeting, a group of students from the Taubman College Team met one woman. who alongside other women in the Occupation, collects recyclables for the entire site as a livelihood. She goes door-to-door asking residents for their recyclable materials and sells the materials she collects to somebody outside of Ocupação Anchieta. Once recyclables leave the Occupation, they eventually go to a factory where they are chopped into smaller pieces and made into a powder that can then be used, according to the resident.

LITERATURE REVIEW Barriers to and justifications for an effective waste management system in Ocupação Anchieta are reflected in the broader literature. This section will give a brief overview of the history of waste management in developing countries followed by the role of informal recycling economies, barriers to effective waste management in the developing world, and how developing countries can establish waste management systems despite these challenges. WASTE MANAGEMENT HISTORY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD Waste management systems have been designed to address public health, preserve natural resources, improve aesthetics, and alleviate economic concerns. In developing countries, public health is the main motivation for waste management. This is, in part, due to the rapid urbanization, inequality, and struggle for economic growth that is more prominent in the developing world. Additionally, the socio-economic, cultural, and political contexts in developing countries raise many challenges for implementing effective, efficient, and sustainable waste management practices (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013). THE ROLE OF INFORMAL RECYCLING Informal recycling economies play a significant role in how solid waste is handled in developing countries. The informal recycling sector does not operate through official means, yet has saved municipalities 20% or more of their waste management budgets (Wilson et al., 2012). Recyclable waste is a highly 242

valued resource in developing countries, so many people who are not part of the formal job market make their livelihoods from informal recycling (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013). There are four different types of informal waste recycling work: (1) picking through mixed waste dumps, (2) recovering raw materials thrown on streets or in communal bins, (3) Itinerant waste buyers who collect waste doorto-door; and (4) the municipal waste collection crew. This work is labor-intensive, low-paid, unregulated, and often unrecorded. Informal recycling work poses health threats to workers and has social issues associated with it, which should not be overlooked. However, the economic benefits must also be recognized because establishing formal recycling programs where informal ones already exist has been found to be counterproductive. The best way to balance health concerns and economic benefits in the developing world is to incorporate the informal sector into formal waste management. The formal sector can, ideally, provide resources to improve the working and living conditions of informal recycling workers as well as learn from their process and experience (Wilson et al., 2006). CHALLENGES TO WASTE MANAGEMENT There are a number of barriers to implementing waste management systems in developing countries. Many have appropriate legislation but the main challenge is enforcement. One reason enforcement may be weak is due to a country’s (or local government’s) priorities. Protecting the environment is typically a low priority on

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political agendas if other issues seem more urgent such as food, housing, and livelihood. When this is the case, government budgets tend to minimize fund allocation for solid waste management. In fact, municipal governments in developing countries tend to spend only 2050% of their budgets on waste management, which usually fails to serve more than half of the population, if that many (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013). Waste management in the developing world can cost up to $75 USD or more per capita per year (Wilson et al., 2012). Additionally, problems arise when collection and investment decisions are made by centralized government but, operation and maintenance take place at the local level. Governments that need outside assistance rely on agencies like the World Bank and

international financial institutions to aid solid waste management development. However, these agencies are focused on acquisition and building infrastructure rather than operation. This is problematic for two reasons. First, sophisticated technology, such as a fleet of collection vehicles that are imported from industrialized countries are not built to collect waste in informal areas where road conditions are poor. This results in a rapid deterioration of equipment, assuming equipment was appropriate from the start. Secondly, not all institutions or governments have the financial capacity to sustain expensive waste recovery facilities and infrastructure. Therefore, capital and operational costs present a significant barrier to waste management in the developing world (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013).

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142 Resident Takes Recyclable Bottle to Dumpster.

143 Ocupação Anchieta Residents Line Up for March 5th Community Meeting.

As just mentioned, informal areas do not lend themselves to government-organized waste collection. Informal settlements tend to have narrow roadways, steep gradients, unsurfaced roads, and lack space for refuse containers. These physical barriers make it difficult for standard waste collection trucks to maneuver through informal settlements. Additionally, administrative competency and capacity to understand the importance of a solid waste management program and then run one effectively may be limited (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013). In addition to institutional and physical challenges, it is difficult to properly manage waste if public awareness, attitudes, and behavior do not support it. “Public awareness 244

and attitudes towards waste can impact the entire SWM (solid waste management) system, from household storage to separation, interest in waste reduction, recycling, demand for collection services, willingness to pay for SWM services, opposition to proposed locations of waste facilities, the amount of waste in the streets, and ultimately the success or failure of a SWM system” (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013, p. 992). For example, in Latin America, waste management jobs may not be seen as an honorable profession, which inhibits waste management on an institutional level. Furthermore, social norms and attitudes can be problematic if the street is accepted as an appropriate disposal location. However, if using refuse containers emerges as a new norm, then human behavior may shift in

245 response to these new attitudes and ultimately reduce litter concentrations. Also, urban areas in developing countries tend to prioritize issues of shelter, food, security, and other basic needs over waste management. Managing waste is often not a priority until it becomes a public health concern or the environmental damage is so severe that is affects higher priorities. ESTABLISHING A WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Secondly, if the government can manage to serve the basic, most pressing needs of the population first such as food, shelter, security and livelihood, then there will be the opportunity to incorporate proper waste management. In order for this to happen, governments and institutions need to have clear roles and legal responsibilities so that inaction, controversy, and effectiveness do not disrupt potential for progress (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013). Alternatively, if the political and economic situation does not make good governance feasible, involving the private sector in waste management is an option. However, privatizing waste management is only successful if it includes competition, transparency, and accountability. Taking it a step further, public-private partnerships are an option as well, specifically “pro-poor public-private partnerships.” These

144 Small Dumpsters Located in Ocupação Anchieta.

partnerships engage the system’s users, acknowledges the rights of the informal sector, and is obligated to serving the poor in a fair and effective manner (Wilson et al., 2012). No matter the approach, the solution should be affordable (Wilson et al., 2012) and specific to the local context. In other words, waste management plans need to be considered on a case-by-case basis and shaped by the system’s users in addition to experts. At the same time, it is important to allow for a broad view of waste that connects various systems and welcomes complexity. Effective waste management avoids concentrating on a single link within the entire system (Marshall and Farabakhsh, 2013).

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Given the barriers to government-organized solid waste management in developing countries, the literature offers a number of approaches for creating a locally-focused waste management system. First, a shift in the local cultural and social context is necessary to bring about public awareness and a change in attitude regarding waste. This ultimately helps shape human behavior moving forward.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Each one of our recommendations has short (1-3 years), mid (5-7 years) and long (8-10 years) term actions. This section describes each of our major recommendations within that timeline, and the estimated costs of these interventions: 1. Acquire additional dumpsters, 2. Install trash and recycling receptables. 3. Install Signage to Encourage Environmental Conscientious Behavior. 4. Runoff Mitigation with Rain Barrels. 5. Environmental Education.

145 (left) Ocupação Anchieta Land Use and Waste Management Plan.

ADDITIONAL

The large blue dumpsters located on the periphery of the Occupation is the only method solid waste is removed from the Occupation. The Taubman Team identified seven dumpsters. Each of the three days students visited the site, the dumpsters were overfull. Although a more in-depth waste study could more accurately determine dumpster capacity, the fact that municipal trucks are scheduled to empty the dumpster three times a week, indicates the need for more frequent service or additional dumpsters. The Ocupação Anchieta Association can advocate for more frequent collection on existing dumpsters, however, in the meantime, acquiring additional dumpsters will help provide more capacity for the Occupation’s present levels of solid waste. The municipality should install four dumpsters on the eastern and western borders of the Occupation. The northern

boundary already has three dumpsters, so the primary focus should be adding dumpsters where only one is present. Therefore, dumpster capacity can be increased by adding a dumpster to each of the isolated dumpsters in the east and the west. The neighboring municipality owns the existing dumpsters used by residents. The responsibility for negotiating with the municipality to arrange additional dumpsters falls on IAG. The City of São Paulo is responsible for managing the dumpsters and any additional operating costs. The city could consider a public-private partnership model to help fund and operate a more efficient solid waste management collection system. Challenges to acquiring more dumpsters include a lack of funding, as well as physical space limitations. Dumpsters are the most expensive waste management intervention proposed. Additionally,

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ACQUIRE DUMPSTERS

once installed, their effectiveness depends on the City of SĂŁo Paulo. If dumpsters are emptied irregularly or are at capacity too frequently for any reason, trash will overflow into the streets or residents will stop making the walk out to the dumpsters. If residents cannot rely on the dumpster, dumping, burning, and littering will become the most feasible solid waste disposal option again. COSTS: Intervention

Per Unit Cost

Total Cost

Dumpster PHASE 1 $800 per dumpster

$800

Dumpster PHASE 2 $800 per dumpster

$800

Dumpster PHASE 3 TBA after reassessment

TBA

INSTALL TRASH AND RECYCLING RECEPTACLES IN PUBLIC SPACE

146 Dumpsters Timeline

Public trash and recycling receptacles should be installed throughout the Occupation. This recommendation is a response to ideas voiced at the community meeting as well as the scattered litter, piles of burning trash, and precarious landfills, dumping, and contaminated water observed. Decentralizing solid waste collection through the installation of refuse containers, will make the current system more effective, efficient, and could potentially improve economic opportunities for residents. The current recycling system that involves the few women in the Occupation who collect the recycling and sell them outside the Occupation. As well as the trash collection by families, usually children, into municipal dumpsters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; are the main waste management systems in place. Prior research has shown that when attempting to improve waste management systems, incorporating informal

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147 Recycling Receptacles in Brazil

There are a number of actors responsible for implementing this intervention successfully. Since Instituto Anchieta Grajaú is the landowner and the receptacles will remain with the physical property over time, the Institute could partner with donors for purchasing and installing the receptacles. To maintain and create economic opportunities, IAG should hire Occupation residents to maintain the receptacles. This hiring process could be facilitated by the Association because they are trusted in the Occupation. The current women who work as the Occupation’s recyclers will be able to maintain their current door-todoor collection and will now have additional opportunities to pick up recyclables in public space and be paid to do so. These roles need to be clearly defined and this network of actors

must be held accountable through signed contracts that detail each role, collection schedules, and worker compensation. The trash and recycling receptacles should be placed next to each other and clearly labeled in a way that distinguishes them. The receptacles should be located in public spaces such as outside of the Association headquarters, bars, bakeries, restaurants, and even convenience shops. These spaces are frequented by residents. Additionally, the proposed cultural center (Cultural Anchieta) and the proposed public space around the creek and springs (Creek Revival) should have with these receptacles as well. It is important that the public has a designated place to put food wrappers, empty beverage containers, and similar trash and recycling items that may be generated in these public spaces. To reinforce proper receptacle use the colors of the receptacles should be distinct and consist with Brazil’s formal waste management system. Therefore, receptacles

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systems are more successful than creating new ones (Wilson et al., 2006). Therefore, this proposed intervention honors the informal recycling economy and waste collection system identified by the Taubman College Team on site and strives to build upon them.

CASE STUDY: Managua, Nicaragua The Manos Unidas Waste Management Program was established in 2009 through support from a local NGO, Habitar, and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in Nicaragua. Manos Unidas is a cooperative of 18 men who use carts to collect household waste from several informal settlements. The first year of the program involved career development for the workers and environmental campaigns for the public. After the first year, the City of Managua and Manos Unidas signed a formal agreement that detailed specific routes within the district for which Manos Unidas would be responsible. The program was successful in helping to decentralize the waste management system in Managua until the programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s end. When the project ended in 2012, Habitar in UNPD continued to support Manos Unidas, but the city has not stayed committed to the original signed agreement (Zapata, 2013). 148 Difficult Street Conditions for Waste Compaction Trucks.

for plastics should be red, receptacles for glass should be green, and trash receptacles should be black or gray (Utsumi, 2015 ). Although the primary purpose of this intervention is to provide alternatives to littering in the public sphere, it could also be a way to mitigate the insufficient efforts of distracted children or those who cannot walk to the communal dumpster. However, for this to be a feasible recommendation, receptacle capacity and management structures will need further consideration. Barriers to implementing this recommendation successfully include costs, establishing management, and educating the public to use receptacles properly. Trash 250

and recycling receptacles are a low to midrange cost compared to other proposals. However, the Institute has to be willing to front the costs for actual containers and, secondly, has to be willing to pay residents to manage them. This will require IAG to play a role in the informal waste management economy that is present in developing countries around the globe. If IAG is unwilling, the Association and Occupation residents may want to consider creating their own funding structures. The waste management systems that have funding to pay informal workers are far more successful than those that do not. This is evident in the Managua, Nicaragua case. Lastly, addressing issues around educating the public about the importance

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150 Produce from the Green Exchange Program 149 Timeline

of solid waste management, as well as how to handle solid waste properly, will require an educational component. Proposed educational activities are discussed later in this chapter. COSTS: Intervention

Receptacle Bags/ Receptacle Liners

Per Unit Cost

$300 USD per receptacle $25 USD per 1,000 bags

Total Cost

$2,100 USD $50 + USD

Established in 1991, The Green Exchange Program is a city-wide initiative that allows residents to trade recyclable materials for fresh produce. The program was made possible through a partnership between two city agencies (Secretaria Municipal do Meio Ambiente [SMMA] and Secretaria Municipal do Abastecimento [SMAB]). Funds from SMMA buy surplus crops from regional farms that belong to an association of small-medium farmers in the metropolitan area. The city trades the crops for resident-collected recyclable material throughout the year. Therefore, this initiative promotes recycling and discourages pollution while supporting local agriculture and providing healthy food to low-income residents, especially (Cather, 2016).

WASTE MANAGEMENT

CASE STUDY: The Green Exchange Program, Curitiba, Brazil

Labor

TBD* per collector (*requires negotiation between IAG and the Association)

TBD by Instituto Anchieta Grajaú and Movimento Anchieta

INSTALL SIGNAGE TO ENCOURAGE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIENTIOUS BEHAVIOR

“Signage used at Temple University dormitories to encourage recycling” APA CITATION: Porter, D. (other). (2015). Phase two signage. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Temple University. ]

151 Signage Used at Temple University Dormitories to Encourage Recycling.

CASE STUDY: Temple University In 2015, Temple University conducted a study to see if signage had any measurable impact on recycling rates in residential dorms. The research conducted showed that signage “had a profound impact on the success rate of the recycling program” (Porter, 2015). Signage that is unclear or non-existent was one of the biggest complaints voiced by participants. Additionally, an increase of the existing signage on bins seemed to have a positive correlation with recycling rates. The report also suggests that signage can supplement “a larger educational system” to “influence a positive behavior change toward recycling practices” (Porter, 2015).

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The Occupation should install a combination of signage and modeling to help form a new social norm related to littering. Currently, there is limited signage, with almost no signage related to environmental and behavioral concerns. According to an observational study, “signs can provide viewers with practical information, persuasive information, and behavioral cues for decision making” (Sussman et al., 2011, p. 325). The goal of using signage in the Occupation is to discourage behavior that negatively impacts the environment, such as dumping in community spaces, smoking, and burning/burying litter, and to ultimately encourage positive behavior, such as using trash receptacles and composting. Signage will have to be strategically located and designed with the following elements in mind (Sussman et al., 2011): ----

the target behavior is relatively convenient to engage in the behavior is specified in precise terms convenient alternative desirable behaviors are suggested when an undesired behavior is targeted (e.g., disposing of bottles in a recycling bin rather than the garbage) the message is delivered in close proximity to opportunities for engaging in the target behavior

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CASE STUDY: Oceanside, CA Oceanside, CA, is located downstream of two watersheds, where pollution accumulates on publicly accessible beaches, namely, cigarette butts. A local resident designed the “Butts Only Box(R)” to be installed in high foot-traffic areas. After installation, 170 pounds of cigarette butts were properly disposed of in the first four years of the program. The study shows that there are ways to improve proper cigarette disposal, with a 5.5% increase at sites with ash receptacles installed. The research also shows that clearly visible signage helps to reduce cigarette littering (Beckstead, 2014).

the message is stated in polite language that does not threaten an individual’s perceived freedom

Signage should also be simple and symbology-based. A number of residents in the Occupation are not literate and will only be influenced by signs that can communicate with minimal word usage. Signs do not have to be very detailed to influence behavior; “traffic sign and computer lab studies also suggest that noticeability, simplicity, and clarity are important aspects of sign design” (Sussman et al., 2011, p. 325). A combination of signage and behavioral modeling would be most effective in developing a new behavioral norm. Studies suggest that

“observing modeled behavior is associated with that behavior being more likely to be performed” (Sussman et al., 2011, p. 338). One way to implement behavioral modeling is to designate community leaders, such as those in charge of the Association, as confederates, or models of a desired behavior. After appropriate signage is installed, these confederates can demonstrate the new behavior so that the behavior is more likely to develop as a norm. For example, with the installation of trash receptacles and signage communicating not to litter, confederates from the community can openly demonstrate the behavior of regularly disposing of trash in the appropriate receptacles. This behavioral demonstration could be applied

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152 A Butts Only Box at the Entrance of a Park.

to a myriad of activities, such as smoking prohibition, recycling, or even composting. The Association could regularly maintain the designated sites in terms of cleanliness and presence of litter, even after signage installation and the development of a new social norm. “Individuals use a variety of cues from their surrounding environment to determine what common and accepted behavior is. The presence of litter communicates the norm for that situation…” (Schultz et al., 2011, p. 54). Thus, a cleanup of the sites should occur regularly to discourage unsustainable behavior. Additionally, Community Clean up Days or Earth Day Celebrations may be an important educational opportunity. This will be discussed later in the chapter.

153 Signage Timeline.

The Association can encourage residents to quit smoking habits as a way to reduce environmental impact. Litter poses a number of important environmental, social, and aesthetic problems (Schultz et al., 2011), and cigarette butts are consistently the most collected items in litter clean-up efforts (Rath, 2012). In addition to environmental reasons, reducing the prevalence of smoking will provide numerous benefits to Occupation residents in terms of health and financial needs. Cigarette butts make up a majority of litter because all smokers enter a vicinity with something to litter — a cigarette. One study shows that the littering rate (for non-smokers) was 17%, but for smokers the littering rate was 65% (Schultz et al., 2011, p. 50). The Association coordinators can discourage the act of smoking in a number of ways, including signage, modeling, and education. In terms of signage, anti-smoking symbology on signage located in the most vulnerable

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areas of the community can discourage the behavior of littering. In addition, providing ashtrays can also contain any litter. Liu and Sibley (2004) reported that adding ashtrays to a university campus reduced cigarette butt littering by 64%, however the change did not affect attitudes about litter. Confederates in the community could demonstrate the behavior of using ashtrays in areas where they are provided and educating others to use the ashtrays as well, or to not smoke in designated non-smoking areas. The use of confederates can help create an understanding of and normalize the new behavior. Again, these confederates can be designated community members or Association coordinators.

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154 Rain Barrel

COSTS: Intervention Per Unit Cost Signage $50 USD Ashtrays $30 USD

Total Cost $450 USD TBD

RUNOFF MITIGATION WITH RAIN BARRELS A rain barrel is a plastic barrel that collects runoff from the rooftops. Water collected in these barrels can be used for gardening and other purposes, but not for direct water consumption by humans. 155 Signage to Encourage No Smoking.

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The Association and the Institution should pursue a collaborative effort for installing rain barrels as a mid-cost and effective solution in reducing water contamination. According to our water test findings, there is evidence of bacterial contamination and other pollutants in the creek bed and springs. Runoff contributes to this contamination: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Typically, rainwater will run off of ... [the] roof and end up either in a local sewage system or stream. On the journey, the

water will pick up pollutants like yard fertilizers, oil and gasoline from street surfaces, animal waste, and more” (Build your own rain barrel, 2008, p. 128). Rain barrels have the potential to be a useful, mid investment that will reduce the environmental impact of pollutants in the area. The Taubman Team suggests installing one hundred 55-gallon rain barrels for the Occupation as current structures may withstand the size and weight (458.7 lbs) of a full barrel. According to our calculations, one hundred 55-gallon rain barrels will reduce runoff in the Occupation by approximately 15% during a rain event of 1 inch. These calculations assume the impact for 600 structures averaging 10x10ft in area, and also takes into account that most structures have a shed or flat roof. São Paulo receives an average of 57.2 inches of rainfall annually. Approximately 680 55-gallon rain barrels would be needed to contain rainfall for 600 structures during a rain event of 1 inch. 156 Water Tanks in Ocupação Anchieta.

These rain barrels should be located in areas where new landscaping and tree plantings are proposed in the Creek Revival component of this action plan. Placing rain barrels in these locations will provide a source of water for the new plantings, especially in the case of a drought. Rain barrels can also be used to support sewage infrastructure if water is required. The Occupation already uses water barrels on the site. These water barrels do not collect rainwater but instead store municipal water in case there is an emergency water shutoff. These barrels communicate that residents may accept rain barrels as appropriate infrastructure. The use of rain barrels may also inform housing designs, or can be used to complement educational workshops on environmental stewardship.

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257 CASE STUDY: Changting, China Urbanization of land in areas of southeastern China has impacted the natural hydrological cycle and the ability to mitigate water pollution and flood disasters. Traditional drainage approaches for flood control, especially under the increasing rainfall due to climate change, was inefficient and the need for a new solution became evident. A study in Changting, China estimated the potential of collectable rainwater to mitigate flood disasters. Concretely, the study investigated the potential collectable rainwater and the extent to which runoff can be mitigated by rainwater harvesting. Researchers estimated potential cistern capacity under different weather circumstances. The results of this study show that rainwater harvesting has a great potential in reducing the potential of flood disasters. The rainwater harvesting can reduce 100% of runoff volume in the case of critical rainfall (Zhang, 2014).

157 Map of Changting, China.

The Institute could assist in securing funding of the rain barrels. One possible system may be for the Institute to subsidize the cost of rain barrels. Residents show a capacity to save money and purchase accessories, as evidenced by the drinking water storage barrels that already exist in the Occupation. However, given the large, positive externality associated with the adoption of rain barrels, the Institute may work with the Association in making

rain barrels more accessible or affordable to residents via donations or group discounts. One caveat, however, is cost. While rain barrels are seen as a low-cost solution to run off, at this scale and precedence, money may be better spent towards developing more permanent infrastructure solutions to storm water management. COSTS: Intervention

Per Unit Cost

Rain barrel

$40-$50 USD

Total Cost $4,000 - $5,000 USD

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Additionally, the rain barrels can be used to water new landscaping proposed as part of the creek and springs revitalization action plan.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Environmental education is crucial in ensuring that the waste management action plan succeeds. The survey results suggest that residents have a basis for understanding the importance of solid waste management. Nobody claimed that they burn, bury, or throw their solid waste into streets, waterways, or sewage systems according to the Taubman Team survey results. Virtually all survey respondents reported that they take their trash out to the collective dumpster. Survey results are inconsistent with direct observation findings. The discrepancy in findings may suggest that individuals know that waste should be disposed of properly and feel embarrassed to respond honestly since their behavior does not reflect their notions of what is correct. Environmental educational programming is an additional way to support the other waste management interventions and help promote and sustain a culture around environmental stewardship in OcupaĂ§ĂŁo Anchieta.

158 Rain Barrels Timeline.

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The purpose of the educational component is, ultimately, to change behavior. Behavior is changed when personal, internal contentment results from engaging in a new behavior (De Young, 2000). The type of educational programming recommended involves face-toface interaction. Although signage, and other forms of one-way communication, play a role in raising awareness around solid waste issues, a more personal form of education is more impactful because justifications for littering can be explored, criticized and discussed in further depth with greater specificity. Nonetheless, these two forms of communication support one another (Hansmann and Steimer, 2015). Additionally, through educational programming, residents may be able to

259 understand how environmental quality and solid waste management personally affects their life and their family’s lives. To reinforce an environmentally-conscious culture, education efforts will take multiple forms and include a number of ongoing activities that require resident participation.

The Association uses WhatsApp to notify residents of events and meetings around the Occupation. The Taubman Team recommends that the Association also uses WhatsApp for notifying residents of the environmental educational activities listed below. The Association’s capacity to organize and communicate coupled with the Institute’s current involvement in youth educational programs illustrates the great potential to expand upon these services environmentally. The following list includes viable, interactive opportunities for environmental education services in Ocupação Anchieta:

159. Ocupação Anchieta Resident Participates in the March 5th Community Meeting with the Taubman College Team.

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Therefore, residents, of all ages and genders, must be interested and willing to participate in environmental education activities for this intervention to be successful. In terms of implementation, both IAG and the Association should be held responsible for facilitating educational activities in the Occupation. The Institute already has educational programming for the children who attend their after school programs, so adding environmental programming to their services is plausible. The Association has a desire to incorporate environmental education into their work because they understand the improvement of environmental conditions to be essential for housing security. The Association also holds monthly community meetings, parties for children, and celebrations on major holidays.

160 Potential Location for Environmental Education in the Current Community Center.

Annual Earth Day Celebration, April 22

Monthly community-wide clean up days

Monthly after-school/youth clean up days

Waste-free zones

Resident-selected streets

Creek and Springs

Anti-smoking and use of ashtray campaigns

Rain Barrel Workshops

Holding an annual Earth Day celebration in the Occupation would be a fun way to promote a culture of environmental sustainability. Residents could also engage in conversations about the successes of solid waste management and opportunities for improvement. In addition to creating a space for discussion, the celebration could be interactive with food, music, and games. One potential activity could be a game that teaches residents how to separate recycling from trash, for example. This event could take place in the current community center or the proposed Cultural Anchieta center once built. Weather depending, it would also be fitting to hold the event, or portions of it, on the proposed Creek Revival project. Residents could use this space to reconnect with the creek and springs on a physical, and even spiritual, level. Community-wide and school/youthfocused clean up days could help give residents a sense of ownership of the Occupation. Community-wide clean up days could be instigated by the Association and youth-focused clean up days could be implemented through IAGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s after-school program. However, as seen in the Kisumu case, residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation for participating in clean up days could quickly fade without

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an economic incentive. To help mitigate a decline in engagement, the Association or IAG may want to consider enticing residents with an incentive. Association coordinators mentioned using raffles to raise funds for other needs during the client-partner interview. The Association coordinators may want to consider setting up a raffle system in which a randomly selected participant wins a prize at the end of the day, or after participating in a certain number of clean-up days. Waste-free zones could consist of specific streets within the Occupation that pledge to keep their street free of litter, burning, or buried trash. These streets could serve as a model and

may inspire other streets to make the pledge as well. Modeling behavior has been shown to be more effective than passive interventions, like signage, with regard to influencing other people’s behavior (Sussman and Gifford, 2011). A more communally designated wastefree zone should be the creek and springs area, especially because maintaining water quality is essential to complying with the zoning and therefore minimizing risk of eviction. To reinforce the importance of keeping this natural water feature clean, IAG should continue facilitating “nature walks.” The walks could incorporate raising awareness of the Occupation’s water features and residents could also learn about the importance of protecting the water from

WASTE MANAGEMENT

161 Rain Barrels in the Vergueirinho Favela.

CASE STUDY: Kisumu, Kenya The City of Kisumu lacks capacity to properly handle solid waste, especially in its informal settlements. In Manyatta, the resident association implemented community clean-ups led by three local youth leaders, sometimes with the support of NGOS. Leaders organized large groups of youth to clean up their neighborhoods and raise awareness of environmental issues. The clean ups resulted in much-needed, visible improvements and increased residents support for better waste management practices. In fact, providing information to households on waste collection and separation has minimized littering and associated health risks. These activities were successful in building a network of organizations that later supported the original leaders in transitioning their initiative into an entrepreneurial form of waste management in response to the need for economic efficiency (Gutberlet, 2016). 162 Trash in Kisumu, Kenya.

pollution. Walks could be interactive and a part of the existing after-school programming that teaches students about how water quality impacts the health of the ecosystem (micro and macro), including their family’s own health. Educational programming can also play a role in reducing cigarette butt litter by encouraging tobacco awareness. These tobacco awareness campaigns can inform residents of the many externalities of tobacco use and encourage tobacco-free zones in the Occupation, all steps that will ultimately reduce pollution. However, changing smoking habits may be extremely difficult because of nicotine’s addictiveness or for cultural reasons. Alternatively, the Ocupação Anchieta 262

Association may want to consider educational programming around ashtray use as well. In addition, educational workshops on rain barrel use is crucial to their success. Either the Association or IAG can facilitate interactive workshops for residents to learn about potential uses for the conserved water, as well as how reducing runoff helps reduce pollutants. Painting the rain barrels could be a fun activity for children that may bring excitement around the environmental goals and purpose for rain barrels. There are a few challenges to implementing an environmental education component within the solid waste management plan.

263 First, resource sharing is required to allow both, the Institute and the Association, to facilitate environmental learning programs. Secondly, environmental issues need to be re-framed in a way that makes it clear to residents that they directly benefit from waste management and further, improve environmental quality and their tenure security. COSTS: Per Unit Cost $100 USD (per year)

Total Cost $500 USD (5 years)

$20 USD per prize

$240 USD (per year)

$10 USD per prize

$120 USD (per year)

Waste-Free Zones

N/A

163 Environmental Education Timeline.

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Intervention Earth Day Celebration Food Games Raffel Community Clean Up Days Raffle Prize After-school/ Youth Clean ups Raffle Prize

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CONCLUSION

Given the complex relations between the legal, socio-political situation, and public health and environmental concerns, it is challenging to develop a plan for the Occupation that balances immediate solutions while achieving long-term social and environmental justice goals. Possible waste management interventions are situated at the crux of this debate between self-help solutions and reaching for a higher goal of social equity.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Establishing a sustainable waste management system in Ocupação Anchieta is critical from social, environmental, and economic perspectives and is an imperative step towards tenure security for residents. The interventions addressed in this chapter will be more impactful acting in unison with each other than alone. These proposed interventions include increasing dumpster capacity, providing trash and ashtray receptacles, establishing educational programming, installing signage, demonstrating behavioral norms, and installing rain barrels.

164 (left) Pathway Connecting Two Sides of Ocupação Anchieta.

SOURCES Beckstead, Ken. “Oceanside, CA and cigarette pollution solutions team up to “butt out” cigarette waste.” Waste Advantage, 23 Sept. 2014. Build your own rain barrel. (2008). Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education, 37, 128. Cather, A. The Green Exchange Program, Curitiba: Urban Food Policy Snapshot. (2016, December 27). Retrieved May 01, 2017, from http://www. nycfoodpolicy.org/green-exchange-programcuritiba-urban-food-policy-snapshot/ De Young, R. (2000). Expanding and evaluating motives for environmentally responsible behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 509-526. Retrieved April 6, 2017. Gutberlet, J., Kain, J., Nyakinya, B., Ochieng, D. H., Odhiambo, N., Oloko, M….Zapata Campos, M. (2016). Socio-environmental entrepreneurship and the provision of critical services in informal settlements. Environment and Urbanization ,28(1), 205-222. Retrieved April 6, 2017. Hansmann, R., & Steimer, N. (2015). Linking an integrative behavior model to elements of environmental campaigns: an analysis of face-toface communication and posters against littering. Sustainability,7(6), 6937-6956. Retrieved April 6, 2017. Liu J., Sibley C. (2004). Attitudes and behavior in social space: Public good interventions based on shared representations and environmental influences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 373-384.

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Marshall, R. E., & Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to solid waste management in developing countries . Waste Management, 33(4), 988-1003. Retrieved March 31, 2017. Porter, Darion. (2015). “Evaluation of signage and increased recycling rates: a residential hall case study.” Office of Sustainability, Temple University. Rath, J. M., Rubenstein, R. A., Curry, L. E., Shank, S. E., & Cartwright, J. C. (2012). Cigarette litter: Smokers attitudes and behaviors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(6), 2189-2203. Ribeiro, S. C., Daniel, M. N., & Abiko, A. (2016). ZEIS maps: Comparing areas to be earmarked exclusively for social housing in São Paulo city. Land Use Policy, 58, 445-455. Schultz, P. W., Bator, R. J., Large, L. B., Bruni, C. M., & Tabanico, J. J. (2011). Littering in context: personal and environmental predictors of littering behavior. SAGE Publications, 45(1), 35-59. Sussman, R., & Gifford, R. (2011). Be the change you want to see: modeling food composting in public places. Environment and Behavior,45(3), 323-343. Retrieved April 6, 2017. The City Alliance. (2009). Social housing in São Paulo: challenges and new management tools. Utsumi, Igor. (2015, May 13). Solid waste policy in Brazil. Retrieved April 21, 2017, from http:// thebrazilbusiness.com/article/solid-waste-policy-inbrazil

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Wilson, D. C., Velis, C., & Cheeseman, C. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat International, 30(4), 797-808. Retrieved March 31, 2017. Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. Integrated sustainable developing countries. Management, 166(WR2), 31, 2017.

A., & Rodic, L. (2012). waste management in Waste and Resource 52-68. Retrieved March

Zapata, M., & Zapata, P. (2013). Switching Managua on! Connecting informal settlements to the formal city through household waste collection. Environment and Urbanization,25 (1), 225-242.

“Signage to Encourage No Smoking”. (2012). Lei em practica. Mato Grosso; PROCON-MT. Retrieved from Google Images. Zhang, X. (other). (2014). Fig. 1: Location of the study area in Changting, China. China.] “Rain barrels in the Vergueirinho favela”. APA: Bailey, A. (Photographer). (2016). Rain barrels in the Vergueirinho favela in São Paolo, Brazil. [Painting]. Minneapolis, Minnesota; Public Radio International.] Cage, C. (Photographer). (2010). Manyatta, an informal settlement in Kisumu, Kenya. [Photograph]. Manyatta, Kisumu; Manyatta A Residents Association.]

Zhang, X., & Hu, M. (2014). Effectiveness of rainwater harvesting in runoff volume reduction in a planned Industrial Park, China. Water Resource Management, 28(3), 671-682. IMAGE SOURCES (in order of appearance)

Zapata Campos, M. J., & Zapata, P. (Photographer). (2013). Narrow street that waste compaction trucks cannot enter because of low hanging cables, trees and the condition of the road. [Photograph]. Göteborg, Sweden; Gothenburg Research Institute. Porter, D. (other). (2015). Phase two signage. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Temple University.] “Rain Barrel”. [Blue Plastic Rain Barrel ].(n.d.). Retrieved from https://goo.gl/E2YcrQ

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Alberto, C. (Photographer). (2008). Reciclagem. [Photograph]. São Paulo].

GLOSSARY

ACRONYMS

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CETESB

Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental

CDRU

Concessão de Direito Real de Uso

DBU

German Federal Environmental Foundation

EDU

Empresa de Desarrollo Urbano

EMAE

Empresa Metropolitana de Aguas e Energía S.A.

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

FAR

Floor Area Ratio

FLUXUS

Fluxus Ecological Design

IAG

Instituto Anchieta Grajaú

KU Leuven

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

LOEB

LoebCapote Arquitetura e Urbanismo

MCMVP

Minha Casa Minha Vida

MMA

Ministério do Meio Ambiente

NGO

Non-governmental organization

PAC

Growth Acceleration Program

PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal

PUI

Proyecto Urbano Integral

Rapid Appraisal

SABESP

Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo

SMAB

Secretaria Municipal do Abastecimento

SMMA

Secretaria Municipal do Meio Ambiente

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UN-HABITAT

United Nations - Human Settlements Programme

WHO

World Health Organization

WSPs

Waste stabilization ponds

ZEIS

Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social

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TRANSLATIONS

Habitação de Interesse Social Instituto Anchieta Grajaú Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Lei de Proteção e Recuperação dos Manancias LoebCapote Arquitetura e Urbanismo Proyecto Urbano Integral Ministério Público Minha Sampa Minha Casa Minha Vida Ministério do Meio Ambiente Movimento Programa de Aceleração do Crescimento Ocupação Ocupação de terra Ocupação Anchieta Avança! R$ Secretaria Municipal do Abastecimento Secretaria Municipal do Meio Ambiente Solo Criado TETO Usucapião Coletivo Vamos Limpar o Rio Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social

Activities in Paraisópolis Association Informal settlements Small House São Paulo State Basic Sanitation Company Environmental Sanitation Technology Company Real Right to Use Concession Public Defense Office Urban Development Corporation Water and Energy Metropolitan Company City School (University) Architecture and Urbanism College, University of São Paulo Informal Settlement American Soccer “Cat” (refers to illegal connections to formal municipal systems) Social Interest Housing Institute Anchieta Grajaú University of Leuven Headwaters Protection and Recovery Law LoebCapote Architecture and Urbanism (LOEB) Integral Urban Project Public Prosecutors Minha Sampa Advocacy Planning NGO My House, My Life Program Ministry of the Environment Movement (refers to social movement) Growth Acceleration Program Occupation Land Occupation Ocupacao Anchieta, Forward! Brazilian real (Brazilian currency) Municipal Secretary of Supply Municipal Secretary of the Environment Transfer of Development Rights Techo Housing and Anti-Poverty NGO Collective Adverse Possession Let’s Clean the River NGO Special Zones of Social Interest

GLOSSARY

Atividades em Paraisópolis Associação Barrios Casinha Companhia de Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental Concessão de Direito Real de Uso Defensoria Pública Empresa de Desarrollo Urbano Empresa Metropolitana de Aguas e Energía S.A. Escola da Cidade Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo Favela Football Gato

APPENDIX A. Client Interview Form B. Expert Interviews C. Resident Survey Form D. Direct Observation Checklist E. Data Analysis on Resident Survey F. Data Analysis on Direct Observation G. Water Testing Field Method Manual H. Soil Testing Field Method Manual I. Community Discussion Manual

A. CLIENT INTERVIEW FORM

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APPENDIX

275

B. EXPERT INTERVIEWS PEDRO JACOBI Pedro Jacobi gave an insightful lecture about the growth of São Paulo as a city, natural resources and infrastructure, as well as how informality fits into this broader picture. Jacobi is a scholar in sociology, urban planning, sociology, and environmental science. Unlike many U.S. cities that have declined in population as a result of sprawl, São Paulo has experienced continued growth. The City’s population is about 11 million and 22 million if you include the metro area (IBGE 2010). Approximately 92% of the population has access to drinking water. The reason this high percentage of people have access to drinking water is because high infant mortality rates incentivized the government and landowners to address issues of access to water (IBGE 2010). The majority of drinking water is sourced from a different state, outside of the State of São Paulo. Rather than access to water, the greater challenge much of the population faces is the lack of sewage infrastructure. Although the lack of infrastructure may seem like a more prominent issue in informal areas, adequate maintenance of sewerage is a city-wide issue. Updated infrastructure in any part of São Paulo does not guarantee that sewage is properly treated. Topography, the political context, and lack of information are a few barriers to the City maintaining and upgrading infrastructure. Despite the larger issue of infrastructure that needs to be addressed by the City, landowners are responsible for connecting to the sewage, water, and electricity infrastructure 276

that currently exists, even in occupations. The housing and environmental conflict that presents itself, especially in an occupation like Ocupação Anchieta, is that environmentally protected areas require permits to build anything. The irony is that in order to improve the environmental quality of the immediate area, without evicting residents, infrastructure is necessary. One way to get infrastructure in informal areas is by formalizing them. However, this present social and environmental challenges regarding who will be able to afford formalization and who will be pushed out and forced to occupy (and pollute) a new area.

FERNANDO BOTTON Fernando Botton is a founding member of the URBZ São Paulo Group, “an experimental action and research collective working with associations, municipalities, and private clients around the world.” URBZ takes an interdisciplinary approach, employing architects, activists, and economists, for example. However, URBZ believes that residents are experts of their neighborhoods. Residents’ expertise is crucial for architecture, planning, urban development and policy-making. Through planning and design workshops, URBZ “promotes individual expression, grassroots involvement and ground up development.” Their commitment to information sharing and public participation allows URBZ to utilize local and global knowledge to produce innovative models in architecture, planning, and policy

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THIAGO VINICIUS Thiago Vinicius, a native of Paraisopolis and recent graduate of FESP in social sciences, spoke with Taubman College on Friday, March 3, at URBz workspace in Paraisopolis. To begin, Thiago read a powerful poem about life and stigma in the favelas. Thiago discussed the various social groups in Paraisopolis, many of which operate under the liberation theology. Among these groups are the Social Movements of Women (mothers). Thiago’s mother is deeply involved in these groups, particularly in educating children. These groups focus on advocacy, as well as provide historical insight into the neighborhoods. Many residents in Paraisopolis and other informal settlements in Sao Paulo are from the northeastern part of the country, and Thiago remarked that this history of migration is an important one to the residents. Social movement groups in the favela offer support for the residents that is not guaranteed from the government. In addition to social support, the community also offers micro-lending schemes to help with financial situations. Thiago showed the group the different bills of the currency used in Paraisopolis. Each dollar is the equivalent to 1 Brazilian Real. Families can use this money for groceries and necessities when they are cashstrapped, and there is no interest on the loan. Small businesses can also borrow this money to pay for expenses, however, they will have to

pay a certain amount of interest on their loan. Thiago also talked about baile funk, a controversial dance and music scene that occurs in favelas across the country. On the main street in the favela, thousands of youth gather for weekend parties. The event is seen as an empowering demonstration to some, but in recent years has attracted destructive and illegal behavior in the neighborhoods. Politicians have since criminalized baile funk, which has done anything but silence it. The movement is seen as a contemporary protest against militant policing of black people. Thiago says that peaceful protests in the name of baile funk have occurred, including silent sit-ins at city malls.

CARLOS LEITE Taubman College Team met at municipal government building on 2 March 2017 with Carlos Leite, I, PhD, who serves as Director o f Urban Development for the Municipality of Sao Paulo . The meeting was shortened because Leite had an important meeting to attend following the talk with Taubman College. Leite discussed briefly with the group the growth patterns of Sao Paulo and the city’s plans to occupy “urban voids” throughout the city as a way to mitigate population density problems. The presentation began with some statistics about the city of Sao Paulo, which were shown on slides with maps in a powerpoint. Leite informed us that the city experienced incredible growth in population recently: an increase of 27,000% in the past 100 years. This growth has recently tapered off, as indicated by birth rates, but the city is still dealing with the impacts of growth.

APPENDIX

making. Botton strongly emphasized the importance of building relationships in any community-based project, even if it takes five months to engage with the community.

To mitigate the impacts of the growth, Leite discussed sprawl and urban voids , or centrally-located areas of vacancy. These urban voids are likely brownfields of historically industrial developments. Pushing for housing and commercial areas in these urban voids are one way to deal with growth, Leite argues, that would take advantage of space, reduce sprawl, and promote a stronger city. Leite contrasts all this information with the reality of informality in Brazil. He informed Taubman College that 30% of the population live in favelas that constitute 9% of the land. Also, interestingly, Leite described the municipality as being partially hired by a company to create a more business-like efficiency and complete projects more quickly. The municipality also offers a program to introduce children to urbanism, called Urban95. Urban95 asks urban professionals: if you could see the city from an elevation of 95 cm – the average height of a healthy 3 year old – what would you do differently? The goals of the program are the create a more livable city for everyone.

RAIANA RIBEIRO Raiana Ribeiro discussed the work of the Learning School City Association which is based in São Paulo but also does some work in Rio. The discussion emphasized that Brazilian education needs to move beyond school being in isolation from the community, rather focus on the context of the education and reaching beyond the classroom. The association has done this through their replicable, UNICEF supported Network Model which is where learning is as discussed 278

above, more than the classroom to incorporate the families and communities. She talked about four programs specifically related to this: Educate a Child, Educating Cities, Reference Center on Integral Education, and Communication for Development. Overall, the association has had a lot of success nationally and internationally – although she did note that the network model of learning was challenging to transfer to other communities. Moving forward, Ribeiro emphasized that street design acts as one of the biggest physical barriers for students getting to school – without safe inviting streets children will have no way to engage with learning in the holistic sense.

ELIZABETE FRANÇA Elizabete França’s lecture, which took place on March 6, 2017, provided insight into efforts into upgrading infrastructure in informal areas. She said that, unlike many of the other informal areas in São Paulo, the attention that Paraisópolis has received in popular culture meant that it was able to leverage funds. Nevertheless, upgrading the favelas throughout São Paulo is an expensive task. The Municipality received US$300 million from the Inter-American Development Bank in order to spearhead upgrading efforts. Moreover, França explained that many of the interventions that were proposed were first tried out in other Brazilian cities. The original intervention for infrastructure upgrades used in São Paulo were first implemented in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro. Moreover, 50,000 housing units were constructed for families in São Paulo under the federal program “My House, My Life” of the late 2000s and early

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MARIO REALI Mario Reali, former Mayor of Diadema and secretary of housing for São Paulo under Mayor Fernando Haddad, delivered a lecture on 2 March 2017. He noted that São Paulo has grown in a way that has produced division and marginalization of many people since the 1960s. Since then, there has been calls for urban reform. Reformers scored a major victory in the 1988 federal constitution. The urban policy chapter in this document guarantees function of property, and provides rights for efficient land use. Consequently, said Reali, there are social movements are trying to pass legislation and change existing facts on the ground in order to make land reform more accessible. In addition, notes Reali, federal programs have been implemented in order to make land reform as economically feasible as possible. The City Statute, a federal law passed in 2003, enables and implements the urban policy chapter of the constitution. Additionally, former President Luiz Ignacio Lula Ignacio da Silva created a Ministry of Cities at the federal level. This ministry administered all urban policies throughout the country, and created a council of cities. Another program, Programa de Aceleração do Crecimiento (PAC) seought to oversee infrastructure programs under the country. However, the 2008 financial crisis hit country hard. São Paulo responded with a new program, “My House, my Life” in order to create jobs and boost housing stock among

the working classes. Paraisopolis received PAC money to upgrade redevelopment and urbanize streets, as well as My House My Life moneys to construct housing. Finally, Reali argued that there should be a diversity of responses by the São Paulo government in order to address the varying diversity of housing needs. He noted that, currently, about 89,000 families need to be relocated away from informal housing. Moreover, the São Paulo housing plan is good for 16 year plans, with updates every 4 years, according to the budget. Within these budgets, there are interventions that are specific to the city. Currently, the municipality pays out money for people to find their own housing. However, Reali noted that a new municipal program seeks to curb inflation in rent prices in informal areas. This plan seeks to replace rental assistance by building temporary housing units for people that need temporary help while they wait for permanent housing.

RUBEN OTERO Ruben Otero is a professor at Escola da Cidade in São Paulo and one of the coordinators of the postgraduate course Housing and City at the same institution. Rube concerned the limitations of Brazilian housing programs and possible ways of improving access to housing in the country. For Otero, many of today’s urban problems can be solved within the housing theme. Otero listed data to inform people the housing situation of Sao Paulo: The city of Sao Paulo has an area of 1500 km2 with an population of more than 11 million. The average

APPENDIX

2010s. Despite these numbers, França cautioned that the official statistics do not always include informal areas, and urged skepticism when analyzing government figures.

monthly income is around $530. There are 527 thousand people employed in industry but more than 3 million people work in informal market. The informal settlements occupy 136 km2 in the city, among which there are 1600 favelas and 1100 illegal housing estates. 70% of people from informal settlements earn less then 3 minimum wages. 44 % of the labors attended only elementary school. 23% of adolescents between 15 and 17 did not complete primary education. Otero and his team (Ciro Pirondi/ Ruben Otero/ Analia Amorim) made an urban plan namely “Complexo Paraisópolis”. This plan mainly aimed at creating a more vibrant community by providing facilities and creative urban designs. Some proposals including a coordinated road network with bicycle lanes, sidewalks and main road axis. Other proposals like community facilities, public space, park, central waste disposal, football fields and so on. Some creative urban designs including: a floor lift plant, which suggesting an elevator plants to deal with the topography issues and help improve the passing capacity of the community. A high-rise social housing project, which proposing higher density housing typology so as to accommodate more dwellers. At the same time, the design shall meet the varied needs of interior design of houses and use affordable and sturdy materials.

MONICA MATION “Multi-level forum of Paraisopolis” is a virtual network of organizations, originating from the movement of organizations and Union of Residents in July 1994. They try 280

to bring together entities that work in the community of Paraisopolis. They open to those who share objectives and aim at articulating and integrating actions in a network that contribute to the improvement of the quality of life in the community as a whole. They arrange monthly meetings in the rolling system in the various participating institutions. At the beginning of each year, they select the priority community guidelines and organized working groups with leader for each theme. Another part of Mation’s presentation was called “Paraisopolis Education - School Equipment Deficit.” They investigated the status quo of the current educational resources of Paraisopolis, including elementary school, high school and the volume of students and classrooms. They also calculated the future demand of educational resources and analyzed the growing trend of students so as to determine balance of the supply and demand of educational resources. They also analyzed the students’ daily behavior pattern so as to better understand students’ needs and the efficiency of their study. They finally came out with some conclusions like the deficit of educational resources were evident. And night students are 3 times more likely to drop out of school than daytime students. According to those findings, some interventions shall be proposed. And a joint effort between municipal, organizations and residents was needed.

MILTON BRAGA As a member of the architecture firm MMBB, Milton Braga presented the project the firm developed from 2009 to 2014 to revitalize the area along the Antonico River in Paraisópolis. Their main objective was to

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PEP PONS Pep Pons gave a lecture introducing a housing project proposed by Christian Kerez, a Swiss architect. It is a housing design for Jardim Colombo, São Paulo , Brazil, which was exhibited on A Cidade Informal no Século XXI. The key point of the design is to think about how to increase the quality of space and density in the favela, and how to make architecture without architects. Small housing units are attached to each other to create a variety of public and private spaces. Each house has its own direct access at street level, and a covered garden,

as a reference to the type of local construction. The Paraisópolis Project is a collaboration between the 4th International Architecture Biennale Rotterdam 2009, SQUAT City, and the Housing Secretatiat of the City of São Paulo. In collaboration with the Municipality of São Paulo the 4th IABR is initiating exemplary project implementations in the context of informal settlements. The testsite, Paraisópolis, is with its 80,000 inhabitants one of the largest complex of informal settlements in São Paulo. The Municipality of São Paulo started an upgrading program in 2005 that provides infrastructure, public services and housing for a sustainable development of the area. The new phase of this program foresees exemplary project implementations by international renowned architecture offices that are aiming to introduce new strategies for the informal city.

DANIEL MONTADON Low income communities within São Paulo do not have areas that are zoned to include open spaces and mobility. Most of the areas that are zoned as this are spread out in the periphery area of the city. Social vulnerability is measured and defined through maps of vulnerability. These maps display where the highest and lowest concentration of vulnerability exists. Within São Paulo regarding transportation, cars are increasing 65% in ten years while the population has been increasing by 10%. When thinking about transportation you must think about how to make space for cars in this situation. This has been accounted for in the São Paulo TOD strategy that was created last year. The TOD plan also includes the adoption of buses – this is not the same performance

APPENDIX

transform people’s relationship with the river by creating a non-motorized transportation corridor along the river for people to walk and bike through the settlement. This corridor would include commercial activity, residential upgrading, and public space. In this project, they highlight the importance of ameliorating people’s negative perception of water and transform it to an attractive resource for public life and community engagement. According to Braga, public space works best when it is clearly delimited thus, they incorporated design strategies to discourage residents from occupying with more housing on the proposal’s intervention sites. These included designing a large scale civic center in the middle of the corridor area with an iconic building that incorporates local art and cultural activities and small scale interventions like facade design and allowing construction and expansion for business purposes in the properties along the corridor. Unfortunately, although this project was budgeted for the municipality, it was never built due to the lack of political will and organization to move it forward.

of the subway but it decreases the average commute time by 19 mins. Urban design can be connected to social mobility through sidewalks – for example. If you have a sidewalk of 5 m it is a good situation for the pedestrians – it is obligatory must have a sidewalk of 5 m. The Strategic Master Plan of 2014 utilizes urban planning strategies to address questions of: 1) Recognize some parts of the city and find some strategical areas to implement some parts 2) Recognize

the

public

transportation

3) Recognize and protect the vulnerable populations and land tenure The master plan had a very huge participative process was not only the meetings but the proposal on internet to bring contributions – analyzed the contributions, which one to incorporate/not. The parameters of urban design in the Strategic Master Plan of 2014 axes also include: active facades, guaranteed wide sidewalks, public fruition, demographic density, special zones of social interest that protects the land tenure and social housing, solidarity quota, and land compulsory building and use. The financial alternatives include subsidies at the federal, state, and municipal levels. The macro-areas bring an alternative for the spread of the occupation in the metropolitan region. There are currently projects planned for the areas. Axes exist that structure the urban transformation, implement the TOD, increase the density in the area, control the density, and high control of the density in other areas. Concepts of social housing were also discusses. There are five types of special 282

zoning in Sao Paulo. After the urbanization process – only allow the social housing not obligatory because need jobs in the area. The mixed zones of social interest bring diversity to income levels and opportunities. Two components of Paraisopolis are it is not exactly in the periphery of the city and segregation exists out of the formal market. The social vulnerability is spread into the periphery area specifically. There is a concentration of formal jobs and this is concentrated in the city center. Individual transportation rather than forms of transportation for all has resulted in an unsustainable and chaotic city. This urbanization has spread throughout the areas that are zoned as environmental protection areas.

RAQUEL ROLNIK On March 4th 2017, Pimentel Walker attended a meeting at the People’s House north of São Paulo, in area called Casa do Povo. The meeting was on March 4th and lasted from 9:00-2:00 pm. The People’s House is a research center that collaborates with social movements in São Paulo. The mission of the center is to track threats of eviction that people living in informal settlements face. The attendees were mostly people that have suffered from tenure insecurity and threats of eviction. The meeting was an opportunity for members of occupations to share their experiences, understand each other’s experience, raise awareness of social movements, and share resources. Two of the coordinators from Ocupação Anchieta Association, Anderson and Pernam Buco were

283 in attendance and spoke at the meeting. They went to help other occupations that have gone through similar issues themselves. Both of them found it very rewarding to go and built connections with many of the attendees. Pimentel Walker had the opportunity to meet with many attendees from different occupations around the city. Brazilian scholar, Raquel Rolnik was one of the influential attendees she met. Rolnik is the former Housing Rights Repertoire for the United Nations Habitat. She is also a faculty member at the University of SĂŁo Paulo. In her work she led research in collaboration with the public defense group, Public Defenders Office and the Gaspar Garcia Center for Human Rights.

APPENDIX

Attendees at the event were informed of a cellphone application that could be very useful to occupations. The application tracks those occupations that are under threat for relocation. The creators also have a web page online. Specifically, the application links research collected through the mapping of legal cases of eviction to determine who is in threat. Overall the meeting was a day for connecting people to resources and strengthening networks through building solidarity with the occupations that are already under threat.

C. RESIDENT SURVEY FORM

284

APPENDIX

285

286

APPENDIX

287

288

APPENDIX

289

D. DIRECT OBSERVATION FORM

290

APPENDIX

291

292

APPENDIX

293

E. DATA ANALYSIS ON RESIDENT SURVEY 2. What was your housing situation before arriving in Ocupação Anchieta? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

Rented room Rent house or apartment House or apartment owned by the head of the household (home) House or apartment owned by myself “By favor” Other

6 25

11% 45%

5 9 8

9% 16% 15%

Total

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

Ocupação With Parent(s) Barroco House + Church No Rent Rent in Favela Total

% of Total 3 3 1 1 1 1

30% 30% 10% 10% 10% 10%

100%

3. If you rented, how much did you pay in rent per month? (Write your response): Answers

294

Count

% of Total

150 250 280 350

1 1 1 6

3% 3% 3% 19%

400

295 450

19%

480 500 550 600 700 750 1000

1 6 2 2 1 1 1

3% 19% 6% 6% 3% 3% 3%

100%

Total Bin 0-250 -500 -750 -1000

Frequency

More Grand Total

% of Total

2 22 6 1

6% 71% 19% 3%

100%

4. Regarding the legal status of your former home, what documents did you possess? (Mark an X for your response) Count

% of Total

Rental contract Contract of sale for the property Registered legal title Word agreement (verbal) Other None

6 2 0 23 6 10

13% 4% 0% 49% 13% 21%

Total

100%

Breakdown for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Otherâ&#x20AC;? Responses Iague (lag?) Association has all the legal docments of housing ownership Cohabitation

Count

% of Total 2 1 1

33% 17% 17%

APPENDIX

Answers

Registration of Ocupation Favela

1 1

17% 17%

Total

60%

5. How many people live with you in your house? Answers

Count

% of Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7+

4 5 19 17 11 1 7

6% 8% 30% 27% 17% 2% 11%

Total

100%

6. How long have you lived in your current residence? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

Less than 6 months 6 to 11 months 1 to 3 years more than 3 years

1 4 28 31

2% 6% 44% 48%

Total

100%

7. How many rooms does your house have counting bedroom, bathroom, living room and kitchen? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

1 2 or 3 4 or more

5 24 33

8% 39% 53%

Total

100%

8. How many rooms are used as bedrooms? (Mark an X for your response) Answers 296

Count

% of Total

297 1 2 or 3 4 or more

24 36 4

38% 56% 6%

Total

100%

9. Is a toilet located inside your house? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

Yes No

56 6

90% 10%

Total

100%

10. The waste for your home is (Mark an X for as many answers you want) Answers Direct household collection of garbage by garbage collection services Collected from a collective dumpster Burned (on the property) Buried (on the property)

Count

Placed on an empty lot or street Placed in river, lake or ocean Other Total

% of Total 1

57 0 0

98% 0% 0%

0 0 0

0% 0% 0%

100%

11. What form is water supplied to your home/house? (Mark an X for your response) Piped water connected to the general network distributor Connected piped water informally Piped water outside the house Well or spring not on the property Water truck Stored rainwater Rivers, ponds, lakes and streams Other

Count

% of Total 1 30 1 0 0 0 0 26

2% 52% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0% 45%

APPENDIX

Answers

Total

58 Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

100% % of Total

Vizinhos (Neighbors) Gato (Informal connections to the municipal system) Water Collection (in buckets) Tap

23 1 1 1

88% 4% 4% 4%

Total

100%

12. Is there electricity in your home/house? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

Yes, a distributor with a meter Yes, a meter without a distributor Yes, electricity connected informally, “Gato” Yes, private generator Oil lamp or candle Other,

0 1 54 0 0 1

0% 2% 96% 0% 0% 2%

Total

100%

13. What are the top 2 or 3 things you enjoy about living in the neighborhood? (Open answers). Answers No Rent / Don’t Pay for Facilities Peaceful Atmosphere Good Community and Neighbors Good Location (to Market, Hospital, Bus Stations) Home Ownership NGO / Organization / Association Natural Environment Activities for Children Church Live Close to Family Feel Safe 298

Count

% of Total 22 12 7 6 5 3 3 2 1 1 1

35% 19% 11% 10% 8% 5% 5% 3% 2% 2% 2%

299 Total

100%

14. What are the top 2 or 3 things that concern you about the neighborhood? (Open Answers). Count

Housing Quality (Wooden Houses) and Living Conditions Flooding / Muddiness When it Rains Lack of Tenure Security Lack of Formalized Infrastructure (Water / Sewage / Electricity) Unpaved Streets / Roads Rats Lack of Respect and Consideration Natural Disaster (Fires / Lightening) Noise Disorganization Security No Time for Fun No Internet Sickness No Car Distant School Drug Addicts Lots of Politics Too Many Dogs Unemployment No Concerns Total

% of Total 13 12 9 6 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

18% 17% 13% 8% 7% 6% 4% 4% 3% 3% 3% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1%

1 1 1 1

1% 1% 1% 1%

100%

15. Which of these facilities would you use or someone living with you use? (check all that apply) Answers unchecked: 0,checked: 1☐ Community Center

Count

% of Total 35

55%

APPENDIX

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Soccerfield Playground Park Auditorium Cultural Center Basketball Court Sand court for volleyball Recreation Center Walking Trails Bicycle Trails Street Benches Art Center Temporary Housing for Flooding Events Other

38 47 31 27 34 29 28 37 24 24 29 30 23 31

59% 73% 48% 42% 53% 45% 44% 58% 38% 38% 45% 47% 36% 48%

Total

100%

Breakdown for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Otherâ&#x20AC;? Responses School Street (Pavement) Health Facilities Facilities for Children (Day Care / Children Support Center) Better (Brick) Houses Sewage Cultural Center Church Social Services Recreation Water Electricity Asphalt Toy Library All Total 300

Count

% of Total 6 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

20% 13% 13% 10% 7% 7% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%

100%

301 16. Which of these programs would your community benefit from most from? (check all that apply) Answers

Count

% of Total

Risk (Flooding) Prevention Work and Career Development Substance Abuse Prevention Health/Wellness Arts and Culture Crime Prevention Waste Management Other

22 44 37 45 34 32 41 12

34% 69% 58% 70% 53% 50% 64% 19%

Total

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

Sewage Health Facilities Education Programs for Children Public Libraries Street Lighting Alcoholic Husband Social Services Gym Instituto Anchieta Grajau Total

% of Total 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

17% 17% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8%

100%

Answers

Count

% of Total

yes no

31 25

55% 45%

Total

100%

APPENDIX

17. Do you personally engage with any of the activism/associations that exist within your community?

18. Sex? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

Female Male Other I do not want to answer

39 25 0 0

61% 39% 0% 0%

Total

100%

19. What is your age? Write you age and date of birth (day/month/year) Answers

302

Count

% of Total

18 20 21 22 23 24 27

1 1 2 1 1 1 2

2% 2% 3% 2% 2% 2% 3%

29 30 32 33 34 35 36 37

1 2 6 3 3 2 6 2

2% 3% 9% 5% 5% 3% 9% 3%

38 39 42 45 46 47

4 1 1 2 2 1

6% 2% 2% 3% 3% 2%

303

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 58 60 81

4 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 64

Total Bin 0-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -100 More

Frequency 2 11 27 12 11 1 0 64

Total

6% 2% 2% 2% 2% 5% 2% 3% 5% 2% 100% % of Total 3% 17% 42% 19% 17% 2% 0% 100%

21. What is the last year you completed in school? (Mark an X for your response) Answers I did not go 1 to 3 years

Count 5 9

% of Total 8% 14%

APPENDIX

20. Do you or anybody in your household have a disability? If so, please list. Answers Count % of Total Yes 4 8% No 46 92% Total 50 100%

4 to 5 years 6 to 7 years First degree (full 8 years) (Elementary school) 9 to 11 years High school (full 12 years) Higher education/incomplete college Full college Master or more Total 22. Are you currently employed? (Mark an X for your response) Answers Count Yes, informal (freelance/autonomous) Yes, with a formal contract that contributes to social security No Total

13 7 9 5 14 2 0 0 64

20% 11% 14% 8% 22% 3% 0% 0% 100%

% of Total 21%

29%

32 63

51% 100%

16 10 6 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 47

% of Total 34% 21% 13% 9% 6% 6% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 100%

23. What is your job(s)? (Open answers). Answers Worker Unemployed / Housekeeper Small Buseiness Owner White Collar Work Childcare Cook Logistics Artisan Public Transportation Recycling Security Total 304

Count

24. What is your monthly individual income? (Write your response) Answers Count 120 1 124 1 150 2 160 1 163 1 180 1 200 1 202 1 242 1 300 2 320 1 500 2 715 1 800 3 880 1 900 1 1000 1 1079 1 1100 1 1200 1 1210 1 1300 1 1380 1 1390 1 1500 2 1523 1 1540 1 1600 2 1700 1 2100 1 Total 37

% of Total 3% 3% 5% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 5% 3% 5% 3% 8% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 5% 3% 3% 5% 3% 3% 100%

APPENDIX

305

Bin 0-500 -1000 -1500 -2000 -2500 More Total

Frequency 15 7 9 5 1 0 37

% of Total 41% 19% 24% 14% 3% 0% 100%

25. What is your householdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s monthly income? (Mark an X as your response) Answers Up to 2 minimum salaries [0 a R$ 1.000] 3 to 4 minimum salaries [R$ 1.000 a R$ 1,999] 5 to 6 minimum salaries [R$ 2.000 a R$ 3.999] 7 to 11 minimum salaries [R$ 4.000 a R$ 5.999] 12 or more minimum salaries [R$ 6.000 +] Total

306

Count 32 22 6 0 0 60

% of Total 53% 37% 10% 0% 0% 100%

APPENDIX

307

F. DATA ANALYSIS ON DIRECT OBSERVATION 1. Nearby bodies of water (pond, lake, creek, stream) Answers

Count

% of Total

none border within

100 10 0

91% 9% 0%

Grand Total

110

100%

2. Dwelling types Answers

Count

% of Total

raised/stilted single level multilevel

5 102 1

5% 94% 1%

Grand Total

108

100%

3. Materials Answers

Count

% of Total

concrete brick pallets/woo plastic tarp other

30 3 104 23 11 69

28% 3% 95% 21% 10% 63%

Grand Total

109

100%

4. Roof Structure Answers Pitched Flat 308

Count

% of Total 17 50

16% 46%

309 Shed Grand Total

46%

109

100%

5. Floor Structure Answers

Count

Above ground level with ground below ground Grand Total

% of Total 46 54 10

42% 49% 9%

110

100%

6. Topographical Location Answers

Count

Highest Middle Lower (valley) Grand Total

% of Total 52 54 4

47% 49% 4%

110

100%

7. Location of landfills Count

% of Total

visible backyard/bordering within one community location other

25 20 4 46 20

26% 21% 4% 48% 21%

Grand Total

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

% of Total

Invisible In Front of the House

7 1

88% 13%

Total

100%

8. Where is the storm water going?

APPENDIX

Answers

Count

% of Total

in the settlement outside the settlement

14 10

58% 42%

Grand Total

100%

9. Is stormwater collecting in the settlement that is not actually draining from the settlement? Answers

Count

% of Total

yes no

1 21

5% 95%

Grand Total

100%

10. Is there a storm water system? Answers

Count

% of Total

yes, underground yes, above ground no

4 11 5

20% 55% 25%

Grand Total

100%

11. Are there areas where there is pooling during storm events? Answers

Count

yes no Grand Total

% of Total 36 69

34% 66%

105

100%

12. Stormwater system function: Answers

% of Total

underground above ground

5 15

25% 75%

Grand Total

100%

13. What type of pavement is present? (Check all that apply) 310

Count

311 Answers

Count

% of Total

dirt gravel asphalt cement brick Other

103 8 1 46 1 3

94% 7% 1% 42% 1% 3%

Grand Total

110

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

% of Total

Wooden Planks Tiled Floor

1 1

50% 50%

Total

100%

14. Which types of pollution visible in the settlement? Count

% of Total

garbage in roads and streets garbage in water garbage in sewer exhaust fumes / burning harmful gases of paints / plastic production oil spillage use of pesticides raw sewage in springs / streams / river biological contamination (bacteria growth)

104 20 44 6 1 0 0 1 20

95% 18% 40% 5% 1% 0% 0% 1% 18%

Grand Total

110

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

% of Total

Electrical Wires Damaged Dumping in the Rear of Home

1 1

50% 50%

Total

100%

15. Where do people receive (drinking) water?

APPENDIX

Answers

Count

% of Total

Piped water connected to the general network distributor Connected piped water informally Piped water outside the house Well or spring not on the property Water truck Stored rainwater Rivers, ponds, lakes and streams

2 103 1 3 0 5 0

2% 94% 1% 3% 0% 5% 0%

Grand Total

110

100%

Breakdown for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Otherâ&#x20AC;? Responses

Count

% of Total

Water Tank Outside Water Tank Inside No Water Tank

3 2 1

50% 33% 17%

Total

100%

16. Describe sewage pipes, if visible. (Select and/or describe) Answers

Count

Rudimentary sewage pipes Regular but broken sewer pipes Sewage pipes in good condition Septic tank It is not possible to observe Grand Total

% of Total 45 8 6 21 41

41% 7% 5% 19% 37%

110

100%

17. Describe any type of outside toilet or latrine facility, if visible: Answers

312

Count

% of Total

None Water Tank Septic System Water Pipe Restroom

34 4 3 1 1

79% 9% 7% 2% 2%

Total

100%

313 18. Is electricity visible for the home/house that you are observing? (Mark an X for your response) Answers

Count

% of Total

yes no

101 9

92% 8%

Grand Total

110

100%

Breakdown for “Other” Responses

Count

% of Total

Light Bulb Antenna Electrical Wires

20 5 4

69% 17% 14%

Total

100%

19. Is there any other infrastructure that you see? If so, which? Count

Yes, a distributor with a meter Yes, a meter without a distributor Yes, electricity connected informally, “Gato” E.g. (Does it looked borrowed from the streets?) Yes, private generator Other Grand Total Breakdown for “Other” Responses

% 1 1

1% 1%

86%

0 44

0% 44%

101

100%

Count

% of Total

Lights Antenna None Fences Laundry Machines Wires Water Tank Above-ground Ditch for Greywater

23 13 6 3 2 1 1 1

46% 26% 12% 6% 4% 2% 2% 2%

Total

100%

APPENDIX

Answers

G. WATER TESTING FIELD METHOD MANUAL SÃO PAULO CAPSTONE-STUDIO 2017: WATER TESTING FIELD METHODS **Note, please use caution if any of these methodologies are used in the final report as many of the directions are lifted from kit methods and online methods. Sources are noted at the bottom. Methodology for obtaining data relating to water quality, quantity, and accessibility is covered in this packet. This information gathered will be important to inform our recommendations and design for the final deliverable this semester. There are three sections of the water testing field methods: WATER QUALITY, FLOW TESTING, AND WATER ACCESSIBILITY. Minimally this test requires two people, however the sections can be done concurrently so four or more people would finish the tests in the least time.

Materials Required for all the Water Testing: ● Sharpie Marker ● First Alert Drinking Water Testing System (9) ● 1 Full Bottle of Water ● Clear lastic water bottle (8) ● Sharpie Marker ● String ● Stakes (4) ● Float ● Iphone ● Results table WATER QUALITY TESTING

314

Materials required: ● First Alert Drinking Water Testing System (9) ● 1 Bottle of Water (use as control) ● Clear plastic water bottle (8) - TWO per day of testing ● Sharpie Marker ● Results table

315

Site selection: 2 Sites for the water testing should be selected in both Paraisópolis and Ocupação Anchieta. One should be as far upstream as possible (in Ocupaçao Anchieta this should be direct spring water if possible) and the other should be as far downstream as possible. Efforts should be made to make the repetition of these tests in the same location. Be sure to document the site where you are getting the water from.

Testing Process: First, you will make a qualitative assessments on turbidity and odor.

1. Use the clear empty plastic water bottle to take a water sample from the chosen site a. Label the test vial(with the name of the settlement, testing location and sample number)

b. Take a picture u sing an iphone to geolocate the sample. 2. Odor - begin by smelling the top of the bottle and record any distinctive smells. (Potential smells could include: bleach, chemical, medicinal, rotten eggs, sewage-like, musty, moldy, earthy, grassy, fishy, petroleum, gasoline, turpentine, fuel-like, solventlike, detergent, or methane if there is no smell, record this information too.)

3. Turbidity - use the diagram below to estimate turbidity. a. Turbidity= relative clarity of the water b. You should describe the color (e.g. Dark brown, yellow, tan), opacity

APPENDIX

(e.g. Impossible to see through), and/or term (i.e. murky). The next portion of the water quality testing is to use the First Alert Drinking Water Testing System.

This system will be testing bacteria, lead, pesticides, nitrates, nitrites, pH, hardness and chlorine. This water test will not give us guaranteed water quality, but will imply problems with pollution (e.G. Sources or potential contaminants) and allow for recommendations for further testing. The majority of this test will be done in field - one portion however needs to be done when we return to the hotel. In addition the control test will be done when we are in the hotel. 1. Unpack kit and examine the contents a) Be sure to choose the best area available to conduct the testing - consider somewhere clean, clear, and somewhere the materials won’t get knocked over b) Contents should include: i) One bacteria test vial ii) One Lead/Pesticide test packet iii) One nitrate/nitrite test packet iv) One pH/Hardness/Chlorine test packet c) Note, you should be using the water bottle as your water sample still 2. Lead/Pesticide Test instructions a) The Lead Test can detect dissolved lead at levels below the EPA Action level of 15 parts per billion (ppb). The Pesticide Test detects two of the most common pesticides used in the US at or below the EPA Maximum Contaminant Level (atrazine - 3 ppb and simazine - 4 ppm). b) Open Lead/Pesticide packet and take out all contents. The packet contains a test vial, a dropper pipette, two test strips, and a desiccant (to be discarded) c) Using a dropper, place exactly T WO dropperfuls of water sample into the test vial. i) To pick up sample, tightly squeeze the bulb at the end of the dropper and place the open end into water sample. Release the bulb to pick up sample, then squeeze again to expel sample into the vial. d) Swirl vial gently for several seconds. Place on a flat surface. e) Place both test strips into the test vial, w ith arrows point DOWN. f) Wait 10 minutes. Do not disturb strips or vial during this time. Blue lines will appear on the strips. g) Take the strips out of the vial and read results; record these results in the chart (the strips are labeled with either the pesticide or lead tests) i) NEGATIVE - bottom line (next to number 1) is darker than top line (next to number 2); if you only see one line ii) POSITIVE - top line (next to number 2) is darker than bottom line (next to number 1), or lines are equally dark iii) If no lines appear, the test did not run properly (draw a line through the box on the results page)

316

317 3. Nitrate/Nitrite Test Instructions a) Carefully open nitrate/nitrite test packet and take out test strip b) Immerse the reagent pads into water sample for 2 â&#x20AC;&#x2039; secondsâ&#x20AC;&#x2039;, remove, and after 1 minute match colors to the chart below (also in the instructions of the packet) and record your results in the table.

c) Colors are stable for one minute, so â&#x20AC;&#x2039;determine the results quickly

APPENDIX

4. pH/Hardness/Chlorine Test Instructions a) Carefully open the pH/Hardness/Chlorine test packet and take out test strips b) Immerse the reagent pads into water sample and remove immediately hold the strip level for 15 seconds c) Match pH, total hardness and total chlorine pads (in that order) to the color chart below (also in the instructions of the packet) and record the results on the table

At the hotel -

1. Bacteria Test Instructions (for site samples) a. Take out the Bacteria Test vial, label the test vial (with the name of the 1. Settlement 2. Testing location 3. Sample number - this should match the water bottle you are doing the test for), and set upright on a flat surface (be sure that the vial will not get knocked over!) b. Carefully twist off cap and fill vial to ½ inch below the top (to the 5 ml line) i) DO NOT OVERFLOW ii) DO NOT SPILL iii) DO NOT KNOCK OVER d) Replace the cap and twist on tightly - Shake the vial vigorously for 20 seconds e) Place the capped vial upright w here it cannot be disturbed for 48 hrs f) After 48 hrs (BEFORE 50 HOURS)observe the color of the liquid without opening the vial i) PURPLE - negative Result (write NEGATIVE) in the results table ii) YELLOW - positive Result g) Add bleach and pour down toilet h) Discard the vial in the trash

2. Repeat the test kit process completely once using clean bottled water as a control STREAM AND FLOW TESTING

Materials Required: ● Four stakes ● String ● Tape measure ● Float ● Iphone ● Results table For this test we will be using the average cross section method for understanding the stream size and flow rate. In summary we will use the cross sectional area of the stream and a float to later calculate the flow rate. A basic diagram of this methodology is shown below:

318

319

1. Find approximately equal sections of the stream that is around 50-100 ft apart (if this is not, then as far apart as possible) a. Put two stakes at point 1 and put a string across the stream b. Measure the widthand approximate depth of the stream(in the middle of the stream bed) at point 1 c. Put two stakes at point 2 and put a string across the stream d. Measure the widthand approximate depth of the stream (in the middle of the stream bed) at point 2 e. Take a pictureof the setup to record and geolocate the test

2. Assign the jobs to the two people in the test: a. Person 1 is assigned to Point 1 i. Required materials: Float ii. Job: Drop float and shout to start timer b. Person 2 is assigned to Point 2 i. Required materials: Timer ii. Job: Stop timer when the float reaches the string for point two 3. Record the timethat the float takes to get from point one to point 2 (using phone) 4. Repeat step 3 five times.

WATER ACCESSIBILITY

APPENDIX

The last information gathered for the water management methodologies is an estimation of access to the water. This will be a qualitative response - please respond to the difference between distance and time taken to access water. For example, you could note things like - access from steep slope, only accessible from the south side, very accessible, took 30 minutes to hike down etc….

H. SOIL TESTING FIELD METHOD MANUAL SÃO PAULO CAPSTONE-STUDIO 2017: SOIL TESTING FIELD METHODS **Note, please use caution if any of these methodologies are used in the final report as many of the directions are lifted from kit methods and online methods. Sources are noted at the bottom. Methodology for obtaining data related to soil type and quality is covered in this packet. This information gathered will be important to inform our final deliverable recommendations and designs. There are two sections of the soil testing field methods: SOIL TYPE AND TESTING. Minimally this test requires one person, however the sections can be done concurrently so two or more people would finish the tests in the least time.

Materials Required for all the Water Testing: ● Clean Water ● iPhone ● Rapid Test Soil Test Kit ● Spoon to Dig Sample ● Plastic Tupperware ● Ziplock Bags ● Tissue SOIL TYPE EVALUATION

General Information This test will aim to determine soil type in the field. It is modified from a document made by University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food and Environment called “Determining Soil Texture by Feel.” Basically we are looking for broad categories of soil either sandy, loam, and clay. Definitions as followed are from the Soil Test Kit: ● Sandy Soil- a light, coarse soil comprise of crumblin and alluvial debris 320

321

● Loam Soil- a medium friable soil, consisting of a blend of coarse (sand) alluvium and fine (clay) particles mixed within fairly broad limits with a little lime and humus

● Clay- a heavy, clinging, impermeable soil, comprised of very fine particles with little lime and humus and tending to be waterlogged in winter and very dry in summer

Below is an in depth chart of soil type - which conceptually outlines what we are looking for in this analysis:

Materials Required:

Site Selection: This test is not limited in how many times it can be conducted. Judgement can be used for what is practical and useful. Feel free to use visual observation to notice PHYSICAL and VISUAL transitions in soil type. Be sure to document every site the sample is taken from to geolocate the sample.Also use results from the soil type evaluation to inform the soil testing (second step).

APPENDIX

● Clean Water ● iPhone

Testing Processes: This test will comprise of three simple processes, outlined below:

This process diagram can be used to better help decision making for this process:

322

APPENDIX

323

Please record the type of soil in the results chart provided and take an iPhone picture to geolocate the sample.

SOIL TEST KIT (Directions obtained from: http://www.domyownpestcontrol.com/msds/1601_instruction1.pdf)

Overview: This test uses 4 color comparators - one each for pH, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash. Each comparator has a removable film color chart and color coded top. Capsules for each test are also color-coded. This test is not designed for our specific scenario so we have modified it slightly - we will be doing the pH soil testing in the field and collecting samples of soil to test in the hotel for the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash tests.

Materials Required: ● Rapid Test Soil Test Kit ● Spoon to Dig Sample ● Plastic Tupperware ● Ziplock Bags ● iPhone ● Tissue ● Clean Water Site Selection Test soil from only one sample site at a time. Use information from the soil type evaluation to help explore the quality of a variety of types of soil on the site (it would be useful to evaluate the soil type of the soil sample site). Consider where the proposed interventions will be located and test relevant areas. There are enough areas t o test 5 samples in each site. 324

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Field Testing Steps

1. Take soil sample from approximately 4 in. deep- avoid touching the soil with your hands

2. Place the sample into a tupperware container a. Break the sample up with the spoon and allow it to dry out naturally (if possible) b. Remove any small stones, organic matter (e.g. grass, weeds or roots), or hard particles

c. Crumble the sample fines and mix it thoroughly 3. pH Test: a. Remove the cap from the g reencomparator and take out the package of b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

capsules i. Make sure the color chart (film) is in place Fill test chamber to soil fill line with soil sample. Holding the capsule horizontally over the test chamber, carefully separate the two halves of the green capsule and pour powder into the test chamber. Using the dropper provided, add water (preferably distilled) to water fill line. Fit the cap onto comparator, making sure it is seated properly and caps tightly. Shake thoroughly. Allow soil to settle and color to develop for a bout a minute. Compare color of solution against pH chart. For best results allow daylight (not direct sunlight) to illuminate the solution. Record the results on the results chart

4. Put the remaining portion of the soil sample into a p lastic ziplock bag labeled with the name of the settlement, testing location and sample number (if applicable). Take a picture of the label to geolocate the testing location.

5. Clean the container of soil (use tissue if neccessary)

6. Nitrogen, Phosphorus & Potash Tests: a. Fill a clean tupperware with 1 cup of soil and 5 cups of water. i. Larger or smaller quantities may be tested as long as the 1 part soil to

5 parts water proportions are maintained.) For best results use bottled or distilled water (water needs to be drinkable for sure). b. Thoroughly shake or stir the soil and water together for at least one minute; then

ii.

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Hotel Testing Steps

e. f. g. h.

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allow the mixture to stand undisturbed until it settles(30 minutes to 24 hours, dependent on soil). A fine clay soil will take much longer to settle out than a coarse sandy soil. The clarity of the solution will also vary, the clearer the better, however cloudiness will not affect the accuracy of the test. Select the appropriate comparator for the test you wish to make. Remove the cap and take out the capsules which should be the same color as the cap. Make sure the color chart (film) is in place. Do not interchange color charts between comparators. Using the dropper provided, fill the test and reference chambers to the fill mark on the chart with solution from your soil sample. Solution is added to the reference chamber to compensate for any discoloration in the tested sample caused by the soil. Avoid disturbing the sediment. Transfer only liquid. Remove one of the appropriate colored capsules from its poly bag. Holding the capsule horizontally over the test chamber, carefully separate the two halves and pour the powder into the test chamber. Fit the cap on the comparator, making sure it is seated properly and caps tightly. Shake thoroughly. Allow color to develop for 10 minutes. Compare the color of the solution in the test chamber to the color chart. For best results, allow daylight (not direct sunlight) to illuminate the solution in both the test and reference chambers. Judge colors, if necessary, and note your results for future reference.

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I. COMMUNITY DISCUSSION MANUAL COMMUNITY DISCUSSION IN OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA Materials: ● Small stickers (little circles) ● Need to create sticker key on 8.5”x11” blank sheet of paper ● 1 map of Ocupação Anchieta (poster size) ● Need to outline vegetation and water bodies with green and blue makers ● If there is a printing facility near hotel, print pictures of key features/ landmarks if we can take pictures our first two days on site ● Markers (sharpies) ● Box of pens ● Camera and photographer + videographer ● Food ● Flyer (passed out before the meeting) ● Ask AP/client if we would be allowed to post flyers for meeting around community ● 5 English-Portuguese Speaking Facilitators ● Note taker ● Recording Device ● Have some surveys on hand - in case some participants haven’t already filled it out Scenario 1: Participants will arrive relatively on time and activities can run sequentially as described below. If possible, take a group picture at the end of the meeting. Scenario 2: Participants will come and go and the meeting will function more like an open house. In this scenario, skip Activity 2. For Activity 3, as people leave the meeting, alternate which question you ask so that there is one participant per question. Alternating questions will ensure we get answers to all questions without taking up too much of people’s time. If you get a sense the participant is willing to talk about more (or a group is willing to engage in further dialogue), ask all questions in Activity 3 (you can also ask questions from Activity 2).

Introduction: ● Who we are ● Why we are there ● Participation (please feel free to participate in how much you feel comfortable with) ● Go around and let everyone say their name (if this is reasonable for the number of people present) 328

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● Ask if it’s okay to take pictures ● Ask if we can record the conversation ● Invite people to get food ACTIVITY 1: COMMUNITY MAPPING

Goal: To get a sense of the community’s assets and issues as they currently stand. Objective: We want to gain a spatial understanding of the relation between pollution (litter), recreation, and housing. Activity Description:

1. Post base map of Ocupação Anchieta on the wall 2. Explain the activity and sticker key. Tell participants to place the stickers on the map accordingly (sticker key): ● Water Anchieta? ○ Red Star ● Housing ○ Gold Star ● Pollution (Litter) ○ Silver Star ● Recreation ○ Neon Pink ○ Neon Orange ○ Neon Green

= Where you put soiled water (Water Quality) = Your Home = Trash collects = Where you go in Ocupação Anchieta to socialize = Where you go in Ocupação Anchieta for commerce = Open Natural Space/Park

3. Facilitators need to be around the map and floating around the space to answer questions about the activity.

ALTERNATIVE ACTIVITY 2: REFLECTION AND VISIONING THE FUTURE OF OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA Facilitate a reflection discussion regarding the mapping activity and ask participants for their individual and collective vision for the future of Ocupação Anchieta. ● Reflection Questions: ○ Do you agree with what the maps represent? (Do the collective finished maps represent your experience?)

APPENDIX

4. Take a photo of the maps

○ Do you see any connections or relationships between the locations of the things you mapped?

ACTIVITY 3: VISIONING THE FUTURE OF OCUPAÇÃO ANCHIETA

Directions:

1. As participants exit the meeting, ask the following question: ● Do you think the water spring plays and important role in Ocupação Anchieta? If so, why?

● How do you interact with the water spring? ● What would you would you like to see for the future of the spring? 2. Video Record Participants’ response (if permitted) ● Option 2: Voice Record ● Option 3: Write down

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SOURCES

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http://www.Fao.Org/docrep/x5624e/x5624e05. Htm#2.2.2Chemical tests http://www.Who.Int/water_sanitation_health/ dwq/gdwq0506.Pdf http://www.Water-research.Net/index.Php/ glossary https://www.Unicef.Org/cholera_toolkit/ chapter_4_prevention/01_who_guidelines_ for_drinking _water_quality.Pdf h t t p : / / w w w. L i f e w a t e r. C a / d r i l l _ m a n u a l / section_16.Htm http://extension.Uga.Edu/publications/detail. Cfm?Number=c1016 http://www.Firstalertstore.Com/store/images/ pdf/wt1-first_alert_water_test_kit.Pdf http://newfarms.Extension.Uconn.Edu/wpcontent/uploads/sites/848/2015/09/estimatingwater-f low-rates.Pdf

h t t p : / / w w w. d o m y o w n p e s t c o n t r o l . c o m / msds/1601_instruction1.pdf

APPENDIX

https://water.Usgs.Gov/edu/turbidity.HtmlSÃ£o Paulo Capstone-Studio 2017:

TAUBMAN COLLEGE

architecture+urban planning

University of Michigan