Local Production of Recycled Content Building Products and Materials: Resource micro-management

A dissertation submitted to the University West of England in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of: MSc in Sustainable Development in Practice

Jennifer Ford

Local Production of Recycled Content

April 2018

Building Products and Materials: A case for resource micro-management within urban development strategies

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Abstract Recent Government publications Fixing our broken housing market, 2017; The Farmer Review of the UK Construction Labour Model, 2017; Industrial Strategy: Building a Britain fit for the future, 2017, highlight many challenges faced in building homes and infrastructure that provide social, environmental and economic resilience. Unsustainable virgin resource reliance and a fragmented waste and recycling industry suggest drastic measures are needed to better manage resource consumption, production and end-of-life handling.

Successful projects are beginning to emerge that demonstrate waste as resource within housing, public buildings and civic spaces, setting a challenge to a traditionally risk-averse construction industry. Despite common integration in some applications (aggregate), novel uses depend on trial, acceptance and implementation, relying on innovators who manage the risks, create networks and attract media and industry attention. Sustainable public procurement for civic buildings provides opportunities for the public-sector to champion locally produced, recycled content building materials, providing valuable demonstration spaces. Establishing various models capable of scalable manufacturing from local waste requires investment plus support and collaboration with builders, developers and clients to develop markets. Materials and markets can play a critical role in achieving local and national planning policy objectives and meeting global goals.

A beta testing model for production, application and demonstration of recycled content building products and materials (RCBPM), is proposed within a public procurement strategy in the Bristol Local Plan. Ultimately, this research should facilitate widespread implementation and institutionalisation of locally produced, recycled content materials and products.

Keywords Urban built development, circular economy, sustainable procurement, recycled content material, collaboration, co-learning, distributed manufacturing, diffusion of innovation.

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1 Table of Contents ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................ 1 KEYWORDS............................................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 FIGURE REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 TABLE REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................................. 4 1.4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 5 2

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 6 2.1 SCOPING STUDY.......................................................................................................................................... 8 2.1.1 Building capacity: Innovation and Enterprise .................................................................................. 10 2.1.2 Resourcing our built environment .................................................................................................... 12 2.1.3 A local perspective: Bristol, UK ........................................................................................................ 15

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AIM ........................................................................................................................................................ 16 3.1 OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................................. 16 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 16 3.2.1 Sampling .......................................................................................................................................... 18 3.2.2 Coding and analysis process ............................................................................................................ 21 3.2.3 Method Criticism .............................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.4 A note on Action Research ............................................................................................................... 23

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DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................... 24 4.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO RCBPM MODELS ....................................................................................................... 24 4.1.1 Distributed production ..................................................................................................................... 30 4.1.2 Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 34 4.2 RCBPM IN ACHIEVING STRATEGIC DEVELOPMENT GOALS .................................................................................. 35 4.2.1 Diffusion of Innovation .................................................................................................................... 38 4.2.2 Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 40 4.3 PEOPLE AND CONNECTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 41 4.3.1 Barriers and opportunities ............................................................................................................... 44 4.3.2 Collaboration and knowledge sharing ............................................................................................. 45 4.3.3 Value creation, local economy & the social agenda ........................................................................ 47

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IMPLEMENTING, INSTITUTIONALISING AND ECONOMIES OF SCALE ...................................................... 48 5.1 LEADERSHIP ............................................................................................................................................. 52 5.1.1 Leading change ................................................................................................................................ 52 5.2 MARKETING ............................................................................................................................................. 55 5.3 INSTITUTIONALISING .................................................................................................................................. 56 5.3.1 Sustaining ........................................................................................................................................ 57

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SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................. 58 6.1 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................ 58 6.1.1 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 59 6.1.2 Next Steps ........................................................................................................................................ 60

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INTERVIEW REFERENCE LIST................................................................................................................... 61

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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 62

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 72 FIGURE REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 78

1.1 Figure references Cover image. Assemble Granby Workshop (set) Figure 1. Distribution of skills in a circular economy

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Figure 2. The UK's Low Carbon Economy by regional performance

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Figure 3. Selected Sustainable Development Goals –screen shot

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Figure 4. DEFRA’s Waste Hierarchy according to what is best for the environment

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Figure 5. Stages of Innovation- DIY Toolkit

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Figure 6. OTOProjects complete with rubble-dash walls

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Figure 7. OTOProjects’ walls under construction

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Figure 8. The Q-brixx mobile factory

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Figure 9. Finished Q-brixx home

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Figure 10. Visiting the factory (StoneCycling)

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Figure 11. Selection of waste based bricks (StoneCycling)

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Figure 12. Inspecting the slabs (Granby Workshop)

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Figure 13. Production at Anfield Marble (Granby Workshop)

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Figure 14. Slate effect made from paper (Richlite)

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Figure 15. Signage made from paper (Richlite)

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Figure 16. Custom vanity unit in recycled plastic (Durat)

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Figure 17. Fire Bench, 100% recycled plastic (Loll Designs)

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Figure 18. Designer product display unit (Smile Plastics)

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Figure 19. External Cladding (Smile Plastics)

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Figure 20. Recycled Plastic Seating (Smile Plastics)

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Figure 21. 6 year old hoardings, looking good (Storm Board)

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Figure 22. Distributed Manufacturing Systems, sustainability and related challenges

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Figure 23. A Systems Map for Beta-Testing RCBPM in Bristol (pages 41 & 42)

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Figure 24. A Systems Map for Implementing RCBPM within Urban Development Strategiesin two parts (page 50 & 51)

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1.2 Table references Table 1. Sample from Document Research

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Table 2. Comparing local, national and global goals

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1.3 Glossary CE

Circular Economy

CI

Construction Industry

CLT

Community Land Trust

GPP

Green Public Procurement

IE

Industrial Ecology

IS

Industrial Symbiosis

VHB

Volume House Builders

R&D

Research and development

RCM

Recycled content materials

SME

Small, medium enterprise

NPPF

National Planning Policy Framework

RCBPM Recycled content building materials SDGs

Sustainable development goals

LED

Local Economic Development

EfW

Energy from Waste

GPP

Green Public Procurement

UWE

University of the West of England

SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats PEST

Political, economic, sociological and technological factors

GW

Granby Workshop

SuDs

Sustainable urban drainage systems 4

DM

Distributed Manufacturing

CSR

Corporate social responsibility

DMS

Distributed Manufacturing systems

JV

Joint Venture

CIC

Community Interest Company

GBS

Government Buying Standard

OSM

Off-site manufacturing

MMC

Modern methods of construction

LA

Local Authority

1.4 Acknowledgements Firstly, an apology to all those who’ve had to endure my ramblings about recycled materials - you have helped me form, shape, reject and run with ideas, and without your encouragement, questioning and occasional eye-rolling I wouldn’t have got here. It’s an exciting field and I hope to continue babbling on at you whenever I have the chance.

Thanks especially to Tom for your constant love and support, and to mum and dad – your long distance care and assistance always comes at the right time. Susanna and Michael, thank you for being a sounding board and the source of so many interesting and relevant conversations.

To my tutor Sally, thank you – I never thought I would learn so much! So excited for the next chapter…

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2 Introduction The UK has pledged up to 230,000 new homes constructed annually until 2039 to satisfy current and forecast needs (Smith, 2017). Construction consumes vast quantities of materials and energy, yet we live on a bounded planet. It would take three planet Earths to support current European consumption (WWF, 2017). We pursue unsustainable levels of production and consumption, promoted by government and industry in efforts to maintain continued economic growth, support emergent markets and sustain comforts allowed by technological advancements. “...imagine the whole world was one big machine. Machines never come with any extra parts, you know. They always come with the exact amount they need�

- Hugo Cabret (Hugo, 2011).

Recycled content materials (RCM) have significant potential to reduce pressure on virgin resources, whilst localised production reduces transport related emissions from the movement of waste between Local Authority, processing plant, manufacturer, distributor and user.

I aim to highlight the role and benefits of locally produced RCM in building projects. Despite recycled content products being widely available from mainstream brands and SMEs, they are not commonplace, and production often occurs at centralised facilities with materials sourced nationally from waste brokers.

Experimental, social impact and commercial solutions aiming to reframe waste as a productive resource are explored, demonstrating how value can be added rather than lost.

The emphasis of this study lies in exploring the current situation including national and local government targets for urban development as set out in the National Planning Policy Framework Directive (NPPF) and Bristol Local Plan. Questioning why local and distributed production of RCM isn’t embedded in national industrial strategy given the potential benefits. This paper explores viability of distributed production of recycled content building products and materials (referred to hereon as RCBPM) to replace virgin counterparts and how to inspire this change. I argue that the public realm offers significant opportunity for local authorities to lead, acting as client, purchasing RCBPM through public procurement 6

and supporting new and existing firms in establishing local production. Using an iterative system of testing and refining, a range of approaches (grassroots to industry) can be considered for replication and scalability. Demonstration of product (in-situ) and process (explained) in public buildings could generate significant media and industry attention and accelerate uptake of locally produced alternatives within the house-building sector.

Farmer (2017) recommends “Industry, clients and government should work together [ . . . ] to improve relationships and increase levels of investment in R&D and innovation in construction by changing commissioning trends [ . . . ]. The housing sector (spanning all tenures) should be used as a scalable pilot programme for this more integrated approach� p.11.

A condensed version of this dissertation was submitted to Bristol City Council for consideration within the Local Plan review (closed 13 April 2018), representing a unique opportunity to advocate local RCBPM production within a long-term, city-wide development strategy (Appendix E, pp.25-28).

This paper is designed to help reframe certain ideas and concepts around material resources and markets, while demonstrating cooperative systems for sustainable development of our built environment.

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2.1 Scoping Study A scoping study aims to broadly assess the wider field of literature and action and through a process of refinement, expansion, refinement etc. key interrelated findings are made (Arksey & O'Malley, 2007). The body of evidence gathered is designed to be representative of current construction and manufacturing industry challenges, identifying connections between disparate narratives and gaps or provocations to justify further study. ● Technical activities, like materials, are always in flux. If we could zoom in and out, we would observe practice-based progress occurring at different rates; years, decades, centuries, further varying according to local, regional, national or global perspective (Knappett, 2011).

Massey invites us to consider the singular narrative of globalisation; the all-out pursuit of technical progress and financial capital over the protection of traditional practice or of natural and human capital (2005). Almost in response, entrepreneurs and innovators seek different trajectories, such as resource independence, to create and sustain prosperity (Stone, 2017). ● The UK housing sector is in crisis. While a financially-unsustainable, speculative housing model decelerates production, forcing out diverse players, new house-building targets are far higher than the industry’s current capacity (Smith, 2017; DCLG, 2017; Javid, 2016; UN Habitat, 2012; Shelter, 2017; Parvin, 2017). A fragmented construction industry, largely made up of SMEs, has failed to reform its system of late payment, debt and low capital (DBIS, 2013; DBIS, 2016a.). This fragmentation complicates relations between client, developers and supply chain, propagating reduced flexibility (of SMEs), and ultimately makes for “unequal and brittle economy” recently demonstrated by Carillion’s collapse (Farmer, 2017; Raworth, 2017, p.175). In a bid to maintain profit margins within an inflated market, features designed to increase resilience of housing stock are frequently removed.

The effects are felt keenly by the house buying and renting public. While urban landscapes become increasingly ubiquitous, affordability trumps traditional priorities, contributing to poor opinion of the industry (Smith, 2017; Parvin, 2017; DCLG, 2017).

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UK industries are experiencing a growing skills shortage (Hirst et al., 2017; The Migration Institute, 2017; HM Gov, 2017; DBIS, 2013; Farmer, 2017). A hollowing out of midlevel jobs (Mitchell, Morgan, 2015), reflects a failure, despite targeted EU funds, to significantly improve economic infrastructure, innovation in manufacture, supply chain or skills development (Di Cataldo, 2016).

A 35% expansion of the current construction workforce (120,000 new employees) is needed to build our new homes (though possible further decline is forecast), (Hirst et al., 2017); (Skillsplanner, 2016). Incorporating modern construction methods into training programmes and reskilling a resistant, existing workforce through improved access to new technologies and materials is required across our labour markets (DBIS, 2013; DBIS, 2016; Mitchell, Morgan, 2015). Cooperative relationships with apprenticeships/ training/ education providers, businesses and policy makers meanwhile, could boost cross sectoral learning, public sphere engagement and innovation (DBIS, 2016; HM Gov, 2017). Collaboration and communication will be vital in dismantling silos of outdated practice, building capable supply chains and creating consistency across the industry (Hirst et al., 2017; Media Planet, 2016; Anon., 2018; Hambleton, 2015; skillsplanner, 2016; Farmer 2017; HM Gov, 2017a.; POST, 2016).

The decline in skilled occupations could be remedied through investment in a circular economy (CE), creating up to 500,000 jobs, including replacing existing/ defunct roles figure 1 (p.10). The decade, 2000 to 2010 saw over 20% expansion of the waste and recycling industry (Mitchell, Morgan, 2015). Figure 2 (p.11) illustrates current low-carbon industries economic performance, by region.

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Figure 1 Distribution of skills in a circular economy – WRAP & Green Alliance (Mitchell, Morgan 2015) p.12.

2.1.1 Building capacity: Innovation and Enterprise Vital to the UK economy, a reported 90% of construction industry spend is with UK firms (circa £30bn on products and materials (Making Lewes, no date)). Innovations in the industry have potential to be wide reaching through public and private partners and via large supply chains (including materials, administration and other services) (DBIS, 2013). The small business sector, traditionally seen as industries’ innovators (Shove, Guy, 2000; Ward, 1989), have “a critical role to play as a source of investment and as a driver of technological development and innovation, not to mention as an engine for economic growth and employment” (Media Planet, 2016, p.7). The idea that technical progress plays a defining role in social order is prevalent in Marxist and American social science literature, so to maintain pace (and relevance) businesses must reverse current trends and actively pursue research & development (R&D) (Burns, Stalker, 1994; Morell, The Edge, 2015; Farmer, 2017; HM Gov, 2017). Farmer suggests (2017) that the construction industry has yet to fully transition to the digital age (Industry 3.0), though for many, Industry 4.0, the merging of physical, digital and biological spheres, is already defining how they approach and conduct business (DBIS, 2015; Parvin, 2017; Fox, Richardson, 2017).

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Figure 2 The UK's Low Carbon Economy by regional performance (BEIS, 2017)

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Developing relevant skills should begin with targeting structural material and human resource mismatches (Mitchell, Morgan, 2015; HM Gov, 2017). On the road toward circularity, Velenturf and Purnell (2017) suggest “coordinated change is required from multiple actors across society”, while Shove and Guy regard research, innovation transfer and market assessment as the government’s remit (2000).

2.1.2 Resourcing our built environment The construction industry consumes more virgin materials and produces more waste than any other single sector. Buildings account for two fifths of the world’s material and energy flows, with materials production accounting for a significant proportion of associated environmental impacts (Roodman, Lessen, 1995; Bioregional, Salvo, 2015). Full implementation of the EU Circular Economy Package could reduce GHG emissions up to 11.5% (=21m fewer cars on the road) by 2025 (Plastics Recyclers Europe, 2016).

Brundtland (1987) set out, among others, critical global objectives; “conserving and enhancing the resource base; reorienting technology and managing risk; and merging environment and economics in decision making.” (2.III.28). Despite three decades having passed since publication of Our Common Future, sustainability remains a challenging concept for many and subject to broad interpretation. “I think the whole term sustainability is one of our greatest weaknesses because it's not... It's like [ . . . ] leadership, it doesn't have an all-embracing acceptable definition” (Osmundson, 2017).

This paper uses Brundtland’s definition of sustainable development: “…development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.''

(Brundtland, 1987, 2.I.1) The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) seek to make the concept relatable and actionable; 12 out of 17 “directly contain targets to improve waste and resource managements” requiring “far-reaching changes for both industry and society” (Jopson, 2017). To engage with the SDGs, businesses will require practical, clear guidance, yet no current government delivery strategy exists (PWC, 2015). Three years into the agenda,

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experts are urging governments, industries, academia and others to participate in their delivery (Velenturf, Purnell, 2017; EC, 2014; Boddy, et al, 2017). Figure 3 (adapted from Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, UN (no date) highlights six goals relevant to the themes emerging from this study.

Figure 3 Selected Sustainable Development Goals – screenshot (UN, no date)

In urban development projects, rising standards encourage more engaged approaches to, amongst other things; site and waste management, labour practices, community engagement, local economic development (LED) and sustainable procurement. The new ISO 20400 “provides guidance to organizations, independent of activity or size, on integrating sustainability within procurement [ . . . ] It is intended for stakeholders involved in, or impacted by, procurement decisions and processes” (ISO, 2017). ISO standards, while voluntary, are designed to be market-relevant and practice-based. Growing awareness of the actions of firms can impact: 

“its competitive advantage;

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its reputation;

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its ability to attract and retain workers or members, customers, clients or users;

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the maintenance of employees' morale, commitment and productivity;

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the view of investors, owners, donors, sponsors and the financial community; and

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its relationship with companies, governments, the media, suppliers, peers, customers and the community in which it operates”.

(ISO, 2010)

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Within the building and interior products industries lie unique opportunities to create products with long life-spans, where at the end of life they can be recaptured and recycled.

Replacing products in housing with increasingly attractive, high-performing, recycled content materials can; reduce consumption of virgin materials and consumption of energy/ water in production; create employment and skills development opportunities, satisfy planning/ sustainability requirements; inform/ pre-empt policy and increase momentum toward CE (Wrap, no date).

“Commentators predict a gap between capacity…” (of the waste and recycling industry) to recover resources and waste “and demand” for materials, partially because investment favours Energy from Waste (EfW), Purnell (2017). Data used in developing Scotland's carbon metric, for most materials evaluated, found recycling preferable to energy recovery and closed-loop recycling of rigid plastics had significantly less environmental impact than energy recovery processes (Howard, Galloway, 2017). A greater focus on “preserving the service or utility that materials and products provide” is needed and distinctions between reuse, recycling and recovery must be widely communicated (Purnell, 2017, p.2) Figure 4.

Figure 4 DEFRA’s Waste Hierarchy according to what is best for the environment (2011)

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2.1.3 A local perspective: Bristol, UK The following provides a brief overview of Bristol's population, employment & skills: By 2027 Bristol is projected to have a population of over half a million residents. Currently, 68% of the local population is of working age (16-64%), 30% aged 20-34, including students.

13% are over 65, IPI (2018) (Note: Volunteering activities & late-life working are becoming more widespread (ILC, 2007).

Unemployment in Bristol is down to 4.7% (nat. average) but the labour market remains weak, particularly in lower skilled jobs. Business confidence is the lowest since 2009 according to Business West. Nationally, there was a fall in labour productivity of 0.5% and 0.1% in the first and second quarters of 2017. From June 2013 - June 2017 there were 810 new manufacturing businesses and 1606 in construction, totalling 13.49% of all new startups (Bristol Futures, 2017, BBC, 2018).

21% of Bristol Central ward residents, 19% of residents of Muslim faith and 15% of Black or minority ethnic (BME) reported needing to develop employability skills. Technical/ professional skills were the most underdeveloped. (PIIS, 2016) Whitchurch Park, Hartcliffe, Filwood and Lawrence Hill remain the most deprived areas, while Whitchurch Park and Filwood also rank within the UKs most deprived areas for Education, Skills and Training (PIIS, 2015).

There has been a slight improvement (2010-2015) in neighbourhood relations (PIIS, 2016).

Overall, Bristol has a positive reputation; as a legacy European Green Capital city; no.1 in the UK for job opportunities (and high-scoring for start-ups); 2017's best place to live in the UK (Hadley, Baker, 2018); and famed for its creative and engineering industries. To maintain this, Bristol must demonstrate confidence and forward-thinking creativity when it comes to its ambitious urban development strategy.

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3 Aim To present a case for local government’s role in supporting local recycled content materials (RCM) enterprise, particularly of building related products through a combination of infrastructure development, green public procurement (GPP) of locally sourced materials and subsequent application and promotion within publicly accessible buildings. The aim is to demonstrate the range, quality and benefits of locally produced RCBPM to developers, builder’s firms, potential clients and the public, via ambitious yet cost effective beta-testing sites. These sites will have potential to promote competition and collaboration, and seek to test a range of enterprise models for suitability, scalability and impact.

3.1 Objectives 1. Conduct a review of RCBPM models representing a range of scales, applications and stakeholders and introduce types of facilities and business models associated with local production.

2. Identify opportunities for the RCBPM model within the Bristol Local Plan, in accordance with high-level development goals. Use diffusion of innovation theory to make practical, evidence-based implementation suggestions.

3. Describe the barriers and opportunities that may impact the success of an RCBPM model, pertaining to: ◦ Attitudes and behaviours around sustainability (with a focus on construction) ◦ Collaboration and knowledge sharing within and across industry sectors ◦ Value creation particularly within local economic and social agendas 4. Expand on challenges and opportunities for a national framework for local production of RCBPM, considering routes to implementation, institutionalisation and the limitations of economies of scale.

3.2 Research Design The case for local production and distribution of RCBPM, whilst satisfying the requirements of a diverse group of stakeholders has been framed as a diffusion of innovation problem.

The research design was shaped by an ambition to present a practicable strategy for addressing lingering issues within the construction and manufacturing industries.

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An assessment of systems design, human centred innovation and business model tools was conducted in light of the initial research. This paper takes structural guidance from Nesta’s Development Impact and You (DIY) Toolkit, following the various stages of innovation (Figure 5) and utilising select tools.

Figure 5 Stages of Innovation – DIY Toolkit (Nesta, no date).

A scoping study allowed key concepts to be quickly mapped across multiple sectors, identifying a range of sources for richer data. Briefly, relevant information was sought from 7 on-line databases via the UWE library intranet including RIBA, RICS, Detail and Business Source Complete; 23 Journal titles (articles- 2010 onwards in primary search); government and NGO publications relating to housing, skills, innovation, waste and resources; internet searches (including Google Scholar) identified further official publications, case studies and disruptive models (useful for hermeneutic enquiry where live data was unavailable), trade associations, programmes etc. A wide range of appraisal tools and bench marks identified during the Sustainability in the Built Environment module, also benefitted development of the research design and core themes.

Of the articles gathered, bibliographies were checked for new sources and authors crosschecked using a citation search. A system for inclusion was established through the reading of abstracts, keywords (keep/ discard), and a final review of relevant content (in theme and

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date contexts). Selected data was then organised using OneNote (chosen for familiarity, flexibility and for importing to NVivo later on).

Finally, I attended numerous industry events (tradeshows, talks, conferences and local events) and mined existing industry contacts/ new introductions for anecdotal and empirical data. This also facilitated develop of personal, professional networks and lead to the recruitment of five interview participants (as detailed in the ‘person’ column – Interview participant overview, Appendix A, pp.2-3).

3.2.1 Sampling Qualitative research can enable deep understanding of a topic. Allowing for “naturally occurring” data sets (experiences of projects, initiatives etc.) and is interested in the meanings behind them (Braun & Clarke, 2013). A theoretical approach allowed research material (current thinking, pre-existing conditions, real-world experiences) to feed in as data was deciphered and coded. Emerging theory could be built on and tested (grounded) systematically, making for a robust but flexible methodology (Attride-Stirling, 2001).

The research design utilised Grounded Theory and Action Research, the latter a means for exploring my potential role in this emerging field, though Coyne (1997), warns of the risk of blurring methodologies and theoretical perspectives.

Data collection was conducted according to theoretical sampling, simultaneously expanding and refining. The Wrap work on recycled content in building projects (Wrap, no date; Wrap, 2009; Wiltshire, 2013) allowed expansion on a nascent area, whilst the reoccurring theme of collaboration in many commissioned government and industry reports offered a way to frame subsequent research. Keywords (used within initial coding phase) guided further data collection prompting "theoretically coded connections" across the data fields, Glaser (1992), cited in Coyne (1997, p.625). For more on coding see Coding and analysis process 3.2.2.

Grounded Theory literature stipulates theories should be relevant and applicable within the field of research and reflect the experiences of different actors. In order to consider the value of the experiences discussed, I drew on New Phenomenology (a research strategy evolved from Schutz’s social phenomenology), particularly useful where participants had 18

differing experiences of the same or similar event; “what really irritates me is the way in which sustainability, sustainable buildings have become like organic food of the world and how this is an assumption that you pay a premium but you get healthier or better product” (Osmundson, 2017); “the St Barts hospital project - was quite unique [ . . . ] it had a lot of buying power and we could try different things [ . . . ] so people won't repeat it because they think well I can't afford £1m on my construction costs” (Baker, 2017). This non-positivist strategy suits small scale study but doesn’t depend on analysis and can arguably lack scientific rigour. However, phenomenological reflection within grounded theory can elicit essential and incidental themes; motivation, stress, effort, provided these are properly contextualised (Bowen, 2009; Denscombe, 2010); "I definitely get burnout. [ . . . ] I have periods where I'm really motivated [ . . . ] then suddenly I go slow and I know I've worn myself out [ . . . ] because of really caring about this thing" (Bone, 2018).

Due to current relevance and urgency of core themes, new and apposite data is being published concurrently with the writing of this study. Efforts have been made to maintain relevance to fast changing areas such as waste and recycling policies, Brexit and market conditions, through inclusion of new data (as appropriate) up until March 2018.

3.2.1.1 Document Analysis Document analysis was selected as a primary research method to complement Interviews and on-going field research. Bowen (2009) suggests document analysis must be selective and the purpose of the document be considered (Authorship, target audience, commissioning etc.). Two sets of documents were analysed. The core document set consisted of twelve papers that elaborated on key issues identified during the scoping study.

An example of the documents and data analysed is shown in Table 1 (p.20). Using NVivo 11 software, the data was analysed, findings plotted onto concept maps and used in development of the core body of research and interview structure.

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Document Title The case for centres of excellence in sustainable building design

Year 2012

Data analysed Low carbon agenda: Barriers to change; impact and benefits from centres of excellence; educational provision; assumptions; design to facilitate joint learning between industry and academia.

Industrial Evolution: Making British Manufacturing Sustainable Designing for a circular economy: Lessons from The Great Recovery 2012 – 2016 Innovate UK Delivery Plan: Financial year 2016/17

2015

Key policy recommendations; leadership; resilience; innovation; collaboration; system redesign

2016

Post-16 Skills Plan

2016

Learning through doing/ space for testing, failing, prototyping; funding & support models; communications platforms & network creation; policy reform.

Outline strategy (for publication alongside UK gov’s National Innovation Plan); Connecting; growth strategy; local investment & funding models Enabling factors; colleges and other training providers – networks; technical education; access to CPD

2016

Intended audience Academia, engineers, material scientists, education providers, construction industry/ HB business, academia, public sector, civil service business, academia, public sector, policy makers Business owners, entrepreneurs, innovators Education providers, LAs, industry training providers

Table 1 Core Documents for Research/Analysis

The second document set enabled data analysis of a range of sources (academic/ industry journals/ government briefing paper) containing case studies or reviews of household recycling initiatives. Included data related to individuals - performance, motivation, behaviour etc.; campaigns – education, information, communication; and markets- supply, demand. Key findings were summarised and used to support emerging theory on participation and motivation among the general public relating to recycled materials. The document analysis summary can be found in Appendix C (p.17).

3.2.1.2 Qualitative Interviewing Another primary research method utilised was Interviews. Using multiple research methods allows data triangulation, improves the robustness of the case and reduces potential researcher bias.

Crouch and McKenzie (2006) identify key disadvantages of the research interview as “interviewer bias”, “variability of rapport” and “validity issues relating to interpretation” (from Minichiello et al, 1995), p.486, and deter researchers from using “in-depth” interviewing to develop theory within a grounded theory approach (p.488). However, a reflective and responsive interviewer can elicit emotive responses including frustrations or 20

opinions about their industry that may surface through the interview process. Only one participant, who spoke frankly about the volume house building sector, requested anonymity. Utilising organising themes as prompts within unstructured, qualitative interviews provided an opportunity for co-learning (Appendix A, pp.4-5, Unstructured interview prompt sheet). May (2001), also cited in Edwards and Holland (2013), suggests by informing participants what value they bring to the research (expertise, real experience of projects or initiatives, etc.), they too can benefit from thinking about things in new ways.

Candidates were sought through existing and developed networks or identified as having the most relevant knowledge and experience (see Appendix A, pp.2-3, Interview participant overview). Groups or experts involved with development projects holding potential for further collaboration were also targeted. Crouch & McKenzie suggest small, purposive samples help researchers develop more fruitful relationships (2006).

Interviews were conducted, where possible, in person. Three were conducted by telephone and efforts made in these cases to strike up rapport at the beginning of conversation to facilitate open and true responses. Interviews lasted 45 to 90 minutes and were recorded, with additional key notes taken during discussions. Transcription software (Now Transcribe/ Speechmatics) was used and cleaned up manually, headings were applied to facilitate thematic coding (3.2.2) and imported into NVivo. Conclusions derived from interview analysis are based on empirical and subjective data.

3.2.2 Coding and analysis process Thematic networks were identified as methodical and robust tools for the organising of qualitative data. Attride-Stirling (2001) suggests clustering codes helps generate higher level categories, enabling systematic exploration and analysis of texts. Raw data (from document analysis, interviews and additional sources) was given a cursory treatment via NVivo’s word frequency tool, providing some initial codes. It is more important however, to identify “dynamic qualities” over “proportionate relationships” such as frequency of keyword 'hits' (Crouch & McKenzie, 2006, p.489). Saturation has been considered to be where all apparent relationships and connections between the data have been drawn that pertain to the 21

research aims and objectives – which themselves were then refined to be reflective of the core emergent (global) themes.

Taking Stokes (1997) "use-inspired" approach, particularly applicable in “socially embedded research” and “community partnerships” (p.25), theories of action were considered in the refinement of the basic themes. The intention to identify specific actions that could yield intended consequences in, for example, diffusion of innovation, and business model design.

After much scrutiny of the organising themes, the second cycle coding was reframed under SWOT & PEST headings, typical of most business and marketing plans, in addition to a further six emergent global themes. Fully aware of the risk of forcing categories this was approached with caution, ultimately however, by exploring political and social factors etc., the what, who and why details reveal power relationships, consequences of action and more. This narrative could then be further developed to look at how those relationships or hierarchies might be supported to affect new outcomes.

3.2.3 Method Criticism Including quantitative data on existing RCBPM products would have provided a useful overview of the current market but was restricted by word-count and database limitations.

Reviewing a number of databases and building product selectors, revealed a lack of functionality (e.g. Green Spec, Bre: Green Guide, CIRIA: Resource Efficiency Knowledgebase).

Terms such as ‘recycled content’ are not specifically searchable and products must be accessed individually to review this information (formatting of which is varied, or often nonexistent). This area warrants further investigation into how this type of information is shared.

A further criticism relates to the coding process. The initial coding attempt did not withdraw far enough and both the analysis process and quantity of codes became unwieldy.

Consideration of how to frame the document and its intended purpose presented the opportunity to test the SWOT/PEST format was subsequently applied.

Whilst valid general conclusions have been drawn from knowledge gathered through the interview process, all efforts have been made to organise findings contextually (Crouch & 22

McKenzie, 2006). Interviewee demographic is another consideration. With no set inclusion strategy, it transpired that all respondents were mid 30s- late 40s, White British and university educated. General consensus suggests this demographic to be among those most likely to engage with sustainability agendas.

Use of relevant and proportionate first person and empirical data (personal experience and observation) has helped to ground the research in real world experience. Many critics of research methodologies consider researcher’s roles in terms of bias, leading the research etc., while some (particularly within social sciences) suggest personal experience & values can help shape research but should be considered provisional (Braun & Clarke, 2013). A longstanding personal and professional interest in materials and making broadened both the range of literature reviewed and selection of other research activities. Tracy (2013) regards these attributes as fundamental to the qualitative researcher; only by “immersing oneself in a scene and trying to make sense of it” can we build knowledge and comprehend behaviours, ideas and pathways (p.24); I consider research led by fully engaged practitioners that is enthusiastic and committed to narrow subject area, versus researchers working within a broad field of interest but imparting little of themselves, in terms of the potential longevity and impact of project (see 3.2).

3.2.4 A note on Action Research Action research strives to be practical, applicable and have real world outcomes. I intend this paper to deliver justification and guidelines for informed action (Denscombe, 2010).

Through exploration of innovative recycling and reuse practices occurring within our built environment I sought out the interconnections between professional practice and private values/actions. “…So I figured, if the entire world was one big machine, I couldn’t be an extra part. I had to be here for some reason” – Hugo Cabret (Hugo, 2011) The Next Steps detailed at the end of this paper consider practical routes for implementation, including steps for my own professional development.

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4 Discussion The format of the following discussion is organised as such; Each chapter addresses, in order, the objectives laid out in (3.1). Within these, Political, Economic, Sociological and Technological aspects are discussed, drawing on global themes developed throughout the analysis and coding process (Appendix B, pp.15-16). Further detail (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) enhances the papers clarity in terms of its proposition and intent as a strategic plan for action.

4.1 An introduction to RCBPM models The models explored next are concerned with creating added-value from various industrial, commercial and household waste. Increasingly, those responsible for designing and constructing homes and public buildings will have to demonstrate supply-chain transparency and local procurement, including labour (Wrap, no date; Yang, Yang, 2015; Ford, 2018a).

There is growing interest in re-use within the construction sector from industry & trade bodies, academia and resource groups. The practice of utilising hard-core or aggregate in construction jobs is one way to achieve reuse or recycling quotas, however, studies reveal issues such as- the energy used (or saved) in direct-reuse vs upgrading processes (Roth, 2005). Quality resources can end up as backfill or in road surfaces, squandering the inherent value. Decisions are based on ease, ability to move materials from site (requiring permits), and separation of materials. Worth noting too, is the existence of strong, local aggregates markets and established networks.

Beginning with four very different innovations dealing with hard-core materials, the RCBPM theme is introduced as a site-based or localised practice. We begin with aggregate as the most familiar circular economy practice occurring in construction today OTOProjects Led by the architect-collective Assemble, OTOProjects was an experiment in building something with nothing. Using only sieved and bagged gravel from the site, the group created large building blocks. Assemble members and 60 volunteers participated - many 24

joining in after witnessing progress from the street. The final cladding was hand pressed rubble-dash, allowing people to impart something of themselves into the building.

The single storey building, topped with a simple timber truss roof was anticipated to be a temporary structure but became a successful public events space (Assemble Studio, no date).

Figure 6 (Left) OTOProjects complete with rubble-dash walls (Assemble (no date a.).

Figure 7 (Right) OTOProjects’ walls under construction (Assemble (no date b.).

Q-Brixx Employing a moveable factory model, Q-brixx takes rubble resulting from natural and human-induced disasters, processes it into liquid concrete and recasts it into lego-style (certified) blocks for rapid construction of medium-term housing. Offering a securer, more homely alternative to tents or timber-sheet structures, the construction is mortar free, requires no prior experience and can create new jobs.

The homes can be customised by occupants, helping normalise difficult situations and stimulating local economic activity. The Mobile Factory (no date). This model is a significant progression from many existing on-site aggregate processors.

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Figure 8 (Left) The Q-brixx mobile factory. (TMF, 2015).

Figure 9 (Right) Finished Q-brixx home. (TMF, no date).

Stone cycle Witnessing vast demolition sites where glass, ceramic, concrete and stone are treated indiscriminately as waste, design graduate, Soest, set out to re-create household bricks using materials from industrial sources within 150km radius. By categorising and designing which secondary materials went into each mixture, Soest developed bricks with distinct aesthetics like colouring or flecks. Capturing various materials flows, a whole collection of brick styles were developed using a ceramics process. (Gambino, 2016; StoneCycling, no date; Budds, 2016). This approach is design-centric and although costs per brick may be higher than average, has broad market appeal.

Figure 10 (Left) Visiting the factory (StoneCycling, no date a.).

Figure 11 (Right) Selection of waste based bricks (StoneCycling, no date).

The Housing Delivery Team Update guiding the Local Plan Review stated that delays in the building of affordable homes were "due to a shortage of bricks and bricklayers", with figures forecast significantly below the city’s delivery target (HDT, 2018) p.7. Investment in modern and alternative building approaches can stimulate competition in the market, though skills

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development may continue to cause issues where training fails to align with new product development.

Granby Workshop (GW) GW emerged when architecture collective Assemble, arrived in dilapidated Granby Four Streets to help deliver local residents' community action plan to council representatives.

After years campaigning, residents established a Community Land Trust (CLT), acquired 10 houses in an asset transfer and began work, with Assemble, restoring these homes on a miniscule budget. From one property’s backyard, the team amassed slate, bricks and rubble and began casting rudimentary slabs. Polished and assembled, these became unique and striking mantelpieces for finished homes. The maker-workshops proved popular with the community and commercial opportunity was identified. Winning the Turner Prize led to becoming a social enterprise and gave the growing, artist-developed interior product range a platform. GW (2015).

Figure 12 (Left) inspecting the slabs (GW, no date).

Figure 13 (Right) Production at Anfield Marble (GW, no date a.).

The use of RCMs (other than aggregate) within new building projects is growing and mainstream brands increasingly offer recycled content products. Drainage specialists Aco, supply sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS) containing recycled materials, although as with many product lines investigated during this research, this aspect isn’t well promoted.

Enforcing minimum recycled content (both for manufacturers and in build projects) may incentivise companies to better promote their use of these materials and significantly reduce users’ perception of risks.

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Issues affecting the marketability of RCBPM include perceived quality and colour limitations and consistency. As technologies and recycling behaviours improve, so too will product finish. Many applications also exist where less-perfect finishes would be acceptable (e.g. guttering/ drainage solutions), Vlugter (2017).

A new breed of designers and manufacturers are choosing to use the recycled content of products to attract a more discerning market. With sleek and stylish marketing via social media, design fairs, interior, architecture and trade publications, showcasing products in new materials libraries, brands worldwide are proving recycled content materials can compete with the best.

Clockwise from top left: Figure 14 Slate effect made from paper (Richlite, 2016).

Figure 15 Signage made from paper (Richlite, 2016a.).

Figure 16 Custom vanity unit in recycled plastic (Durat, no date).

Figure 17 Fire Bench, 100% recycled plastic (Loll designs, 2018).

Companies like Richlite, Loll designs (US) and Durat (Finland, US, China) produce versatile interior and exterior materials up to 100% recycled content, and appeal to growing global (and high-end) markets. In the UK, Smile Plastics produce chemically inert recycled plastic sheet material, furniture and construction products, and focus on innovating global plasticsrecycling and providing consultancy on closed loop systems. Their design studio has attracted numerous high-end brands (influencers), essential in building awareness that can lead to systemic change (Material Driven, no date; Smile Plastics, no date).

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Figure 18 Designer product display unit (Smile Plastics, 2017)

Figure 19 External cladding (Smile Plastics, 2017a.)

Figure 20 Recycled plastic seating (Smile Plastics, 2017b.)

The final product mentioned is Storm Board, a locally sourced alternative to site hoarding.

Based near Bristol, there was an opportunity to visit and discuss how the business and product had developed. Following the interview format (Appendix A, pp.4-5 Unstructured interview prompt sheet) helped draw out many of the challenges that the business faces; an under developed UK market, construction industry unwillingness to engage and building regulations that don’t keep pace with materials technology (in this case, mixed plastics that few manufacturers are dealing with). Achieving their objective of disrupting the wasteful use of composite boards in outdoor applications, requires impressing potential clients with 29

the idea, and persuading them to commit to a more practical, resourceful and longer-lasting product (Stillwell, 2018). A full case-study on Storm Board is in Appendix D (pp.21-24).

Figure 21 6-year-old hoardings looking good (Storm Board, 2016)

4.1.1 Distributed production “Given that the UK invests less than countries like France, Germany and the US in fixed capital such as machinery (HM Gov, 2017) it is not surprising that we import such a large percentage of building products (DBIS, 2016)” extract from Ford (2017). With councils and government signalling desire to lead in areas like manufacturing, science and technology innovation, opportunity arises to explore production at local (city) and regional levels that actually contributes to our national infrastructure needs. The rhetoric around being a national or global leader is increasingly accompanied by references to Future or Smart Cities, where design and technology contribute positively to quality of life. It follows then that smart citizens use smart data to create smart places (Hobson, 2017; Holdway, 2017).

While fixed production of products and materials is default, the vast amount of localised data available to manufacturers and marketers offers an alternative (Fox, Richardson, 2017).

Here, smart manufacturing (industry 4.0) is about innovating production space and the system. Distributed manufacturing (DM) reduces the “number, type, size and weight of machines and materials needed” at any location, p.1. Currently, most DM is found in developing countries, having arisen from necessity not opportunity. However, as firms are increasingly obliged to disclose details of their activities (Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR), demonstrating social, environmental and economic enhancement could be achieved

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through distributed systems. Figure 22, provides an overview of the advantages to Distributed Manufacturing Systems (DMS).

Figure 22 Distributed Manufacturing Systems, sustainability and related challenges (Rauch, Dallasega, Matt, 2016, p.134).

Distributed manufacturing is still a relatively young research area, and some studies on the subject were difficult or costly to obtain. Given the breadth of this research study, findings on DM were satisfactory for the purpose of this paper but it would be beneficial to review case studies as they develop and contribute back to the DM scene.

The following section gives a brief overview of current practices that relate to the type of production discussed in this paper.

4.1.1.1 DM factory models Geographically distributed factories will generally be smaller, require lower production levels to meet overheads and local demand, with no unnecessary selling or storage, located according to available resources and involve technologies developed according to their social context.

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They could be: Fixed -- replicas of an existing factory or a new enterprise within a fixed location.

Moveable -- bringing production to the source of the waste or site of use- i.e. building site.

Bristol based Modcell trade-marked the 'flying factory system' which has been used on public-sector build projects.

In the home or co-productive space -- Fabrication spaces (e.g. Fab labs) are like traditional workshops but tend to include digital manufacturing equipment. The global Open Source movement has made it possible for individuals to design, share and distribute under license.

A pertinent example here is The Global Construction Set, an open source "civilization starter kit" providing instructions to self-build 50 fully-functional machines (8 prototypes completed via crowd-funding so far) through the Open Source Ecology Platform, a network of engineers, farm workers and others seeking to "accelerate the growth of the [ . . . ] Open Source Economy� (OSE, 2017; Kickstarter, 2011).

4.1.1.2 Business model design A head-in-sand attitude toward resource decline has perpetuated for the sake of growth and GDP but now businesses are being disrupted at many levels (Hilfiker, no date; Raworth, 2017). A decline in scale-ups was recently attributed to poor management and people skills rather than product; I (and others) argue that many are seeking an alternative to the traditional notions of “scale and growth� (Innovate UK, 2017; Novkovic, Webb, 2014, p.41).

As data and other technologies advance unprecedented rates, Robinson predicts industry will "become a connected force of factories, manufacturers, distributors and end consumers" within the decade, requiring networks of partner facilities, located according to resource availability, specialist machinery, skilled labour and end markets (Robinson, 2014; Reichwald, Stotko, Piller, 2005; Raworth, 2017).

Firms are replacing hierarchical forms like subcontracting with horizontal, relationship based models, and new business structures are capitalising from social (re)distribution of knowledge and organising R&D differently. Alliances seek collaboration with competitors to stimulate knowledge flows and innovation (TME, 2017; Bos-de-Vos, et al., 2014), while Joint 32

Ventures (JVs) bring two or more organisations together (sometimes short term) to create new enterprises for a specific output (Wamelink, Pries, 2007; Thursby, 2016). Ultimately these disruptive models promote diversity within the system.

Regular re-evaluation of the suitability of business models should recognise the interdependencies their activities create, the more external actors are tied to these activities the greater the supply-chain challenge (Burns, Stalker, 1994; Zott and Amit in Gibbons, et al., 1994). The Midlands Engine partnership has a Post-Brexit global outlook, there is focus on resilience, self-sustenance, generating added-value and addressing local skills. Their goal, with around 27,500 businesses in the manufacturing sector, is to develop a "small-company-innovation model" and "exploit horizontal technology transfer between industries" (TME, 2017, p.31). Adam Smith's original work on capitalism, assumed markets to operate most efficiently when comprised of "many small sellers and many small buyers" with equal access to information (Hilfiker, no date).

The importance of developing strategies and targets with other stakeholders was discussed at length in the interviews. For Probert (2017) JVs allowed Bioregional to support developers with similar aspirations but who were struggling to create meaningful change; working in collaboration helps create an environment to experience different approaches (Moulding, 2017). Moss (2017) talked of the capacity to hone “socially generative” objectives. The Community Interest Company (CIC) model, in the case of B24-7, allowed ownership “by a number of shareholders, mainly people who [ . . . ] have a love for Bristol and wanted to do something positive. That model also means [ . . . ] no one has a controlling interest" Wright (2017).

4.1.1.3 Cooperative models Exploring employee ownership and the restructuring of large businesses (especially shareholder owned), helps establish how businesses may look within an RCBPM system. The idea of the collective worker - as in Demings description of collective craftsmanship in Japan – Sennett (2009, p.31) or group, is based on honest and frank communications and a common goal (Bone, 2018; Osmundsen, 2017) Co-operatives are relationship based, with "shared ideas/ values/ principles” at their core rather than growth, output and profit (Novkovic, Webb, 2014, p.2). Accounting for half of 33

the global population’s livelihoods, they are often owned by those with genuine interest in their local community and economy. Although many models exist in non-hierarchal collectives, which can include “consumers, workers, community representatives, investors, suppliers etc.�, p.3 (and can be challenging to manage), decisions are made in order to meet the physical and aspirational needs of communities (Novkovic, Webb, 2014, p.7).

4.1.2 Summary By incentivising distributed manufacturing, the range and quality of locally available products and materials will increase, creating more attractive local markets. Through closer relationships (developer-manufacturer), perceived risks can be reduced, and cross industry skills and product development strategies developed. Establishing regional networks with unified aims and objectives can help tackle capacity and demand mismatches.

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4.2 RCBPM in achieving strategic development goals The following table illustrates details from the Bristol Local Plan that support the case for RCBPM, and demonstrates that these objectives align with national and international development goals.

Bristol Local Plan 5.0.1. Economy and employment land In a time of change, support a dynamic local community by consolidating strengths to support start-ups, microenterprises and socialenterprises.

5.4.1. New work space Start-ups, micro-enterprises and social-enterprises encouraged within industrial and distribution areas creating new forms of work space in mixed used developments.

6.1.3. Delivering on the Air Quality Action Plan AQAP Develop off-site solutions Establish emissions related contributions 7.1.14. Proposal RES3: Supporting new sustainable design standards

NPPF (DCLG, 2012) “local and inward investment to match the strategy and meet anticipated needs over the development plan period” p.6

SDGS (Sus. Dev, 2015) 8.2 increased economic productivity “through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation” 9.1 “develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure focussing on access for all”

“Plan for new or emerging sectors” p.6

8.3 “promote [ . . . ] policies that support job creation, innovation and formalization and growth of enterprises” 11.a “support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas through development planning” 8.4 “improve resource efficiency [ . . . ] endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation”

“Identify priority areas for economic regeneration, infrastructure provision and environmental enhancement” p.7 “take account of the contribution that substitute or secondary and recycled materials and minerals waste would make to the supply of materials, before considering extraction of primary materials” p.33

12.5 “substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse” 12.7 “promote sustainable recycling practices”

Table 2 Comparing local, national and global goals

The report extract in Appendix E (pp.25-28) highlights alignment with BREEAM categories (Excellent rating required for all major non-residential) and with the UK’s Government Buying Standards (GBS) and EU’s Green Public Procurement (GPP) programme. - Despite many years of promotion, GPP, "an important driver of the circular economy" has not been 35

widely implemented and awaits public-sector leadership on responsible and innovative resource management and procurement, and employment creation (CoR, 2017, 24.).

"To become one of the greenest and cleanest major cities in the UK" (BCC, 2016a, p.105) Bristol must first refine its social action agenda and do more to support "environmental social action [ . . . ] there was a bit too much big ticket stuff and not enough stuff in the local communities", Murphy (2017).

Enforcing minimum sustainability standards - low energy, non-toxic materials- brings health benefits for the economy in the long-run (Osmundsen, 2017). The public sector needs to be motivated by long-term potential of local spending - those motivations do not exist for the private sector; although the new well-building standards have created a more relatable concept for commissioning clients and developers (Baker, 2017).

The public sector can create conditions for residents to participate in rejuvenation. Areas with the highest unemployment also have the biggest development sites (Hengrove, Hartcliffe, Withywood, Knowle West) and are areas which have experienced a series of failed "top-down regeneration schemes" (Mean, 2017). Bringing communities into the frame very early on will create a multiple options for residents and the council, with whom local groups, businesses and small housing co-ops want to engage (Bone, 2018; Murphy, 2017; Moulding, 2018); It’s about creating flexibility so that communities can express an interest and have opportunity “to do something different” (Bone, 2017). Pro-development community groups like Ambition Lawrence Weston and Redcliffe Forum, can play active roles, create social value, economic opportunities and upskill, but there will be limits (Mean, 2017).

Ahead of the Local Plan Review, the Housing Delivery Team cited “Obtaining data from developers”, “Skills, labour and material shortages” and “Off-site manufacture (OSM) and modern methods of construction (MMC)” as challenges (HDT, 2018, slide 11). Osmundsen regards the public sector as "place maker and shaper" – it must aim high. Tackling immediate issues by exploring new options; “I think part of the role of the public sector is to challenge, to trial, to investigate the ways in which we can change the status quo. But for public benefit".

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Fixing our Broken Housing Market, DCLG (2017), highlighted the need to support; small and medium builders, custom builders, local authorities (LAs) and housing authorities (HAs) to build more homes including specialist housing stock (Smith, 2017). Multiple interview participants agreed radical modernising in education and training needs to occur –improving house-building and retrofit- for more resilient homes and communities (Murphy, 2017; Osmundsen, 2017; Pierpoint, 2017).

After their 2016 election win, Bristol's Labour Council implemented a social value policy outlining revised procurement regulations, local supply chain and economic commitments, and over one third of spend has been invested in the city, Bristol Labour Group (2018). With 2018 the UN’s “year of consuming and producing sustainability” we can expect a focus on local and sustainable procurement practices, providing the incentive to trial RCBPM (Stone, 2017). Although, despite a 27% increase in recycling and reuse activities over 11 years, guaranteeing resource supply will be challenging without suitable infrastructure (BCC, 2016a, p.105).

New EU rules improving recyclability and demand for secondary raw materials demonstrate circular economy ambitions -100% recyclable plastic by 2030 (EC a., 2018). To become world leader on environmental legislation, the UK must implement strict standards like setting a minimum requirement for recycled content (Gabbatiss, 2018; Webster, 2018). To encourage the use of secondary raw materials, the CoR (2017) recommends tax reforms and 'other economic tools' alongside a universal labelling system (transparent, verifiable, achievable).

Circular economy is of increasing interest to local businesses facing potential resource insecurity and 2018 will see organisations like SevernNet (2018), conducting a “pilot resource mapping exercise”. Also local to Bristol, Resource Futures’ activities include modelling and forecasting for materials markets, and could play a role in identifying developing RCBPM opportunities at regional and national levels.

Innovations like recycling can take many years before the activity carries a common meaning and translates into overt behaviour change (Mee, et al., 2004). However, despite fragmented infrastructure and marked regional differences in recycling operations, a shift in people's values toward the effect of waste on the environment is coupled with a growing awareness of resource systems thanks to popular television (Blue Planet) and media 37

campaigns. Since January 1st 2018, plastics have rarely been out of mainstream news. This culmination of parallel/ related innovations offers a unique opportunity to focus attention on local opportunities.

Enterprise development in Bristol is topical. While fixed facilities include Filwood Green Business Park, The Engine Shed, Unit DX, Bristol Enterprise Research and Innovation Centre (BERIC) at UWE and others. For local creatives and entrepreneurs outside of these environments, options are limited. Land-owners and developers are often resistant to meanwhile uses, demanding long-term leases or preferring to keep sites empty while prices rise. Groups are now seeking to revive underused assets like community buildings and are exploring potential in more sub-urban parts of the city (Mean, 2017).

4.2.1 Diffusion of Innovation Compatibility with stakeholders’ needs and values has been identified as a key likelihood determinant for trial/ adoption. Locally produced RCM building products can appeal to a range of needs and interests, increasing the shared attributes within innovation communication.

Environmental values – altruism/ moral duty/ recognition Social need/ values - immediate/ personal Employment needs - immediate/ personal Involvement - inquiry/ sense of inclusion/ contribution Resource awareness - greater understanding of individual activities Reuse or recycled content- accreditation/ recognition/ altruism The innovation, is actually a cluster of inter-related innovations with a mixture of “hardware” (physical/ product) and “software” (informational/ system) aspects. These affect people within various stakeholder groups differently (Rogers, 2003, p. 13).

What is the innovation?

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To an existing manufacturer it may be the business model (disruptive)

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To the new enterprise it may be technology (constant innovation)

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To the new market it is the product 38

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To the industry it is collaboration and change

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To the community learning, participation and social return.

Rogers defines “diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system� (2003, p.11) so for each of these groups we must consider how they will first engage with the particular innovation; and secondly what the outcome of that engagement could and should be. Figure 24 (pp.5051) gives an overview of how the innovation progresses from the connecting and piloting stage.

Despite increasing connectedness, rapid technology is disruptive across all industries. Large and small firms’ data and knowledge bases remain under-utilised due to generational and internal network barriers (Vlugter, 2017). Digitisation (within Industry 4.0) can shake up incumbents, support new market generation and alter the ways we live, work, socialise and consume and business must seek to innovate in sync, rather than in response (DBIS, 2015; Guy, Shove, 2000). Actions must be unified "and comprehensive, involving all stakeholders [ . . . ], from the public and private sectors to academia and civil society" (Schwab, 2016).

By first considering the replacement of standard, non RCM building products, e.g. guttering, with an identical product with a high recycled content, a firm must demonstrate that their offering is superior or otherwise advantageous. Promoting environmental benefits (less virgin-product used, less energy to produce) could be coupled with health benefits which may appeal to firms and individuals seeking a more sustainable product according to values held by themselves or the commissioning client. Cost competitiveness will further increase potential uptake, regardless of material, providing performance is equal or improved.

Introducing local production of materials marketed to local build projects, can further the appeal, particularly where local economic benefits are directly experienced. Complexities of the construction labour model are such that client, designer/ product specifier, contractor and subcontractors may not be local, perhaps with a history of working with a particular brand or product (Spiegel, Meadows, 2012). In these cases and particularly with public builds, local planning and development policies should require consideration of locally available peripherals, on the grounds of local economic development, emissions reduction targets and resource efficiency, DBIS (2015).

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Ability to experiment with a product can also affect the rate of adoption. For potential user groups, distinct advantages of local procurement include; ability to visit factory and review product range, access to samples and trial installation (in factory/ on site) to improve confidence. Locally based manufacturers could offer unique services that centralised manufacturers and their distributers could not.

Finally, once products have been installed within the public realm, marketing efforts can expand. Product visibility can stimulate further uptake; early adopters may participate in peer discussions regarding new product use; clustering innovations together can strengthen market impact and highlight hidden products. Public builds are inherently more visible than private homes and can transmit new ideas to a wide range of individuals before, during and after installation.

4.2.2 Summary Potential for RCBM manufacturing to benefit the communities of Bristol extends far beyond public building and private, developer-led housing projects (although these may have the greatest impact potential). The few case studies, WRAP’s quick wins (no date) and other products mentioned in this paper are suited to a range of scales and contexts. The ability to trial more crafts based production (as with Granby Workshop) may suit small community groups. Being able to rent/ buy/ borrow equipment for small-medium scale production may enable cyclical systems of learning, building and teaching. SMEs present opportunities for retraining and life-long-learning, and have great potential to service DIY and retrofit markets, long after new homes are completed.

Despite favour toward "new approaches", application within existing operating standards can water-down the effect of innovation. Imbalances exist between applied-action and applied-learning, even where research funds are significant. Moreover, knowledge keeping, transfer and sharing practices are often underdeveloped within both public and private sector work; leading to repetition, inappropriate application and unnecessary risk.

(Ramlington, 2015).

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4.3 People and Connections Multiple sources highlight the need for greater collaboration and communication across industries (DETR, 2000; DBIS, 2013; Morrell, The Edge, 2015; MC, 2015). “Actors need to be engaged in creating change and have the potential to be part of a bigger design chain” (The RSA, 2016, p.15). Combining the RSA’s Circular Network tool (enabling actor-groups to selfidentify within wider, non-hierarchical systems), with NESTA’s People and Connections Map (no date), has led me to develop two systems-maps for this paper. Twelve stakeholder groups were identified through literature/ document analysis and interviews/ case-studies, with Bristol as the proposed beta-test location. Local businesses, facilities, academic institutes and more have been plotted to demonstrate the capacity for the RCBPM model (figure 23, pp.42-43); this list is not exhaustive but suggestive of those likely to engage with the model in its early stages, (some I now consider potential key contributors). Later in this chapter a second systems-map Figure 24 (pp.50-51) describes the functions or contributions within these groups at the following levels connecting & piloting; testing & refining; formalising & embedding.

Figure 23 (page 42 & 43) A Systems Map for Beta-Testing RCBPM in Bristol - in two parts.

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42

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4.3.1 Barriers and opportunities Firms, Pierpoint suggests, over reliant on unsustainable, (green-deal) subsidies, developed a culture where-by action was expected to be incentivised (2017). The subsequent wave of corporate, challenge and social impact funds for ideas and innovations, offered by an array of lenders and agencies, have also generated cynicism (Ramlington, 2015); we become increasingly in danger of doing a project for funding’s sake. It is more important to recognise opportunities for targeted development so that money goes to those in need, but also to those who show a desire to change (Moulding, 2017, Bone, 2018).

"Government hasn't really done anything regulatory since 2010. Although there's a sense that that tide is turning to pursue innovation agenda" (Anon, 2017). With strategies being altered or halted each time a new party comes to office, the need for longtermism was keenly discussed throughout the interviews. From dealing with legacy schemes like Right to Buy, (Osmundsen, 2017), to the strategic intent behind carbon savings targets, which lack the enforcement policies, and linking waste to production & construction- sound in principal but way-off in practice (Anon, 2017). However, the timing is right and "there's a realisation within organisations like the council [ . . . ] regardless of who wins the next election, we are not going back to the way things were done in the public sector before" (Murphy, 2017).

Bone agrees -"when Paul Smith became the cabinet leader for housing it felt things shifted and suddenly we felt like we were talking to somebody who understood what we're trying to achieve" (2018), though Moulding warns that groups may have differing perceptions of success (2017).

Within the house-building sector, both the industry and clients were described as “conservative” (Pierpoint, 2017; Anon, 2017). External pressure, cost-competitiveness and knowledge that a product is fit for use would help change client and constructor perspective (Probert, 2017) ● Exhibitions like Designer, Maker, User (at London's Design Museum), and The City is Ours (Museum of London) explore users interactions with and influence over development of materials, products, buildings and cities, serving to demonstrate the evolution of making and designing, bringing innovations such as distributed and ethical manufacturing and 44

circular economy into the foreground. Furthermore, new ways of financing bring customers much closer to projects than ever before.

Crowd funding platforms enable individuals, collectives and companies etc. to raise capital investment from those with a genuine stake in the proposition. For the donor, this act could be altruistic, financial or in return for a reward. Global platforms include Kickstarter and Indiegogo (and support projects like The Global Construction Set, p.32 and Q-brixx, p.25). In the UK; The RSA's Crowd Patch (technology, arts & manufacturing centred projects), Spacehive (civic crowd-sourcing for LAs to fund local spaces and places) and recently Triodos Bank (focus on ethical and infrastructure projects). In Bristol; Better Bristol, UWE's Better Together Fund and the national Crowdfunder platform support community projects.

Community shares offer another alternative to raising equity investment.

4.3.2 Collaboration and knowledge sharing A general decline in understanding/ learning how things are made, combined with unprecedented levels of consumption, has led to a degree of ignorance about the material world and flows of resources (Crawford, 2009). Where fewer people have particular skills, our reliance on social networks for step-by-step production is essential (Ward, 1989; Knappett, 2011).

Locally, organisations including EDSpace (Frome, UK), United Living, Community Self-Build Agency (CSBA), and Abolish Empty Office Buildings (AEOB) are upskilling members of the local community in building homes as well as resilience, although without key infrastructure, building practices learned are likely to become increasingly outdated.

Architectural collectives like muf, Studio Polpo and Assemble have been unafraid to challenge prevailing industry attitudes, with members lecturing and running social-practice projects alongside their practice. Strengthening the sustainability agenda within education should be a priority. Introducing more part-time teaching career options could provide an important bridge between industry and education, particularly for those engaged in socioeconomic activities and active-learning within the service industries. In response to the decline of design and technology subjects, Henry (2017) suggests we need to create spaces

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in schools for "educating and involving kids in the design and build process", and address social concerns stemming from failings within the building industry.

With universities establishing a greater presence within our cities, their economic and social influence is moving ever more into the public realm. UWE's live build events (Hands On Bristol) are an academia-public partnership, where experiential co-learning and knowledge exchange questions the boundaries of discipline and practice.

Local institutes (e.g. Bristol’s Architecture Centre), are well placed (large private-public networks) to partner with the cities academic institutes to develop a research-action programme similar to the Centre for Public Interest Design (CPID) at Portland State University. Live projects and community engagement are central to a "mode of practice that is socially conscious, environmentally sustainable, and economically accessible to all" CPID (no date). ● Interviews revealed that organisations can face a number of barriers to knowledge sharing: -

Large or disparate workforces attempting to use multiple channels of communication

-

Knowledge and communications filtered up and down (Troughton, 2018)

-

Language/ terminology/ framing (Osmundsen, 2017; Baker, 2017)

-

People learn things in different ways (Murphy, 2017; Baker)

Osmundsen said despite “sharing, influencing and networking” being cornerstones for Construction Excellence, "sharing it across all the disciplines from the constructor's, suppliers, contractors to the consultants and the clients... I think we've still got a long way to go" but that the approach allowed for "cross fertilisation of thinking & experimentation" (2017).

Baker (2017) said communication is key to embedding sustainable practices and must be continuous – we often don't see those (smaller, daily) practices continued.

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Of those participants involved in community engagement or citizen-led housing models, communication and knowledge sharing is key to their effectiveness: -

Co-housing groups and self-builders benefit from those who can share experience and skill-sets (Moulding, 2017)

-

"Exploding some of the myths" (Bone, 2018) - what people can and can't do

-

Developing new approaches can help people uncover and develop skills within a cooperative environment (Moulding; Bone)

-

Conversations can start small and over a short time you can involve more people at more events, young and old. So "it's got to be the top down and the bottom up" (Bone)

4.3.3 Value creation, local economy & the social agenda With growing public awareness of companies’ practices and processes, there will come an increasing client demand for goods and services that offer added value, and require the intermediate trades to have a firm understanding of their changing role.

Bristol Waste participated in Open Doors Day hoping to change attitudes by inviting people to see their operations, and were overwhelmed by the response (Troughton, 2018). The “active citizen” seeks to understand and contribute to life in the city- sometimes in reaction to poor, council-led schemes (Murphy, 2017). Bone (2018) reminds us there are also failed bottom-up schemes, though success is only achieved by those prepared to risk-take. Key social agenda items included: increasing access to skills development and employment, and diverse enterprise opportunities. Henry (2017), Bone and Mean (2017) reflected on the value generated through workshop participation.

Wellspring Healthy Living Centre (Bristol), designed in collaboration with users, was given as an example of physical participation (Bone, 2018). Mean comments, "I guess the point is to try to diversify the [ . . . ]supply chain with the citizen sector- and to do that in a way that doesn't require the impossible from any citizen, in terms of time, money, knowledge, but does harness the skills and knowledge and assets that people do have" – and there are many roles that the community can perform within this kind of approach (2017).

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5 Implementing, Institutionalising and Economies of Scale After testing and refining RCBPM models, the formalisation of practices must occur across all stakeholder groups. As detailed in Figure 24 (pp.50-51), avenues such as Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTPs) providing effective and affordable research and development strategies, and regional and national funding opportunities, can support firms, education providers and other central stakeholder groups in their engagement with RCBPM. Alongside these activities, infrastructure decisions must be made between local government and industry.

Infrastructure investment for the extraction of virgin materials has seen returns that now provide lower prices for consumers; while some true costs such as environmental damage, human exploitation etc. have been evaded. The primary expense of collecting/ sorting/ labour, along with much needed new infrastructure investment mean that recycled materials struggle to compete. Improvements in cross-sector and household waste arisings data will enable local government and infrastructure development stakeholders to identify niche markets that could be developed, while Local Authorities “must work together to exploit economies of scale� (Purnell, 2017, p.3). Attention must be paid to ensure that research and knowledge-bases reflect technological advances (at varying degrees of commercial readiness) and material mixes. Similarly, an agile and responsive industry would be better equipped to handle these changes and incorporate circular design principles (in construction for example) The RSA, 2016.

Management of end-of-life materials currently falls to the public sector, but policy could see supply chains and manufacturers taking on more responsibility. In turn, promoting more connected services, improved markets, and the reabsorption of useful flows back into new manufacturing processes (industrial symbiosis).

Literature, programmes and courses exist to promote new thinking in product and service design, engaging "upstream stakeholders" with designing for recycling/ recapture. Growing numbers of enterprises are practicing industrial symbiosis (IS), industrial ecology (IE) and demonstrating systems thinking, “a discipline for seeing wholes, recognising patterns and 48

relationships, and learning how to structure those interrelationships in more effective ways.” Senge (no date). Downstream, major investment and infrastructure development is required, alongside attitudinal changes among materials re-processors. Purnell suggests that micro-enterprise and cross-sectoral approaches often seen in the reuse sector could inform and combine with new, local secondary materials markets. With 100,000s of interconnected "strands of activity", a circular economy will “require a very different pattern of investment and incentives” (Purnell, 2017, p.7; Corbey, et al., 2017). A focus on existing materials challenges can generate highly innovative short-term solutions and encourage firms/ designers/ technologists to keep an eye on future challenges, while new products and specific infrastructure requirements could be developed in tandem (The RSA, 2016).

Co-ordinated and co-operative pursuit of market advantages throughout the system can be far more rewarding than protecting or holding information from those it may ultimately benefit. This includes product manufacturers who often lack sufficient understanding of the industry to operate effectively within it (Spiegel, Meadows, 2012).

Sustainability thinking and circular economy principles must be "taken out of the realm of the ‘expert’ and into everyday experience" becoming a permanent and prominent feature in national curriculum and other educational programmes (The RSA, 2016) p.24. This is a catch-22; the CE sector remains vastly underdeveloped, recently missing out on grand challenge status in the new Industrial strategy, (HM gov, 2017). Momentum among CE champions, businesses and proponents needs to stimulate action at local government and institution level, where appropriate strategies can be drawn up with those delivering and participating in them.

Figure 24 (page 50 & 51) A Systems Map for Implementing RCBPM within Urban Development Strategies- in two parts.

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50

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5.1 Leadership The landscape of UK industries is shaped by "misjudgements", and business leaders, too used to quick fixes, should be encouraged to employ systems thinking in order to examine their wider role as participant in a complex ecological system- within which operate codependent economic and social systems (Doppelt, 2012; Raworth, 2017). "The shift to sustainability happens one person and organization at a time. As leaders think systemically, social contagion will occur, and the cultural and political will needed to set society on a sustainable path will emerge" (Doppelt, 2012, p.18.)

To lead requires clear communication of purpose and pathway to staff, stakeholders and the public. This can nurture reciprocal trust, opening space for genuine dialogue and exchange.

(Thursby, 2016; Finidore, H; Doppelt, 2012). Maintaining a clear vision over time is not easy and may require steadfastness and/or flexibility.

Several interview participants were engaged in leading change agendas, key insights included: -

A desire to help people to create change in their lives (Bone, 2018, Henry, 2017) Volunteering free time can lead to fatigue, be emotionally involving (Bone; Moulding, 2017) Having the skills to facilitate and enable - taking stakeholders on the journey (Bone; Osmundsen, 2017; Mean, 2017) Creating social impact is about partnership building and working with other organisations Taking the lead on sustainability (with the right reputation behind you) can help to elevate the market (Probert, 2017) It takes certain people to innovate and start enterprises but the personality required to scale might be different (Mean)

5.1.1 Leading change Four main themes were identified within the parent theme – Leading Change.

-

Client as driver for change 

Appealing to values over profits (Troughton, 2018)



Clients must be clear on aspirations in order to motivate contractors 52

-

-

-

Desire to see change and enhance people’s lives 

Developing “replicable and scalable” models (Mean, 2017)



Recognising the opportunities -



Taking the responsibility

Poor practice as driver for change 

Promises and ambitions not fulfilled (Osmundsen, 2017; Murphy, 2017; Bone, 2018)



Values not aligned with younger generations

Willingness to take risks 

Be a “learning organisation”, “fail quickly” (Murphy)



"For us to make a change on a national basis is a big risk .If isn't going to work out... the big boys tend to be more conservative" (Anon, 2017)

The secret to success "Transformation begins (and can end abruptly) with an organisation's people. From the board to front line delivery, you need to take everyone with you. Only with the right leadership in place can this happen. You need a digital native, you need an influencer, a doer and an educator. You need to have empathy…” McBride (2017).

Beta-testing an RCBPM model will demand that people take on roles. Stakeholders will have different priorities and values that can impede uptake. Personas were developed from both interview respondents and the case studies researched. While there is insufficient room to elaborate on them here, the persona networks, motivations and values could be refined in a more detailed study, aiding leadership/ partnership-building strategies etc. Multiple toolkits (Nesta: DIY, Patterns of Participation, the Partnering Toolbook etc.) exist to test and explore collaboratory working.

5.1.1.1 Demonstrating change The extent to which individual small-build projects can influence the building industry is severely limited. Many only experience alternative products and approaches on programmes like Grand Designs. Even within the building industry, attendance of trade 53

events showcasing alternative products is voluntary and many simply do not have the time or inclination (Pierpoint, 2017).

Demonstration needs to occur at a more accessible level, members of the industry, the public and other potential stakeholders (users, clients etc.) need access to spaces that are not only built with RCBPM products, but that tell us something about them (price, application, benefits). It’s the difference between admiring and understanding. Growing numbers of certified sustainable buildings exist, though with ever changing ideas of what this means, and idiosyncrasies of ratings systems often disputed, the process can be exclusive and demoralising. Demonstration of new building practices in public settings can occur through a narrative approach, relevant to that place and time; it can describe problem (environmental, social or economic), propose a way to mitigate symptoms, and create a user-experience simply through knowing how/ where/ why it was made and chosen. The simple action of drawing attention to our surroundings could arouse our interest and inquiry.

The House that Kevin Built (THTKB, BBM Architects) was perhaps not only the first A+ energy performing building in the UK, but with its Grand Designs tie-in, it received huge media attention. The six day build using Modcell (Bristol based, straw-bale insulated units) in combination with new digital house-building firm FACIT (on-site CNC constructed units), drew large crowds and led to a second prototype at the University of Brighton, Brighton Waste House. This project, drawing on lessons from THTKB, aimed to showcase new technology; provide work and demonstration space; trial high-tech construction methods; understand and apply complementary practices; and involve young people and local construction firms in the build process. It was paid for and run on voluntary donations (including planning permission, pro-bono work) and industry sponsorship. The long-term contribution is as a space for inspiration, learning and developing research in eco architecture rather than a showcase of polished products and systems (University of Brighton, 2015; BBM Architects, no date).

Projects such as The Innovative Housing Programme in Wales will help inform the government and housing providers of the most appropriate homes, dependant on site, resource availability etc., but only five in twenty two projects explicitly mention the intention to use local resources (materials/ skills). Ideally these house-builders should seek 54

to work with and for communities wherever possible. An RCBPM model could provide a way to deliver value to both projects and local economy.

Sticking points exist in infrastructure provision for a volatile market such as waste and recycling. Given the scale of housebuilding anticipated and the resource requirements for that; authorities must take the opportunity to lead in resource management, by assisting the creation of appropriate infrastructure. Establishing policy for RCM in building projects and incentivising local procurement (i.e. proposed levy associated with mileage) could demonstrate their commitment to the local economy.

5.2 Marketing Creating functional and competitive local markets will take both existing and innovative new brands. Distributed, franchised and licensed models, manufacturing trusted products, can create appeal across this new sector. However, for producers and consumers, recognising and assimilating new flows (information, technology, resources) and adapting to a more diverse, efficient and connected approach, may be affected by "skills and education, investment in R&D and organisational capabilities" (MC, 2015, p.94).

In creating new markets, intermediary organisations can facilitate fruitful networks between "different actors in a way that reduces risk and uncertainty and helps facilitate the spread of knowledge" (MC, 2015, p.95). As brokers, convenors and talent platforms, these institutions are an important focus for UK policy as we move toward more sustainable manufacturing.

"Similarly, the establishment of the catapult centres, technology-focused institutes that are focused on connecting researchers and businesses and facilitating the commercialisation of new ideas, is an important development for the UK’s ability to develop sustainable innovations" p.96.

Analytics and big data are increasingly key components in supply chain success, helping recognise trends and fluctuations in costs and availability so outputs can be adapted. Digital tools (e.g. online industry matchmaking platforms) help improve market compatibility (Vlogter, 2017), while responsive E-commerce solutions store distribution and logistics data, aiding responsible distribution of products and increasing competitiveness of local firms.

Often data handling by smaller firms is more focused and efficient, making them agile and 55

capable of analytics-based niche marketing. Findings suggest performance often improves within turbulent economic environments (Li, Atuahene-Gima, 2001). "in the case of housing it's kind of re-growing [ . . . ] the long tail of diversified providers because they can [ . . . ] do it direct to market, direct to customers, direct to digital world, (Mean, 2017) Access to and sharing of resources via internet technologies increases yearly. The collaborative economies (majority gen-Y/Z) use internet technologies for connecting with and distributing goods, skills and more (Stokes, et al., 2014), supporting local and global businesses. These spaces allow for interactions beyond the limitations of day-to-day business operations and are vital to stimulate inter- and cross- sectoral activity.

New actor-linkages within an RCBPM model will create broad and overlapping social networks, dismantling traditional physical and informational barriers. Promotion can occur naturally through cross-sectoral dialogue, increased engagement and demonstration by those with the widest sphere of influence. Regular communications via local media, particularly community publications can help address the information gap around waste, recycling and secondary resources, as well as promoting local firms (Evison, Read, 2001; Mee, et al., 2004; Martin, Williams, Clark, 2006).

5.3 Institutionalising In order to share knowledge and experiences from a beta model, we must have robust communications systems and understand what we are reporting & monitoring. Beyond the connecting and piloting phase, we move into testing and refining; exploring both productive and partnership models. The process of monitoring and reviewing must highlight successes and failures in order to create opportunities (Ford, 2018a.), and revise “the partnership, programme(s) or project(s) in the light of experience� (Nesta, 2014, 05).

Bone (2018) suggested however, with the public sector retreating (funding cuts etc.), it is difficult to maintain continuity. As established networks change, methodology and practice must adapt to cope.

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Entrepreneurial firms will take advantage of a competitive situation and can use it to disrupt/ restructure and bring new ideas, knowledge, products and methods of construction to the fray (Sternberg, Wennekers, 2005).

A consistent finding is that collaboration, participation and innovation are key to a productive, equitable and resourceful future for our built environments. However, with studies spanning over a decade, research has led to more research as opposed to quantifiable action. Despite the lack of infrastructure there are many systems in place or in process that can be utilised in the early stages. Hitting critical mass may depend on a champion prepared to be open and transparent, confident in sharing the successes, failures and remedies of using innovations that have distinct and tangible wider benefits to the local community, economy and environment.

5.3.1 Sustaining Long term, the recycling industry must be adaptive and will require ongoing infrastructure investment. As certain recyclable items begin to be phased out (e.g. supermarket carrier bags) those reliant on that particular waste stream will soon begin to experience resource scarcity and the business will need to evolve or it will fail. As a society we must recondition ourselves to embrace these occurrences as small wins on the path to a more sustainable resource future.

In our more resource productive future, local reuse centres will operate alongside new, more efficient sorting facilities, recyclates processing plants that supply secondary raw material straight to industry (as sheet material etc.) or local manufacturers. End of life materials can then be more easily captured and returned to the system. The skills developed throughout these processes, most importantly remain within local communities and can be continually developed (Ford, 2018).

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6 Summary Despite a lack of formal commitment to a circular economy agenda, momentum continues amongst innovators, product and system designers, industry leaders and other champions looking to recover functional materials from secondary resources. However, a lack of defined leadership and responsibility exists on materials, application and regulations.

For an innovation programme to succeed across public and private spheres it requires: 1. “A tight network of practitioners and researchers” 2. Dynamic networks and ability “to adapt to changing circumstances” 3. “Combination of good leadership & right programme management” (Wamelink, Pries (2007), citing Dewuff & Noorderhasen, p.9)

Industry representation for a change agenda is mounting. Grass-roots organisations in league with construction and governance sectors must play a role in leading change (Bipvco, 2017).

It takes time to affect and embed change. Decisions made now by our government at national and local levels will have an effect long after they relinquish power. Our built environment and housing infrastructure greatly influences our behaviour, health, lifestyle and values. With younger generations growing up at ease with rapid technology advances, multiple channels of communication and knowledge exchange, we can identify distinct values systems emerging as generation Y moves into positions of authority within our creative and service industries. Only by setting in place the regulatory and supporting framework now, can the legacy issues relating to decades of unsustainable consumption and production begin to be addressed (Morrell, The Edge, 2015).

6.1 Conclusion By setting a challenge for public build projects to incorporate RCBPM - beyond typical applications, the city could be host to an exciting and novel innovation programme that involves resource management, infrastructure provision, unique opportunities to explore production (to meet a range of needs), and provides unique knowledge and data sets across an emerging market sector.

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Technology advances will significantly increase the rate of house building, we can respond by; -

Creating flexible and responsive local peripherals markets Utilising locally generated and processed secondary resources Developing cost-effective, custom products to support local and regional developers Offering on-site, moveable and fixed facilities that work with our changing urban landscape

Evidence supporting long-term investment into local manufacturing of RCBPM will be generated throughout the prototyping stages.

A cross-country network of RCBPM trials would provide a whole raft of case-studies and learning opportunities to inform a development strategy. Success in this area would require a “learning loop”- of stories, feedback, progress and solutions, outputs and impacts, (Nesta, 2014, 06).

6.1.1

Recommendations

Expanding infrastructure to cater for increased micro-management of waste and resources should be approached incrementally and through the combined investment of local government, manufacturing and construction (and other) industries and community development funds. In the case of RCBPM the following actions could form part of the city’s overall development strategy: -

Alignment of strengths and opportunities within specific local materials flows with existing product lines. Product lines assessed in consideration of potential user groups.

-

Formation of committee to determine RCBPM implementation strategy

-

Adopting temporary or flying-factories, to trial distributed manufacture of existing products for public build projects. Support investment in small-scale equipment for limited production.

-

The establishment of a dedicated enterprise facility (e.g. Filwood Green Business Park/ Unit DX) for RCM could attract existing firms and investment, supporting new market entrants.

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6.1.2 Next Steps To prepare for a local RCBPM model there are some key aspects that require further consideration: Audit of local resource flows (industrial, commercial, household) Audit of local waste and resource firms Audit of local, regional and national producers of RCM, (focus on building products)

A particular issue lies with current building materials databases. Working with sustainability and procurement teams alongside small building firms, usability, functionality and consistency should be addressed to improve accessibility, product visibility and uptake.

Further investigation into opportunities presented by community-led housing projects: -

Should local communities have more influence over the vernacular of developments?

-

How can communities establish closer relationships with developers to create lasting local economic opportunities?

-

What models might be appropriate?

Potential exists to develop experimental RCBPM models in conjunction with existing local housing initiatives such as Snug Homes, TAM house and the We Can Make project (Figure 24, p.50-51).

Social enterprise ventures developing custom architectural features (i.e. decorative cladding, porticos, street furniture) could offer skills-development workshops.

I intend to follow up on the Storm BoardTM case study and produce a report for Local Authority consideration: Beyond the material aspect, how could hoardings become a means of communication and raise awareness during urban development projects?

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7 Interview reference list Abbot-Stratford, I. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 21 December [In-person interview].

Anon. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 18 December [Telephone interview].

Baker, N. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 07 December [In-person interview].

Bone, H. (2018) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 03 January [In-person interview].

Henry, R. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 12 December [In-person interview].

Mean, M. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 14 December [In-person interview].

Moss, B. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 14 December [In-person interview].

Moulding, J. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 15 December [In-person interview].

Murphy, D. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 04 December [In-person interview].

Osmundsen, E. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 13 December [In-person interview].

Pierpoint, D. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 01 December [Skype/ telephone interview].

Probert, A. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 01 December [Telephone interview].

Troughton, E. (2018) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 03 January [In-person interview].

Wright, B. (2017) Interviewed by Jennifer Ford. MSc Sustainable Development in Practice, Dissertation, 14 December [In-person interview].

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