T E N 02 — The End is Nigh by Matt D Woodman [MISTD]

THE E ND 1

cosmo lo gical

ap ocalyps e

TEN VI OF CO DESTRU the

is n

ISIONS OSMIC UCTION

end

nigh

10 09

00 the end is nigh

Cosmic Disaster

The existence of sustenance, biodiversity and intelligent life on planet Earth is the result of billion of years of circumstantial and sequential astrological events, many of which were ruthlessly destructive in the first instance. Should gravitational force not have developed in the first instances of the universe’s expansion, should planet Earth not have coalesced from comic matter orbiting in the precise region of The Sun’s circumstellar habitable zone, should a Mars sized celestial body not have struck the young Earth, dislodging a segment of the planet’s crust which later consolidated itself as the Moon, it is more than likely that Earth like billions of other celestial bodies in our universe, would be a lifeless mass of matter drifting chaotically through space and time. These and a plethora of other improbable astrological, evolutionary and terrestrial factors, playing out over an expanse of time since the birth of the universe, have resulted in an instance of conscious life existing in our relatively minute corner of the Milky Way galaxy. The likelihood of such a set of advantageous circumstances occurring is infinitesimally small, fortunately the universe is so incomprehensibly vast in scale and has existed for such an expansive period of time that the probability of life propagating at any individual point throughout its extensive bulk is greatly improved.

terrulion

Only now, in the most recent century, aided by advances in computer technology and the substantially refined understanding of theoretical physical science, is mankind truly able to begin to comprehend the astronomical complexity of our own reality. Subsequent to this quest for answers to notions of origin, creation, purpose, exploration and unification, the veritable ‘knife-edge’ on which Earth exists is becomingly increasingly apparent to informed individuals in the scientific community.

existence

That status of our terrestrial mass, existing as it does within a fixed position in space is in fact far more fragile than the majority of individuals will take the time to contemplate as they pass through their relatively brief (in astrological terms) existence here on Earth. The average being gives little consideration to the notion that with one fell cosmological swoop all life could be eradicated from our Solar System, with seemingly inconsequential effect to the state of the universe. Any number of cosmic disasters could occur instantaneously and without warning, initiating a terrestrial doomsday scenario, completely outside of the human race’s will or control. Our subsistence on Earth is vulnerable and susceptible to a scale of cataclysmic events far exceeding our determination to endure. This publication seeks to expose ten of the most plausible astrological events which could obliterate not just exclusively the human race but also the world which we inhabit. Though it is possible that a small minority of civilisation could potentially endure a couple of the less extreme apocalyptic incidents the overwhelming likelihood is that life on Earth would be totally distinguished by even the most benign of cosmic disasters. Take heed, the end is nigh.

E A RT H

00 the end is nigh

Cosmic Disaster

f ata l

These and a plethora of other improbable astrological, evolutionary and terrestrial factors, playing out over an expanse of time since the birth of the universe, have resulted in an instance of conscious life existing in our relatively minute corner of the Milky Way galaxy. The likelihood of such a set of advantageous circumstances occurring is infinitesimally small, fortunately the universe is so incomprehensibly vast in scale and has existed for such an expansive period of time that the probability of life propagating at any individual point throughout its extensive bulk is greatly improved.

terrulion

EVENT

existence

ER AS E D

This publication seeks to expose ten of the most plausible astrological events which could obliterate not just exclusively the human race but also the world which we inhabit. Though it is possible that a small minority of civilisation could potentially endure a couple of the less extreme apocalyptic incidents the overwhelming likelihood is that life on Earth would be totally distinguished by even the most benign of cosmic disasters. Take heed, the end is nigh.

E A RT H

the end is nigh 01

Strange Matter Liquidation Destruction of the planet Earth via strange matter transformation is, at best, highly implausible. First theorised to exist in the early 1970s physicists conceived a model for the inception of strange matter, subatomic particles far removed from the composition of all matter on Earth; dense, heavy and produced by immense levels of pressure forced upon protons and neutrons.

scientists have considered the possibility of producing strange matter in the large hadron collider, if such an event were to occur all matter on earth would be consumed

What is strange matter?

Strange matter is hypothesised to propagate condensed from matter by the powerful gravity at the core of collapsed suns (called neutron stars), or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from femtometers (subatomic strangelets) to kilometers (quark stars). The recognised standard model of atomic structure, depicts nuclei composed of varying, but specific, quantities of protons and neutrons (depending on the required formation for each individual element), which are themselves comprised of basic subatomic particles called up and down quarks (the semantics of which are particularly difficult to define).

if the intense pressure were relieved on a particle of strange matter would it fluctuate back into normal matter once more?

In contrast, strange matter, a specific form of quark matter, is considered to be most commonly an entropic â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;liquidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of up, down and strange quarks. Common assertion of strange matter theory asserts that an equal grouping of both up and down quarks would make up a strangelet particle.

What effect might strange matter have?

Theoretically it is accepted that strange matter may have the propensity to change the physical nature of any matter with which it comes into contact. Much in the same way that ice cools water a chain reaction may propagate as strange matter coming into contact with ordinary matter reacts converting its state to the same subatomic strangelets. This event would occur instantaneously as all on matter on Earth is converted to strange matter. The well defined compositional structure of elementary atomic particles would be distorted, as these components change all comprised matter would lose shape and form. The unique electron orbits and nuclei structure of individual elements would form an undifferentiated mass. Soon mountains and oceans become the same strange matter, everything dies in rapid transformation creating an inorganic soup of sub atomic rudimentary particles. The existence of strange matter, at present, remains wholly hypothetical, observations have yielded inconclusive results regarding definitive proof of the existence of strangelets or their supposed effects anywhere in the universe. Despite this it is anticipated in some circles of theoretical physics that irrefutable evidence of such matter, aided by propagation of new technology and sophisticated observational techniques, may be amassed in the next decade.

02 the end is nigh

the end of everything Multiverse Brane Collision One of a number of currently proposed theoretical cosmological models for the origin and shape of the universe is the Ekpyrotic scenario (coming from the Stoic term Ekpyrosis, meaning conflagration or in Stoic usage ‘conversion into fire’). The Ekpyrotic model, a precursor to some cyclic models of the universe, is an alternative to the standard cosmic inflation theory of the very early universe, yet accommodates the standard Big Bang hypothesis. Founded by the work of Neil Turok, the director at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Ontario CA, and Paul Steinhardt, at Princeton, the theory maintains that the universe did not start at a point of singularity but that the Big Bang came about from the collision of two ‘branes’ in a cyclical multiverse model. This conclusion was made on the foundation of two contrasting fundamental options; either that time did not exist before the beginning, a notion of which we have no grasp, and is a logical contradiction, or the other possibility, on which the Ekpyrotic theory is based, the initiation of the universe was a violent event within a preexisting universe. The ‘branes’ (short for membrane) are extended two dimensional planes or objects, moving in three spacial dimensions (within which all observable space exists), and exist within a complex model of eleven spacial dimensions including time. A minimum of two brane universes must be present separated by a gap along an unobservable seventh dimension, it is then possible for these binary branes to collide, imparting immense and explosive energy and filling with a density of plasma and matter, yet remaining extended (avoiding the assumption of a primordial singularity point). Interesting everything proposed by the theory of brane cosmology is finite, calculable and describable using definitive mathematical law. Turok states; The seventh extra dimension of space is the gap between two parallel objects called branes. It’s like the gap between two parallel mirrors. We thought, What happens if these two mirrors collide? Maybe that was the Big Bang. Once a staple of science fiction, the existence of parallel universes is now taken very seriously in theoretical physics and, though collision between branes may be rare on the time scale of the expansion of the universe, it is wholly possible that such an event once occurred at the dawn of our universe and may occur again in the future. This state phase transition in the universe would obliterate planets, solar systems, galaxies and cluster of galaxies, ending the fabric of reality in an instant. Yet this doomsday scenario could mark the initiation of a new universe, born from the destruction of our own, in cyclical model of creation.

is the beginning of everything else 5

binary brane universe

collide across

eleven spacial dimensions

02 the end is nigh

esrevinu enarb yranib

Founded by the work of Neil Turok, the director at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Ontario CA, and Paul Steinhardt, at Princeton, the theory maintains that the universe did not start at a point of singularity but that the Big Bang came about from the collision of two ‘branes’ in a cyclical multiverse model. This conclusion was made on the foundation of two contrasting fundamental options; either that time did not exist before the beginning, a notion of which we have no grasp, and is a logical contradiction, or the other possibility, on which the Ekpyrotic theory is based, the initiation of the universe was a violent event within a preexisting universe.

ssorca edilloc

The ‘branes’ (short for membrane) are extended two dimensional planes or objects, moving in three spacial dimensions (within which all observable space exists), and exist within a complex model of eleven spacial dimensions including time. A minimum of two brane universes must be present separated by a gap along an unobservable seventh dimension, it is then possible for these binary branes to collide, imparting immense and explosive energy and filling with a density of plasma and matter, yet remaining extended (avoiding the assumption of a primordial singularity point). Interesting everything proposed by the theory of brane cosmology is finite, calculable and describable using definitive mathematical law. Turok states;

snoisnemid laicaps nevele

The seventh extra dimension of space is the gap between two parallel objects called branes. It’s like the gap between two parallel mirrors. We thought, What happens if these two mirrors collide? Maybe that was the Big Bang. Once a staple of science fiction, the existence of parallel universes is now taken very seriously in theoretical physics and, though collision between branes may be rare on the time scale of the expansion of the universe, it is wholly possible that such an event once occurred at the dawn of our universe and may occur again in the future. This state phase transition in the universe would obliterate planets, solar systems, galaxies and cluster of galaxies, ending the fabric of reality in an instant. Yet this doomsday scenario could mark the initiation of a new universe, born from the destruction of our own, in cyclical model of creation.

is the beginning of everything else

03 the end is nigh

Spaghettification

A black hole is a region of spacetime from which immense gravitational force prevents anything, including light, from escaping, absorbing all energy and reflecting nothing. Typically formed from the death of massive stellar objects (five to ten times the size of The Sun), as the matter available for nuclear fusion reactions dwindles, radiation subsides and without the outward pressure of the latter the remnants of matter implode to an ultra-dense point of space.

in the most extreme cases of spaghet ification the stretching is so powerful that no object, no mat er how strong its components, can withstand it

Theoretical physics dictates that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a gravitational singularity (or black hole), a point where the quantities that are used to measure gravitational field (including the density of matter) become infinite. Einstein’s theory of general relativity relies on a universal physical constant for the speed of light (denoted as ‘c’), valued at exactly 299,792,458 metres per second (approximately 671 million miles per hour), a figure that is exact because the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time. According to Einstein’s calculations ‘c’ is the maximum speed at which all energy, matter and information in the universe may travel. It is the speed at which all massless particles and associated fields (including electromagnetic radiation such as light) travel in a vacuum, regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial frame of reference of the observer. The speed of light works in the theory of relativity to interrelate space and time into an interrelated, dynamic and relative space-time continuum, appearing in the renowned equation: mass-energy equivalence E=mc2. The assumption of general relativity predicts the existence of black holes in the spacetime continuum and leads to the conclusion that if light is unable to escape from the event horizon (a mathematically defined surface that marks the point of no return) of a black hole then, by default, all other energy, matter and particles will be absorbed.

Torn between black holes

Should two stellar mass black holes ever move within a close enough spacial region of the Earth it would prove fatal for our planet. Each black hole would pull on the relative near side of Earth more than the centre point stretching out the planet’s mass and doubling the effect of black hole stretching, termed ‘spaghettification’. The Earth would become stretched in one dimension and compressed in the other into a long and thin shape (rather like spaghetti). Slowly holes would be wrenched in the Earth’s crust, lifting tectonic plates and distorting the semi-solid lithosphere below, molten magma would trigger apocalyptic volcanoes. Oceans would rise in ever-growing tides and as more and more matter becomes consumed falling into the black holes deadly energy would be emitted in bursts of lethal x-ray. Ultimately the extreme force would tear the Earth apart, ‘limb from limb’, before all of its comprised matter was dismantled and consumed.

the end is nigh 03

matter

distorted 8

04 the end is nigh

gamma r

m at t e r

The pictured diagram is a depiction of retrocausality, a hypothetical phenomena that reverses causality, allowing an effect to occur before its cause. Existing primarily a thought experiment in the philosophy of science retrocausality asks whether cause and effect are fixed. As modern understanding of particle physics began to develop this process was applied as a tool to model the unusual conditions of antimatter by physicists Wheeler and Feynman.

is in reality a change in the direction of particles, moving from

Feynman proposed an interpretation of the positron as an electron moving backward in time. Electrons moving backward in time would have a positive electric charge. Wheeler invoked this concept to explain the identical properties shared by all electrons, suggesting that â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;they are all the same electronâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with a complex, self-intersecting world-line. Ultimately an electron and its counterpart positron both enter and exit the equation, producing gamma radiation energy, along an axis of time.

time 9

the end is nigh 04

Annihilation of Antimatter

future

Antimatter is material composed of antiparticles (the antithesis of matter), which have the same mas as particles of ordinary matter but have an opposing charge and particle properties. Encounters between particles and antiparticles lead to the annihilation of both giving rise to varying proportions of high energy photons (gamma rays), neutrinos and lower-mass particle-antiparticle pairing. Setting aside the mass of any product neutrinos, which represent released energy, the end result of annihilation is a release of energy equivalent to the total matter + antimatter mass, in accordance with Einsteinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mass-energy equivalence equation, E=mc2.

Harnessing antimatter energy

ant i m at t e r

a n n i h i l at e s

radiation

past

The United States Air Force has been interested in the military applications of antimatter since the Cold War, funding antimatter related research in the hopes of harnessing the sheer power of annihilation as a weapon, propellant and power source. Though currently hypothetical, due mostly to the cost of production and limitations of technology to safely produce and contain sufficient quantities of antimatter (which would need to be suspended in a vacuum using magnetic and electric fields), an antimatter weapon could theoretically produce a significantly greater fraction of mass to explosive energy than the yield of current fusion reactions.

There is, however, considerable skepticism within the scientific community about the viability of antimatter weapons, according to CERN laboratories (which regularly produced antimatter in the Large Hadron Collider) the possibility of harnessing antimatter energy is low because we are currently unable to accumulate enough at a high density. Should the immense destructive power of antimatter be harnessed and controlled in the future it is predicted that the pure energy yielded from such a devastating force would equate to 44 megatons of explosive force per pound of antimatter (approximately the same as a thermonuclear bomb). Current estimates reflect that the power necessary to destroy the Earth would require trillions of tons of antimatter. However, as an energy resource antimatter could potentially be harvested from The Sun, released in explosive solar flares from a build up of magnetic energy in the solar nuclear furnace (a large flare is known to produce up to two pounds of antimatter which, when coming into contact with matter is annihilated instantaneously). Collecting enough matter in this way to make an appreciable sized bomb could take millions of years.

the creation and annihilation of electron and positron pairs

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04 the end is nigh

gamma r The pictured diagram is a depiction of retrocausality, a hypothetical phenomena fo noitalihinnA that reverses causality, allowing an effect to occur before its cause. Existing primarily rettamitnA a thought experiment in the philosophy of science retrocausality asks whether cause and effect are fixed. As modern understanding of particle physics began to develop this processewas applied vah h cihw ,)as retatatool m fotosimodel sehtitnathe ehunusual t( selcitrconditions apitna fo dofesantimatter opmoc lairby etam si rettamitnA lcitrap dand na eFeynman. grahc gnisoppo na evah tub rettam yranidro fo selcitrap sa sam emas eht physicists eWheeler fo noitalihinna eht ot dael selcitrapitna dna selcitrap neewteb sretnuocnE .seitreporp sonirtuen ,)syar ammag( snotohp ygrene hgih fo snoitroporp gniyrav ot esir gnivig htob tcudorp yna fo ssam eht edisa gnitteS .gniriap elcitrapitna-elcitrap ssam-rewol dna fo esaeler a si noitalihinna fo tluser dne eht ,ygrene desaeler tneserper hcihw ,sonirtuen s’nietsniE htiw ecnadrocca ni ,ssam rettamitna + rettam latot eht ot tnelaviuqe ygrene .2 c m = E , n o i t a u q e e c n e l a v i u q e y g r e n e - s s a m

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is in reality a change in the direction of particles, tuoba ytinummoc cfiitneics eht nihtiw msicitpeks elbaredisnoc ,revewoh ,si erehT ylrmoving aluger hcihw( sfrom eirotarobal NREC ot gnidrocca ,snopaew rettamitna fo ytilibaiv eht rettamitna gnissenrah fo ytilibissop eht )redilloC nordaH egraL eht ni rettamitna decudorp .ytisned hgih a ta hguone etalumucca ot elbanu yltnerruc era ew esuaceb wol si ygrene ni dellortnoc dna dessenrah eb rettamitna fo rewop evitcurtsed esnemmi eht dluohS ecrof gnitatsaved a hcus morf dedleiy ygrene erup eht taht detciderp si ti erutuf eht yletamixorppa( rettamitna fo dnuop rep ecrof evisolpxe fo snotagem 44 ot etauqe dluow .)bmob raelcunomreht a sa emas eht eriuqer dluow htraE eht yortsed ot yrassecen rewop eht taht tcefler setamitse tnerruC dluoc rettamitna ecruoser ygrene na sa ,revewoH .rettamitna fo snot fo snoillirt dliub a morf serafl ralos evisolpxe ni desaeler ,nuS ehT morf detsevrah eb yllaitnetop pu ecudorp ot nwonk si erafl egral a( ecanruf raelcun ralos eht ni ygrene citengam fo pu detalihinna si rettam htiw tcatnoc otni gnimoc nehw ,hcihw rettamitna fo sdnuop owt ot dezis elbaicerppa na ekam ot yaw siht ni rettam hguone gnitcelloC .)ylsuoenatnatsni .sraey fo snoillim ekat dluoc bmob Feynman proposed an interpretation of the positron as an electron moving backward in time. Electrons moving backward in time would have a positive electric charge. Wheeler invoked this concept to explain the identical properties shared by all electrons, suggesting that ‘they are all the same electron’ with a complex, self-intersecting world-line. Ultimately an electron and its counterpart positron both enter and exit the equation, producing gamma radiation energy, along an axis of time.

dna noitaerc e ht nortcele fo noitalihinna sr i a p n o r t i s o p d na

time 9

ant i m at t e r

a n n i h i l at e s

the end is nigh 04

radiation

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05 the end is nigh

The Big Freeze

Under normal circumstances Earth’s elliptical orbit carries it 3 million miles farther from The Sun in July than it does in January. Seasonal changes are effected as the Earth’s northern and southern hemispheres tilt towards and away from the sun sequentially. Furthermore our planet exists situated neatly within the circumstellar habitable zone of The Sun, the region around a star within which planetary-mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure can support liquid water at their surfaces and therefore are capable of propagating life (this is dependent on the levels of radiant energy received from the latter stellar mass). The combination of these individual circumstances, and a number of other factors including; the Earth’s atmosphere, magnetic poles, crust, core, elemental variation, moon and neighbouring planets, make planet Earth an ideal candidate as a host for life. In fact even slight deviations or fluctuations in any of these determinants would have a severe and lasting impact on life on Earth. This is partially illustrated in the existence of the Moon. The Moon ensures climate stability, affects tidal activity and minimises changes in planetary tilt, without this influence Earth would most likely have no seasons and an erratic axis of orbit giving cause to extreme variation in weather conditions, temperature and daylight for extended periods of time. Life would most probably still exists but under more extreme conditions.

Extreme temperature change Larger and more dramatic changes in the Earth’s atmosphere, and therefore its ability to support life, may take effect if the planet were to move outside of the circumstellar habitable zone. Changes in gravitational force, the attractive mass of The Sun, or a disruption of Earth’s stellar orbit (potentially caused by roving cosmological objects, stellar or celestial bodes, black holes or meteor impact) could leave Earth spirally chaotically away from The Sun and into deep space. If Earth were to spin away from the centre of the Solar System at as little as 3 million miles per year (a relatively small distance in cosmological terms) the effects would not be instantly fatal. However, once our planet reaches a distance of up to two hundred million miles from The Sun the received radiant light becomes only one third as bright. Such conditions would be incapable of supporting any plant life (which require light from The Sun in order to produce energy in photosynthesis), without such organic matter a disruption would occur in the food chain as all sustenance is eradicated and extreme changes in planetary atmosphere would begin to take place. As far out as the orbit of Neptune Earth’s surface would appear as a lifeless frozen mass, despite this two and half miles below the exterior of frozen oceans liquid water would still exist, heated by undersea volcanoes and powered by the planet’s molten core. Here only the most resilient of chemosynthetic life forms could continue to exist, producing energy from the sulphur dioxide emitted from hydrothermal vents.

the end is nigh 05

heat death

big crunch

Heat death Heat Death (also know as the Big Freeze) is one of a number of possible scenarios predicated by scientists in which the universe may ultimately end. An indirect consequence of an ever expanding universe, the most telling evidences, such as those that indicate an increasing rate of expansion in regions farthest from Earth, support this theory. Through observations, as well as density measurements, more scientists are inclined to believe that the Big Freeze is the most accurate model pertaining to the universe’s future and final fate. The term Heat Death is derived from the theory that in an isolated system (the universe being a very large example), the entropy will continuously increase until it reaches a maximum value. The moment at which this occurs, heat in the system will be evenly distributed across space allowing no room for usable energy (or heat) to exist. As a result, mechanical motion within the system will no longer be feasible and everything will wind down to a cold and silent halt. To determine whether or not such an ending to existence within our universe is possible, scientists are required to gather data regarding the density, composition and shape of the universe. If the density is measured as being greater than what is known as the ‘critical density’ level then the universe will eventually stop expanding and collapse (this theory is termed the ‘Big Crunch’). However if, contrastingly, the density is found to be lower than the critical density then the universe will expand infinitely, but at a decreasing rate eventually halting at the moment of ‘Heat Death’. Accurate measurements made by the WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe), which observes cosmic microwave background radiation, or CMBR, indicate a density less then the critical level, which will eventually result in such a demise for the universe.

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06 the end is nigh

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the end is nigh 06

The Big Burn

Contrary to changes in Earth’s solar orbit pushing it out into frozen deep space if the planet were propelled towards the centre of the Solar System then all sustenance, life and ultimately the very existence of our celestial body would meet a fiery solar doom. Much like the aforementioned, any number of astrological events could potentially fatally disrupt Earth’s solar orbit such as a rogue cosmological entity from many lightyears away (a black hole, stellar or celestial object) passing through or near our planetary system, changes in gravitational force or the attractive mass of The Sun, such events would alter the gravity of the entire Solar System. The chances of such an occurrence are significantly low though not entirely inconceivable. If the Earth’s orbit were altered enough to send it spiraling three million miles closer to The Sun each year the initial effects would be minor. Over time however, extreme global warming would begin to take effect, the polar ice caps would melt leading to a rise in sea level of up to two hundred feet, flooding the majority of land mass.

certain blazing glory

By the time that the Earth is one third closer to The Sun, and equidistant to Venus’ orbit, all liquid water is vapourised and producing a carbon dioxide atmosphere that severely compounds the greenhouse effect (producing a surface hotter than if the planet were to have no atmosphere at all). At this point, as the Earth begins to prepare for its final plunge into the nuclear heart of The Sun, all life has suffered a long a drawn out death and the average surface temperature stands at nine hundred degrees Fahrenheit. Now just a few million millions from the star that once gave it life; dead, barren and choked with greenhouse gas Earth’s exterior crust would be vapourised, stripped away by the effects of solar wind and bombarded with high energy particles. For a brief period of time the planet’s final passage would appear as a bright comet diving towards the solar surface. Finally all that would remain for eventual impact would be the Earth’s core, a 4300 mile wide ball of iron, nickel and radioactive metals, as hot as The Sun’s surface but 2 million times smaller. Such a collision would have absolutely no effect whatsoever on The Sun’s state. Should the Earth survive all possible cosmological catastrophes for the next five billion years it will certainly meet its demise when The Sun swells to a red giant in the final stages of its existence. The Sun’s core will run out of the hydrogen fuel used for nuclear fusion, lose pressure and collapse under its own gravity. As this inward crush boosts the temperature of the core, the remaining shell of hydrogen around it will heat up and trigger a new period of fusion, which in turn will cause the The Sun’s outer envelope to expand around 250 times its current radius. Astrophysicists in Mexico and the UK forecast that Earth will get caught up in the Sun’s outer layers, spiral inwards and vaporize, stating that it will present the definitive answer to the planet’s eventual fate.

07 the end is nigh

Halt Planetary Rotation Earth’s rotation and tilted axis are integral to existence for a variety of reasons, providing important reference for the mapping of celestial bodies and accurate measurement of time. Subsequently if Earth’s rotation were to be halted or more plausibly significantly slowed by collision with an extra-terrestrial body it could have disastrous effects. Though if a collision catastrophic enough to balance Earth’s tendency to rotate were to occur, the energy imparted would be cataclysmic in itself.

l a u n ch ed s i h t in e ar

all m att er

The first thing to consider is the momentum of all matter on the surface of the Earth, held down by the planet’s gravity and spinning through space at a rotational velocity of 1,674.4 km/h (at the equator). If the Earth suddenly stopped spinning then everything upon the planet’s surface, including oceans, would be launched into a ballistic sideways trajectory at the speed of the planet’s previous rotational velocity causing fatal damage. Furthermore Earth’s atmosphere would continue its velocity creating 1000 mile per hour winds across the surface everywhere on the planet at once, releasing vast amounts of rotational friction as heat, melting rock and vaporising water. Soon Earth would be a dead world orbiting the centre of The Sun in ‘sun synchronous’ rotation (turning once every 365 days), though not completely halted this is the closest the laws of physics will allow Earth to halting its spin. Day and night would be dictated by the yearly cycle, making each half a year long in the succession of a binary seasonal calendar, an absence of planetary tilt would eradicate the traditional four seasons. Whilst one side of the planet absorbed radiated energy from The Sun for six months the other hemisphere would lose heat trapped in a perpetual dark winter.

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Being far hotter at the equator than at the poles, where light rays are more slanted and heat efficiency is lower, the long term temperature gradient would alter the atmospheric wind circulation pattern, producing massive wind jets and convection currents streaming across the planet. Air would move from the equator to the poles filling each region of the Earth with massive a 12,000 mile bands of extreme weather, churning across the globe in bi-annual cyclone seasons. Furthermore Earth would become a perfect sphere, though this may seem minor, the effects would be devastating. Earth’s current centrifugal force stretches the planet into an ellipsoid, bulging 21.4km wider at the equatorial axis than the poles. Because of the planet’s oblate shape the oceans are held out at the equator by as much as 8km, if rotation were to halt all of the world’s oceanic water would redistribute, flooding many regions of the planet with an immense volume of water.

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Finally it is presumed that the globe’s magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect in the molten core. Ceasing the Earth’s rotation would halt the magnetic regeneration, eradicating all protection from high energy cosmic particles and presenting significant biohazard to any remaining life.

the end is nigh 07

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Tidal Acceleration In fact it has been proven with absolute certainty that the Earth’s rotations is indeed slowing gently over an extended period of time. Approximately every one hundred years the solar day is extended by 1.4 milliseconds (1.4 thousandths of a second). This effect is due to transfer of Earth’s rotational momentum to the Moon’s orbital momentum as tidal friction slows the Earth’s centrifugal spin. The increase in the Moon’s speed is causing it to slowly recede from Earth, at a rate or roughly 4cm per calendar year, increasing its orbital period and the length of a defined month. Should the Earth survive all other cosmological disasters then this process of ‘tidal acceleration’ will slow the globe’s centrifugal rotation gradually over a period billions of years. Eventually the planet will reach ‘sun synchronous’ rotation, effected by the torquing of both The Sun and Moon, before reaching its destructive conclusion when plunging into the nuclear heart of The Sun, in the final stages of solar demise.

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Impact from Deep Space Planet Earth exists in a state of astrological fragility under constant threat from collision with asteroids and millions of tons of space debris. The over-bearing gravitational force of the giant gas planet Jupiter, the largest celestial body in our Solar System (excluding The Sun), is known to exert significant force on space debris. Jupiter has been observed to shield Earth from potential astrological impact, protecting the globe from a dangerous band of comets coming from the Oort Cloud (a vast spherical deep-freeze surrounding the Solar System, as far as a light year from The Sun), at times bearing the brunt of collision and at others deflecting the trajectory of massive objects back out of our stellar system. However, Jupiter’s mass has also been predicted as responsible for an increase in Earth’s exposure and susceptibility to contact with small bodies moving from both the Kuiper Belt, an icy zone which lies just outside the orbit of Neptune, and the Asteroid Belt, a region of space between Mars and Jupiter. Most space debris exists with minimal threat to Earth, however, Jupiter’s vast gravitational force can and may one day be responsible for steering debris into a direct collision course with Earth.

Deep impact If such an impact were to occur the results would be destructive but not entirely apocalyptic. Much like the asteroid, roughly 10km in diameter, that is hypothesised to have struck Earth approximately 65 million years ago, wiping out over 50% of all inhabiting species a significant proportion of life may be obliterated in such an event, with surviving species perishing in environmental alterations. However, a collision of this magnitude would be unlikely to destroy all existence or the mass of the Earth itself. An object much larger, at least half the size of the Earth and one tenth of its mass, heading for collision at a velocity of 30 miles per second, would be required to completely destroy all sustenance and life on the planet. If a cosmological event were to occur modifying Mars’ orbit sufficiently for the two planets gravity to pull them together the consequences would be fatal. As Mars fills the Earths horizon enormous tsunamis would flood islands and coastal cities, all matter coming into contact with the impact point would be instantaneously obliterated. Meanwhile the far side of Earth would be rocked with continent cracking earthquakes, heat from the collision would turn forests into blazing infernos and molten mountains of Earth and Mars would be thrown into space, raining back to the surface in a shower of apocalyptic destruction. An hour after contact all life on Earth would be dead. Despite this catastrophic event, the Earth is so vast (6 billion trillion tons of rock and metal), that even a direct collision with Mars would leave the planet damaged but essentially still intact.

Giant impact hypothesis

IMPACT

IN T ERP LA N ETA RY

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Completely annihilating Earth requires something much larger, such as Earth’s sister planet Venus. Similar in diameter and over 80% of the mass of Earth a collision between both of these celestial bodies would shatter both worlds, shooting huge fragments of planetary rubble into space which would then fall back and coalesce into an Earth/Venus amalgam, larger than either original planet. The Giant Impact Hypothesis states that approximately four and half billion years ago a celestial body the size of Mars, named Theia (the mythical Greek Titan who was the mother of Selene, the goddess of the Moon), collided with early molten Earth, striking it hard and dislodging part of the Earth’s crust which, after forming a disc of debris around the planet, later coalesced to form the Moon.

Whilst an impact of this scale is entirely possible, the orbits of planets within our Solar System are relatively stable meaning that critical astrological event would need to occur to throw either Mars (35 million miles from Earth) or Venus (over 20 million miles from Earth) out of orbit. The elliptical and eccentric orbit of Mercury could provide such circumstances, subject to the gravitational influence of other planets, variations in Mercury’s relative position could exert effect on other bodies.

IAWG Recent scares have included the Russian meteor explosion over Chelyabinsk, in February of 2013, the largest air-burst on Earth since 1908, and the unrelated near-Earth trajectory of Asteroid DA14 2012, the closest registered since records began. So great is the plausible danger of asteroid impact that the UN has, as of late 2013, initiated a new asteroid defense plan, in coalition with former astronauts of the Association of Space Explorers, called the IAWG (International Asteroid Warning Group). This group is tasked with forming a contingency plan to defend planet Earth against potentially lethal contact with cosmic debris.

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Black Hole Implosion A primordial black hole is a hypothetical singularity region in the space-time continuum which, similarly to stellar mass black holes, has an immense power of gravitational force which prevents any matter or light from escaping its event horizon. In contrast to its stellar counterpart the primordial black hole is expected to have formed not by the gravitational collapse of a large star but by the extreme density of matter present during the universe’s early expansion period.

mini black holes easier to make than thought

According to the Big Bang model, the universe exploded outwards from a singularity point and during these first few moments pressure and temperature were extremely high. Under these conditions, simple fluctuations in the density of matter may have resulted in local regions dense enough to create primordial black holes. Though most regions of high density would be quickly dispersed by the expansion of the universe, a primordial black hole could potentially remain stable, persisting to the present.

Detecting primordial black holes One technique proposed to detect primordial black holes is by their emission of ‘Hawking Radiation’, in 1974 Stephen Hawking that large numbers of such smaller primordial black holes might exist in the Milky Way galaxies ‘Halo’. Hawking posited that all black holes would emit ‘Hawking Radiation at a rate inversely proportional to their mass, since this emission would further decrease their mass, black holes with very small mass would experience a massive burst of radiation in their final phase, equivalent to a hydrogen bomb yielding millions of megatons of explosive force.

man made but very tiny black holes possible

However, if the propose ‘Hawking Radiation’ does not actually exist, such primordial black holes would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to detect in space due to their size and lack of gravitational influence. Should a primordial black hole, as small as a coin (but carrying the same mass as Earth), pass undetected through the Earth’s atmosphere and into the centre it could potentially devour the Earth from within.

colliding particles Whilst this process would becan almost instantaneous if the black hole were of stellar make black black holes mass, a primordial hole could remain at the Earth’s core for an extended period of time bouncing around the dimension of the inner core and slowly exerting increasing gravitational pressure on the surface. Finally upon reaching a critical mass the mantle and exterior of Earth would begin to collapse inwards with increasing momentum, shaking the surface with earthquakes, shifts in tectonic plates and powerful volcanoes. After months of severe cataclysms in the final phase Earth’s would take less than an hour to fall into the black holes event horizon, its mass imploding inwards to the singularity point. Fortunately an Earth mass black hole has never been discovered, though there is sufficient scientific evidence that the creation of micro black holes is plausible using the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

scientists create black holes on earth

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Fundamental Force Shift Whilst strong gravitational force is integral to the destructive power of stellar mass and primordial black holes a lack of gravitational force could have equally devastating results for life on Earth and the very nature of the universe. All life on Earth, from birds and insects to fish and humans, is dependent on a balanced relationship with gravitational force, whilst these forces act simultaneously on large cosmological bodies, planets and stellar objects, to hold matter together, giving weight to physical objects and allowing these entities to interact in orbits and relationships of varying attraction. A disruption of that which we recognise to be gravitational force could potentially lead to imbalance and interference on a universal scale. Though such a notion seems inconceivable, incredibly leading theoretical physicists have begun to consider the ceased existence of gravity as a plausible cosmic event, based on the principle that a similar occurrence is assumed to have taken place at the derivation of the universe. Contemporary theoretical science generally accepts that the universe is governed by four fundamental laws of force; gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force (responsible for holding together atomic nuclei) and weak nuclear force (the source of radioactivity), of these four gravity is considered the weakest. In physical cosmology, assuming that nature can be described by a ‘Grand Unification Theory’, the grand unification epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe taking place just seconds after the Big Bang. Scientists posit that during the first fractions of a second, three of the four fundamental interactions (electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force) were unified as amalgamated electro-nuclear force. This super force created an intense energy which caused the instantaneous ‘inflation’ of the universe. The universe became monstrously big in a fractionally short period of time and a minuscule moment of a second later the Big Bang inflation ended as the forces separated becoming new manifestations of a previously unified force. Scientists recognise that if a seemingly unified force could separate in a fraction of a second under the necessary conditions it is not implausible that such an event may occur once more in our universe. In the same manner gravitational force could potentially split into two different aspects, each of these two new forces could behave in a way distinct from the current behaviour of gravity and everything held together by this force would disintegrate. Human bodies would remain intact, held together by electromagnetic forces. However, every individual would instantaneously depart Earth spinning out to suffocate in deep space. Earth and all its compositional matter would simultaneously separate, giant gas planets would dissipate and The Sun would disintegrate no longer held together by its own gravitational force. All matter in space would begin to randomly drift apart forming dissociated cosmic dust.

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a y l H O D a t l e g r v

universal

attraction

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lasrevinu

A disruption of that which we recognise to be gravitational force could potentially lead to imbalance and interference on a universal scale. Though such a notion seems inconceivable, incredibly leading theoretical physicists have begun to consider the ceased existence of gravity as a plausible cosmic event, based on the principle that a similar occurrence is assumed to have taken place at the derivation of the universe. Contemporary theoretical science generally accepts that the universe is governed by four fundamental laws of force; gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force (responsible for holding together atomic nuclei) and weak nuclear force (the source of radioactivity), of these four gravity is considered the weakest. In physical cosmology, assuming that nature can be described by a ‘Grand Unification Theory’, the grand unification epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe taking place just seconds after the Big Bang. Scientists posit that during the first fractions of a second, three of the four fundamental interactions (electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force) were unified as amalgamated electro-nuclear force. This super force created an intense energy which caused the instantaneous ‘inflation’ of the universe. The universe became monstrously big in a fractionally short period of time and a minuscule moment of a second later the Big Bang inflation ended as the forces separated becoming new manifestations of a previously unified force. Scientists recognise that if a seemingly unified force could separate in a fraction of a second under the necessary conditions it is not implausible that such an event may occur once more in our universe. In the same manner gravitational force could potentially split into two different aspects, each of these two new forces could behave in a way distinct from the current behaviour of gravity and everything held together by this force would disintegrate.

noitcartta

Human bodies would remain intact, held together by electromagnetic forces. However, every individual would instantaneously depart Earth spinning out to suffocate in deep space. Earth and all its compositional matter would simultaneously separate, giant gas planets would dissipate and The Sun would disintegrate no longer held together by its own gravitational force. All matter in space would begin to randomly drift apart forming dissociated cosmic dust.

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