Fabricated
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Vertical Integration of Solid Wood + The Architecture of Manufacturing
Copyright © 2019 Matthew Miller
Recommended Chicago citation:
All rights reserved. Published electronically by the Graduate School at the University of Cincinnati. No part of this thesis may be physically or electronically reprinted or reproduced, distributed or utilized in any form, without proper attribution to the author.
Miller, Matthew “Fabricated Timber: Vertical Integration of Solid Wood + The Architecture of Manufacturing” Master’s Thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2019.
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Acknowledgments It Takes a Village Foremost, I would like to thank my first chair, Vincent Sansalone, without whom this endeavor would have been possible. Your support, guidance, and critique have been immeasurably valuable in the formation of an architectural idea. An equal thank you to my second chair, Tom Bible, for fielding numerous questions about timber architecture, and the potential it holds. To the network of fabricators, makers, architects, and timber experts I have had the privilege to speak with these past several months: Todd Beyreuther, Terry Boling, Steve Doehler, Nick Germann, Whitney Hamaker, Hank Hildebrandt, Joseph Mayo, Kris Spickler, Nicholas Sills, Erin Taylor, and Stephen Tolnai, among others, thank you for grounding this research. Lastly, to the whole team at Structurlam, thank you for opening your doors to an architecture student half a world away. What an incredible opportunity to see firsthand the production of cross laminated timber. Matthew Miller University of Cincinnati Master of Architecture, class 2019
Acknowledgements
3
01 Scope of Investigation
02 Mass Timber
Abstract 9
Establishing A Source 20
Integrating Architecture + Industry
Introduction 11 Designed Not Specified Materials
An Avant Garde Material 12 Advantages of Mass Timber
Section Endnotes 17 Document Reference
Common Tree Species Douglas Fir Spruce Fir Southern Yellow Pine Jack Pine Scots Pine
Solid Wood Assemblies 24 Common Mass Timber Types CLT NLT DLT PSL Glulam LVL
Manufacturing Process 27 Logging & Distribution Finger Jointing Billet Production CNC Profiling Quality Control
Field Installation 33 Finishing & Shipping
Section Endnotes 35 Document Reference
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03 Creating A System
05 References
Vertical Integration 38
Common Terms 86
Unified Manufacturing Practices Tesla Boeing Katerra AEC Industries
Forest Management 48 Maintaining the Supply Chain
The Production Shift 51 Current Industry Practice Vertically Integrating Timber A Designed Commodity
Document Reference
Section Endnotes 87 Document Reference
Common Acronyms 88 Document Reference
List of Figures 90 Document Reference
List of References 94 Document Works Cited
Section Endnotes 57 Document Reference
04 Speculation Sphere of Influence 60 Timber & The Midwest Cincinnati As A Hub Icon of Production
Mechanics of the Factory 68 Site Analysis Program Requirements Parti A Designed Shell Enclosure
Drawing Conclusions 78 Timber and The AEC Industry
Architecture of The Factory 80 Piloting the Paradigm Shift
Section Endnotes 83 Document Reference
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5
01 Scope of Investigation Abstract Introduction An Avant-Garde Answer Section Endnotes
Abstract Integrating Architecture + Industry Mass timber, specifically cross laminated timber, is one of the largest paradigm shifts seen to building structural systems since the industrial revolution and yet it has rarely surfaced as a topic of architectural discourse. By nature of how mass timber is produced, via downstream digital fabrication outputs, its best architectural treatment is explicitly tied to an understanding of how the material is manufactured in the first place. Effective design with timber is not just choosing from a kit of parts, but levering a knowledge of CNC fabrication to produce structural members and thoughtful joint details that support architectural intent. Therefore, this thesis deliberately explores the role of a manufacturing plant within timber production, and how architecture directly interfaces with heavy industry. Emphasis is placed on the role of the factory as a center for outputting mass timber components, while analyzing and critiquing current manufacturing and fabrication practices. As the central linkage between architecture and industry, the factory offers an ideal congruence to showcase mass timber design against its hyper efficient manufacturing environment. The potential for a Midwestern CLT plant is explored through macro and micro site analysis, with the intention of proposing Cincinnati as a potential hub for future timber expansion. Such a proposition offers a chance to expand on the ideas of a vertically integrated system of delivery, and the consequences and opportunities it proposes for architects. Mass timber construction is poised to become one of the next great paradigm shifts in contemporary commercial construction. Its furthered research is invaluable to a larger architectural discourse, both from a sustainable and material-centered vantage point. The robust body of work assembled by this thesis serves to further advance the discussion around timber, focus the material research toward a designed architectural intent, and promote its growing popularity as a sustainable alternate to steel and concrete structural systems. Fig. 1 Individual glulam bents derived from a lofted shell enclosure, timber factory proposal, Cincinnati.
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Introduction Designed Not Specified Materials The current status of building design and
the architect take a lead role to maximize the
secondary processing mills and then shipped
construction is reliant on components that
capabilities of the fabrication process. It is this
for final cutting and assembly (customization)
are, more often than not, specified, rather than
nuanced idea of interfacing that will be the
on the construction site3.”
designed1. This shift is not necessarily a change
primary subject of this thesis. Mass timber poses a fundamental paradigm
in the pedagogy of architecture, but rather driven from the way building components are
Mass timber, with particular emphasis on
shift to both architecture, and commonly
produced and obtained. As Thomas Robinson,
CLT, is a prime material candidate for such
accepted construction methods.
founder of LEVER Architects states: “[in order
an investigation.
Cross Laminated Timber’s
new technology or method of fabrication
to] explore making, materiality, and experience,
best architectural uses are explicitly tied to an
introduced into the AEC industries, change
we [must] challenge conventional methods of
understanding of its manufacturing process.
occurs slowly and incrementally. Tom Peters
fabrication, use materials in unexpected ways,
Mass timber components, therefore, are not
notes that “architecture is firmly rooted in its
and pursue construction that benefits the
simply just choosing from a kit of parts, but
own theory and technology4” in his essay on
environment and regional economies2.”
leveraging a body of knowledge on CNC
the American Culture of Construction. Yet high
manufacturing to produce building elements
technological advances are at best piecemeal
Architects are left to confront the question, how
that support architectural intent.
applied to design efforts, forcing architects to
does our industry interface with manufacturing
of
are
complacently deal with construction methods
and fabrication to output streamlined building
examined throughout this document as a salient
that are sorely lagging behind other industries5.
components?
model for how such a material can also benefit
Mass timber posits such a design option to
from vertically integrated processing.
challenge this current state of affairs. It must,
Equally as important, what
material(s) exists that allows for such an
downstream
digital
Parallels
manufacturing
Just as any
however, be considered a forest to building
integrated, vertical production model? Interface is important to note as distinct from interact,
As Todd Beyreuther shrewdly points out from
commodity, a turn key material for architects to
collaborate, or specify. To accept Robinson’s
his research with Washington State University,
interface with. By investigating and expanding
proposition that making and materiality must
“The way most wood buildings are designed
a system of delivery, timber architecture can
“challenge conventional methods of fabrication”
and built looks very similar to 50 and perhaps
transition from a discussion of what is possible
is to accept an underlying assumption that
100 years ago.
to an accepted construction strategy readily
building components do not simply have to
wood building components (sawn lumber,
be an off the shelf commodity.
Removing
engineered lumber, plywood or strand board
this constraint, therefore, necessitates that
panels, etc.) are mass produced at primary and
Predominantly, standardized
accessible to designers across North America.
Fig. 2 Continuous freespan CLT dome under construction, Kaeng Krachen Elephant House, MSA Architects, Zurich Zoo
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An Avant-Garde Answer Advantages of Mass Timber Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, compiled by Joseph Mayo, takes an in depth look at some of the most influential mass timber projects within current building practice. As a common theme running through each project, Mayo points out that despite its relatively recent adoption, CLT is poised to challenge the use of concrete and steel in commercial construction, particularly at the mid-rise density6. While concrete, steel and mass timber all rely on fixed industrial processes for production, only CLT has the ability to provide a fully customizable structural system within its standard framework of manufacturing.
This
fact becomes exceedingly well demonstrated by the catalog of architecture covered in Solid Wood. By contrast, concrete and steel are both too entrenched in their respective processes to allow for much degree of customization at an economical cost point. In light of an architectural discourse, CLT offers architects an unprecedented ability to depart from standardized forms of heavy framing7, pairing exposed structural expression with a nuanced relationship with design intent. Mass timber’s benefits are far from limited to its mode of manufacturing and ability to customize. While this thread runs central to this thesis, it is noteworthy to point out many of the other benefits timber architecture offers. Perhaps CLT’s greatest assets is what it offers to the modern crisis of climate change. Mass timber inherently sequesters carbon from the atmosphere. This subject has been extensively researched by architects such as Alan Organschi, and is further touched on Fig. 3 Timber product mapping, Gray Organschi Archtiects, Timber City Fig. 4 Mixed species oval timber beam pocket developed by Blumer Lehamann, Tamedia HQ, Shigeru Ban Architects
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Section Head
13
in the 03 – Forest Management section of this
resistance; timber can be completely exposed
all arrive from the controlled environment of the
document. The general theory lies in the fact
for an elegant, tectonic, architectural resolution
factory, and are sequentially sent to the jobsite
that trees take in CO2, thereby ‘sequestering’
to a building form.
and craned directly onto the building assembly;
it from the atmosphere, while mineral based
with no interstitial site storage.
materials such as steel actually generate more
Other benefits to mass timber include its
carbon.
If a building is constructed from
superior seismic performance12, as compared to
One last understated benefit of timber is a
timber, rather than steel, that building has
steel or concrete. Heavy wooden structures are
byproduct of its manufacturing process. It is
now permanently sequestered
more resilient, and therefore dissipate seismic
one of the few architectural components that is
the Earth’s atmosphere. Needless to say, this
shocks better than other systems .
Mass
truly customizable without being cost inhibitive.
premise is entirely predicated on the use of
timber is no longer reliant on old growth trees,
All timber componentry, from glulam to CLT is
timber within structures; one of the reasons
unlike its early heavy timber predecessors. This
manufactured with a limited set of CNC tooling,
why this thesis places such a heavy emphasis
means that new growth pine can be harvested
yet neither the input nor output of the process
on the manufacturing practices of mass timber,
by a predictable growth pattern, ensuring a
is fixed. This dynamism means a customized
and creating an infrastructure for its continued
continuous supply of raw material .
set of structural components can be cut without
8
carbon from
13
14
having to change the inherent manufacturing
output. Mass timber structures are extremely efficient
process, which would in turn drive the cost up
Contrary to popular belief, timber is inherently
to build, taking significantly less time
of such parts.
fire resistant. When assembled as a glued, mass
field assembly than a comparable steel frame.
associated only with individual components like
component, it mirrors the property of solid
This fact is attributed twofold, first of which
cabinetry20 can, for the first time, be applied on
logs and heavy timber, charring long before
is the lightweight nature of timber16
, which
a building wide scale. It is precisely this reason
catching fire . Timber chars predictably , and
contributes to its ease of shipping, as well as
why CLT deserves to be treated as a forest
therefore can be designed and sized to precisely
site lifting and placing. Secondly, due to the
to site commodity, not simply a 2x4 nailed
conform to building fire codes .
This nature
precise 2mm (nominal 1/8”) tolerance at which
up in standard fashion.
of fire resistance has an important secondary
timber componentry can be manufactured ,
vertical infrastructure of manufacturing, timber
component, which allows timber to be both a
the structure arrives on site for final assembly,
becomes an incredibly salient and efficient
structural and finish material within a building.
not construction.
model for outputting custom architecture.
Structural steel must be spray fireproofed
necessary, CLT far surpasses any other material
or hidden behind gypsum board to achieve
on time efficiency19. Beams, columns, and slabs
9
10
11
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15
for
17
18
With no field modification
Short production runs usually
When braided to a
Fig. 5 Perspective view along integral rail tracks, timber factory proposal, Cincinnati
Scope of Investigation
15
Section Endnotes Document Reference 1.
Stephen Kieran and James Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 29-31.
2.
Thomas Robinson, “Firm & Process,” LEVER, http://www.leverarchitecture.com/, (September 21, 2018).
3.
Todd Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” in Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions (Washington DC: ASCA Press, 2014), 867
4. Tom F. Peters, “An American Culture of Construction,” in Perspecta, vol. 25 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 142. 5.
Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, xi-xiii.
6.
Joseph Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, Technology, and Design, (Taylor and Francis, 2015), ix, 5.
7.
Ibid, 29-30.
8.
Alan Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” (lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning, Cincinnati), February 21, 2018, accessed March 12, 2018, https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181.
9.
Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 34-38.
10. Karl Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” Master’s Thesis, University of Tennessee, 2015, 24. 11. Erol Karacabeyli and Brad Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber (Pointe-Claire, QC: FPInnovations, 2013), 290-291. 12. Thomas Robinson, “Forest to Frame” (lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 24, 2016), accessed November 11, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=M30REHhwgGU. 13. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 41. 14. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018). 15. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 24-26. 16. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 7-8, 25. 17. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 11-13. 18. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018). 19. Ibid. 20. Lawrence Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” Master of Architecture Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006, Automation in Construction Volume 16 (2007), 300.
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17
02 Mass Timber Establishing a Source Solid Wood Assemblies Manufacturing Process Field Installation Section Endnotes
Establishing A Source Common Tree Species
Douglas Fir
Spruce Fir
While the Cross Laminate Timber Handbook
Douglas fir is the staple tree source for timber in
Spruce Fir actually refers to a group of fir
notes the standard for timber laminations
North America. Its growing region is primarily
species, of which Black Spruce is primarily used
“permits the use of any softwood lumber species
located along the Pacific Northwest Corridor
for timber manufacturing. Black Spruce is found
recognized by the American Lumber Standards
between California, Oregon, Washington, and
across most of the Canadian Boreal Forest,
Committee ,� there is a core set of tree
British Columbia. As such, most major North
as well as stretches of northern Michigan and
species most commonly used for mass timber
American timber plants are located within this
Maine. It shares similar strength characteristics
manufacturing.
region.
with Douglas Fir, as well as an exceptionally
21
These species are generally
Douglas fir reaches trunk diameter
preferred for their strength durability values, as
sizes to consistently supply 2x6 and larger
straight tight grain structure.
well as grain structure. Refer to Figure 16 for
dimension lumber.
It has excellent strength
has been the select material for eastern timber
a complete list of strength and bending values.
values, with minimum acceptable grades of
manufacturers based in Quebec, as well as
Catalogued below are five of the most common
No. 2 used for primary span layers, and No. 3
the favored species for new eastern factory
North American softwood species presently
in perpendicular layers . Select grades offer a
proposals24. Minimum lumber grade must be a
used in the manufacturing of mass timber. This
near knot free finish, and are used in face plys
No. 2 or higher25.
list is by no means exhaustive; not accounting
of CLT to produce superior panels.
23
for experimental hardwoods such as Poplar
22
used in smaller production runs.
Fig. 6 Douglas fir growth rings
Fig. 7 Common tree species used in North American mass timber manufacturing Fig. 8 Douglas fir grain sample
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Fig. 9 Spruce fir grain sample
Black Spruce
Southern Yellow Pine
Jack Pine
Scots Pine
Southern Yellow Pine refers to a common
Although less commonly used than other pine
A staple of the European timber manufacturing
grouping of trees including Longleaf Pine, Slash
species, Jack Pine has the potential to be another
supply
Pine and Loblolly Pine . This particular species
widely used tree source for Midwestern timber
characteristics to both SYP and Jack Pines. While
is found around the humid southern regions of
manufacturing. Its growing region is situated
the species is primarily found across Europe
the United States, spanning from Texas through
primarily around the Great Lakes region. While
and Northern Asia, it has also been planted
the Florida Panhandle.
As such, this tree is
it is not as strong in bending as Douglas Fir or
and distributed within the New Zealand, and
ideal as a primary source for Southern and
SYP, its strength values align close enough to
the American East and Midwest29. Scots Pine is
Midwestern timber structures.
It consistently
consider No 1 and Select grades as acceptable
used heavily in both standard dimension lumber
reaches trunk diameters for producing 2x8 and
alternates. Mature trees reach 50’-80’ with a
and mass timber products. Likewise, it also has
larger dimension lumber, and shares similar
12” to 24” average trunk diameter . It shares
the potential to be harvested for Midwestern
strength and bending values to Douglas fir.
a similar visual weight with SYP, also bearing
timber use, although most of its presence in the
Aesthetically, SYP has very pronounced annual
very pronounced annual growth rings.
US currently is due to importation, not native
growth rings, which appear tinted a distinct
Pine is neutral to warm in color.
26
28
Jack
chain,
Scots
Pine
bears
similar
growing. Scots Pine has pronounced, straight,
yellow in color. Acceptable grades include No.
growth rings, and similar strength and bending
2, No. 1, and Select .
properties to Douglas Fir and SYP.
27
Fig. 10 Southern yellow pine grain sample
Fig. 11 Jack pine grain sample
Fig. 12 Scots pine grain sample
Mass Timber
21
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Solid Wood Assemblies Common Mass Timber Types Mass timber encompasses a large grouping of structural wood assemblies. While the nuances of each type listed below may be different, they all share three core features uniting them collectively as mass timber construction. 1 – Assemblage: All mass timber is derived from grouping several smaller boards together to achieve an assembled whole. This differentiates from its predecessor, heavy timber, which is reliant on a singular tree growing large enough to supply a beam or column. Furthermore, assembled masses allow for slab components, such as CLT, not possible from a singular tree. 2 – Machinability: Wood is malleable enough to be rapidly CNC profiled, producing custom, interlocking components.
This
feature allows for an incredibly tight tolerance of production, especially by building construction standards.
Mass timber’s
manufacturing process is also what inherently drives its economic customization30. 3 – Prefabrication: Mass timber is produced under factory settings, a radical shift from most every other building structural option except precast concrete.
Prefabrication offers a control over
the construction process not possible in the field. Furthermore, components can be manufactured in sequence to precisely align with construction timeline schedules31 Fig. 13 Glulam columns destined for the Microsoft headquarters aligned for final finishing, Structurlam British Columbia
Mass Timber
23
Solid Wood Assemblies CLT
NLT
DLT
Acronym for Cross Laminated Timber. Often
Acronym for Nail Laminated Timber. NLT is a
Acronym for Dowel Laminated Timber.
used interchangeably with the term mass
reinforced decking panel made from a parallel
is essentially the upgraded version of NLT.
timber, CLT refers to a specific type of
layup of lumber nailed together. One side is
Panels are laid up in a similar parallel fashion,
assembled timber slab.
Dimension lumber
often reinforced with plywood for diaphragm
using either friction fit or glue set dowels as a
layers, or lamellae, are glued up in odd layers
bracing . NLT is produced in factory settings ,
cross binder. Since DLT is not reliant on steel
at perpendicular orientations, forming a mat
but does not share the same machinability
nails, it can be cut and profiled like CLT. It does
slab similar to oversized plywood.
These
characteristics as CLT, do to it integral steel
not, however, use perpendicular laminations
perpendicular laminations give the panel its
fasteners. It is, however, significantly easier to
of lumber to produce a mat slab, and is not
strength,
produce, as it does not rely on precise pressing
effective in leveraging the cross-grain laminated
similar to a two-way reinforced concrete slab .
and adhesive technologies.
strength to wood35.
CLT
NLT
DLT
Cross Laminated Timber
Nail Laminated Timber
Dowel Laminated Timber
and
performance
characteristics 32
Fig. 14 Common assembly methods of mass timber Fig. 15 Physical samples of mass timber
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33
34
DLT
Glulam
PSL
LVL Beams.
Acronym for Laminated Veneer Lumber. LVL
glued up flitches, or shards of lumber, pressed
Glulam is the stick counterpart to CLT decking.
is comprised of small flitches of veneer glued
together under extreme pressure .
These
It consists of a glued assemblage of lumber in
into an assembly, just like plywood.
parallel strands are bound with an adhesive, and
parallel fashion; no dowels or nails used in the
the number of veneers pressed together, LVL
share a similar edge aesthetic to Oriented Strand
laminating process.
When No. 1 and Select
performs exceptionally well as a laminated
Board (OSB). PSL performs exceptionally well
grades are used, glulam has an exceptional
beam structural component, with an exceptional
as a structural beam, however lacks the high
surface quality, making it an excellent finish
surface finish. Its manufacturing process does
quality surface finish of comparable timber
material.
not lend itself to producing large mat slabs, or
products.
connection details just like CLT.
Acronym for Parallel Strand Lumber. 36
PSL is
It readily manufactures to stock
Abbreviation
for
Glue
Laminated
Glulam can be profiled for custom It functions
Due to
to a lesser extent, structural columns.
dimensions in a factory setting.
well in both beam and column form.
PSL
Glulam
LVL
Parallel Strand Lumber
Glue Laminated Timber
Laminated Veneer Lumber
Mass Timber
25
Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con.
Common species names Cedar—con. Port-Orford Western redcedar Yellow Douglas-fird Coast Interior West Interior North Interior South Fir Balsam California red Grand Noble Pacific silver Subalpine White Hemlock Eastern Mountain Western Larch, western Pine Eastern white Jack Loblolly Lodgepole Longleaf Pitch
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Static bending ComWork to Com- pression Modulus Modulus maxipression perpenof of mum Impact parallel dicular Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa)
Shear parallel to grain (kPa)
Tension perpen- Side dicular hardto grain ness (kPa) (N)
Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%
0.39 0.43 0.31 0.32 0.42 0.44
45,000 88,000 35,900 51,700 44,000 77,000
9,000 11,700 6,500 7,700 7,900 9,800
51 63 34 40 63 72
530 710 430 430 690 740
21,600 43,100 19,100 31,400 21,000 43,500
2,100 5,000 1,700 3,200 2,400 4,300
5,800 9,400 5,300 6,800 5,800 7,800
1,200 2,800 1,600 1,500 2,300 2,500
1,700 2,800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,600
Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%
0.45 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.45 0.48 0.43 0.46
53,000 85,000 53,000 87,000 51,000 90,000 47,000 82,000
10,800 13,400 10,400 12,600 9,700 12,300 8,000 10,300
52 68 50 73 56 72 55 62
660 790 660 810 560 660 380 510
26,100 49,900 26,700 51,200 23,900 47,600 21,400 43,000
2,600 5,500 2,900 5,200 2,500 5,300 2,300 5,100
6,200 7,800 6,500 8,900 6,600 9,700 6,600 10,400
2,100 2,300 2,000 2,400 2,300 2,700 1,700 2,300
2,200 3,200 2,300 2,900 1,900 2,700 1,600 2,300
Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%
0.33 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.35 0.37 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.43 0.31 0.32 0.37 0.39
38,000 63,000 40,000 72,400 40,000 61,400 43,000 74,000 44,000 75,800 34,000 59,000 41,000 68,000
8,600 10,000 8,100 10,300 8,600 10,800 9,500 11,900 9,800 12,100 7,200 8,900 8,000 10,300
32 35 44 61 39 52 41 61 41 64 — — 39 50
410 510 530 610 560 710 480 580 530 610 — — 560 510
18,100 36,400 19,000 37,600 20,300 36,500 20,800 42,100 21,600 44,200 15,900 33,500 20,000 40,000
1,300 2,800 2,300 4,200 1,900 3,400 1,900 3,600 1,500 3,100 1,300 2,700 1,900 3,700
4,600 6,500 5,300 7,200 5,100 6,200 5,500 7,200 5,200 8,400 4,800 7,400 5,200 7,600
1,200 1,200 2,600 2,700 1,700 1,700 1,600 1,500 1,700 — — — 2,100 2,100
1,300 1,800 1,600 2,200 1,600 2,200 1,300 1,800 1,400 1,900 1,200 1,600 1,500 2,100
Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%
0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.52
44,000 61,000 43,000 79,000 46,000 78,000 53,000 90,000
7,400 8,300 7,200 9,200 9,000 11,300 10,100 12,900
46 47 76 72 48 57 71 87
530 530 810 810 560 580 740 890
21,200 37,300 19,900 44,400 23,200 49,000 25,900 52,500
2,500 4,500 2,600 5,900 1,900 3,800 2,800 6,400
5,900 7,300 6,400 10,600 5,900 8,600 6,000 9,400
1,600 — 2,300 — 2,000 2,300 2,300 3,000
1,800 2,200 2,100 3,000 1,800 2,400 2,300 3,700
Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%
0.34 34,000 0.35 59,000 0.40 41,000 0.43 68,000 0.47 50,000 0.51 88,000 0.38 38,000 0.41 65,000 0.54 59,000 0.59 100,000 0.47 47,000 0.52 74,000
6,800 8,500 7,400 9,300 9,700 12,300 7,400 9,200 11,000 13,700 8,300 9,900
36 47 50 57 57 72 39 47 61 81 63 63
430 460 660 690 760 760 510 510 890 860 — —
16,800 33,100 20,300 39,000 24,200 49,200 18,000 37,000 29,800 58,400 20,300 41,000
1,500 3,000 2,100 4,000 2,700 5,400 1,700 4,200 3,300 6,600 2,500 5,600
4,700 6,200 5,200 8,100 5,900 9,600 4,700 6,100 7,200 10,400 5,900 9,400
1,700 2,100 2,500 2,900 1,800 3,200 1,500 2,000 2,300 3,200 — —
1,300 1,700 1,800 2,500 2,000 3,100 1,500 2,100 2,600 3,900 — —
Manufacturing Process Logging & Distribution Any mass timber component begins with the logging of raw lumber. Trees are sourced and cut down by logging companies, then sold in bulk to a sawmill, a standard process that has been in place for decades. Logging companies do not necessarily have ownership of a forest tract, but simply purchase rights to cut trees there. This model is particularly true with the Douglas Fir forests covering the Pacific Northwest and Canadian Rockies. Companies such as Weyerhaeuser sell logging rights to their forest holdings to independent contractors37 who harvest the trees. Raw logs are then sold to a sawmill for processing. The sawmill takes the logs and cuts them into rough timber sizes based on their diameter. The timber is then dried, usually by means of a kiln. Once the timber has reached a set moisture content, it is planed to final dimension, then graded based on visual and strength characteristics. The dimension lumber is then packaged and sold to distributors who retail it as a construction commodity38. Currently, the timber market treats harvesting of trees and dimensioning of lumber as completely separate entities. In a similar disjointed fashion, CLT manufacturing also has no direct relation with initial tree logging or dimensioning.39 Standard dimension lumber is purchased by a plant, with little to no difference than a contractor purchasing dimension lumber for light wood stud framing. The timber plant then planes and dries lumber again, in order to meet internal standards necessary for manufacturing. Fig. 16 Strength properties of commercially available North American pine species Fig. 17 End glued finger joint detail
Section Head
27
Manufacturing Process Finger Jointing All
timber
production
resizing
Based on these quality checks, the lumber
dimension lumber (usually 1x6 or 2x6) into
is assigned to a final group. No 1 and select
tightly toleranced stock known as lamellas.
grades are reserved for finish faces and glulam
Dimension lumber is then fed into a bulk finger
The lumber is moisture checked for an industry
products, while No 2 comprises the interior
jointing machine.
standard of 15%
cores in CLT panels. No 2 meets the strength
against a fence, and then a finger joint is cut
sent back to the kiln for another round of drying.
requirements
ALSC ,
into the end grain. Each board is lined up in
An operator also visually checks each piece of
however is less visually appealing than its higher
linear progression, with one finger joint glued
lumber against the grade it was assigned at
grade counterparts. The most economic panel
successively to the next, producing what
the sawmill. Any piece not meeting the quality
layup reserves select grades only for the finish
amounts to a continuous extrusion of wood.
standards for its grade is rejected.
faces, and in fills the core with less expensive
This is a critical step in the low waste factor of
40
begins
by
or less. Anything higher is
Fig. 18 Existing CLT supply chain and manufacturing sequence
Fabricated
TIMBER
established
by
the
41
lower grades.
The boards are justified
mass timber production. Since the boards are
As the wood is extruded off of the finger joint
necessary lamella blanks for glulam production.
glued end to end, the plant can cut the wood
line, it is simultaneously planed to its final cross
Therefore, one mass timber factory is able to
to whatever length is necessary for a glue up,
sectional dimension, then cut into lengths
produce both stick and plate timber elements,
regardless of the original length it arrived in
determined by the size of the final pressing. The
without the need of separate sizing equipment.
from the sawmill. With this same system, any
production line in modern CLT manufacturing
defects can also be removed from a board
is advanced enough to adjust cutting lengths
without the need to throw away the entire
on the fly. In this manner, one finger jointing
piece of wood. The defective length is cut out,
station can accommodate both the longitudinal
and the remaining lumber is finger jointed to
and transverse lamella sizes for a CLT glue up.
the running extrusion.
This process of manufacturing also produces the
Fig. 19 Finger jointing assembly line
Mass Timber
29
Manufacturing Process Billet Production Finger jointed and dimensioned lamella have a ‘shelf life’ of 24 hours42 maximum before they must be utilized in a glueup, either for glulam or CLT. Glulam is produced in a more traditional, or manual fashion. Lamellae are batch glued together by hand, then mechanically pressed together against a rigid steel frame. The pressed beam or column is then sent to finishing. Arced glulam can be produced using this method as well. CLT layup and pressing is, by contrast, a more automated process. A vacuum crane moves the first layer of a panel onto the press table. A CNC glue-bot quickly applies cold-set polyurethane based glue43 and the perpendicular layer of lamella is placed on top. This style of bonding
from the top, as well as the sides. Hydraulic
only applies glue to the faces of the lamellae,
pressing has become the industry standard,
not the edges. Edge gluing is possible, however
and has since almost completely replaced older
most manufactures do not offer this service,
methods of clamping, such as vacuum bagging.
as it drives up the price of a CLT panel by a
The panel is typically held under pressure for
significant margin. The entire glueup process
50-60 minutes45.
on average must take 20 minutes or less , or
are explicitly related to the exact glue being
the panel must be rejected.
used.
44
Work times are
specific to the types of adhesives being used.
Again, specific press times
As cold set bonding agents are most
common, the press does not need to maintain a fixed or heated temperature. The final pressed
The press table is loaded into a hydraulic
assembly is referred to as a billet, and is now
pressing station, which compacts the panel
ready for final profiling. Fig. 20 Nesting CLT parts for CNC machining Fig. 21 CLT billets stacked and awaiting final cutting
Fabricated
TIMBER
Manufacturing Process CNC Profiling A billet can, in a sense, be thought of as stock
off of the architect’s 3D model, with little to no
also handles the final shape and edge profile
plywood; the ‘raw material’ or input used
shop drawings produced in the interim. A 3D
of each panel, based on the layout established
to produce final CLT components.
Just as
modeled component is translated directly into
in a master model.
plywood must be site manipulated to produce
a 3D finished building element. To date this
from rabbets, dadoes, slots, and even friction fit
the final building, timber billets must be
makes mass timber the single most qualified
joints can easily be machined to extremely tight
trimmed, profiled, and finished to produce a
building material for a designer to directly
tolerances.
usable component for a building structure. It is
influence the manufacturing process.
(nominal 1/8”) tolerance reaching a precision
this process that the designer or architect has
Any number of features,
Average values range at a 2mm
level as low as 0.1mm46. Again, CNC profiling
the most direct influence on, as this is where
The vast majority of mass timber construction
is the executable moment for an architectural
the final building is manifested via downstream
uses steel plates and hardware for component
intent, with the possibilities of what can be
digital fabrication techniques.
connection, so proper interface and detailing
machined ranging quite far. If planned out in
departure from typical light wood construction,
between the materials is critical.
Necessary
advance, even recesses for building equipment,
all timber components are finished in a factory-
steel plate junctions may be fabricated by
such as electrical junction boxes, can be pre-
controlled setting, and ultimately ‘assembled’
outside shops, but as a quality check are always
milled into a panel component47.
on site, requiring no field modification.
test fitted against the timber to ensure ease of
process that allows for efficient and quick field
site assembly. In certain instances, connection
assembly, as no on site modification is required
Depending on the size of the manufacturer,
hardware may even be pre-installed at the
to properly fit a building component into the
billets may either be CNC profiled in house,
factory, with a give column or beam shipped
final structure assembly.
or shipped out to another company for final
to site as one complete assembly. This type
cutting.
Either way, panels and beams are
of connection strategy is predicated on the,
typically processed on a 5 axis CNC. Industry
precision, repeatability, and accuracy only CNC
standard has come to use a Hundegger PBA
machining can offer. Proper design strategies
profiling machine. Specifically designed for
can leverage CNC tooling to optimize this steel
large format timber panels and columns, the
to wood interface.
In a radical
It is this
Hundegger is constructed with a permanently mounted gang saw, chain bar, and disk cutter,
Typical CNC profiling operations include slotting
as well as an interchangeable tool spindle.
details for knife plates, as well as bored holes
Programming for these CNC’s is based directly
for fasteners and pin connectors. CNC cutting Fig. 22 In line quality check for glue PSI strength where samples are stretched in tension to the point of breaking
Mass Timber
31
Fabricated
TIMBER
Manufacturing Process
Field Installation
Quality Control
Finishing and Shipping
Mass timber is subject to stringent quality
Mass timber goes through a number of finishing
control standards, on pace with other high
types, dependent on what profile was glued.
technology
CLT is typically drum sanded on its finish faces
manufactured
products.
As
mentioned previously, each board is moisture
as part of its profile process.
48
checked, at up to 1000 points over its surface
may be finish planed or drum sanded, again
and rejected if over 15%.
Operators and
as a part of CNC profiling. As one final quality
computers confirm the grade each raw board
control check, each component receives a last
was assigned at the sawmill.
light mechanical sanding. Any imperfections or
Glulam beams
defects are filled, and a scratch coat of sealer is Within production, there are in-line checks
applied. This sealer protects the wood during
performed at each stage of gluing .
exposed site assembly.
49
Two
times an hour, a sample is removed from the finger jointing line and checked for adhesive
Each component is packaged for protection
strength . Each sample is stretched in tension
during shipping and tagged with an individual
until breaking to ensure the glue meets a
code. Due to the efficient nature of production,
minimum PSI rating. Similar in line checks are
components are manufactured in sequence
performed for CLT gluing and pressing. This,
with field assembly, so there is little to jobsite
along with strict standards on adhesive work
storage.
times and press times ensure quality panels are
from the way conventional steel and precast
consistently delivered. Any piece of timber not
concrete structures are erected.
meeting time or strength standards is rejected,
number coding applied at the factory pinpoints
and production adjusted accordingly.
the exact location of each structural member.
50
Fig. 23 CNC profiling a CLT panel, Hundegger PBA 5 axis
Fig. 24 Packaging and labeling timber for site shipment Label indicates absolute position of column within building assembly
Again, this is a fairly radical shift The letter
It is then craned directly off the truck into its final position.
Once the building envelope is
completed, the wood receives one final sand and sealing, to serve at once as a structure and finish material within a piece of architecture.
33
Section Endnotes Document Reference 21. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 70. 22. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 103-108. 23. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71. 24. Cormac O’Carroll and Antti Koskinen, Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Engineered Wood Products Mill, report, New England Forestry Foundation (Poyry Management Consulting, 2017). 64-79. 25. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71. 26. American Softwood Lumber Standards, report no. PS 20-10, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2010), 34. 27. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71. 28. “Jack Pine,” The Wood Database, https://www.wood-database.com/jack-pine/, (September 10, 2018). 29. “Scots Pine,” The Wood Database, https://www.wood-database.com/scots-pine/, (September 10, 2018). 30. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867-868. 31. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 26. 32. Ibid, 13, 15-17. 33. Ibid, 18. 34. StructureCraft Builders, Timber Engineering & Construction, https://structurecraft.com/, (March 02, 2019) 35. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 18-19. 36. Ibid, 15. 37. Kathy McAuley, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon, 2012 Analyst Meeting, report, Weyerhaeuser (2012), 15-19. 38. Ibid, 20-23. 39. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867. 40. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 77-79. 41. Ibid, 77. 42. Stephen Tolnai, Nicholas Sills, and Kris Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” interview by author, October 24, 2018. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid. 45. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 79. 46. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 22. 47. Ibid, 52-56, 142-145. 48. Ibid. 49. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 64. 50. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018.
Mass Timber
35
03 Creating A System Vertical Integration Forest Management The Production Shift Section Endnotes
Vertical Integration Unified Manufacturing Practices Uniting material sourcing, to design, through
Boeing, in partnership with Rolls Royce, is
downstream
fabrication, and final assembly is not a new
able to roll a Trent turbofan jet engine off the
a high volume of manufactured product,
argument.
In fact, far reaching as 100 years
production line every 36 hours ; seemingly the
all
ago, Henry Ford looked to uniting several
same amount of time it takes to sync a Revit
quality and tolerance results.
processes together to produce the Model T.
model to the cloud. It is time for architecture
timber is a logical forerunner for the AEC
Quite literally, this united front to manufacturing
and construction to seize the robust body of
industry to envision a vertically integrated
was a vertically stacked building, combining
knowledge surrounding other industries, and
building assembly, due to its parallels to other
parts storage, assembly line production, and
apply it to the built environment.
manufacturer’s
even showrooms.
53
while
digital
fabrication
maintaining
CAM
to
extremely
and
achieve stringent
Naturally, mass
CNC
processes.
Against this backdrop, the current status of
What resulted was the
industrialization of the automobile, the ability
Todd Beyreuther acknowledges this fact in
mass timber output is examined and analyzed,
to efficiently and accurately take a novel design
his writings on Next Generation Timber. “The
with an effort to critically suggest a more
idea and execute it in a repeatable production
architecture, engineering, and construction
seamless mode of operation.
format. This integrated delivery mechanism is
industries are not keeping pace with the
what today is referred to as vertical integration .
optimization,
51
quality
control,
and
mass
customization processes of other product As Refabricating Architecture explicitly points
assembly
out,
construction,
shipbuilding and aerospace – non-building
every other manufacturing driven industry
industries that have leveraged the exponential
has successfully leveraged high technology
growth
to decrease fabrication time, cost, waste
fabrications technologies. The [real] challenge
generation, all for the relentless pursuit of
[is] to graduate wood building design and
increased quality within a product .
construction
with
the
exception
of
52
The
resultant is evident in most every industry from
industries
in
digital
from
such
design,
as
automotive,
analysis,
site-customization
and
to
prefabricated mass-customization .” 54
aviation, to auto transportation, to even the speed at which industrial design products are
In an effort to illustrate this, what follows
prototyped, then brought to market. Tesla has
are several vignettes of industries reliant on
reimagined the factory to produce the Model
integrated product delivery.
S, almost entirely automated by 6 axis robots.
case, these industries are heavily nested in
Fabricated
TIMBER
As is often the
Fig. 25 Model T Fords advancing along a production assembly line
Section Head
39
Vertical Integration Tesla Tesla takes a revolutionary automated approach
Tiny components for the model S begin as
automotive fashion is reliant on these small
to Henry Ford’s original vision of the assembly
die stampings from a progressive press.
Die
components to be manufactured by outside
line. Production of the Model S is approached
stamping is a process that forms parts out
parties, Tesla brings this foundational step
as a completely in-house, integrated process.
of sheet material by pressing, or stamping,
in house55, with the intent of streamlining a
Each module is taken from raw materials through
it against a series of punches.
production line to the exact design needs of
manufacturing and fabrication of numerous
aluminum are imported into the factory, and
sub-components.
The components are then
then cut on a shear to a standard blank size. The
brought together for final assemblage, again
blanks are then robotically fed through various
In a separate zone of the factory, the lithium ion
as an in-house process, to produce a finished
dies and punched to produce everything from
battery cell and motor power train assembly are
Model S shipped directly to the customer.
cable clamps to door hardware. While typical
manufactured. Due to the fundamentally simple
Fig. 26 Tesla integrated manufacturing process, Model S electric car
Fabricated
TIMBER
Raw rolls of
their product.
nature of an electric drive train, Tesla is also
Tesla handles all of its frame welding and body
product present in the automotive industry. By
able to construct these components internally .
riveting internally as well, processed by a state
controlling each step of manufacturing, Tesla
Comprised of hundreds of specialized parts,
of the art 6 axis robotic assembly line.
Sub
can uphold the strictest standards of quality57.
combustion engines, by contrast, are extremely
components of each model S are assembled in
Each Model S is then directly shipped to the
complex, and thus more difficult to integrate
the same factory during chassis marriage. Final
customer, eliminating markup and dealership
into a vertical model.
Furthermore, these
paint and testing are performed immediately
transit.
engines are reliant on several specialized casting
following. This process of manufacturing was
and machining processes, while electric motor
developed directly around a working prototype
assemblies can be produced in an elegantly
of the Model S, and thus represents one of
simplistic manner.
the most direct translations of prototype to
56
Creating A System
41
Vertical Integration Boeing The manufacturing, fabrication, and assembly
assemblages
layers58,
ensures that each major sub component of a
of any modern wide body jet is a mammoth
ground and finished to meet exact quality,
Trent jet engine is upheld to the strictest quality
undertaking, and of course necessitates the
durability, and balancing standards. Other cast
standards, and is produced in record time.
curation of several sub assemblies. One of the
components such as the core compression
Final module assembly, wiring, and testing
most complex, the jet turbofan, is still produced
blades are continually tweaked to achieve
are all processed by Rolls Royce, shipping an
in a seamlessly vertical model, as a partnership
better thermal and economic performance,
assembled jet engine off the factory floor every
between Boeing and Rolls Royce.
based on a continuous feedback loop
with
36 hours60. Boeing imports finished engines to
initial design, research, and engineering teams.
their assembly plant outside Seattle, dependent
of
inflated
titanium
59
Each jet engine begins as a series of highly
on Rolls Royce’s controlled and integrated
specialized metal castings, directly informed by
Rolls Royce manages all aspects of component
manufacturing methods to meet their own
the research and development of Rolls Royce’s
assembly from parts distribution to machining
delivery deadlines for new aircraft.
own material development team. Components
and welding within a tightly correlated series
like the primary turbofan blades are proprietary
of factories across Darby, England. Doing so
Fig. 27 Rolls Royce component manufacturing of Trent turbofan jet engines, in partnership with Boeing aerospace
Fabricated
TIMBER
Fig. 28 Detail of fanblade assembly
Creating A System
43
Vertical Integration Katerra Within
the
spheres
of
architecture
and
component manufacturing, both standard and
Katerra has built up a robust number of
construction, this model of vertical integration
custom.
partnerships
has slowly been applied to building components,
into a cohesive entity , they are able to optimize
manufacturers
although not explicitly CLT. Katerra is a multi
a service aligned with a product, and deliver a
integrated project delivery. While their model
disciplinary
and
turn-key building to a client in a more efficient
may not directly manufacture each component
manufacturing firm that focuses on the creation
way than ever thought possible. This method
used in building, Katerra offers a one stop
of a building as a truly singular operation,
of delivery has proven effective in numerous
shop to a potential client for every aspect of
design through project closeout.
other product disciplines, but is rarely applied
project delivery required, from supply chain, to
to construction.
design, to general contracting. This shift allows
architecture,
construction,
Katerra’s
model of operation focuses on direct control of the material supply chain to influence building
Fig. 29 Katerra supply chain logistics and integrated building delivery
Fabricated
TIMBER
By aggregating multiple disciplines 61
with
material
suppliers
to
support
their
goal
and of
for a design construction feedback loop on a
standard basis, not typically found within most
model, Katerra has begun construction on
project delivery models of the AEC industry.
their own mass timber facility; timber being the most parallel structural component to their
Admittedly Katerra is attempting to consolidate
stated goals of one stop project completion62.
the whole of a building process into one
As such, their proposed mode of operation is
entity, which has proved to be an enormous
still valid towards an integrated mass timber
undertaking. By comparison, CLT delivery and
market, particularly as one of the only AEC
manufacturing is focused on one component of
companies to challenge how buildings are
construction. However, as part of their efforts
actually translated from design to reality.
to retool the design + bid + build delivery
Fig. 30 Katerra HQ, Seattle, showcasing CLT and glulam manufactured in house
Creating A System
45
Vertical Integration AEC Industries A cohesive model of braided design and seamless production is still sorely lacking in the AEC industry. Tom Peters notes that “the American light timber frame is a fully industrialized, pre fabricated system.
Studs, plywood, particleboard, nails, and connectors
are all manufactured in standard lengths and sizes, but in such an elementary way that precise tolerances are irrelevant and quality controls superfluous63.” Yet this “industrialized” system has not kept pace the technologies available today, and has become stagnant and proliferated to the point of unoriginality. The problem is by nature multi-faceted, with changes occurring within the construction industry at slow, incremental intervals. Architecture, in turn, has become inherently specialized and distant from the components and construction practices that actually execute design64.
Discussions around new materials
must remain at the forefront for building design to remain in time with industry practice. Within all the options for major structural components of a building, mass timber is uniquely qualified to entertain a vertically integrated material to market strategy. The current approach to CLT manufacturing suggests this, making significant strides towards
aligning
downstream
digital
manufacturing
with
custom structure components. A retooled view of a completely integrated mass timber infrastructure has the ability to radically shift the production building components to parallel the hyper efficient vertical output of the aviation and automotive industries. Mass timber rollout is dependent on such a model of thinking to transition from a material novelty into a firmly accepted building structural component. Fig. 31 Hand inspecting and finishing glulam beams for site delivery, Structurlam British Columbia
Fabricated
TIMBER
Section Head
47
Forest Management Maintaining The Supply Chain Outlining a new infrastructure for mass timber
real advantage in this lens, as it sequesters, not
for use in mass timber products, to avoid the
operates on a given assumption that the
produces, carbon from the onset.
global transit networks that currently plague the steel markets68. Identifying a viable regional
material will continue to rapidly expand in use. The numerous benefits of such a material ought
Most
vertical
source is critical to not only sustain a central
to solidify such a proposition. Ultimately, the
integration, is what Organschi refers to as
manufacturing plant, but also avoid negating
infrastructure of mass timber is only as good
regenerative supply chains. Wood harvesting,
the carbon benefits of timber by shipping the
as its source supply. If the tree resources are
particularly softwood dimension lumber is
material extraordinary distances.
exhausted, then so will any chance of mass
usually accomplished through forest clear-
timber edging out its own niche in construction.
cutting.
This is typically perceived as a
Organschi examines a 1500 acre patch of Black
Proper forest management is critical to maintain
negative practice. However, by comparison to
Spruce, subdivided into 45 parcels to mirror a
the cycle of trees necessary to sustain mass
extraction based mineral materials like bricks,
45 year growth cycle. Each 33 acre parcel can
timber construction.
steel, and concrete, wood has significantly
support up to 23.9 acres of constructed timber
nature could stand as a full discussion in its own
less
cutting
development69. By managing which parcels are
right, it is a necessary area to touch on as part
is a surface practice, involving no heavy
clear-cut on a yearly basis, and continuously
of creating a system for timber delivery.
excavation or mining . Furthermore, wood is
maintaining a 25% reserve of trees, Timber
fundamentally regenerative, with a typically
City demonstrates that a moderate size of tree
Alan Organschi, principal at Gray Organschi
growth maturity rate of 60-80 years. While this
acreage can continuously sustain development
Architecture, has researched extensively into
may seem like a slow turn around time, many
for a city as large as New Haven, CT70.
this topic as a cornerstone of his practice.
of the material classes typically associated with
concept is absolutely critical to the infrastructure
Focused primarily on the sustainable benefits
construction have hundreds to thousands of
of timber manufacturing. If CLT production is
of timber, and curating the supply chain of
year regeneration rates .
to account for widely adopted use, the current
While a subject of this
important
to
environmental
this
idea
impact.
of
Clear
66
67
This
Douglas Fir and Southern Yellow Pine forest
construction to support this, Organschi asserts that designers must take a wider pass at what is
Timber City is a speculative look at forest
resources can be properly maintained to supply
considered a sustainable construction material.
management, and maintaining a continuous
a near infinite number of timber buildings, all
Simply frontloading carbon emissions at the
loop of mature trees to supply the demands
without disrupting current harvesting practices.
onset of a building’s lifecycle
of an active mass timber market.
65
is not enough
One of
to challenge the carbon transect on which
the first major benchmarks it establishes is
construction is measured. Mass timber offers a
identifying native tree species acceptable
Fabricated
TIMBER
Fig. 32 Regenerative forest supply chain, and proper resource management, Gray Organschi Architects, Timber City
Creating A System
49
Fabricated
TIMBER
The Production Shift Current Industry Practice The North American timber industry is for
(Penticton, BC)
, is at the leading edge of
with plenty of new territory for rapid growth.
all purposes, still in its infancy.
Modern
timber manufacturing, as not only the largest
Given the success of such industries as Boeing
timber usage has only recently emerged as
producer of mass timber in North America,
and Tesla, it is the ultimate intention of this
an
but also the ability to coordinate and machine
thesis to posit that mass timber be considered
comparison to over a century of construction
custom
as a cohesive construction system, not simply
in steel and reinforced concrete . Many of the
house . Their American counterpart Smartlam
a building material.
necessary components of a vertical supply
(Columbia Falls, MT) is also working towards
the manufacturing of mass timber as turn key
chain are still disjointed. Forestry management
this integrated delivery, but currently operates
‘product’ rather than an off the shelf commodity
is left to the discretion of individual logging
at a smaller scale of production .
to be factory produced is absolutely essential to
industrially
manufactured
product,
by
71
72
architectural
components
all
in
73
74
An operation that treats
the material’s expanded use. Logging, lumber
companies, or corporations like Weyerhaeuser Mass
More often than not, smaller timber producers
milling,
timber manufacturers must import standard
treat pressing and profiling as separate entities,
manufacturing, fabrication, and field assembly,
dimension lumber for processing, no different
with operations concentrated only on one
when consolidated into one entity, offers a
than a lumber wholesaler might do. Even within
half of the process.
symbiotic product loop that can inform material
production, pressing and profiling of CLT panels
Johnson
may be treated as completely separate entities.
for CNC profiling, and are reliant on partnerships
retool the way building delivery77 is thought of.
This fractured state, however, does not have to
with fabrication specialists like Cut My Timber
Mass timber is the integral component to lead
be a permanent fixture. Rather, an opportunity
(Portland, OR) for final machining of parts .
the charge.
exists to radically shift how buildings are
Even the integrated construction frontrunner
constructed, designed, and delivered.
Katerra, is for all purposes still just an infancy
that own large tracts of logging land.
75
Companies such as DR
(Portland, OR) have limited capacity
76
startup.
manufacturing plant is still under construction
and finishing may be processed in house,
(Spokane, WA), and many of their ideas on
or handled by outside companies.
how the AEC industry ought to approach
North America, there is still only a relatively
engineering,
and design decisions.
prototyping,
AEC industries must
At just 3 years old, their timber
Depending on the manufacturer, CNC profiling Within
design,
construction are still on the drawing board.
small contingency of CLT manufacturers who treat panel pressing, cutting, finishing, and
Suffice to say, the North American timber
packaging as one cohesive entity. Structurlam
landscape is still a small contingency of pioneers,
Fig. 33 Structurlam production facilities expansion, south plant, Pentiction BC
Creating A System
51
The Production Shift Vertically Integrating Timber Few
parallels
and aviation.
exist
between
architecture
far beyond the Pacific Northwest corridor into
panels, the opportunities to participate in the
CLT production is perhaps the
the Midwest and Eastern Bloc cities of North
fully integrated design of CLT panels are limited.
America.
The CLT product in its current evolution does
closest link, yet mass timber still suffers from a fragmented infrastructure.
No different
not fully embrace the exponential growth and
than Tesla or Boeing, the next logical step of
Todd Beyreuther, as part of his study of Next
technological advances in parametric design,
production is to consolidate all of its entities into
Generation Timber with Washington State
analysis, simulation, and collaboration expertise
a singular delivery model: forest to building. It
University states this best. “[The] CLT processes
prevalent in practice and the academy78.”
is this mode of operation that will allow for the
of prefabrication, modular construction, and
continued rapid expansion of the material within
digital fabrication are attractive to designers and
A complete turn key model of output must
structural systems. Ultimately, this method of
engineers. While market side AECO partners
encompass all aspects of the supply chain, from
vertical timber integration will generate use
have access to ‘design with’ proprietary CLT
material gathering to final installation. Specific
Fig. 34 Idealized CLT manufacturing sequence, integrating logging, rough sawing, and dimensioning with final gluing and pressing stages
Fabricated
TIMBER
to CLT, this means examining the source of
lumber. This means shipments arriving at the
lumber can be rough sawn, then economically
the tree itself, and how to sustainably manage
factory have to be re-planed, re-dried, and
shipped
forests as a “Regenerative Supply Chain �. The
inspected to ensure that the lumber received
Therefore, a singular manufacturer can kiln dry
ultimate point still stands that CLT deserves to
matches its assigned grade. Long before CLT
and plane the raw material only once, to their
be considered as a cohesive system, with the
production has even begun, there are already
exact specifications, in a similar manner to how
source material not treated as a commodity
redundancies of process in place, beyond the
Tesla brings componentry stamping under
purchased from third parties.
control of the manufacturer.
its controlled wing. Beyond the obvious time
79
to
a
central
processing
plant.
savings, adding even just 0.125� to each layer Consider the earliest stages of timber harvesting.
By contrast, a vertically integrated approach
of lamella results in a stronger overall panel
Currently mass timber manufacturers are reliant
to timber manufacturing begins at the source.
per lamination, with significant waste savings
on independent sawmills to size and dry their
Through in house or partnership sawmills, raw
as well. Rather than turning more of the raw
Creating A System
53
lumber into chips via multi stage planing, the
view, even the panel pressing size can become
saved material goes straight into the finished
a design variable. Neither the billet size input,
panel, beam, or column.
nor the toolpath output are fixed, which means a panel pressing can be tuned to match a design
During processing, the raw lamellae can be easily
module with little to no waste.
manipulated for use within a variety of mass timber products, especially when the design
Equally
of a structural system has been established up
assembly of any given structural system. CLT
front. Not only can the lamellae be cut to exact
has a highly specific way of site installation.
length based on specifications for a particular
Current manufacturing practices are still reliant
building, but physical prototypes of a given
on outside contracting parties to accomplish
structure can also be produced, all by a singular
actual rigging and bolting of each timber
entity. This type of continuous feedback loop
member.
is only possible with the designers, engineers,
of the construction company, usually at stages
plant managers, and fabrication specialists
long before manufacturing has even begun. In
sitting at the same table from day one; a
fact, this education component is so lacking that
feature of which vertically integrated models of
contractors may flag a timber project in favor of
delivery excel.
steel simply for a perceived ease of execution82.
80
important
is
curating
final
field
This involves significant education
A construction body melded with the overall Just as engineers can micro tune the performance
manufacturing facility is a potent remedy
of a structure to building characteristics, so
to this.
can a designer micro tune a process of making
time factor of timber, from panel pressing, to
to achieve a desired aesthetic . This is most
fabrication, shipping, and direct installation
evident in the ability of a designer to affect
onto the building can be expertly controlled an
CNC output results, and is certainly catalyzed
nuanced in a vertical model.
81
by an integrated system. Given this cohesive Fig. 35 An early adoption of CLT in North America, Earth Sciences Building, University of British Columbia, Perkins + Will
Fabricated
TIMBER
Furthermore, the tightly sequenced
The Production Shift A Designed Commodity The architectural design intent of timber is
grammar”84 in his work on synthesizing design
without the need for a massive project budget
ultimately manifested through CNC profiling of
and digital fabrication.
Without architecture
or scale. This is a paradigm shift considering
each component. Yet, for how much front-end
tied to the vertical integration of this material,
most structural layouts of midrise buildings are
design must take place, the actual execution
it may one day run the risk of being treated as
accepted as standard assemblages of stock
of this design is not carried out until just a few
mundanely as plywood and stud construction
components86.
stages before site delivery. Furthermore, while
is viewed now.
in its manufacturing, where neither the input
the architect is responsible for conceptual design
Mass timber is highly unique
(i.e. billet size) nor the output (what is actually
of the overall timber structure, it is ultimately
Braiding
the manufacturing facility that provides final
production of CLT offers several distinct
lead in all phases of an integrated model to
detailing of each timber component , thus
advantages.
CNC machining operates on a
capitalize on this feature. Such a proposition, in
removing the architect from a more nuanced
distinct set of ‘rules.’ That is to say, there are
turn, requires that the designer have an intimate
control of the process of making. Without direct
certain component layouts that are optimized
understanding of how the material is produced
involvement of the architect, the capacity to
for subtractive manufacturing, while other
in the first place. There in lies the true necessity
fabricate custom componentry stands to leave
layouts prove extremely difficult to cut.
of vertical integration.
a CNC an unleveraged design tool.
designer who understands these constraints
83
the
designer
directly
into
the
A
machined) is fixed.
The designer must take
cannot only mitigate troubling components to If timber production is considered as an
produce, but maximize the capabilities of a CNC
integrated system of delivery, the designer
by leveraging ‘rules’ to execute design intent.
must be directly melded to the process
Further opportunities can even arise for design
of manufacturing and fabrication, just as
to directly influence the raw manufactured
many of the aforementioned exemplar high-
elements, such as optimizing billet sizes to
technology industries have also done. As the
match structural bays of a building.
market for CLT grows, so will its likelihood of it producing industrialization and standardization
The idea of architects interfacing with building
components.
Design is essential to maintain
trades to achieve customized results is not a
autonomy of mass timber as a customizable
new one85. For the first time, via mass timber,
building component.
Lawrence Sass refers
design can directly influence exactly what major
to this concept as using “manufacturing as
structural components look and perform like, Fig. 36 Complex CLT joinery detail
Creating A System
55
Section Endnotes Document Reference 51. Todd Beyreuther, “Forest to Building” (lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 22, 2016), accessed October 12, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zeFsvvoYxRU. 52. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 69-71. 53. Paul King, director, How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, BBC, Documentary, July 4, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ufd5nDeEK8&t=1854s, (November 6, 2018). 54. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867. 55. Megafactories: Tesla Model S, National Geographic, March 23, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KA18tusTgE4, (November 15, 2018). 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid. 58. How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, (November 6, 2018). 59. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 65, 79-83. 60. King, How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, (November 6, 2018). 61. “Vision,” Katerra, , accessed March 10, 2019, https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/the-vision.html. 62. “Factories,” Katerra, , accessed March 10, 2019, https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/our-factories.html. 63. Peters, “An American Culture of Construction,” 152. 64. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 31. 65. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018). 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid. 71. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 4-5. 72. “The Structurlam Process,” Structurlam, https://www.structurlam.com/about/the-structurlam-advantage/, (March 04, 2019). 73. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018. 74. “Manufacturing Process of CLT,” Smartlam, http://www.smartlam.com/about/manufacturing-process-of-clt/. (March 04, 2019) 75. “Wood Innovations & CLT,” DR Johnson, https://oregonclt.com/about/, (Jan 09, 2019). 76. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018). 77. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 160. 78. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 868. 79. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018). 80. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 13. 81. Ibid, 39-43. 82. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018. 83. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 27-31. 84. Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” 303. 85. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 13-15. 86. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 131-135.
Creating A System
57
04 Speculation Sphere of Influence Mechanics of the Factory Drawing Conclusions Section Endnotes
Sphere of Influence Timber & The Midwest It is precisely this discussion of a cohesive delivery system that necessitates so much emphasis be placed on the manufacturing plant itself. The factory is the physical manifestation of a theoretical system of product delivery. Furthermore, it is a given that there is a direct correlation between the location of a CLT manufacturing facility, and the likelihood that a given construction project will be manufactured out of mass timber. One of the largest reasons densely populated cities like Chicago or New York have not seen any significant mass timber structures is frankly the fact that the Midwest and East Coast of the US are CLT deserts. A Midwestern manufacturing node today seems speculative at best. However, as North American timber usage continues to expand eastward, future sites for expansion will necessitate looking to locations that balance proximity to resource with proximity to population densities87. With cities like Portland, ME considering the impact
of
timber
manufacturing
on
their
economy , Midwestern sites like Cincinnati 88
become more logical choices for CLT delivery in a network system of production. Bridging the gap between the active manufacturing plants of the Pacific Northwest and forest reserves of the east is the ultimate necessity to realize mass timber as a widely used building commodity across North America.
Fabricated
TIMBER
Fig. 37 North American softwood timber resources and proximities to manufacturing facilities
Fig. 38 All active timber production within North America, including glulam, CLT as well as all other engineered wood products
Speculation
61
Sphere of Influence Cincinnati As A Hub While the current trends suggest the location
Boston also become viable markets for timber
of a CLT manufacturing facility value proximity
construction, especially when their distance is
to raw resources above all else
considered out of reach by existing western
, there are
89 90
several advantages gained when other factors
factories.
are weighed as equally important. Again, while manufacturing timber within the Midwest is
Transit plays a crucial role in the success of
a speculation into the future, a globalized
timber production. Outside Chicago, Cincinnati
adoption of CLT necessitates looking outside
plays host to one of the largest rail hubs, not
the normal channels of current plant trends.
only in the Midwest, but all of America91. This
Old industrialized cities such as Cincinnati are
is attributed to Cincinnati’s 600 mi central
poised to play host to such a facility.
proximity to 62% of US manufacturing and retail92.
On the resource front alone, Cincinnati sits
Midwest city like Cincinnati could play host
at a centralized location between the North
to a successful timber manufacturing plant
American Southern Yellow Pine and Spruce Fir
due to its transit distribution network. Just as
forest reserves. As a counterpoint, the city is
important, the city is nested at the convergence
also equidistant from such populations centers
of interstates 71, 75, and 74 allowing for equally
as Chicago, Washington DC, and Atlanta.
efficient component distribution via truck.
Reaching further, cities such as New York and Fig. 39 Infrastructure Cincinnati OH
and
transit
corridor
mapping,
Fig. 40 US rail network and inter-city connections
Fabricated
TIMBER
It follows in the same logic that a
Boston Detroit
Chicago
Cleveland Salt Lake City New York Pittsburgh Denver
CINCINNATI
Kansas City St Louis
Atlanta
Speculation
63
Fabricated
TIMBER
Finally, Cincinnati’s land and climate suggest yet more reasons for a successful timber manufacturing facility.
In terms of development, the city hosts a
considerably lower cost of land than most, particularly in old industrialized areas. The Midwest’s climate is suitable for growing Jack Pine, an alternate mass timber tree species that can feed the supply chain beyond SYP and Spruce Fir. Furthermore, Ohio and Indiana’s abundance of farmland creates the distinct potential for locally farmed second-generation tree resources, just as Organschi’s regenerative supply chain93 suggests. Thomas Robinson, in his lecture “Forest to Frame” references the coming success of Oregon’s timber industry due to the states “good ingredients94.” He cites land use practice within Portland, and the city’s proximity to Douglas Fir as primers, in an analogy comparing CLT production to the ideas behind the farm to table movement in the culinary world. If considered cohesively, Cincinnati offers many of these same “ingredients” to actively support a high volume, successful mass timber factory. Fig. 41 Infrastructure and transit corridor mapping (closeup) indicating potential site locations, Cincinnati OH
Section Head
65
Fabricated
TIMBER
Sphere of Influence Icon of Production An urban siting necessitates a critical look
manufacturing operations. If a manufacturing
at the often accepted mundane warehouse
facility is to act as an emblem of production,
architecture of manufacturing.
Prefabricated
it not only needs to function efficiently, but
steel truss boxes fill the need of a freespan floor
architecturally manifest an ideal use of the
plan, but inspire no interest about the activities
product produced within. An urban siting of
that occur within. A streamlined mass timber
a manufacturing facility brings exposure and
facility has the ability to influence the use of
education to an AEC industry not trained in
timber on surrounding projects, not only by
the detailing and construction of mass timber,
hyper efficient production methods, but also by
while showcasing the potential of a structure
showcasing a non-traditional use of the material
commonly thought only possible in steel.
at the center of the public’s eye. The idea of a factory serving as an icon of manufacturing or product is also by no means a new architectural concept. As early as 1900, the ideas behind the Deustecher Workbund expressed a philosophy of all-encompassing design, where everything from the physical architecture to the company letterhead was a manifestation of the product produced95. Modern precedents such as the Ricola Factory, designed by Herzog & DeMeuron96 or the Fiat Factory, designed by Renzo Piano97 show just how far reaching this idea has become. It is no stretch, therefore to consider that a CLT plant be held to the same architectural standard, especially in light of the proposed parallels between Tesla, Boeing, and other high-minded Fig. 42 (left) AEG factory, Deustecher Workbund, Peter Berhens Fig. 43 Timber lamella airplane hanger, Pier Luigi Nevari Fig. 44 Ricola production and storage facility, Herzog & DeMeuron
Speculation
67
Mechanics of the Factory Site Analysis The logistics of manufacturing timber product necessitate a large freespan floor plan, and by extension a flat, open site of a minimum of 8-10 acres. Consistently graded land within the urban core of Cincinnati de-facto limits potential site choices to locations in the Mill Valley, such as Lower Price Hill or Camp Washington. Mass timber is manufactured by an on demand basis, whereby products are only produced once an order is placed98. These components are closely sequenced to match the construction schedule of a building, meaning little to no storage of completed parts on the factory floor. Therefore, efficient access to transit corridors is critical, as rail and truck become the conduit between production and field assembly.
Urban sites within any city
can present access challenges for oversized transit vehicles. Cincinnati’s tangle of highway interchanges and overpasses are no exception to this, further narrowing potential site selection. Given the above factors, a final site proposal in Lower Price Hill south of the 8th Street Viaduct (Figure 45) was selected as viable to support a high volume timber manufacturing facility. Nested in the city’s Mill Valley, Lower Price Hill has a rich history of manufacturing and industry, along with the necessary flat grading to support a large freespan building footprint.
This location
provides both critical access to Cincinnati’s main rail hub, as well as straight line access for 53’ flatbed trucks to efficiently reach interstate transit corridors. These transit nodes become a natural datum around which to organize the building parti. Fig. 45 Final site selection, Lower Price Hill, Cincinnati OH. Proposed site is situated south of the 8th Street Viaduct, and includes new rail sidings as well as a one way spur off of State Route 50
Fabricated
TIMBER
Fig. 46 Previous site consideration, Lower Price Hill, north of the 8th Street Viaduct Fig. 47 Previous site consideration, Camp Washington Fig. 48 Previous site consideration, St Bernard Fig. 49 Comparable site analysis, Structurlam timber manufacturing, British Columbia
Speculation
69
Mechanics of the Factory Program Requirements Based on surveys of comparable CLT manufacturing facilities like Structurlam, Smartlam, and Blumer Lehmann, preliminary square footage requirements were developed to size a Midwest production facility that similarly matches the timber output and production capacity of these existing facilities. This survey suggests a minimum lot size of 8-10 acres. Square footage requirements for major manufacturing machines were assessed, with an excess requirement placed on circulation percentage due to the size of timber componentry being moved around.
Fig. 50 Structurlam infrastructure and site analysis, Penticton BC Fig. 51 Estimated program requirements, based on comparable timber factories
Fabricated
TIMBER
Mechanics of the Factory Parti CLT manufacturing is ideally organized as a
be rotated perpendicular to the manufacturing
of material movement be implemented to
linear process, whereby raw material enters
or transit lines.
efficiently connect one stage of production
the building, is planed, processed, pressed,
to the next.
Matching linear transit to linear
fabricated, and sized, exiting the building as
A discussion of equipment used in CLT and
manufacturing suggests a locale for another
a finished component . A key organizational
glulam manufacturing, is referenced in the
critical primary factory element: an overhead
strategy necessitates that transit corridors are
02 Mass Timber production section of this
gantry crane100.
run parallel to material processing, so that at no
document. Pressing and machining equipment
responsible for material input and output at
point does the processed material ever have to
is stationary, therefore necessitating a system
either end of the factory, secondary systems
99
While rail and truck are
must be in place along the manufacturing line for material movement within. Combined with secondary gantry cranes, rail turntables, and tertiary forklift movements, a comprehensive system of material handling is formed in support of manufacturing equipment. The factory floor and machinery are therefore organized around three primary elements: two new rail sidings, a new one way spur road off of State Route 50, as well as the primary gantry crane. The integral nature of manufacturing and transit suggests a clear strategy to physically route these new transit lines directly into the building, for the most efficient material loading and unloading possible.
Combined, these
factors create strategy for form fitting a freespan shell over the interior program elements. The architecture of the factory becomes a literal translation of the operations contained within. Fig. 52 Disney Ice Rink freespan glulam shell, Anaheim CA, Frank Gehry Partners
Speculation
71
1 N O C TI SE Fabricated
TIMBER
Mechanics of the Factory A Designed Shell Enclosure The culmination of a factory at the crossroads
that houses the process of manufacturing must
of design and production serves as a physical
become a reflection of what is possible in such
manifestation of how timber manufacturing
a material.
It becomes the responsibility of
Any facility housing heavy industry generally
can shape the built environment. If a vertically
the architecture of the factory to showcase
requires a large open floorplan, with a freespan
integrated system of delivery is truly a superior
new potentials with mass timber, and project
columnless enclosure above.
approach to timber architecture, the building
the fabrication processes housed within to the
no exception.
exterior envelope.
Mass timber is
These enclosures, however,
Fig. 53 Proposed factory floor plan integrating transit and machine on a parallel datum, timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH
North
Speculation
73
Fig. 54 Exterior perspective view of timber shell enclosure, mass timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH
Fabricated
TIMBER
are typically treated as nameless steel boxes,
where activities such as lifting and transit are
doors at each sectioned end of the shell. These
using steel trusses to accomplish the necessary
nested underneath the highest point in the
hanger doors provide the necessary access
spans.
By contrast, a timber factory meant
shell. Aesthetically, the shell morphs around a
for entry and exit of transit vehicles, without
to serve as an icon to the material ought to
primary piece of lifting equipment, and visually
disrupting the sweeping form of the shell above.
construct the enclosure from the very material it
delineates a key element of manufacturing. Proceeding with a generative strategy such as
produces. While longspan timber structures are uncommon, there is still precedent showcasing
The geometry of the shell undulates to follow
the one detailed above allows for the creation
just how far glulam and CLT are capable of
the site cues of the existing rail and road, subtly
of an enclosing freeform shell that is still feasibly
spanning.
Frank Gehry’s work on the Disney
lifting off of the ground plane to create a natural
constructed using stick frame elements.
Ice Rink spans an impressive 116’ using glulam
entry sequence. This lofted form is sectioned
custom nature of each component capitalizes
bents . Markus Schietsch Architects, along with
every 10’, creating a bay dimension that matches
on one of the major strengths of downstream
Metsä Wood developed and constructed a 260’
the width of standard manufactured CLT panels.
digital prefabrication, as elements can be
freespan
Each section element drives geometry for a
precisely milled in a factory setting, and correctly
for the Zurich Zoo’s new elephant house . By
singular, unique, glulam bent.
Defined from
sequenced for efficient jobsite assembly. Due
extension, it is not unreasonable to suggest a
two straight lines drawn tangent to a constant
to the method of production, a complex shape
freespan timber enclosure over a manufacturing
arc, the freeform shell is ultimately divided into
is efficiently articulated without a significant
facility with similar spanning needs.
elements that can be easily constructed from
cost spike.
stick frame elements.
functional needs of a high volume mass timber
101
102
CLT wood shell as the centerpiece 103
Architecturally, the crane and transit plan Each glulam member spans an average of 270’,
organize a building envelope around. The gantry
with a tapered depth ranging from 7’ to 3’-6”.
crane necessitates a constant height across the
Since the underlying geometry is composed
entire shell, in contrast to the base condition
of straight-line sections, the resultant shape
that morphs to follow the site contours. The
is ideal for CLT decking, nesting a flat sheet
crane datum marks the high point along the
material to effectively clad a freeform shape104.
compound shell, creating a straight-line spine
The envelope enclosure strategy is completed
within a freeform shape.
by an ETFE membrane running along the spine
this
supports
an
organizational
strategy
The overall envelope meets the
facility, while showcasing a unique use of the
elements generate a clear datum from which to
Programmatically
The
material, not typically seen otherwise.
of the crane datum, along with large hanger
Speculation
75
Fig. 55 Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell CLT rib and envelope studies, Zurich, MSA Architects Fig. 56 CLT panel lift and installation, Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell Fig. 57 Interior perspective, Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell
Fabricated
TIMBER
Speculation
77
Drawing Conclusions Timber and the AEC Industry It is time the use of mass timber be considered
manufacturing and fabricating such a material,
paradigm shift mass timber stands to bring to
as a forest to building commodity, a turn-
in order to fully leverage its capabilities. When
architecture.
key material architects interface with.
CLT is approached with a vertical model
This
proposition is inherently multi-faceted, spanning
of
engineers,
While further detailing and design iteration will
from economic, construction, manufacturing,
manufacturers, fabricators, and contractors
occur past the completion of this document,
and design practices.
If the emerging North
can all act in unison to transform the material
what is presented under the 04 - Mechanics
American market of mass timber is to rapidly
into an efficient, highly toleranced, elegant
of the Factory section is meant to suggest
expand, its use must stem from an infrastructure
structural product that mirrors the production
a driving architectural design intent for a
of delivery.
Such a system allows for widely
model of almost every other industry outside of
Midwestern CLT factory.
customized use of the material, especially
the AEC circle. There in lies the real substance
designed manufacturing plant are driven by the
at mid-rise scales.
downstream digital manufacturing brings to
functionality it necessitates. Each sub component
buildings and construction.
is modular, allowing for easy shipment from an
Architects must align
themselves with the embedded processes of
Fabricated
TIMBER
production,
both
architects,
That is the true
The aesthetics of a
existing mass timber facility to a proposed site
the
way
building
structural
components
While solid wood architecture is the first viable
in Cincinnati. While the individual components
are procured, both from a materiality and
construction medium by which to achieve such a
themselves are unique, fastening and assembly
manufacturing standpoint.
If architecture is
delivery model, the principles apply beyond any
strategies are kept constant, allowing for
to keep pace with the manner in which almost
singular material. By progressively anticipating
efficient programming and machining of each
every other designed object is output into
the forthcoming way design and industry
component.
Architectural intent drives a
the world, a paradigm shift must be adopted,
will interface, the infrastructure necessary to
building that stands as an icon within an urban
wherein prefabrication is viewed as equal parts
support such a change can currently be set in
context, which functionally, efficiently, centrally,
to a design and a manufacturing tool. Interfacing
motion.
aesthetically, and technically houses a process
with industry must no longer be conveyed by
of manufacturing and fabricating timber.
means of static shop drawings, but an integrated project team invested in leveraging the full
Mass timber sits at the precipice of changing
Fig. 58 Transverse section showcasing custom glulam ribs and transit trench, timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH
potential of downstream digital fabrication.
Speculation
79
Architecture of the Factory Piloting the Paradigm Shift With functionality alone left to be the determining force of an industrial enclosure, the resultant form would be nothing more than a nameless warehouse box. The degradation of factories over the late 20th century is a manifestation of jettisoning aesthetics and architectural design in favor of pure efficiency. Functional architecture serves it occupants, but with no attention to space, place, or environment. This logic holds true regardless of the material chosen. A functional timber box is still nothing more than a box once the novelty of the material has worn away. By curating a refined timber enclosure a new material pushes the boundaries of what is expected. The architecture of the factory physically manifests the embedded processes of its making, while simultaneously sculpting an enclosure around functional production equipment. Over one hundred years ago, the Galerie Des Machines laid the foundation for what was possible with cast iron. Eight years ago, Tesla revamped a derelict warehouse box to create the world’s first gigafactory, a pristine gallery like enclosure in which to display a fleet of 6 axis production equipment. The architecture of the timber factory is curated in this same spirit. Envision the future where the machinery and processes of timber production, fabrication, and prototyping, are not hidden behind a shroud of mystery tucked away in a remote forest, but held on a pedestal for the public to gaze upon. The methods and deliveries of construction are changing, and this new landscape needs not accept the industrial buildings of the past.
This paradigm shift
starts at the intersection of architecture and industry, the factory. Fig. 59 Galerie Des Machines, demolished 1910, Ferdinand Dutert architect Fig. 60 Timber shell enclosure, an architecture aligned with the new practices of industry
Fabricated
TIMBER
Speculation
81
Section Endnotes Document Reference 87. O’Carroll and Koskinen, Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Engineered Wood Products Mill, 72, 76-77. 88. Ibid, 64-79. 89. “Structurlam Location,” map, Google Maps, accessed September 08, 2018. 90. “Smartlam Location,” map, Google Maps, accessed March 05, 2019. 91. Ohio’s Intermodal Rail Terminals, report (Columbus, OH: Ohio Rail Development Commission), 1-7. 92. Ibid, 1. 93. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018). 94. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018). 95. William J. R. Curtis, Modern Architecture Since 1900 (London: Phaidon Press, 2013), 99-103. 96. “Ricola Production and Storage Building,” Herzog & DeMeuron, https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/complete-works/076-100/094-ricola-europe-productionand-storage-building/image.html, (March 10, 2019). 97. “Lingotto Factory Conversion,” Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 1http://www.rpbw.com/project/lingotto-factory-conversion, (March 10, 2019). 98. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 24. 99. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 68-75. 100. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018. 101. “Disney ICE: The Warmth of Wood Heats Up an Anaheim Ice Rink,” editorial, APA - The Engineered Wood Association, March 2002, , accessed February 16, 2019, https://www. apawood.org/publication-search?q=W120&tid=1. 102. Emily Hooper, “Kaeng Krachan Elephant Park Shell,” Architect Magazine: , October 27, 2015, accessed March 6, 2019, https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/detail/ kaeng-krachan-elephant-park-shell_o. 103. Philipp Heidmann, “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark” (lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017). 104. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 119.
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05 References Common Terms Section Endnotes Common Acronyms List of Figures List of References
Common Terms Document Reference Axis In reference to CNC machining, the degrees of freedom a machine has to move in. 3 axis refers to a machine spindle bound to the X, Y, and Z Cartesian coordinate system. 4 axis allows for a static angled placement of the spindle. 5 axis allows the computer to control this angle on the fly, at a normal to the traditional 3 directions of movement.
Billet Untrimmed, pressed and glued panel of CLT
Digital Fabrication The process of taking a computerized 3D model of an object and outputting it via technology driven manufacturing processes. These processes can be either additive (as in 3D printing) or subtractive (as in CNC milling). This part is prepared for output and manufacturing via machine specific CAM softwares.
Dimension Lumber Sections of less than 6� in thickness planed to standardized sections. Denoted as 1x, 2x, 4x, etc., names refer to nominal sizes. Actual sizes always smaller than nominal sizes.
Downstream In reference to Digital Fabrication. By virtue of how digital fabrication is approached, a ‘downstream’ process is established where the 3D modeled part is translated directly from machine to reality. No interstitial shop drawings are necessary. Through a series of file manipulations and software, a virtual modeled component is directly read and produced by a digital fabrication process.
Glulam Encompassing term for assembled beams and columns. Small pieces of dimension lumber are glued together, with the grain always running parallel, to produce larger cross sections. This is a more economically viable solution to heavy timber, as the final component does not need to be sourced from one old growth tree.
Grading The process categorizing lumber based on its visual, strength, and quality characteristics.
Grain Longitudinal arrangement of wood fibers , and the resulting surface pattern from how timber is sawn from a log.
Fabricated
TIMBER
Heavy Timber Category of timber construction distinct from mass timber. Heavy timber refers to singular sawed sections of timber 6” and greater in both directions. Mass timber, by comparison, is always comprised of smaller glued sections to create a final, larger assembly.
Mass Timber Large encompassing term referring to all types of glued and manufactured timber products. CLT, Glulam beams / columns, PSL, and LVL components are all subsets within the mass timber category.
Massive Timber Synonym, refer to Mass Timber
Solid Wood Synonym, refer to Mass Timber
Subtractive Manufacturing In reference to CNC profiling, the process of digitally driven manufacturing which removes excess portions of a stock material blank to produce a finished part .
Timber Rough sawn logs from which dimension lumber is made
Tolerance The degree of accuracy to which a physical part is manufactured in relation to its driving digital model.
Section Endnotes Document Reference 105. Heavy Timber Construction, report, American Forest & Paper Association, vol. 5, Wood Construction Data (Washington DC: American Wood Council, 2003), 1-2. 106. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 403. 107. Heavy Timber Construction, report, American Forest & Paper Association, 1-2. 108. Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” 299-300.
References
87
Common Acronyms Document Reference AEC
-
Architect, Engineer, Contractor, the core parties responsible for any given building construction project
AECO
-
Architect, Engineer, Contractor, Owner, refer to AEC
ALSC
-
American Lumber Standards Committee
APA
-
Original acronym for the American Plywood Association, now known as the Engineered Wood Association; the regulating body of
engineered timber products in the United States and Canada.
ASTM
-
American Society for Testing and Materials
CAM
-
Computer Aided Manufacturing, in reference to software used to program cutting paths executed on a CNC mill
CLT
-
Abbreviation for Cross Laminated Timber. CLT is a panel component made up of planed dimension lumber. The lumber is glued up
in perpendicular layers, similar to how plywood is made. This cross grain orientation gives the panel its strength.
CNC
-
Computer Numerically Controlled, in reference to machines run off of G-Code based programming
DLT
-
Dowel Laminated Timber
Glulam -
Shortened abbreviation for Glue Laminated (most typically beams and columns)
LVL
-
Laminated Veneer Lumber; thin veneer layers laminated together to form structural beams.
NIST
-
National Institute of Standards and Technology
NLT
-
Nail Laminated Timber
OSB
-
Oriented Strand Board; sheet material made of pressed wood chips
PSL
-
Parallel Strand Lumber; long chips of lumber pressed and laminated together, in similar fashion to OSB, to form structural beams
R&D
-
Research and Development
SPIB
-
Southern Pine Inspection Bureau
SYP
-
Southern Yellow Pine
Fabricated
TIMBER
References
89
List of Figures Document Reference Fig 1
Individual Glulam Bents 9 Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
Fig 2
Kaeng Krachen Freespan Timber Dome
10
Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digitial Image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.
Fig 3
Timber Product Mapping 12
Mixed Species Beam Pocket Detail
Timber Factory Shell Enclosure
13
15
Douglas Fir 20
Douglas Fir 20 “Douglas Fir Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ douglas-fir/.
Fig 8
Softwood Tree Species 20 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 9
Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
“Douglas Fir Annual Growth Rings.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. http://www.emporiolumber. com/index.php/douglas-fir/.
Fig 7
“Scots Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ scots-pine/.
Fig 14 Solid Wood Assemblies 24
Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
Fig 6
“Jack Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ jack-pine/.
Fig 13 Glulam Column Production 22
Ban, Shigehru, and Bluhmer Lehmann. “Tamedia HQ Timber Beam Detail.” Digital image. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// www.archdaily.com/478633/tamedia-office-building-shigeruban-architects.
Fig 5
Jack Pine 21
Fig 12 Scots Pine 21
Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Timber City. Digital image. Gray Organschi Architecture. 2016.
Fig 4
Fig 11
Spruce Fir 20 “Spruce Fir Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ white-fir/.
Fig 15 Solid Wood Assemblies 24 “Solid Wood Assembly Types.” Digital image. Ideas Buildings. Accessed March 12, 2019. http://blog.perkinswill.com/masstimber-a-primer-and-top-5/.
Fig 16 Pine Lumber Grades 26 Green, David, Jerrold Winandy, and David Kretcshemann. Mechanical Properties of Wood. Digital image. Forest Products Laboratory. 1999.
Fig 17 Finger Joint Detail 27 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Fig 18 CLT Production Methods 28 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.
Fig 19 Finger Jointing Assembly Line
29
Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Fig 10 Southern Yellow Pine 21 “Southern Yellow Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wooddatabase.com/longleaf-pine/.
Fabricated
TIMBER
Fig 20 Nesting CLT Panels 30
Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Overview/Working-at-Katerra-EI_IE1403924.11,18.htm.
Fig 21 CLT Billets 30 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Fig 22 Glue Strength Testing 31 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Fig 23 CNC Profiling Timber 32 CNC Panel Processing Center: PBA. Digital Image. Hans Hundegger AG.
Fig 24 Packaging Finished Timber 33 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
47
Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.
Fig 32 Timber City Regenerative Supply Chains
49
Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Timber City. Digital image. Gray Organschi Architecture. 2016.
Fig 33 Structurlam Factory Floor 50 Photograph by author. Corporation.
2018.
Structurlam Mass Timber
Fig 34 Idealized CLT Production Methods
52
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.
Fig 35 Earth Sciences Building 54
Fig 25 Model T Assembly Line 39 “Model T Assembly Production Line.” Digital image. MT Hobson Group. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://mthobsonproperties. co.nz/housing-efficiency/modle-t/.
Fig 26 Tesla Model S Production
Fig 31 Hand Finishing Glulam Beams
Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. British Columbia.
2018.
University of
Fig 36 CLT Joinery Detail 55 40
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.
Fig 27 Boeing Jet Production 42 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.
Fig 28 Fanblade Assembly Detail 43 “Turbofan Blade Assembly Detail.” Digital image. American Security News. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// americansecuritynews.com/stories/511050839-aei-analyzesiran-s-newly-unveiled-jet-engine-manufacturing-capability.
Fig 29 Katerra Integrated Delivery 44 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.
CNC Panel Processing CenterPBA. Digital Image. Hans Hundegger AG.
Fig 37 North Amer ican Forest Reserves
60
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019. Based on Weherhaeuser forest analytics. McAuley, Kathy, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon. 2012 Analyst Meeting. Report. Weyerhaeuser. 2012.
Fig 38 North American Timber Production
61
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019. Based on Poyry Wood Supply Assessments. O’Carroll, Cormac, and Antti Koskinen. Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Wood Products Mill. Report. New England Forestry Foundation. Poyry Management Consulting, 2017.
Fig 39 Cincinnati Infrastructure Mapping
62
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 30 Katerra Manufactured Timber 45 “Katerra New Head Office Facilities.” Digital image. Glassdoor. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.glassdoor.com/
References
91
List of Figures Document Reference Fig 40 US Rail Network Mapping
63
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 41 Cincinnati Infrastructure Mapping (closeup)
64
Fig 42 AEG Factory 66 Behrens, Peter. “AEG Turbine Factory.” Digital image. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&e src=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwifybqtPbgAhXrrIMKHX0iA2YQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=https://www. pinterest.com/n/139541288432923935/&psig=AOvVaw329PFF TleomeLPirvS4BNk&ust=1552267403023976.
67
Fig 54 Timber Factory Shell Enclosure
74
Fig 55 Kaeng Krachan Envelope Studies
76
Markus Schietsch Architects. “Kaeng Krachen Elephant Enclosure.” Digital image. Walt Galmarini. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.waltgalmarini.ch/en/portfolio/elephantenclosure-zoo-zuerich/.
Fig 56 CLT Panel Installation 77
Fig 45 Final Site Selection 68 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 46 Cincinnati Site Analysis 69 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 47 Cincinnati Site Analysis 69 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digital image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.
Fig 57 Kaeng Krachan Freespan Timber Dome
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
77
Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digital image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.
Fig 58 Factory Floor Transverse Section
Fig 48 Cincinnati Site Analysis 61
78
Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
Fig 59 Galerie Des Machines 80 61
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 50 Structurlam Transit Network 70
TIMBER
72
Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
Herzog & DeMeuron. “Ricola Production and Storage Facility.” Digital image. Herzog & Demeuron. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/completeworks/076-100/094-ricola-europe-production-and-storagebuilding/image.html.
Fabricated
Gehry, Frank. “Anaheim Disney Timber Ice Rink.” Digital image. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.google.com/l?sa=i&rct=j&q =&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj 5jsr6pfjgAhXk5IMKHbRdC9oQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=https://www. yelp.com/biz_photos/the-rinks-anaheim-ice-anaheim?select=_ mHVjHdxrxL5__kUz8BkjA&psig=AOvVaw2gytSr67-CFJ76QDZv Vsga&ust=1552332124225726.
Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
Fig 44 Ricola Production Facility 67
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 52 Disney Ice Rink 71
Fig 53 Timber Factory Floor Plan
Nevari, Pier Luigi. “Orvieto Hangers.” Digital image. Structurae. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://structurae.net/structures/ orvieto-hangars.
Fig 49 Comparative Site Assessment, Structurlam
70
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.
Fig 43 Timber Lamella Airplane Hanger
Fig 51 Speculative Program Requirements
Dutert, Ferdinand. “Galerie Des Machines.” Digital image. Atlas of Places. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://atlasofplaces.com/ filter/Architecture/Galerie-des-Machines-Ferdinand-Dutert.
Fig 60 Timber Factory Shell Enclosure Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.
73
References
93
List of References Document Works Cited American Softwood Lumber Standards. Report no. PS 20-10. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2010. Beyreuther, Todd. Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels. In Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions, 866-72. Washington DC: ASCA Press, 2014. Beyreuther, Todd. “Forest to Building.” Lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 22, 2016. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=zeFsvvoYxRU. Curtis, William J. R. Modern Architecture Since 1900. London: Phaidon Press, 2013. “Disney ICE: The Warmth of Wood Heats Up an Anaheim Ice Rink.” Editorial. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, March 2002. Accessed February 16, 2019. https://www.apawood.org/publication-search?q=W120&tid=1. “Factories.” Katerra. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/our-factories.html. Grasser, Karl Konstantin. Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America. Master’s thesis, University of Tennessee, 2015. Heavy Timber Construction. Report. American Forest & Paper Association. Vol. 5. Wood Construction Data. Washington DC: American Wood Council, 2003. Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017. Hooper, Emily. “Kaeng Krachan Elephant Park Shell.” Architect Magazine. October 27, 2015. Accessed March 6, 2019. https://www.architectmagazine. com/technology/detail/kaeng-krachan-elephant-park-shell_o. “Jack Pine.” The Wood Database. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.wood-database.com/jack-pine/. Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber. Pointe-Claire, QC: FPInnovations, 2013. Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. Refabricating Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. King, Paul, dir. How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine. BBC. July 4, 2010. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ufd5nDeEK8&t=1854s. “Lingotto Factory Conversion.” Renzo Piano Building Workshop. Accessed March 10, 2019. http://www.rpbw.com/project/lingotto-factory-conversion. “Manufacturing Process of CLT.” Smartlam. Accessed March 04, 2019. http://www.smartlam.com/about/manufacturing-process-of-clt/. Mayo, Joseph. Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, Technology, and Design. London: Routledge, 2015.
Fabricated
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McAuley, Kathy, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon. 2012 Analyst Meeting. Report. Weyerhaeuser. 2012. Megafactories: Tesla Model S. National Geographic. March 23, 2017. Accessed November 15, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KA18tusTgE4. Tolnai, Stephen, Nicholas Sills, and Kris Spickler. “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations.” Interview by author. October 24, 2018. O’Carroll, Cormac, and Antti Koskinen. Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Wood Products Mill. Report. New England Forestry Foundation. Poyry Management Consulting, 2017. Ohio’s Intermodal Rail Terminals. Report. Columbus, OH: Ohio Rail Development Commission. Organschi, Alan. “Re-forming The Anthropocene.” Lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Art, Architecture, and Planning, Cincinnati. February 21, 2018. Accessed March 12, 2018. https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181. Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Gray Organschi Architecture. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://grayorganschi.com/. Peters, Tom F. “An American Culture of Construction.” In Perspecta, 142-161. Vol. 25. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989. “Ricola Production and Storage Building.” Herzog & DeMeuron. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/ complete-works/076-100/094-ricola-europe-production-and-storage-building/image.html. Robinson, Thomas. “Firm & Process.” LEVER. Accessed September 21, 2018. http://www.leverarchitecture.com/. Robinson, Thomas. “LEVER Keynote Address.” Lecture, Society of American Foresters: Hagenstein Event, Washington DC. November 1, 2017. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aHeqe_6HS_8. Robinson, Thomas. “Forest to Frame.” Lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 24, 2016. Accessed November 11, 2018. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU. Sass, Lawrence. “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication.” Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006. Automation in Construction Volume 16 (2007): 298-310. “Scots Pine.” The Wood Database. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.wood-database.com/scots-pine/. “Smartlam Location.” Map. Google Maps. Accessed March 05, 2019. https://www.google.com/maps/place/SmartLam/@48.3756051,-114.1922425,17z/ data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x53664175b816e3a1:0x7c0844c9f3a13817!8m2!3d48.3756051!4d-114.1900538. StructureCraft Builders - Timber Engineering & Construction. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://structurecraft.com/.
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List of References Document Works Cited “Structurlam Location.” Map. Google Maps. Accessed September 8, 2018. https://www.google.com/maps?client=safari&rls=en&q=structurlam&oe=U TF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjApJavy-zgAhWOct8KHQDpCpMQ_AUIDygC. Stuart, John A., and Mabel Wilson. Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions: 102nd ACSA Annual Meeting. Washington, DC: ACSA Press, 2014. “The Structurlam Process.” Structurlam. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.structurlam.com/about/the-structurlam-advantage/. “Vision.” Katerra. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/the-vision.html. “Wood Finder.” The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/wood-finder/. “Wood Innovations & CLT.” DR Johnson. Accessed January 09, 2019. https://oregonclt.com/about/.
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References
97