Fabricated Timber + Vertical Integration of Solid Wood

Fabricated

TIMBER

Vertical Integration of Solid Wood + The Architecture of Manufacturing

Copyright © 2019 Matthew Miller

Recommended Chicago citation:

All rights reserved. Published electronically by the Graduate School at the University of Cincinnati. No part of this thesis may be physically or electronically reprinted or reproduced, distributed or utilized in any form, without proper attribution to the author.

Miller, Matthew “Fabricated Timber: Vertical Integration of Solid Wood + The Architecture of Manufacturing” Master’s Thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2019.

Fabricated

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Acknowledgments It Takes a Village Foremost, I would like to thank my first chair, Vincent Sansalone, without whom this endeavor would have been possible. Your support, guidance, and critique have been immeasurably valuable in the formation of an architectural idea.

An equal thank you to my second chair, Tom Bible, for fielding numerous questions about timber architecture, and the potential it holds.

To the network of fabricators, makers, architects, and timber experts I have had the privilege to speak with these past several months: Todd Beyreuther, Terry Boling, Steve Doehler, Nick Germann, Whitney Hamaker, Hank Hildebrandt, Joseph Mayo, Kris Spickler, Nicholas Sills, Erin Taylor, and Stephen Tolnai, among others, thank you for grounding this research.

Lastly, to the whole team at Structurlam, thank you for opening your doors to an architecture student half a world away. What an incredible opportunity to see firsthand the production of cross laminated timber.

Matthew Miller University of Cincinnati Master of Architecture, class 2019

Acknowledgements

3

01 Scope of Investigation

02 Mass Timber

Abstract 9

Establishing A Source 20

Integrating Architecture + Industry

Introduction 11 Designed Not Specified Materials

An Avant Garde Material 12 Advantages of Mass Timber

Section Endnotes 17 Document Reference

Common Tree Species Douglas Fir Spruce Fir Southern Yellow Pine Jack Pine Scots Pine

Solid Wood Assemblies 24 Common Mass Timber Types CLT NLT DLT PSL Glulam LVL

Manufacturing Process 27 Logging & Distribution Finger Jointing Billet Production CNC Profiling Quality Control

Field Installation 33 Finishing & Shipping

Section Endnotes 35 Document Reference

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03 Creating A System

05 References

Vertical Integration 38

Common Terms 86

Unified Manufacturing Practices Tesla Boeing Katerra AEC Industries

Forest Management 48 Maintaining the Supply Chain

The Production Shift 51 Current Industry Practice Vertically Integrating Timber A Designed Commodity

Document Reference

Section Endnotes 87 Document Reference

Common Acronyms 88 Document Reference

List of Figures 90 Document Reference

List of References 94 Document Works Cited

Section Endnotes 57 Document Reference

04 Speculation Sphere of Influence 60 Timber & The Midwest Cincinnati As A Hub Icon of Production

Mechanics of the Factory 68 Site Analysis Program Requirements Parti A Designed Shell Enclosure

Drawing Conclusions 78 Timber and The AEC Industry

Architecture of The Factory 80 Piloting the Paradigm Shift

Section Endnotes 83 Document Reference

Scope of Investigation

5

01 Scope of Investigation Abstract Introduction An Avant-Garde Answer Section Endnotes

Abstract Integrating Architecture + Industry Mass timber, specifically cross laminated timber, is one of the largest paradigm shifts seen to building structural systems since the industrial revolution and yet it has rarely surfaced as a topic of architectural discourse. By nature of how mass timber is produced, via downstream digital fabrication outputs, its best architectural treatment is explicitly tied to an understanding of how the material is manufactured in the first place. Effective design with timber is not just choosing from a kit of parts, but levering a knowledge of CNC fabrication to produce structural members and thoughtful joint details that support architectural intent. Therefore, this thesis deliberately explores the role of a manufacturing plant within timber production, and how architecture directly interfaces with heavy industry. Emphasis is placed on the role of the factory as a center for outputting mass timber components, while analyzing and critiquing current manufacturing and fabrication practices.

As the central linkage between architecture and industry, the factory offers an ideal congruence to showcase mass timber design against its hyper efficient manufacturing environment. The potential for a Midwestern CLT plant is explored through macro and micro site analysis, with the intention of proposing Cincinnati as a potential hub for future timber expansion. Such a proposition offers a chance to expand on the ideas of a vertically integrated system of delivery, and the consequences and opportunities it proposes for architects.

Mass timber construction is poised to become one of the next great paradigm shifts in contemporary commercial construction. Its furthered research is invaluable to a larger architectural discourse, both from a sustainable and material-centered vantage point. The robust body of work assembled by this thesis serves to further advance the discussion around timber, focus the material research toward a designed architectural intent, and promote its growing popularity as a sustainable alternate to steel and concrete structural systems.

Fig. 1 Individual glulam bents derived from a lofted shell enclosure, timber factory proposal, Cincinnati.

Scope of Investigation

9

Fabricated

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Introduction Designed Not Specified Materials The current status of building design and

the architect take a lead role to maximize the

secondary processing mills and then shipped

construction is reliant on components that

capabilities of the fabrication process. It is this

for final cutting and assembly (customization)

are, more often than not, specified, rather than

nuanced idea of interfacing that will be the

on the construction site3.”

designed1. This shift is not necessarily a change

primary subject of this thesis.

Mass timber poses a fundamental paradigm

in the pedagogy of architecture, but rather driven from the way building components are

Mass timber, with particular emphasis on

shift to both architecture, and commonly

produced and obtained. As Thomas Robinson,

CLT, is a prime material candidate for such

accepted construction methods.

founder of LEVER Architects states: “[in order

an investigation.

Cross Laminated Timber’s

new technology or method of fabrication

to] explore making, materiality, and experience,

best architectural uses are explicitly tied to an

introduced into the AEC industries, change

we [must] challenge conventional methods of

understanding of its manufacturing process.

occurs slowly and incrementally. Tom Peters

fabrication, use materials in unexpected ways,

Mass timber components, therefore, are not

notes that “architecture is firmly rooted in its

and pursue construction that benefits the

simply just choosing from a kit of parts, but

own theory and technology4” in his essay on

environment and regional economies2.”

leveraging a body of knowledge on CNC

the American Culture of Construction. Yet high

manufacturing to produce building elements

technological advances are at best piecemeal

Architects are left to confront the question, how

that support architectural intent.

applied to design efforts, forcing architects to

does our industry interface with manufacturing

of

are

complacently deal with construction methods

and fabrication to output streamlined building

examined throughout this document as a salient

that are sorely lagging behind other industries5.

components?

model for how such a material can also benefit

Mass timber posits such a design option to

from vertically integrated processing.

challenge this current state of affairs. It must,

Equally as important, what

material(s) exists that allows for such an

downstream

digital

Parallels

manufacturing

Just as any

however, be considered a forest to building

integrated, vertical production model? Interface is important to note as distinct from interact,

As Todd Beyreuther shrewdly points out from

commodity, a turn key material for architects to

collaborate, or specify. To accept Robinson’s

his research with Washington State University,

interface with. By investigating and expanding

proposition that making and materiality must

“The way most wood buildings are designed

a system of delivery, timber architecture can

“challenge conventional methods of fabrication”

and built looks very similar to 50 and perhaps

transition from a discussion of what is possible

is to accept an underlying assumption that

100 years ago.

to an accepted construction strategy readily

building components do not simply have to

wood building components (sawn lumber,

be an off the shelf commodity.

Removing

engineered lumber, plywood or strand board

this constraint, therefore, necessitates that

panels, etc.) are mass produced at primary and

Predominantly, standardized

accessible to designers across North America.

Fig. 2 Continuous freespan CLT dome under construction, Kaeng Krachen Elephant House, MSA Architects, Zurich Zoo

Scope of Investigation

11

An Avant-Garde Answer Advantages of Mass Timber Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, compiled

by Joseph Mayo, takes an in depth look at some of the most influential mass timber projects within current building practice.

As a common theme running through each project, Mayo points out that despite its relatively recent adoption, CLT is poised to challenge the use of concrete and steel in commercial construction, particularly at the mid-rise density6. While concrete, steel and mass timber all rely on fixed industrial processes for production, only CLT has the ability to provide a fully customizable structural system within its standard framework of manufacturing.

This

fact becomes exceedingly well demonstrated by the catalog of architecture covered in Solid Wood.

By contrast, concrete and steel are both too entrenched in their respective processes to allow for much degree of customization at an economical cost point. In light of an architectural discourse, CLT offers architects an unprecedented ability to depart from standardized forms of heavy framing7, pairing exposed structural expression with a nuanced relationship with design intent. Mass timber’s benefits are far from limited to its mode of manufacturing and ability to customize. While this thread runs central to this thesis, it is noteworthy to point out many of the other benefits timber architecture offers.

Perhaps CLT’s greatest assets is what it offers to the modern crisis of climate change. Mass timber inherently sequesters carbon from the atmosphere. This subject has been extensively researched by architects such as Alan Organschi, and is further touched on Fig. 3 Timber product mapping, Gray Organschi Archtiects, Timber City Fig. 4 Mixed species oval timber beam pocket developed by Blumer Lehamann, Tamedia HQ, Shigeru Ban Architects

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Section Head

13

in the 03 – Forest Management section of this

resistance; timber can be completely exposed

all arrive from the controlled environment of the

document. The general theory lies in the fact

for an elegant, tectonic, architectural resolution

factory, and are sequentially sent to the jobsite

that trees take in CO2, thereby ‘sequestering’

to a building form.

and craned directly onto the building assembly;

it from the atmosphere, while mineral based

with no interstitial site storage.

materials such as steel actually generate more

Other benefits to mass timber include its

carbon.

If a building is constructed from

superior seismic performance12, as compared to

One last understated benefit of timber is a

timber, rather than steel, that building has

steel or concrete. Heavy wooden structures are

byproduct of its manufacturing process. It is

now permanently sequestered

more resilient, and therefore dissipate seismic

one of the few architectural components that is

the Earth’s atmosphere. Needless to say, this

shocks better than other systems .

Mass

truly customizable without being cost inhibitive.

premise is entirely predicated on the use of

timber is no longer reliant on old growth trees,

All timber componentry, from glulam to CLT is

timber within structures; one of the reasons

unlike its early heavy timber predecessors. This

manufactured with a limited set of CNC tooling,

why this thesis places such a heavy emphasis

means that new growth pine can be harvested

yet neither the input nor output of the process

on the manufacturing practices of mass timber,

by a predictable growth pattern, ensuring a

is fixed. This dynamism means a customized

and creating an infrastructure for its continued

continuous supply of raw material .

set of structural components can be cut without

8

carbon from

13

14

having to change the inherent manufacturing

output.

Mass timber structures are extremely efficient

process, which would in turn drive the cost up

Contrary to popular belief, timber is inherently

to build, taking significantly less time

of such parts.

fire resistant. When assembled as a glued, mass

field assembly than a comparable steel frame.

associated only with individual components like

component, it mirrors the property of solid

This fact is attributed twofold, first of which

cabinetry20 can, for the first time, be applied on

logs and heavy timber, charring long before

is the lightweight nature of timber16

, which

a building wide scale. It is precisely this reason

catching fire . Timber chars predictably , and

contributes to its ease of shipping, as well as

why CLT deserves to be treated as a forest

therefore can be designed and sized to precisely

site lifting and placing. Secondly, due to the

to site commodity, not simply a 2x4 nailed

conform to building fire codes .

This nature

precise 2mm (nominal 1/8”) tolerance at which

up in standard fashion.

of fire resistance has an important secondary

timber componentry can be manufactured ,

vertical infrastructure of manufacturing, timber

component, which allows timber to be both a

the structure arrives on site for final assembly,

becomes an incredibly salient and efficient

structural and finish material within a building.

not construction.

model for outputting custom architecture.

Structural steel must be spray fireproofed

necessary, CLT far surpasses any other material

or hidden behind gypsum board to achieve

on time efficiency19. Beams, columns, and slabs

9

10

11

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15

for

17

18

With no field modification

Short production runs usually

When braided to a

Fig. 5 Perspective view along integral rail tracks, timber factory proposal, Cincinnati

Scope of Investigation

15

Section Endnotes Document Reference 1.

Stephen Kieran and James Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 29-31.

2.

Thomas Robinson, “Firm & Process,” LEVER, http://www.leverarchitecture.com/, (September 21, 2018).

3.

Todd Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” in Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions (Washington DC: ASCA Press, 2014), 867

4. Tom F. Peters, “An American Culture of Construction,” in Perspecta, vol. 25 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 142.

5.

Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, xi-xiii.

6.

Joseph Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, Technology, and Design, (Taylor and Francis, 2015), ix, 5.

7.

Ibid, 29-30.

8.

Alan Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” (lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning, Cincinnati), February 21, 2018, accessed March 12, 2018, https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181.

9.

Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 34-38.

10. Karl Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” Master’s Thesis, University of Tennessee, 2015, 24.

11. Erol Karacabeyli and Brad Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber (Pointe-Claire, QC: FPInnovations, 2013), 290-291.

12. Thomas Robinson, “Forest to Frame” (lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 24, 2016), accessed November 11, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=M30REHhwgGU. 13. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 41.

14. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018).

15. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 24-26.

16. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 7-8, 25.

17. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 11-13.

18. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018).

19. Ibid.

20. Lawrence Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” Master of Architecture Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006, Automation in Construction Volume 16 (2007), 300.

Scope of Investigation

17

02 Mass Timber Establishing a Source Solid Wood Assemblies Manufacturing Process Field Installation Section Endnotes

Establishing A Source Common Tree Species

Douglas Fir

Spruce Fir

While the Cross Laminate Timber Handbook

Douglas fir is the staple tree source for timber in

Spruce Fir actually refers to a group of fir

notes the standard for timber laminations

North America. Its growing region is primarily

species, of which Black Spruce is primarily used

“permits the use of any softwood lumber species

located along the Pacific Northwest Corridor

for timber manufacturing. Black Spruce is found

recognized by the American Lumber Standards

between California, Oregon, Washington, and

across most of the Canadian Boreal Forest,

Committee ,� there is a core set of tree

British Columbia. As such, most major North

as well as stretches of northern Michigan and

species most commonly used for mass timber

American timber plants are located within this

Maine. It shares similar strength characteristics

manufacturing.

region.

with Douglas Fir, as well as an exceptionally

21

These species are generally

Douglas fir reaches trunk diameter

preferred for their strength durability values, as

sizes to consistently supply 2x6 and larger

straight tight grain structure.

well as grain structure. Refer to Figure 16 for

dimension lumber.

It has excellent strength

has been the select material for eastern timber

a complete list of strength and bending values.

values, with minimum acceptable grades of

manufacturers based in Quebec, as well as

Catalogued below are five of the most common

No. 2 used for primary span layers, and No. 3

the favored species for new eastern factory

North American softwood species presently

in perpendicular layers . Select grades offer a

proposals24. Minimum lumber grade must be a

used in the manufacturing of mass timber. This

near knot free finish, and are used in face plys

No. 2 or higher25.

list is by no means exhaustive; not accounting

of CLT to produce superior panels.

23

for experimental hardwoods such as Poplar

22

used in smaller production runs.

Fig. 6 Douglas fir growth rings

Fig. 7 Common tree species used in North American mass timber manufacturing Fig. 8 Douglas fir grain sample

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Fig. 9 Spruce fir grain sample

Black Spruce

Southern Yellow Pine

Jack Pine

Scots Pine

Southern Yellow Pine refers to a common

Although less commonly used than other pine

A staple of the European timber manufacturing

grouping of trees including Longleaf Pine, Slash

species, Jack Pine has the potential to be another

supply

Pine and Loblolly Pine . This particular species

widely used tree source for Midwestern timber

characteristics to both SYP and Jack Pines. While

is found around the humid southern regions of

manufacturing. Its growing region is situated

the species is primarily found across Europe

the United States, spanning from Texas through

primarily around the Great Lakes region. While

and Northern Asia, it has also been planted

the Florida Panhandle.

As such, this tree is

it is not as strong in bending as Douglas Fir or

and distributed within the New Zealand, and

ideal as a primary source for Southern and

SYP, its strength values align close enough to

the American East and Midwest29. Scots Pine is

Midwestern timber structures.

It consistently

consider No 1 and Select grades as acceptable

used heavily in both standard dimension lumber

reaches trunk diameters for producing 2x8 and

alternates. Mature trees reach 50’-80’ with a

and mass timber products. Likewise, it also has

larger dimension lumber, and shares similar

12” to 24” average trunk diameter . It shares

the potential to be harvested for Midwestern

strength and bending values to Douglas fir.

a similar visual weight with SYP, also bearing

timber use, although most of its presence in the

Aesthetically, SYP has very pronounced annual

very pronounced annual growth rings.

US currently is due to importation, not native

growth rings, which appear tinted a distinct

Pine is neutral to warm in color.

26

28

Jack

chain,

Scots

Pine

bears

similar

growing. Scots Pine has pronounced, straight,

yellow in color. Acceptable grades include No.

growth rings, and similar strength and bending

2, No. 1, and Select .

properties to Douglas Fir and SYP.

27

Fig. 10 Southern yellow pine grain sample

Fig. 11 Jack pine grain sample

Fig. 12 Scots pine grain sample

Mass Timber

21

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Solid Wood Assemblies Common Mass Timber Types Mass timber encompasses a large grouping of structural wood assemblies. While the nuances of each type listed below may be different, they all share three core features uniting them collectively as mass timber construction.

1 – Assemblage: All mass timber is derived from grouping several smaller boards together to achieve an assembled whole.

This differentiates from its predecessor, heavy timber, which is reliant on a singular tree growing large enough to supply a beam or column. Furthermore, assembled masses allow for slab components, such as CLT, not possible from a singular tree.

2 – Machinability: Wood is malleable enough to be rapidly CNC profiled, producing custom, interlocking components.

This

feature allows for an incredibly tight tolerance of production, especially by building construction standards.

Mass timber’s

manufacturing process is also what inherently drives its economic customization30.

3 – Prefabrication: Mass timber is produced under factory settings, a radical shift from most every other building structural option except precast concrete.

Prefabrication offers a control over

the construction process not possible in the field. Furthermore, components can be manufactured in sequence to precisely align with construction timeline schedules31 Fig. 13 Glulam columns destined for the Microsoft headquarters aligned for final finishing, Structurlam British Columbia

Mass Timber

23

Solid Wood Assemblies CLT

NLT

DLT

Acronym for Cross Laminated Timber. Often

Acronym for Nail Laminated Timber. NLT is a

Acronym for Dowel Laminated Timber.

used interchangeably with the term mass

reinforced decking panel made from a parallel

is essentially the upgraded version of NLT.

timber, CLT refers to a specific type of

layup of lumber nailed together. One side is

Panels are laid up in a similar parallel fashion,

assembled timber slab.

Dimension lumber

often reinforced with plywood for diaphragm

using either friction fit or glue set dowels as a

layers, or lamellae, are glued up in odd layers

bracing . NLT is produced in factory settings ,

cross binder. Since DLT is not reliant on steel

at perpendicular orientations, forming a mat

but does not share the same machinability

nails, it can be cut and profiled like CLT. It does

slab similar to oversized plywood.

These

characteristics as CLT, do to it integral steel

not, however, use perpendicular laminations

perpendicular laminations give the panel its

fasteners. It is, however, significantly easier to

of lumber to produce a mat slab, and is not

strength,

produce, as it does not rely on precise pressing

effective in leveraging the cross-grain laminated

similar to a two-way reinforced concrete slab .

and adhesive technologies.

strength to wood35.

CLT

NLT

DLT

Cross Laminated Timber

Nail Laminated Timber

Dowel Laminated Timber

and

performance

characteristics 32

Fig. 14 Common assembly methods of mass timber Fig. 15 Physical samples of mass timber

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33

34

DLT

Glulam

PSL

LVL Beams.

Acronym for Laminated Veneer Lumber. LVL

glued up flitches, or shards of lumber, pressed

Glulam is the stick counterpart to CLT decking.

is comprised of small flitches of veneer glued

together under extreme pressure .

These

It consists of a glued assemblage of lumber in

into an assembly, just like plywood.

parallel strands are bound with an adhesive, and

parallel fashion; no dowels or nails used in the

the number of veneers pressed together, LVL

share a similar edge aesthetic to Oriented Strand

laminating process.

When No. 1 and Select

performs exceptionally well as a laminated

Board (OSB). PSL performs exceptionally well

grades are used, glulam has an exceptional

beam structural component, with an exceptional

as a structural beam, however lacks the high

surface quality, making it an excellent finish

surface finish. Its manufacturing process does

quality surface finish of comparable timber

material.

not lend itself to producing large mat slabs, or

products.

connection details just like CLT.

Acronym for Parallel Strand Lumber.

36

PSL is

It readily manufactures to stock

Abbreviation

for

Glue

Laminated

Glulam can be profiled for custom It functions

Due to

to a lesser extent, structural columns.

dimensions in a factory setting.

well in both beam and column form.

PSL

Glulam

LVL

Parallel Strand Lumber

Glue Laminated Timber

Laminated Veneer Lumber

Mass Timber

25

Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con.

Common species names Cedar—con.

Port-Orford Western redcedar Yellow Douglas-fird Coast Interior West Interior North Interior South Fir Balsam California red Grand Noble Pacific silver Subalpine White Hemlock Eastern Mountain Western Larch, western Pine Eastern white Jack Loblolly Lodgepole Longleaf Pitch

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Static bending ComWork to Com- pression Modulus Modulus maxipression perpenof of mum Impact parallel dicular Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa)

Shear parallel to grain (kPa)

Tension perpen- Side dicular hardto grain ness (kPa) (N)

Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%

0.39 0.43 0.31 0.32 0.42 0.44

45,000 88,000 35,900 51,700 44,000 77,000

9,000 11,700 6,500 7,700 7,900 9,800

51 63 34 40 63 72

530 710 430 430 690 740

21,600 43,100 19,100 31,400 21,000 43,500

2,100 5,000 1,700 3,200 2,400 4,300

5,800 9,400 5,300 6,800 5,800 7,800

1,200 2,800 1,600 1,500 2,300 2,500

1,700 2,800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,600

Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%

0.45 0.48 0.46 0.50 0.45 0.48 0.43 0.46

53,000 85,000 53,000 87,000 51,000 90,000 47,000 82,000

10,800 13,400 10,400 12,600 9,700 12,300 8,000 10,300

52 68 50 73 56 72 55 62

660 790 660 810 560 660 380 510

26,100 49,900 26,700 51,200 23,900 47,600 21,400 43,000

2,600 5,500 2,900 5,200 2,500 5,300 2,300 5,100

6,200 7,800 6,500 8,900 6,600 9,700 6,600 10,400

2,100 2,300 2,000 2,400 2,300 2,700 1,700 2,300

2,200 3,200 2,300 2,900 1,900 2,700 1,600 2,300

Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%

0.33 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.35 0.37 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.43 0.31 0.32 0.37 0.39

38,000 63,000 40,000 72,400 40,000 61,400 43,000 74,000 44,000 75,800 34,000 59,000 41,000 68,000

8,600 10,000 8,100 10,300 8,600 10,800 9,500 11,900 9,800 12,100 7,200 8,900 8,000 10,300

32 35 44 61 39 52 41 61 41 64 — — 39 50

410 510 530 610 560 710 480 580 530 610 — — 560 510

18,100 36,400 19,000 37,600 20,300 36,500 20,800 42,100 21,600 44,200 15,900 33,500 20,000 40,000

1,300 2,800 2,300 4,200 1,900 3,400 1,900 3,600 1,500 3,100 1,300 2,700 1,900 3,700

4,600 6,500 5,300 7,200 5,100 6,200 5,500 7,200 5,200 8,400 4,800 7,400 5,200 7,600

1,200 1,200 2,600 2,700 1,700 1,700 1,600 1,500 1,700 — — — 2,100 2,100

1,300 1,800 1,600 2,200 1,600 2,200 1,300 1,800 1,400 1,900 1,200 1,600 1,500 2,100

Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%

0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.52

44,000 61,000 43,000 79,000 46,000 78,000 53,000 90,000

7,400 8,300 7,200 9,200 9,000 11,300 10,100 12,900

46 47 76 72 48 57 71 87

530 530 810 810 560 580 740 890

21,200 37,300 19,900 44,400 23,200 49,000 25,900 52,500

2,500 4,500 2,600 5,900 1,900 3,800 2,800 6,400

5,900 7,300 6,400 10,600 5,900 8,600 6,000 9,400

1,600 — 2,300 — 2,000 2,300 2,300 3,000

1,800 2,200 2,100 3,000 1,800 2,400 2,300 3,700

Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12% Green 12%

0.34 34,000 0.35 59,000 0.40 41,000 0.43 68,000 0.47 50,000 0.51 88,000 0.38 38,000 0.41 65,000 0.54 59,000 0.59 100,000 0.47 47,000 0.52 74,000

6,800 8,500 7,400 9,300 9,700 12,300 7,400 9,200 11,000 13,700 8,300 9,900

36 47 50 57 57 72 39 47 61 81 63 63

430 460 660 690 760 760 510 510 890 860 — —

16,800 33,100 20,300 39,000 24,200 49,200 18,000 37,000 29,800 58,400 20,300 41,000

1,500 3,000 2,100 4,000 2,700 5,400 1,700 4,200 3,300 6,600 2,500 5,600

4,700 6,200 5,200 8,100 5,900 9,600 4,700 6,100 7,200 10,400 5,900 9,400

1,700 2,100 2,500 2,900 1,800 3,200 1,500 2,000 2,300 3,200 — —

1,300 1,700 1,800 2,500 2,000 3,100 1,500 2,100 2,600 3,900 — —

Manufacturing Process Logging & Distribution Any mass timber component begins with the logging of raw lumber. Trees are sourced and cut down by logging companies, then sold in bulk to a sawmill, a standard process that has been in place for decades. Logging companies do not necessarily have ownership of a forest tract, but simply purchase rights to cut trees there. This model is particularly true with the Douglas Fir forests covering the Pacific Northwest and Canadian Rockies. Companies such as Weyerhaeuser sell logging rights to their forest holdings to independent contractors37 who harvest the trees.

Raw logs are then sold to a sawmill for processing. The sawmill takes the logs and cuts them into rough timber sizes based on their diameter. The timber is then dried, usually by means of a kiln.

Once the timber has reached a set moisture content, it is planed to final dimension, then graded based on visual and strength characteristics. The dimension lumber is then packaged and sold to distributors who retail it as a construction commodity38.

Currently, the timber market treats harvesting of trees and dimensioning of lumber as completely separate entities. In a similar disjointed fashion, CLT manufacturing also has no direct relation with initial tree logging or dimensioning.39 Standard dimension lumber is purchased by a plant, with little to no difference than a contractor purchasing dimension lumber for light wood stud framing. The timber plant then planes and dries lumber again, in order to meet internal standards necessary for manufacturing.

Fig. 16 Strength properties of commercially available North American pine species Fig. 17 End glued finger joint detail

Section Head

27

Manufacturing Process Finger Jointing All

timber

production

resizing

Based on these quality checks, the lumber

dimension lumber (usually 1x6 or 2x6) into

is assigned to a final group. No 1 and select

tightly toleranced stock known as lamellas.

grades are reserved for finish faces and glulam

Dimension lumber is then fed into a bulk finger

The lumber is moisture checked for an industry

products, while No 2 comprises the interior

jointing machine.

standard of 15%

cores in CLT panels. No 2 meets the strength

against a fence, and then a finger joint is cut

sent back to the kiln for another round of drying.

requirements

ALSC ,

into the end grain. Each board is lined up in

An operator also visually checks each piece of

however is less visually appealing than its higher

linear progression, with one finger joint glued

lumber against the grade it was assigned at

grade counterparts. The most economic panel

successively to the next, producing what

the sawmill. Any piece not meeting the quality

layup reserves select grades only for the finish

amounts to a continuous extrusion of wood.

standards for its grade is rejected.

faces, and in fills the core with less expensive

This is a critical step in the low waste factor of

40

begins

by

or less. Anything higher is

Fig. 18 Existing CLT supply chain and manufacturing sequence

Fabricated

TIMBER

established

by

the

41

lower grades.

The boards are justified

mass timber production. Since the boards are

As the wood is extruded off of the finger joint

necessary lamella blanks for glulam production.

glued end to end, the plant can cut the wood

line, it is simultaneously planed to its final cross

Therefore, one mass timber factory is able to

to whatever length is necessary for a glue up,

sectional dimension, then cut into lengths

produce both stick and plate timber elements,

regardless of the original length it arrived in

determined by the size of the final pressing. The

without the need of separate sizing equipment.

from the sawmill. With this same system, any

production line in modern CLT manufacturing

defects can also be removed from a board

is advanced enough to adjust cutting lengths

without the need to throw away the entire

on the fly. In this manner, one finger jointing

piece of wood. The defective length is cut out,

station can accommodate both the longitudinal

and the remaining lumber is finger jointed to

and transverse lamella sizes for a CLT glue up.

the running extrusion.

This process of manufacturing also produces the

Fig. 19 Finger jointing assembly line

Mass Timber

29

Manufacturing Process Billet Production Finger jointed and dimensioned lamella have a ‘shelf life’ of 24 hours42 maximum before they must be utilized in a glueup, either for glulam or CLT. Glulam is produced in a more traditional, or manual fashion. Lamellae are batch glued together by hand, then mechanically pressed together against a rigid steel frame. The pressed beam or column is then sent to finishing. Arced glulam can be produced using this method as well.

CLT layup and pressing is, by contrast, a more automated process. A vacuum crane moves the first layer of a panel onto the press table. A CNC glue-bot quickly applies cold-set polyurethane based glue43 and the perpendicular layer of lamella is placed on top. This style of bonding

from the top, as well as the sides. Hydraulic

only applies glue to the faces of the lamellae,

pressing has become the industry standard,

not the edges. Edge gluing is possible, however

and has since almost completely replaced older

most manufactures do not offer this service,

methods of clamping, such as vacuum bagging.

as it drives up the price of a CLT panel by a

The panel is typically held under pressure for

significant margin. The entire glueup process

50-60 minutes45.

on average must take 20 minutes or less , or

are explicitly related to the exact glue being

the panel must be rejected.

used.

44

Work times are

specific to the types of adhesives being used.

Again, specific press times

As cold set bonding agents are most

common, the press does not need to maintain a fixed or heated temperature. The final pressed

The press table is loaded into a hydraulic

assembly is referred to as a billet, and is now

pressing station, which compacts the panel

ready for final profiling.

Fig. 20 Nesting CLT parts for CNC machining Fig. 21 CLT billets stacked and awaiting final cutting

Fabricated

TIMBER

Manufacturing Process CNC Profiling A billet can, in a sense, be thought of as stock

off of the architect’s 3D model, with little to no

also handles the final shape and edge profile

plywood; the ‘raw material’ or input used

shop drawings produced in the interim. A 3D

of each panel, based on the layout established

to produce final CLT components.

Just as

modeled component is translated directly into

in a master model.

plywood must be site manipulated to produce

a 3D finished building element. To date this

from rabbets, dadoes, slots, and even friction fit

the final building, timber billets must be

makes mass timber the single most qualified

joints can easily be machined to extremely tight

trimmed, profiled, and finished to produce a

building material for a designer to directly

tolerances.

usable component for a building structure. It is

influence the manufacturing process.

(nominal 1/8”) tolerance reaching a precision

this process that the designer or architect has

Any number of features,

Average values range at a 2mm

level as low as 0.1mm46. Again, CNC profiling

the most direct influence on, as this is where

The vast majority of mass timber construction

is the executable moment for an architectural

the final building is manifested via downstream

uses steel plates and hardware for component

intent, with the possibilities of what can be

digital fabrication techniques.

connection, so proper interface and detailing

machined ranging quite far. If planned out in

departure from typical light wood construction,

between the materials is critical.

Necessary

advance, even recesses for building equipment,

all timber components are finished in a factory-

steel plate junctions may be fabricated by

such as electrical junction boxes, can be pre-

controlled setting, and ultimately ‘assembled’

outside shops, but as a quality check are always

milled into a panel component47.

on site, requiring no field modification.

test fitted against the timber to ensure ease of

process that allows for efficient and quick field

site assembly. In certain instances, connection

assembly, as no on site modification is required

Depending on the size of the manufacturer,

hardware may even be pre-installed at the

to properly fit a building component into the

billets may either be CNC profiled in house,

factory, with a give column or beam shipped

final structure assembly.

or shipped out to another company for final

to site as one complete assembly. This type

cutting.

Either way, panels and beams are

of connection strategy is predicated on the,

typically processed on a 5 axis CNC. Industry

precision, repeatability, and accuracy only CNC

standard has come to use a Hundegger PBA

machining can offer. Proper design strategies

profiling machine. Specifically designed for

can leverage CNC tooling to optimize this steel

large format timber panels and columns, the

to wood interface.

In a radical

It is this

Hundegger is constructed with a permanently mounted gang saw, chain bar, and disk cutter,

Typical CNC profiling operations include slotting

as well as an interchangeable tool spindle.

details for knife plates, as well as bored holes

Programming for these CNC’s is based directly

for fasteners and pin connectors. CNC cutting Fig. 22 In line quality check for glue PSI strength where samples are stretched in tension to the point of breaking

Mass Timber

31

Fabricated

TIMBER

Manufacturing Process

Field Installation

Quality Control

Finishing and Shipping

Mass timber is subject to stringent quality

Mass timber goes through a number of finishing

control standards, on pace with other high

types, dependent on what profile was glued.

technology

CLT is typically drum sanded on its finish faces

manufactured

products.

As

mentioned previously, each board is moisture

as part of its profile process.

48

checked, at up to 1000 points over its surface

may be finish planed or drum sanded, again

and rejected if over 15%.

Operators and

as a part of CNC profiling. As one final quality

computers confirm the grade each raw board

control check, each component receives a last

was assigned at the sawmill.

light mechanical sanding. Any imperfections or

Glulam beams

defects are filled, and a scratch coat of sealer is Within production, there are in-line checks

applied. This sealer protects the wood during

performed at each stage of gluing .

exposed site assembly.

49

Two

times an hour, a sample is removed from the finger jointing line and checked for adhesive

Each component is packaged for protection

strength . Each sample is stretched in tension

during shipping and tagged with an individual

until breaking to ensure the glue meets a

code. Due to the efficient nature of production,

minimum PSI rating. Similar in line checks are

components are manufactured in sequence

performed for CLT gluing and pressing. This,

with field assembly, so there is little to jobsite

along with strict standards on adhesive work

storage.

times and press times ensure quality panels are

from the way conventional steel and precast

consistently delivered. Any piece of timber not

concrete structures are erected.

meeting time or strength standards is rejected,

number coding applied at the factory pinpoints

and production adjusted accordingly.

the exact location of each structural member.

50

Fig. 23 CNC profiling a CLT panel, Hundegger PBA 5 axis

Fig. 24 Packaging and labeling timber for site shipment Label indicates absolute position of column within building assembly

Again, this is a fairly radical shift The letter

It is then craned directly off the truck into its final position.

Once the building envelope is

completed, the wood receives one final sand and sealing, to serve at once as a structure and finish material within a piece of architecture.

33

Section Endnotes Document Reference 21. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 70.

22. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 103-108.

23. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71.

24. Cormac O’Carroll and Antti Koskinen, Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Engineered Wood Products Mill, report, New England Forestry Foundation (Poyry Management Consulting, 2017). 64-79.

25. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71.

26. American Softwood Lumber Standards, report no. PS 20-10, National Institute of Standards and Technology (2010), 34.

27. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 71.

28. “Jack Pine,” The Wood Database, https://www.wood-database.com/jack-pine/, (September 10, 2018).

29. “Scots Pine,” The Wood Database, https://www.wood-database.com/scots-pine/, (September 10, 2018).

30. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867-868.

31. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 26.

32. Ibid, 13, 15-17.

33. Ibid, 18.

34. StructureCraft Builders, Timber Engineering & Construction, https://structurecraft.com/, (March 02, 2019) 35. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 18-19.

36. Ibid, 15.

37. Kathy McAuley, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon, 2012 Analyst Meeting, report, Weyerhaeuser (2012), 15-19.

38. Ibid, 20-23.

39. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867.

40. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 77-79.

41. Ibid, 77.

42. Stephen Tolnai, Nicholas Sills, and Kris Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” interview by author, October 24, 2018.

43. Ibid.

44. Ibid.

45. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 79.

46. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 22.

47. Ibid, 52-56, 142-145.

48. Ibid.

49. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 64.

50. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018.

Mass Timber

35

03 Creating A System Vertical Integration Forest Management The Production Shift Section Endnotes

Vertical Integration Unified Manufacturing Practices Uniting material sourcing, to design, through

Boeing, in partnership with Rolls Royce, is

downstream

fabrication, and final assembly is not a new

able to roll a Trent turbofan jet engine off the

a high volume of manufactured product,

argument.

In fact, far reaching as 100 years

production line every 36 hours ; seemingly the

all

ago, Henry Ford looked to uniting several

same amount of time it takes to sync a Revit

quality and tolerance results.

processes together to produce the Model T.

model to the cloud. It is time for architecture

timber is a logical forerunner for the AEC

Quite literally, this united front to manufacturing

and construction to seize the robust body of

industry to envision a vertically integrated

was a vertically stacked building, combining

knowledge surrounding other industries, and

building assembly, due to its parallels to other

parts storage, assembly line production, and

apply it to the built environment.

manufacturer’s

even showrooms.

53

while

digital

fabrication

maintaining

CAM

to

extremely

and

achieve stringent

Naturally, mass

CNC

processes.

Against this backdrop, the current status of

What resulted was the

industrialization of the automobile, the ability

Todd Beyreuther acknowledges this fact in

mass timber output is examined and analyzed,

to efficiently and accurately take a novel design

his writings on Next Generation Timber. “The

with an effort to critically suggest a more

idea and execute it in a repeatable production

architecture, engineering, and construction

seamless mode of operation.

format. This integrated delivery mechanism is

industries are not keeping pace with the

what today is referred to as vertical integration .

optimization,

51

quality

control,

and

mass

customization processes of other product As Refabricating Architecture explicitly points

assembly

out,

construction,

shipbuilding and aerospace – non-building

every other manufacturing driven industry

industries that have leveraged the exponential

has successfully leveraged high technology

growth

to decrease fabrication time, cost, waste

fabrications technologies. The [real] challenge

generation, all for the relentless pursuit of

[is] to graduate wood building design and

increased quality within a product .

construction

with

the

exception

of

52

The

resultant is evident in most every industry from

industries

in

digital

from

such

design,

as

automotive,

analysis,

site-customization

and

to

prefabricated mass-customization .”

54

aviation, to auto transportation, to even the speed at which industrial design products are

In an effort to illustrate this, what follows

prototyped, then brought to market. Tesla has

are several vignettes of industries reliant on

reimagined the factory to produce the Model

integrated product delivery.

S, almost entirely automated by 6 axis robots.

case, these industries are heavily nested in

Fabricated

TIMBER

As is often the

Fig. 25 Model T Fords advancing along a production assembly line

Section Head

39

Vertical Integration Tesla Tesla takes a revolutionary automated approach

Tiny components for the model S begin as

automotive fashion is reliant on these small

to Henry Ford’s original vision of the assembly

die stampings from a progressive press.

Die

components to be manufactured by outside

line. Production of the Model S is approached

stamping is a process that forms parts out

parties, Tesla brings this foundational step

as a completely in-house, integrated process.

of sheet material by pressing, or stamping,

in house55, with the intent of streamlining a

Each module is taken from raw materials through

it against a series of punches.

production line to the exact design needs of

manufacturing and fabrication of numerous

aluminum are imported into the factory, and

sub-components.

The components are then

then cut on a shear to a standard blank size. The

brought together for final assemblage, again

blanks are then robotically fed through various

In a separate zone of the factory, the lithium ion

as an in-house process, to produce a finished

dies and punched to produce everything from

battery cell and motor power train assembly are

Model S shipped directly to the customer.

cable clamps to door hardware. While typical

manufactured. Due to the fundamentally simple

Fig. 26 Tesla integrated manufacturing process, Model S electric car

Fabricated

TIMBER

Raw rolls of

their product.

nature of an electric drive train, Tesla is also

Tesla handles all of its frame welding and body

product present in the automotive industry. By

able to construct these components internally .

riveting internally as well, processed by a state

controlling each step of manufacturing, Tesla

Comprised of hundreds of specialized parts,

of the art 6 axis robotic assembly line.

Sub

can uphold the strictest standards of quality57.

combustion engines, by contrast, are extremely

components of each model S are assembled in

Each Model S is then directly shipped to the

complex, and thus more difficult to integrate

the same factory during chassis marriage. Final

customer, eliminating markup and dealership

into a vertical model.

Furthermore, these

paint and testing are performed immediately

transit.

engines are reliant on several specialized casting

following. This process of manufacturing was

and machining processes, while electric motor

developed directly around a working prototype

assemblies can be produced in an elegantly

of the Model S, and thus represents one of

simplistic manner.

the most direct translations of prototype to

56

Creating A System

41

Vertical Integration Boeing The manufacturing, fabrication, and assembly

assemblages

layers58,

ensures that each major sub component of a

of any modern wide body jet is a mammoth

ground and finished to meet exact quality,

Trent jet engine is upheld to the strictest quality

undertaking, and of course necessitates the

durability, and balancing standards. Other cast

standards, and is produced in record time.

curation of several sub assemblies. One of the

components such as the core compression

Final module assembly, wiring, and testing

most complex, the jet turbofan, is still produced

blades are continually tweaked to achieve

are all processed by Rolls Royce, shipping an

in a seamlessly vertical model, as a partnership

better thermal and economic performance,

assembled jet engine off the factory floor every

between Boeing and Rolls Royce.

based on a continuous feedback loop

with

36 hours60. Boeing imports finished engines to

initial design, research, and engineering teams.

their assembly plant outside Seattle, dependent

of

inflated

titanium

59

Each jet engine begins as a series of highly

on Rolls Royce’s controlled and integrated

specialized metal castings, directly informed by

Rolls Royce manages all aspects of component

manufacturing methods to meet their own

the research and development of Rolls Royce’s

assembly from parts distribution to machining

delivery deadlines for new aircraft.

own material development team. Components

and welding within a tightly correlated series

like the primary turbofan blades are proprietary

of factories across Darby, England. Doing so

Fig. 27 Rolls Royce component manufacturing of Trent turbofan jet engines, in partnership with Boeing aerospace

Fabricated

TIMBER

Fig. 28 Detail of fanblade assembly

Creating A System

43

Vertical Integration Katerra Within

the

spheres

of

architecture

and

component manufacturing, both standard and

Katerra has built up a robust number of

construction, this model of vertical integration

custom.

partnerships

has slowly been applied to building components,

into a cohesive entity , they are able to optimize

manufacturers

although not explicitly CLT. Katerra is a multi

a service aligned with a product, and deliver a

integrated project delivery. While their model

disciplinary

and

turn-key building to a client in a more efficient

may not directly manufacture each component

manufacturing firm that focuses on the creation

way than ever thought possible. This method

used in building, Katerra offers a one stop

of a building as a truly singular operation,

of delivery has proven effective in numerous

shop to a potential client for every aspect of

design through project closeout.

other product disciplines, but is rarely applied

project delivery required, from supply chain, to

to construction.

design, to general contracting. This shift allows

architecture,

construction,

Katerra’s

model of operation focuses on direct control of the material supply chain to influence building

Fig. 29 Katerra supply chain logistics and integrated building delivery

Fabricated

TIMBER

By aggregating multiple disciplines 61

with

material

suppliers

to

support

their

goal

and of

for a design construction feedback loop on a

standard basis, not typically found within most

model, Katerra has begun construction on

project delivery models of the AEC industry.

their own mass timber facility; timber being the most parallel structural component to their

Admittedly Katerra is attempting to consolidate

stated goals of one stop project completion62.

the whole of a building process into one

As such, their proposed mode of operation is

entity, which has proved to be an enormous

still valid towards an integrated mass timber

undertaking. By comparison, CLT delivery and

market, particularly as one of the only AEC

manufacturing is focused on one component of

companies to challenge how buildings are

construction. However, as part of their efforts

actually translated from design to reality.

to retool the design + bid + build delivery

Fig. 30 Katerra HQ, Seattle, showcasing CLT and glulam manufactured in house

Creating A System

45

Vertical Integration AEC Industries A cohesive model of braided design and seamless production is still sorely lacking in the AEC industry. Tom Peters notes that “the American light timber frame is a fully industrialized, pre fabricated system.

Studs, plywood, particleboard, nails, and connectors

are all manufactured in standard lengths and sizes, but in such an elementary way that precise tolerances are irrelevant and quality controls superfluous63.” Yet this “industrialized” system has not kept pace the technologies available today, and has become stagnant and proliferated to the point of unoriginality.

The problem is by nature multi-faceted, with changes occurring within the construction industry at slow, incremental intervals.

Architecture, in turn, has become inherently specialized and distant from the components and construction practices that actually execute design64.

Discussions around new materials

must remain at the forefront for building design to remain in time with industry practice.

Within all the options for major structural components of a building, mass timber is uniquely qualified to entertain a vertically integrated material to market strategy. The current approach to CLT manufacturing suggests this, making significant strides towards

aligning

downstream

digital

manufacturing

with

custom structure components. A retooled view of a completely integrated mass timber infrastructure has the ability to radically shift the production building components to parallel the hyper efficient vertical output of the aviation and automotive industries.

Mass timber rollout is dependent on such a model of thinking to transition from a material novelty into a firmly accepted building structural component.

Fig. 31 Hand inspecting and finishing glulam beams for site delivery, Structurlam British Columbia

Fabricated

TIMBER

Section Head

47

Forest Management Maintaining The Supply Chain Outlining a new infrastructure for mass timber

real advantage in this lens, as it sequesters, not

for use in mass timber products, to avoid the

operates on a given assumption that the

produces, carbon from the onset.

global transit networks that currently plague the steel markets68. Identifying a viable regional

material will continue to rapidly expand in use.

The numerous benefits of such a material ought

Most

vertical

source is critical to not only sustain a central

to solidify such a proposition. Ultimately, the

integration, is what Organschi refers to as

manufacturing plant, but also avoid negating

infrastructure of mass timber is only as good

regenerative supply chains. Wood harvesting,

the carbon benefits of timber by shipping the

as its source supply. If the tree resources are

particularly softwood dimension lumber is

material extraordinary distances.

exhausted, then so will any chance of mass

usually accomplished through forest clear-

timber edging out its own niche in construction.

cutting.

This is typically perceived as a

Organschi examines a 1500 acre patch of Black

Proper forest management is critical to maintain

negative practice. However, by comparison to

Spruce, subdivided into 45 parcels to mirror a

the cycle of trees necessary to sustain mass

extraction based mineral materials like bricks,

45 year growth cycle. Each 33 acre parcel can

timber construction.

steel, and concrete, wood has significantly

support up to 23.9 acres of constructed timber

nature could stand as a full discussion in its own

less

cutting

development69. By managing which parcels are

right, it is a necessary area to touch on as part

is a surface practice, involving no heavy

clear-cut on a yearly basis, and continuously

of creating a system for timber delivery.

excavation or mining . Furthermore, wood is

maintaining a 25% reserve of trees, Timber

fundamentally regenerative, with a typically

City demonstrates that a moderate size of tree

Alan Organschi, principal at Gray Organschi

growth maturity rate of 60-80 years. While this

acreage can continuously sustain development

Architecture, has researched extensively into

may seem like a slow turn around time, many

for a city as large as New Haven, CT70.

this topic as a cornerstone of his practice.

of the material classes typically associated with

concept is absolutely critical to the infrastructure

Focused primarily on the sustainable benefits

construction have hundreds to thousands of

of timber manufacturing. If CLT production is

of timber, and curating the supply chain of

year regeneration rates .

to account for widely adopted use, the current

While a subject of this

important

to

environmental

this

idea

impact.

of

Clear

66

67

This

Douglas Fir and Southern Yellow Pine forest

construction to support this, Organschi asserts that designers must take a wider pass at what is

Timber City is a speculative look at forest

resources can be properly maintained to supply

considered a sustainable construction material.

management, and maintaining a continuous

a near infinite number of timber buildings, all

Simply frontloading carbon emissions at the

loop of mature trees to supply the demands

without disrupting current harvesting practices.

onset of a building’s lifecycle

of an active mass timber market.

65

is not enough

One of

to challenge the carbon transect on which

the first major benchmarks it establishes is

construction is measured. Mass timber offers a

identifying native tree species acceptable

Fabricated

TIMBER

Fig. 32 Regenerative forest supply chain, and proper resource management, Gray Organschi Architects, Timber City

Creating A System

49

Fabricated

TIMBER

The Production Shift Current Industry Practice The North American timber industry is for

(Penticton, BC)

, is at the leading edge of

with plenty of new territory for rapid growth.

all purposes, still in its infancy.

Modern

timber manufacturing, as not only the largest

Given the success of such industries as Boeing

timber usage has only recently emerged as

producer of mass timber in North America,

and Tesla, it is the ultimate intention of this

an

but also the ability to coordinate and machine

thesis to posit that mass timber be considered

comparison to over a century of construction

custom

as a cohesive construction system, not simply

in steel and reinforced concrete . Many of the

house . Their American counterpart Smartlam

a building material.

necessary components of a vertical supply

(Columbia Falls, MT) is also working towards

the manufacturing of mass timber as turn key

chain are still disjointed. Forestry management

this integrated delivery, but currently operates

‘product’ rather than an off the shelf commodity

is left to the discretion of individual logging

at a smaller scale of production .

to be factory produced is absolutely essential to

industrially

manufactured

product,

by

71

72

architectural

components

all

in

73

74

An operation that treats

the material’s expanded use. Logging, lumber

companies, or corporations like Weyerhaeuser Mass

More often than not, smaller timber producers

milling,

timber manufacturers must import standard

treat pressing and profiling as separate entities,

manufacturing, fabrication, and field assembly,

dimension lumber for processing, no different

with operations concentrated only on one

when consolidated into one entity, offers a

than a lumber wholesaler might do. Even within

half of the process.

symbiotic product loop that can inform material

production, pressing and profiling of CLT panels

Johnson

may be treated as completely separate entities.

for CNC profiling, and are reliant on partnerships

retool the way building delivery77 is thought of.

This fractured state, however, does not have to

with fabrication specialists like Cut My Timber

Mass timber is the integral component to lead

be a permanent fixture. Rather, an opportunity

(Portland, OR) for final machining of parts .

the charge.

exists to radically shift how buildings are

Even the integrated construction frontrunner

constructed, designed, and delivered.

Katerra, is for all purposes still just an infancy

that own large tracts of logging land.

75

Companies such as DR

(Portland, OR) have limited capacity

76

startup.

manufacturing plant is still under construction

and finishing may be processed in house,

(Spokane, WA), and many of their ideas on

or handled by outside companies.

how the AEC industry ought to approach

North America, there is still only a relatively

engineering,

and design decisions.

prototyping,

AEC industries must

At just 3 years old, their timber

Depending on the manufacturer, CNC profiling Within

design,

construction are still on the drawing board.

small contingency of CLT manufacturers who treat panel pressing, cutting, finishing, and

Suffice to say, the North American timber

packaging as one cohesive entity. Structurlam

landscape is still a small contingency of pioneers,

Fig. 33 Structurlam production facilities expansion, south plant, Pentiction BC

Creating A System

51

The Production Shift Vertically Integrating Timber Few

parallels

and aviation.

exist

between

architecture

far beyond the Pacific Northwest corridor into

panels, the opportunities to participate in the

CLT production is perhaps the

the Midwest and Eastern Bloc cities of North

fully integrated design of CLT panels are limited.

America.

The CLT product in its current evolution does

closest link, yet mass timber still suffers from a fragmented infrastructure.

No different

not fully embrace the exponential growth and

than Tesla or Boeing, the next logical step of

Todd Beyreuther, as part of his study of Next

technological advances in parametric design,

production is to consolidate all of its entities into

Generation Timber with Washington State

analysis, simulation, and collaboration expertise

a singular delivery model: forest to building. It

University states this best. “[The] CLT processes

prevalent in practice and the academy78.”

is this mode of operation that will allow for the

of prefabrication, modular construction, and

continued rapid expansion of the material within

digital fabrication are attractive to designers and

A complete turn key model of output must

structural systems. Ultimately, this method of

engineers. While market side AECO partners

encompass all aspects of the supply chain, from

vertical timber integration will generate use

have access to ‘design with’ proprietary CLT

material gathering to final installation. Specific

Fig. 34 Idealized CLT manufacturing sequence, integrating logging, rough sawing, and dimensioning with final gluing and pressing stages

Fabricated

TIMBER

to CLT, this means examining the source of

lumber. This means shipments arriving at the

lumber can be rough sawn, then economically

the tree itself, and how to sustainably manage

factory have to be re-planed, re-dried, and

shipped

forests as a “Regenerative Supply Chain �. The

inspected to ensure that the lumber received

Therefore, a singular manufacturer can kiln dry

ultimate point still stands that CLT deserves to

matches its assigned grade. Long before CLT

and plane the raw material only once, to their

be considered as a cohesive system, with the

production has even begun, there are already

exact specifications, in a similar manner to how

source material not treated as a commodity

redundancies of process in place, beyond the

Tesla brings componentry stamping under

purchased from third parties.

control of the manufacturer.

its controlled wing. Beyond the obvious time

79

to

a

central

processing

plant.

savings, adding even just 0.125� to each layer Consider the earliest stages of timber harvesting.

By contrast, a vertically integrated approach

of lamella results in a stronger overall panel

Currently mass timber manufacturers are reliant

to timber manufacturing begins at the source.

per lamination, with significant waste savings

on independent sawmills to size and dry their

Through in house or partnership sawmills, raw

as well. Rather than turning more of the raw

Creating A System

53

lumber into chips via multi stage planing, the

view, even the panel pressing size can become

saved material goes straight into the finished

a design variable. Neither the billet size input,

panel, beam, or column.

nor the toolpath output are fixed, which means a panel pressing can be tuned to match a design

During processing, the raw lamellae can be easily

module with little to no waste.

manipulated for use within a variety of mass timber products, especially when the design

Equally

of a structural system has been established up

assembly of any given structural system. CLT

front. Not only can the lamellae be cut to exact

has a highly specific way of site installation.

length based on specifications for a particular

Current manufacturing practices are still reliant

building, but physical prototypes of a given

on outside contracting parties to accomplish

structure can also be produced, all by a singular

actual rigging and bolting of each timber

entity. This type of continuous feedback loop

member.

is only possible with the designers, engineers,

of the construction company, usually at stages

plant managers, and fabrication specialists

long before manufacturing has even begun. In

sitting at the same table from day one; a

fact, this education component is so lacking that

feature of which vertically integrated models of

contractors may flag a timber project in favor of

delivery excel.

steel simply for a perceived ease of execution82.

80

important

is

curating

final

field

This involves significant education

A construction body melded with the overall Just as engineers can micro tune the performance

manufacturing facility is a potent remedy

of a structure to building characteristics, so

to this.

can a designer micro tune a process of making

time factor of timber, from panel pressing, to

to achieve a desired aesthetic . This is most

fabrication, shipping, and direct installation

evident in the ability of a designer to affect

onto the building can be expertly controlled an

CNC output results, and is certainly catalyzed

nuanced in a vertical model.

81

by an integrated system. Given this cohesive Fig. 35 An early adoption of CLT in North America, Earth Sciences Building, University of British Columbia, Perkins + Will

Fabricated

TIMBER

Furthermore, the tightly sequenced

The Production Shift A Designed Commodity The architectural design intent of timber is

grammar”84 in his work on synthesizing design

without the need for a massive project budget

ultimately manifested through CNC profiling of

and digital fabrication.

Without architecture

or scale. This is a paradigm shift considering

each component. Yet, for how much front-end

tied to the vertical integration of this material,

most structural layouts of midrise buildings are

design must take place, the actual execution

it may one day run the risk of being treated as

accepted as standard assemblages of stock

of this design is not carried out until just a few

mundanely as plywood and stud construction

components86.

stages before site delivery. Furthermore, while

is viewed now.

in its manufacturing, where neither the input

the architect is responsible for conceptual design

Mass timber is highly unique

(i.e. billet size) nor the output (what is actually

of the overall timber structure, it is ultimately

Braiding

the manufacturing facility that provides final

production of CLT offers several distinct

lead in all phases of an integrated model to

detailing of each timber component , thus

advantages.

CNC machining operates on a

capitalize on this feature. Such a proposition, in

removing the architect from a more nuanced

distinct set of ‘rules.’ That is to say, there are

turn, requires that the designer have an intimate

control of the process of making. Without direct

certain component layouts that are optimized

understanding of how the material is produced

involvement of the architect, the capacity to

for subtractive manufacturing, while other

in the first place. There in lies the true necessity

fabricate custom componentry stands to leave

layouts prove extremely difficult to cut.

of vertical integration.

a CNC an unleveraged design tool.

designer who understands these constraints

83

the

designer

directly

into

the

A

machined) is fixed.

The designer must take

cannot only mitigate troubling components to If timber production is considered as an

produce, but maximize the capabilities of a CNC

integrated system of delivery, the designer

by leveraging ‘rules’ to execute design intent.

must be directly melded to the process

Further opportunities can even arise for design

of manufacturing and fabrication, just as

to directly influence the raw manufactured

many of the aforementioned exemplar high-

elements, such as optimizing billet sizes to

technology industries have also done. As the

match structural bays of a building.

market for CLT grows, so will its likelihood of it producing industrialization and standardization

The idea of architects interfacing with building

components.

Design is essential to maintain

trades to achieve customized results is not a

autonomy of mass timber as a customizable

new one85. For the first time, via mass timber,

building component.

Lawrence Sass refers

design can directly influence exactly what major

to this concept as using “manufacturing as

structural components look and perform like, Fig. 36 Complex CLT joinery detail

Creating A System

55

Section Endnotes Document Reference 51. Todd Beyreuther, “Forest to Building” (lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 22, 2016), accessed October 12, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zeFsvvoYxRU. 52. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 69-71.

53. Paul King, director, How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, BBC, Documentary, July 4, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ufd5nDeEK8&t=1854s, (November 6, 2018).

54. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 867.

55. Megafactories: Tesla Model S, National Geographic, March 23, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KA18tusTgE4, (November 15, 2018).

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, (November 6, 2018).

59. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 65, 79-83.

60. King, How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine, (November 6, 2018).

61. “Vision,” Katerra, , accessed March 10, 2019, https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/the-vision.html.

62. “Factories,” Katerra, , accessed March 10, 2019, https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/our-factories.html.

63. Peters, “An American Culture of Construction,” 152.

64. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 31.

65. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018).

66. Ibid.

67. Ibid.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 4-5.

72. “The Structurlam Process,” Structurlam, https://www.structurlam.com/about/the-structurlam-advantage/, (March 04, 2019).

73. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018.

74. “Manufacturing Process of CLT,” Smartlam, http://www.smartlam.com/about/manufacturing-process-of-clt/. (March 04, 2019) 75. “Wood Innovations & CLT,” DR Johnson, https://oregonclt.com/about/, (Jan 09, 2019).

76. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018).

77. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 160.

78. Beyreuther, “Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels,” 868.

79. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018).

80. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 13.

81. Ibid, 39-43.

82. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018.

83. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 27-31.

84. Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” 303.

85. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 13-15.

86. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 131-135.

Creating A System

57

04 Speculation Sphere of Influence Mechanics of the Factory Drawing Conclusions Section Endnotes

Sphere of Influence Timber & The Midwest It is precisely this discussion of a cohesive delivery system that necessitates so much emphasis be placed on the manufacturing plant itself. The factory is the physical manifestation of a theoretical system of product delivery.

Furthermore, it is a given that there is a direct correlation between the location of a CLT manufacturing facility, and the likelihood that a given construction project will be manufactured out of mass timber. One of the largest reasons densely populated cities like Chicago or New York have not seen any significant mass timber structures is frankly the fact that the Midwest and East Coast of the US are CLT deserts. A Midwestern manufacturing node today seems speculative at best. However, as North American timber usage continues to expand eastward, future sites for expansion will necessitate looking to locations that balance proximity to resource with proximity to population densities87.

With cities like Portland, ME considering the impact

of

timber

manufacturing

on

their

economy , Midwestern sites like Cincinnati 88

become more logical choices for CLT delivery in a network system of production. Bridging the gap between the active manufacturing plants of the Pacific Northwest and forest reserves of the east is the ultimate necessity to realize mass timber as a widely used building commodity across North America.

Fabricated

TIMBER

Fig. 37 North American softwood timber resources and proximities to manufacturing facilities

Fig. 38 All active timber production within North America, including glulam, CLT as well as all other engineered wood products

Speculation

61

Sphere of Influence Cincinnati As A Hub While the current trends suggest the location

Boston also become viable markets for timber

of a CLT manufacturing facility value proximity

construction, especially when their distance is

to raw resources above all else

considered out of reach by existing western

, there are

89 90

several advantages gained when other factors

factories.

are weighed as equally important. Again, while manufacturing timber within the Midwest is

Transit plays a crucial role in the success of

a speculation into the future, a globalized

timber production. Outside Chicago, Cincinnati

adoption of CLT necessitates looking outside

plays host to one of the largest rail hubs, not

the normal channels of current plant trends.

only in the Midwest, but all of America91. This

Old industrialized cities such as Cincinnati are

is attributed to Cincinnati’s 600 mi central

poised to play host to such a facility.

proximity to 62% of US manufacturing and retail92.

On the resource front alone, Cincinnati sits

Midwest city like Cincinnati could play host

at a centralized location between the North

to a successful timber manufacturing plant

American Southern Yellow Pine and Spruce Fir

due to its transit distribution network. Just as

forest reserves. As a counterpoint, the city is

important, the city is nested at the convergence

also equidistant from such populations centers

of interstates 71, 75, and 74 allowing for equally

as Chicago, Washington DC, and Atlanta.

efficient component distribution via truck.

Reaching further, cities such as New York and Fig. 39 Infrastructure Cincinnati OH

and

transit

corridor

mapping,

Fig. 40 US rail network and inter-city connections

Fabricated

TIMBER

It follows in the same logic that a

Boston Detroit

Chicago

Cleveland Salt Lake City New York Pittsburgh Denver

CINCINNATI

Kansas City St Louis

Atlanta

Speculation

63

Fabricated

TIMBER

Finally, Cincinnati’s land and climate suggest yet more reasons for a successful timber manufacturing facility.

In terms of development, the city hosts a

considerably lower cost of land than most, particularly in old industrialized areas. The Midwest’s climate is suitable for growing Jack Pine, an alternate mass timber tree species that can feed the supply chain beyond SYP and Spruce Fir. Furthermore, Ohio and Indiana’s abundance of farmland creates the distinct potential for locally farmed second-generation tree resources, just as Organschi’s regenerative supply chain93 suggests.

Thomas Robinson, in his lecture “Forest to Frame” references the coming success of Oregon’s timber industry due to the states “good ingredients94.”

He cites land use practice within Portland, and the city’s proximity to Douglas Fir as primers, in an analogy comparing CLT production to the ideas behind the farm to table movement in the culinary world. If considered cohesively, Cincinnati offers many of these same “ingredients” to actively support a high volume, successful mass timber factory.

Fig. 41 Infrastructure and transit corridor mapping (closeup) indicating potential site locations, Cincinnati OH

Section Head

65

Fabricated

TIMBER

Sphere of Influence Icon of Production An urban siting necessitates a critical look

manufacturing operations. If a manufacturing

at the often accepted mundane warehouse

facility is to act as an emblem of production,

architecture of manufacturing.

Prefabricated

it not only needs to function efficiently, but

steel truss boxes fill the need of a freespan floor

architecturally manifest an ideal use of the

plan, but inspire no interest about the activities

product produced within. An urban siting of

that occur within. A streamlined mass timber

a manufacturing facility brings exposure and

facility has the ability to influence the use of

education to an AEC industry not trained in

timber on surrounding projects, not only by

the detailing and construction of mass timber,

hyper efficient production methods, but also by

while showcasing the potential of a structure

showcasing a non-traditional use of the material

commonly thought only possible in steel.

at the center of the public’s eye.

The idea of a factory serving as an icon of manufacturing or product is also by no means a new architectural concept. As early as 1900, the ideas behind the Deustecher Workbund expressed a philosophy of all-encompassing design, where everything from the physical architecture to the company letterhead was a manifestation of the product produced95.

Modern precedents such as the Ricola Factory, designed by Herzog & DeMeuron96 or the Fiat Factory, designed by Renzo Piano97 show just how far reaching this idea has become. It is no stretch, therefore to consider that a CLT plant be held to the same architectural standard, especially in light of the proposed parallels between Tesla, Boeing, and other high-minded Fig. 42 (left) AEG factory, Deustecher Workbund, Peter Berhens Fig. 43 Timber lamella airplane hanger, Pier Luigi Nevari Fig. 44 Ricola production and storage facility, Herzog & DeMeuron

Speculation

67

Mechanics of the Factory Site Analysis The logistics of manufacturing timber product necessitate a large freespan floor plan, and by extension a flat, open site of a minimum of 8-10 acres. Consistently graded land within the urban core of Cincinnati de-facto limits potential site choices to locations in the Mill Valley, such as Lower Price Hill or Camp Washington.

Mass timber is manufactured by an on demand basis, whereby products are only produced once an order is placed98. These components are closely sequenced to match the construction schedule of a building, meaning little to no storage of completed parts on the factory floor. Therefore, efficient access to transit corridors is critical, as rail and truck become the conduit between production and field assembly.

Urban sites within any city

can present access challenges for oversized transit vehicles.

Cincinnati’s tangle of highway interchanges and overpasses are no exception to this, further narrowing potential site selection.

Given the above factors, a final site proposal in Lower Price Hill south of the 8th Street Viaduct (Figure 45) was selected as viable to support a high volume timber manufacturing facility. Nested in the city’s Mill Valley, Lower Price Hill has a rich history of manufacturing and industry, along with the necessary flat grading to support a large freespan building footprint.

This location

provides both critical access to Cincinnati’s main rail hub, as well as straight line access for 53’ flatbed trucks to efficiently reach interstate transit corridors. These transit nodes become a natural datum around which to organize the building parti.

Fig. 45 Final site selection, Lower Price Hill, Cincinnati OH. Proposed site is situated south of the 8th Street Viaduct, and includes new rail sidings as well as a one way spur off of State Route 50

Fabricated

TIMBER

Fig. 46 Previous site consideration, Lower Price Hill, north of the 8th Street Viaduct Fig. 47 Previous site consideration, Camp Washington Fig. 48 Previous site consideration, St Bernard Fig. 49 Comparable site analysis, Structurlam timber manufacturing, British Columbia

Speculation

69

Mechanics of the Factory Program Requirements Based on surveys of comparable CLT manufacturing facilities like Structurlam, Smartlam, and Blumer Lehmann, preliminary square footage requirements were developed to size a Midwest production facility that similarly matches the timber output and production capacity of these existing facilities. This survey suggests a minimum lot size of 8-10 acres. Square footage requirements for major manufacturing machines were assessed, with an excess requirement placed on circulation percentage due to the size of timber componentry being moved around.

Fig. 50 Structurlam infrastructure and site analysis, Penticton BC Fig. 51 Estimated program requirements, based on comparable timber factories

Fabricated

TIMBER

Mechanics of the Factory Parti CLT manufacturing is ideally organized as a

be rotated perpendicular to the manufacturing

of material movement be implemented to

linear process, whereby raw material enters

or transit lines.

efficiently connect one stage of production

the building, is planed, processed, pressed,

to the next.

Matching linear transit to linear

fabricated, and sized, exiting the building as

A discussion of equipment used in CLT and

manufacturing suggests a locale for another

a finished component . A key organizational

glulam manufacturing, is referenced in the

critical primary factory element: an overhead

strategy necessitates that transit corridors are

02 Mass Timber production section of this

gantry crane100.

run parallel to material processing, so that at no

document. Pressing and machining equipment

responsible for material input and output at

point does the processed material ever have to

is stationary, therefore necessitating a system

either end of the factory, secondary systems

99

While rail and truck are

must be in place along the manufacturing line for material movement within. Combined with secondary gantry cranes, rail turntables, and tertiary forklift movements, a comprehensive system of material handling is formed in support of manufacturing equipment.

The factory floor and machinery are therefore organized around three primary elements: two new rail sidings, a new one way spur road off of State Route 50, as well as the primary gantry crane. The integral nature of manufacturing and transit suggests a clear strategy to physically route these new transit lines directly into the building, for the most efficient material loading and unloading possible.

Combined, these

factors create strategy for form fitting a freespan shell over the interior program elements. The architecture of the factory becomes a literal translation of the operations contained within.

Fig. 52 Disney Ice Rink freespan glulam shell, Anaheim CA, Frank Gehry Partners

Speculation

71

1 N O C TI SE Fabricated

TIMBER

Mechanics of the Factory A Designed Shell Enclosure The culmination of a factory at the crossroads

that houses the process of manufacturing must

of design and production serves as a physical

become a reflection of what is possible in such

manifestation of how timber manufacturing

a material.

It becomes the responsibility of

Any facility housing heavy industry generally

can shape the built environment. If a vertically

the architecture of the factory to showcase

requires a large open floorplan, with a freespan

integrated system of delivery is truly a superior

new potentials with mass timber, and project

columnless enclosure above.

approach to timber architecture, the building

the fabrication processes housed within to the

no exception.

exterior envelope.

Mass timber is

These enclosures, however,

Fig. 53 Proposed factory floor plan integrating transit and machine on a parallel datum, timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH

North

Speculation

73

Fig. 54 Exterior perspective view of timber shell enclosure, mass timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH

Fabricated

TIMBER

are typically treated as nameless steel boxes,

where activities such as lifting and transit are

doors at each sectioned end of the shell. These

using steel trusses to accomplish the necessary

nested underneath the highest point in the

hanger doors provide the necessary access

spans.

By contrast, a timber factory meant

shell. Aesthetically, the shell morphs around a

for entry and exit of transit vehicles, without

to serve as an icon to the material ought to

primary piece of lifting equipment, and visually

disrupting the sweeping form of the shell above.

construct the enclosure from the very material it

delineates a key element of manufacturing.

Proceeding with a generative strategy such as

produces. While longspan timber structures are uncommon, there is still precedent showcasing

The geometry of the shell undulates to follow

the one detailed above allows for the creation

just how far glulam and CLT are capable of

the site cues of the existing rail and road, subtly

of an enclosing freeform shell that is still feasibly

spanning.

Frank Gehry’s work on the Disney

lifting off of the ground plane to create a natural

constructed using stick frame elements.

Ice Rink spans an impressive 116’ using glulam

entry sequence. This lofted form is sectioned

custom nature of each component capitalizes

bents . Markus Schietsch Architects, along with

every 10’, creating a bay dimension that matches

on one of the major strengths of downstream

Metsä Wood developed and constructed a 260’

the width of standard manufactured CLT panels.

digital prefabrication, as elements can be

freespan

Each section element drives geometry for a

precisely milled in a factory setting, and correctly

for the Zurich Zoo’s new elephant house . By

singular, unique, glulam bent.

Defined from

sequenced for efficient jobsite assembly. Due

extension, it is not unreasonable to suggest a

two straight lines drawn tangent to a constant

to the method of production, a complex shape

freespan timber enclosure over a manufacturing

arc, the freeform shell is ultimately divided into

is efficiently articulated without a significant

facility with similar spanning needs.

elements that can be easily constructed from

cost spike.

stick frame elements.

functional needs of a high volume mass timber

101

102

CLT wood shell as the centerpiece 103

Architecturally, the crane and transit plan Each glulam member spans an average of 270’,

organize a building envelope around. The gantry

with a tapered depth ranging from 7’ to 3’-6”.

crane necessitates a constant height across the

Since the underlying geometry is composed

entire shell, in contrast to the base condition

of straight-line sections, the resultant shape

that morphs to follow the site contours. The

is ideal for CLT decking, nesting a flat sheet

crane datum marks the high point along the

material to effectively clad a freeform shape104.

compound shell, creating a straight-line spine

The envelope enclosure strategy is completed

within a freeform shape.

by an ETFE membrane running along the spine

this

supports

an

organizational

strategy

The overall envelope meets the

facility, while showcasing a unique use of the

elements generate a clear datum from which to

Programmatically

The

material, not typically seen otherwise.

of the crane datum, along with large hanger

Speculation

75

Fig. 55 Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell CLT rib and envelope studies, Zurich, MSA Architects Fig. 56 CLT panel lift and installation, Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell Fig. 57 Interior perspective, Kaeng Krachan Elephant Shell

Fabricated

TIMBER

Speculation

77

Drawing Conclusions Timber and the AEC Industry It is time the use of mass timber be considered

manufacturing and fabricating such a material,

paradigm shift mass timber stands to bring to

as a forest to building commodity, a turn-

in order to fully leverage its capabilities. When

architecture.

key material architects interface with.

CLT is approached with a vertical model

This

proposition is inherently multi-faceted, spanning

of

engineers,

While further detailing and design iteration will

from economic, construction, manufacturing,

manufacturers, fabricators, and contractors

occur past the completion of this document,

and design practices.

If the emerging North

can all act in unison to transform the material

what is presented under the 04 - Mechanics

American market of mass timber is to rapidly

into an efficient, highly toleranced, elegant

of the Factory section is meant to suggest

expand, its use must stem from an infrastructure

structural product that mirrors the production

a driving architectural design intent for a

of delivery.

Such a system allows for widely

model of almost every other industry outside of

Midwestern CLT factory.

customized use of the material, especially

the AEC circle. There in lies the real substance

designed manufacturing plant are driven by the

at mid-rise scales.

downstream digital manufacturing brings to

functionality it necessitates. Each sub component

buildings and construction.

is modular, allowing for easy shipment from an

Architects must align

themselves with the embedded processes of

Fabricated

TIMBER

production,

both

architects,

That is the true

The aesthetics of a

existing mass timber facility to a proposed site

the

way

building

structural

components

While solid wood architecture is the first viable

in Cincinnati. While the individual components

are procured, both from a materiality and

construction medium by which to achieve such a

themselves are unique, fastening and assembly

manufacturing standpoint.

If architecture is

delivery model, the principles apply beyond any

strategies are kept constant, allowing for

to keep pace with the manner in which almost

singular material. By progressively anticipating

efficient programming and machining of each

every other designed object is output into

the forthcoming way design and industry

component.

Architectural intent drives a

the world, a paradigm shift must be adopted,

will interface, the infrastructure necessary to

building that stands as an icon within an urban

wherein prefabrication is viewed as equal parts

support such a change can currently be set in

context, which functionally, efficiently, centrally,

to a design and a manufacturing tool. Interfacing

motion.

aesthetically, and technically houses a process

with industry must no longer be conveyed by

of manufacturing and fabricating timber.

means of static shop drawings, but an integrated project team invested in leveraging the full

Mass timber sits at the precipice of changing

Fig. 58 Transverse section showcasing custom glulam ribs and transit trench, timber manufacturing facility, Cincinnati OH

potential of downstream digital fabrication.

Speculation

79

Architecture of the Factory Piloting the Paradigm Shift With functionality alone left to be the determining force of an industrial enclosure, the resultant form would be nothing more than a nameless warehouse box. The degradation of factories over the late 20th century is a manifestation of jettisoning aesthetics and architectural design in favor of pure efficiency.

Functional architecture serves it occupants, but with no attention to space, place, or environment. This logic holds true regardless of the material chosen. A functional timber box is still nothing more than a box once the novelty of the material has worn away.

By curating a refined timber enclosure a new material pushes the boundaries of what is expected. The architecture of the factory physically manifests the embedded processes of its making, while simultaneously sculpting an enclosure around functional production equipment. Over one hundred years ago, the Galerie Des Machines laid the foundation for what was possible with cast iron. Eight years ago, Tesla revamped a derelict warehouse box to create the world’s first gigafactory, a pristine gallery like enclosure in which to display a fleet of 6 axis production equipment. The architecture of the timber factory is curated in this same spirit.

Envision the future where the machinery and processes of timber production, fabrication, and prototyping, are not hidden behind a shroud of mystery tucked away in a remote forest, but held on a pedestal for the public to gaze upon. The methods and deliveries of construction are changing, and this new landscape needs not accept the industrial buildings of the past.

This paradigm shift

starts at the intersection of architecture and industry, the factory.

Fig. 59 Galerie Des Machines, demolished 1910, Ferdinand Dutert architect Fig. 60 Timber shell enclosure, an architecture aligned with the new practices of industry

Fabricated

TIMBER

Speculation

81

Section Endnotes Document Reference 87. O’Carroll and Koskinen, Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Engineered Wood Products Mill, 72, 76-77.

88. Ibid, 64-79.

89. “Structurlam Location,” map, Google Maps, accessed September 08, 2018.

90. “Smartlam Location,” map, Google Maps, accessed March 05, 2019.

91. Ohio’s Intermodal Rail Terminals, report (Columbus, OH: Ohio Rail Development Commission), 1-7.

92. Ibid, 1.

93. Organschi, “Re-forming The Anthropocene” https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181 (March 12, 2018).

94. Robinson, “Forest to Frame,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU, (November 11, 2018).

95. William J. R. Curtis, Modern Architecture Since 1900 (London: Phaidon Press, 2013), 99-103.

96. “Ricola Production and Storage Building,” Herzog & DeMeuron, https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/complete-works/076-100/094-ricola-europe-productionand-storage-building/image.html, (March 10, 2019).

97. “Lingotto Factory Conversion,” Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 1http://www.rpbw.com/project/lingotto-factory-conversion, (March 10, 2019).

98. Mayo, Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, 24.

99. Konstantin Grasser, “Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America,” 68-75.

100. Tolnai, Sills, and Spickler, “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations,” October 24, 2018.

101. “Disney ICE: The Warmth of Wood Heats Up an Anaheim Ice Rink,” editorial, APA - The Engineered Wood Association, March 2002, , accessed February 16, 2019, https://www. apawood.org/publication-search?q=W120&tid=1.

102. Emily Hooper, “Kaeng Krachan Elephant Park Shell,” Architect Magazine: , October 27, 2015, accessed March 6, 2019, https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/detail/ kaeng-krachan-elephant-park-shell_o.

103. Philipp Heidmann, “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark” (lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017).

104. Kieran and Timberlake, Refabricating Architecture, 119.

Speculation

83

05 References Common Terms Section Endnotes Common Acronyms List of Figures List of References

Common Terms Document Reference Axis In reference to CNC machining, the degrees of freedom a machine has to move in. 3 axis refers to a machine spindle bound to the X, Y, and Z Cartesian coordinate system. 4 axis allows for a static angled placement of the spindle. 5 axis allows the computer to control this angle on the fly, at a normal to the traditional 3 directions of movement.

Billet Untrimmed, pressed and glued panel of CLT

Digital Fabrication The process of taking a computerized 3D model of an object and outputting it via technology driven manufacturing processes. These processes can be either additive (as in 3D printing) or subtractive (as in CNC milling). This part is prepared for output and manufacturing via machine specific CAM softwares.

Dimension Lumber Sections of less than 6� in thickness planed to standardized sections. Denoted as 1x, 2x, 4x, etc., names refer to nominal sizes. Actual sizes always smaller than nominal sizes.

Downstream In reference to Digital Fabrication. By virtue of how digital fabrication is approached, a ‘downstream’ process is established where the 3D modeled part is translated directly from machine to reality. No interstitial shop drawings are necessary. Through a series of file manipulations and software, a virtual modeled component is directly read and produced by a digital fabrication process.

Glulam Encompassing term for assembled beams and columns. Small pieces of dimension lumber are glued together, with the grain always running parallel, to produce larger cross sections. This is a more economically viable solution to heavy timber, as the final component does not need to be sourced from one old growth tree.

Grading The process categorizing lumber based on its visual, strength, and quality characteristics.

Grain Longitudinal arrangement of wood fibers , and the resulting surface pattern from how timber is sawn from a log.

Fabricated

TIMBER

Heavy Timber Category of timber construction distinct from mass timber. Heavy timber refers to singular sawed sections of timber 6” and greater in both directions.

Mass timber, by comparison, is always comprised of smaller glued sections to create a final, larger assembly.

Mass Timber Large encompassing term referring to all types of glued and manufactured timber products. CLT, Glulam beams / columns, PSL, and LVL components are all subsets within the mass timber category.

Massive Timber Synonym, refer to Mass Timber

Solid Wood Synonym, refer to Mass Timber

Subtractive Manufacturing In reference to CNC profiling, the process of digitally driven manufacturing which removes excess portions of a stock material blank to produce a finished part .

Timber Rough sawn logs from which dimension lumber is made

Tolerance The degree of accuracy to which a physical part is manufactured in relation to its driving digital model.

Section Endnotes Document Reference 105. Heavy Timber Construction, report, American Forest & Paper Association, vol. 5, Wood Construction Data (Washington DC: American Wood Council, 2003), 1-2.

106. Karacabeyli and Douglas, CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber, 403.

107. Heavy Timber Construction, report, American Forest & Paper Association, 1-2.

108. Sass, “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication,” 299-300.

References

87

Common Acronyms Document Reference AEC

-

Architect, Engineer, Contractor, the core parties responsible for any given building construction project

AECO

-

Architect, Engineer, Contractor, Owner, refer to AEC

ALSC

-

American Lumber Standards Committee

APA

-

Original acronym for the American Plywood Association, now known as the Engineered Wood Association; the regulating body of

engineered timber products in the United States and Canada.

ASTM

-

American Society for Testing and Materials

CAM

-

Computer Aided Manufacturing, in reference to software used to program cutting paths executed on a CNC mill

CLT

-

Abbreviation for Cross Laminated Timber. CLT is a panel component made up of planed dimension lumber. The lumber is glued up

in perpendicular layers, similar to how plywood is made. This cross grain orientation gives the panel its strength.

CNC

-

Computer Numerically Controlled, in reference to machines run off of G-Code based programming

DLT

-

Dowel Laminated Timber

Glulam -

Shortened abbreviation for Glue Laminated (most typically beams and columns)

LVL

-

Laminated Veneer Lumber; thin veneer layers laminated together to form structural beams.

NIST

-

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NLT

-

Nail Laminated Timber

OSB

-

Oriented Strand Board; sheet material made of pressed wood chips

PSL

-

Parallel Strand Lumber; long chips of lumber pressed and laminated together, in similar fashion to OSB, to form structural beams

R&D

-

Research and Development

SPIB

-

Southern Pine Inspection Bureau

SYP

-

Southern Yellow Pine

Fabricated

TIMBER

References

89

List of Figures Document Reference Fig 1

Individual Glulam Bents 9 Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

Fig 2

Kaeng Krachen Freespan Timber Dome

10

Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digitial Image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.

Fig 3

Timber Product Mapping 12

Mixed Species Beam Pocket Detail

Timber Factory Shell Enclosure

13

15

Douglas Fir 20

Douglas Fir 20 “Douglas Fir Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database.

Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ douglas-fir/.

Fig 8

Softwood Tree Species 20 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 9

Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

“Douglas Fir Annual Growth Rings.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. http://www.emporiolumber. com/index.php/douglas-fir/.

Fig 7

“Scots Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database.

Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ scots-pine/.

Fig 14 Solid Wood Assemblies 24

Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

Fig 6

“Jack Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database.

Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ jack-pine/.

Fig 13 Glulam Column Production 22

Ban, Shigehru, and Bluhmer Lehmann. “Tamedia HQ Timber Beam Detail.” Digital image. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// www.archdaily.com/478633/tamedia-office-building-shigeruban-architects.

Fig 5

Jack Pine 21

Fig 12 Scots Pine 21

Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Timber City. Digital image. Gray Organschi Architecture. 2016.

Fig 4

Fig 11

Spruce Fir 20 “Spruce Fir Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database.

Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/ white-fir/.

Fig 15 Solid Wood Assemblies 24 “Solid Wood Assembly Types.” Digital image. Ideas Buildings.

Accessed March 12, 2019. http://blog.perkinswill.com/masstimber-a-primer-and-top-5/.

Fig 16 Pine Lumber Grades 26 Green, David, Jerrold Winandy, and David Kretcshemann.

Mechanical Properties of Wood. Digital image. Forest Products Laboratory. 1999.

Fig 17 Finger Joint Detail 27 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Fig 18 CLT Production Methods 28 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.

Fig 19 Finger Jointing Assembly Line

29

Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Fig 10 Southern Yellow Pine 21 “Southern Yellow Pine Grain Sample.” Digital image. The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wooddatabase.com/longleaf-pine/.

Fabricated

TIMBER

Fig 20 Nesting CLT Panels 30

Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Overview/Working-at-Katerra-EI_IE1403924.11,18.htm.

Fig 21 CLT Billets 30 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Fig 22 Glue Strength Testing 31 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Fig 23 CNC Profiling Timber 32 CNC Panel Processing Center: PBA. Digital Image. Hans Hundegger AG.

Fig 24 Packaging Finished Timber 33 Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

47

Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author. 2018. Structurlam Mass Timber Corporation.

Fig 32 Timber City Regenerative Supply Chains

49

Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Timber City. Digital image. Gray Organschi Architecture. 2016.

Fig 33 Structurlam Factory Floor 50 Photograph by author.

Corporation.

2018.

Structurlam Mass Timber

Fig 34 Idealized CLT Production Methods

52

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.

Fig 35 Earth Sciences Building 54

Fig 25 Model T Assembly Line 39 “Model T Assembly Production Line.” Digital image. MT Hobson Group. Accessed March 12, 2019. https://mthobsonproperties. co.nz/housing-efficiency/modle-t/.

Fig 26 Tesla Model S Production

Fig 31 Hand Finishing Glulam Beams

Miller, Matthew. Photograph by author.

British Columbia.

2018.

University of

Fig 36 CLT Joinery Detail 55 40

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.

Fig 27 Boeing Jet Production 42 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.

Fig 28 Fanblade Assembly Detail 43 “Turbofan Blade Assembly Detail.”

Digital image.

American Security News. Accessed March 12, 2019. https:// americansecuritynews.com/stories/511050839-aei-analyzesiran-s-newly-unveiled-jet-engine-manufacturing-capability.

Fig 29 Katerra Integrated Delivery 44 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2018.

CNC Panel Processing CenterPBA. Digital Image. Hans Hundegger AG.

Fig 37 North Amer ican Forest Reserves

60

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author.

2019.

Based on Weherhaeuser forest analytics. McAuley, Kathy, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon. 2012 Analyst Meeting. Report. Weyerhaeuser. 2012.

Fig 38 North American Timber Production

61

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019. Based on Poyry Wood Supply Assessments. O’Carroll, Cormac, and Antti Koskinen.

Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Wood Products Mill. Report. New England Forestry Foundation. Poyry Management Consulting, 2017.

Fig 39 Cincinnati Infrastructure Mapping

62

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 30 Katerra Manufactured Timber 45 “Katerra New Head Office Facilities.” Digital image. Glassdoor.

Accessed March 12, 2019. https://www.glassdoor.com/

References

91

List of Figures Document Reference Fig 40 US Rail Network Mapping

63

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 41 Cincinnati Infrastructure Mapping (closeup)

64

Fig 42 AEG Factory 66 Behrens, Peter. “AEG Turbine Factory.” Digital image. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&e src=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwifybqtPbgAhXrrIMKHX0iA2YQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=https://www. pinterest.com/n/139541288432923935/&psig=AOvVaw329PFF TleomeLPirvS4BNk&ust=1552267403023976.

67

Fig 54 Timber Factory Shell Enclosure

74

Fig 55 Kaeng Krachan Envelope Studies

76

Markus Schietsch Architects. “Kaeng Krachen Elephant Enclosure.” Digital image. Walt Galmarini. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.waltgalmarini.ch/en/portfolio/elephantenclosure-zoo-zuerich/.

Fig 56 CLT Panel Installation 77

Fig 45 Final Site Selection 68 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 46 Cincinnati Site Analysis 69 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 47 Cincinnati Site Analysis 69 Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digital image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.

Fig 57 Kaeng Krachan Freespan Timber Dome

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

77

Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Digital image. University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.

Fig 58 Factory Floor Transverse Section

Fig 48 Cincinnati Site Analysis 61

78

Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

Fig 59 Galerie Des Machines 80 61

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 50 Structurlam Transit Network 70

TIMBER

72

Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

Herzog & DeMeuron. “Ricola Production and Storage Facility.”

Digital image. Herzog & Demeuron. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/completeworks/076-100/094-ricola-europe-production-and-storagebuilding/image.html.

Fabricated

Gehry, Frank. “Anaheim Disney Timber Ice Rink.” Digital image.

Accessed March 13, 2019. https://www.google.com/l?sa=i&rct=j&q =&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwj 5jsr6pfjgAhXk5IMKHbRdC9oQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=https://www. yelp.com/biz_photos/the-rinks-anaheim-ice-anaheim?select=_ mHVjHdxrxL5__kUz8BkjA&psig=AOvVaw2gytSr67-CFJ76QDZv Vsga&ust=1552332124225726.

Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

Fig 44 Ricola Production Facility 67

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 52 Disney Ice Rink 71

Fig 53 Timber Factory Floor Plan

Nevari, Pier Luigi. “Orvieto Hangers.” Digital image. Structurae.

Accessed March 13, 2019. https://structurae.net/structures/ orvieto-hangars.

Fig 49 Comparative Site Assessment, Structurlam

70

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Miller, Matthew. Diagram by author. 2019.

Fig 43 Timber Lamella Airplane Hanger

Fig 51 Speculative Program Requirements

Dutert, Ferdinand. “Galerie Des Machines.” Digital image. Atlas of Places. Accessed March 13, 2019. https://atlasofplaces.com/ filter/Architecture/Galerie-des-Machines-Ferdinand-Dutert.

Fig 60 Timber Factory Shell Enclosure Miller, Matthew. Drawing by author. 2019.

73

References

93

List of References Document Works Cited American Softwood Lumber Standards. Report no. PS 20-10. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2010.

Beyreuther, Todd. Next Generation CLT: Mass Customization of Hybrid Custom Panels. In Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions, 866-72.

Washington DC: ASCA Press, 2014.

Beyreuther, Todd. “Forest to Building.” Lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 22, 2016. Accessed October 12, 2018. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=zeFsvvoYxRU. Curtis, William J. R. Modern Architecture Since 1900. London: Phaidon Press, 2013.

“Disney ICE: The Warmth of Wood Heats Up an Anaheim Ice Rink.” Editorial. APA - The Engineered Wood Association, March 2002. Accessed February 16, 2019. https://www.apawood.org/publication-search?q=W120&tid=1.

“Factories.” Katerra. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/our-factories.html.

Grasser, Karl Konstantin. Development of Cross Laminated Timber in the United States of America. Master’s thesis, University of Tennessee, 2015.

Heavy Timber Construction. Report. American Forest & Paper Association. Vol. 5. Wood Construction Data. Washington DC: American Wood Council, 2003.

Heidmann, Philipp. “Kaeng Krachan Elefantenpark.” Lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, Cincinnati, July 10, 2017.

Hooper, Emily. “Kaeng Krachan Elephant Park Shell.” Architect Magazine. October 27, 2015. Accessed March 6, 2019. https://www.architectmagazine. com/technology/detail/kaeng-krachan-elephant-park-shell_o.

“Jack Pine.” The Wood Database. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.wood-database.com/jack-pine/.

Karacabeyli, Erol, and Brad Douglas. CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated Timber. Pointe-Claire, QC: FPInnovations, 2013.

Kieran, Stephen, and James Timberlake. Refabricating Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

King, Paul, dir. How to Build A Jumbo Jet Engine. BBC. July 4, 2010. Accessed November 6, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ufd5nDeEK8&t=1854s.

“Lingotto Factory Conversion.” Renzo Piano Building Workshop. Accessed March 10, 2019. http://www.rpbw.com/project/lingotto-factory-conversion.

“Manufacturing Process of CLT.” Smartlam. Accessed March 04, 2019. http://www.smartlam.com/about/manufacturing-process-of-clt/.

Mayo, Joseph. Solid Wood: Case Studies in Mass Timber Architecture, Technology, and Design. London: Routledge, 2015.

Fabricated

TIMBER

McAuley, Kathy, Dan Fulton, and Tom Gideon. 2012 Analyst Meeting. Report. Weyerhaeuser. 2012.

Megafactories: Tesla Model S. National Geographic. March 23, 2017. Accessed November 15, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KA18tusTgE4.

Tolnai, Stephen, Nicholas Sills, and Kris Spickler. “Structurlam Manufacturing Facilities and Operations.” Interview by author. October 24, 2018.

O’Carroll, Cormac, and Antti Koskinen. Assessing the Wood Supply and Investment Potential for a New England Wood Products Mill. Report. New England Forestry Foundation. Poyry Management Consulting, 2017.

Ohio’s Intermodal Rail Terminals. Report. Columbus, OH: Ohio Rail Development Commission.

Organschi, Alan. “Re-forming The Anthropocene.” Lecture, University of Cincinnati SAID Lecture Series, College of Design, Art, Architecture, and Planning, Cincinnati. February 21, 2018. Accessed March 12, 2018. https://daap.mediaspace.kaltura.com/media/Alan Organschi February 21st, 2018/1_gmclfnwb/36513181.

Organschi, Alan, and Lisa Gray. Gray Organschi Architecture. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://grayorganschi.com/.

Peters, Tom F. “An American Culture of Construction.” In Perspecta, 142-161. Vol. 25. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989.

“Ricola Production and Storage Building.” Herzog & DeMeuron. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.herzogdemeuron.com/index/projects/ complete-works/076-100/094-ricola-europe-production-and-storage-building/image.html.

Robinson, Thomas. “Firm & Process.” LEVER. Accessed September 21, 2018. http://www.leverarchitecture.com/.

Robinson, Thomas. “LEVER Keynote Address.” Lecture, Society of American Foresters: Hagenstein Event, Washington DC. November 1, 2017. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aHeqe_6HS_8.

Robinson, Thomas. “Forest to Frame.” Lecture, Mass Timber Conference, Oregon, Portland, March 24, 2016. Accessed November 11, 2018. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=M30REHhwgGU. Sass, Lawrence. “Synthesis of Design Production With Integrated Digital Fabrication.” Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006.

Automation in Construction Volume 16 (2007): 298-310.

“Scots Pine.” The Wood Database. Accessed September 10, 2018. https://www.wood-database.com/scots-pine/.

“Smartlam Location.” Map. Google Maps. Accessed March 05, 2019. https://www.google.com/maps/place/SmartLam/@48.3756051,-114.1922425,17z/ data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x53664175b816e3a1:0x7c0844c9f3a13817!8m2!3d48.3756051!4d-114.1900538.

StructureCraft Builders - Timber Engineering & Construction. Accessed March 02, 2019. https://structurecraft.com/.

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List of References Document Works Cited “Structurlam Location.” Map. Google Maps. Accessed September 8, 2018. https://www.google.com/maps?client=safari&rls=en&q=structurlam&oe=U TF-8&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjApJavy-zgAhWOct8KHQDpCpMQ_AUIDygC. Stuart, John A., and Mabel Wilson. Globalizing Architecture: Flows and Disruptions: 102nd ACSA Annual Meeting. Washington, DC: ACSA Press, 2014.

“The Structurlam Process.” Structurlam. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.structurlam.com/about/the-structurlam-advantage/.

“Vision.” Katerra. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.katerra.com/en/about-katerra/the-vision.html.

“Wood Finder.” The Wood Database. Accessed March 10, 2019. https://www.wood-database.com/wood-finder/.

“Wood Innovations & CLT.” DR Johnson. Accessed January 09, 2019. https://oregonclt.com/about/.

Fabricated

TIMBER

References

97