URBAN DICTIONARY
Lexicon of Climate Change Literature Concepts, terms, and buzzwords to know.
Max Moinian 180511
FUNCTION The FUTURE EARTH CATALOG function as a glossary of terms, buzzwords, and theories to know from the climate science and urban resilience dialogues today. A go to guide for anyone who wishes to join the conversation. There’s no such thing as a stupid question, but we should still try to ask the right ones.
PURPOSE To bring multiple, perhaps conflicting definitions in one place in order to take a position.
Because when do we ever question what the dictionary says?
AND to set a debate or consensus on concepts and reveal multiple ways of knowing. To break conventional knowledge systems with a format that allows individuals to question, converse, and contribute.
Max Moinian 180511
Screen Shot 2018-05-01 at 12.49.14 AM Urbandictionary.com top three entries for the word myth
Colonize Mars
Property Rights
Retreat
Polar Bears
Higher Ground
Land Use
Recover
Renewables
Floodplain
Adaptation
Resilience
Environmentalism
Preparedness
Solar Panels
Mitigation
Transformation
Wind Turbines
Sustainability
Conservation
Hydropower Tidal Energy
Natural Resources
Consumerism
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Nitrogen
Industrialization Globalization
Agriculture
CO 2
Drilling
Nuclear Power
Deforestation
Big Tobacco
Wildfire
Heartland Institute
Greenhouse Gases
Fracking
Heat Wave
Hurricane Earthquake
Cato Institute Think Tanks
“Business as usual”
Climate
Koch Brothers
NIPCC
Sound Science
Coal
Drought
Competitive Enterprise Institute
Fossil Fuels
Mining
Oil
Subsidence
Global Climate Coalition
Climate
Extraction
Biodiversity
Global Warming
Carbon Footprint
Methane
Bioenergy Hybrid Vehicle
Glaciers
Ecosystems Nature
Capitalism
Geothermal Energy
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Wetlands
Weather
Arctic Exploration ExxonMobil
Shell
Deluge
Flood Inundation
Tsunami “Hoax”
Doubt Flat-Earthers
“Beautiful, clean coal”
Cold War
Skeptics
Denial
Chloroflurocarbons Media
Natural Hazard Natural Disaster
2o C
Sustainable Development Economic Development
Nitrous Oxide
Divest!
“Watermelons”
Advocacy
IPCC Social Movement
Radicals
Activism Stewardship
Local Knowledge
Greenpeace
Earth
1-in-100 Year Flood
Sea Level Rise
Change
Risk Society Fortress Urbanism Grey Infrastructure
Indigenous Knowledge
Atmosphere
Arctic
Climate Science
Human Rights
Feminism
Pollution
Dams
Risk
Anthropocene
Green Infrastructure
Disaster Capitalism
Gaia
Seawalls
Landscaped Berms
Degradation Apocalypse
Ozone
Climate Models
Depletion
Climate Refugees
Data Projections
Breakwaters
Oysters
Environment
Carbon Tax
Over Population
Climate Gentrification
Sulfur Injection
Storm Surge Energy
Cap-and-Trade
Policy Carbon Capture
Survival Carelessness
Apathy Finite Pool of Worry
Uncertainty Greed
GMO’s Extinction Fear
Helplessness
Hunger
Desalinization
Geo Engineering
Conservation v Preservation
Utilitarianism Maximize benefits and rely on experts (53) Science and economics to value, measure, compare, predict, influence policy options Criticism: 1 can’t anticipate / control all of the consequence of your actions 2 quantifying qualitative things (with money) 3 sometimes the ethically correct move is to act on principle, not consequence (when a cost-benefit analysis doesn’t cover it)
“The Precautionary Principle” When you don’t know everything, lean towards the options that try to reduce risk
Max Moinian 180511
Ecosystem Services 10/17/2014
Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Defenses - NYTimes.com
http://nyti.ms/1pSnvGV
ENVIRONMENT
|
N YT NOW
Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Defenses JUNE 5, 2014
Carl Zimmer MATTER
After Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans, the United States Army Corps of Engineers got to work on a massive network of levees and flood walls to protect against future catastrophes. Finally completed in 2012, the project ended up costing $14.5 billion — and that figure didn’t include the
Free Rider Theory
upkeep these defenses will require in years to come, not to mention the cost of someday replacing them altogether.
But levees aren’t the only things that protect coasts from storm damage.
Nature offers protection, too. Coastal marshes absorb the wind energy and waves of storms, weakening their impact farther inland. And while it’s expensive to maintain man-made defenses, wetlands rebuild themselves. Protection from storms is just one of many services that ecosystems provide us — services that we’d otherwise have to pay for. In 1997, a team of
scientists decided to estimate how much they are actually worth. Worldwide, they concluded, the price tag was $33 trillion — equivalent to $48.7 trillion in today’s dollars. Put another way, the services ecosystems provide us — whether shielding us from storms, preventing soil erosion or soaking up the greenhouse gases that lead to global warming — were twice as valuable as the gross national product of every country on Earth in 1997. “We basically said, ‘It’s an imprecise estimate, but it’s almost definitely a pretty big number, and we’ve got to start paying attention,'” said Robert
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/05/science/earth/putting-a-price-tag-on-natures-defenses.html?_r=0
1/4
Stewardship Merriam Webster: “the conducting, supervising, or managing of something; especially :the careful and responsible management of something entrusted to one's care stewardship of natural resources” “the job of supervising or taking care of something, such as an organization or property” Religious (Christianity): value nature for the resources it can provide to humans; treat nature with the appreciation, reverence and respect that are “due a gift from the creator.” (43) Humans have dominion over the natural world but are not “entitled to destroy or ruin it”
Pure Public Good
Deep Ecology (Naes, 207)
Shallow is “committed to the fight against pollution and resource depletion.” An anthropocentric approach with the “primary objective of protecting the ‘health and affluence of the people in developed countries.’” “Deep is the underlying issues — what is causing pollution and resource depletion ‘’ we need a radical change in people’s philosophical worldview; attitude of domination and infinite resources are the roots of ecological destruction
Ecofeminism the idea that our society’s attitude of domination — of women and the natural environment, is the biggest problem
Max Moinian 180511
Non-Anthropocentrism If we are one with nature, then the distinction between primary and secondary valuations is blurred, and we can justify arguments on behalf of the natural environment with more than just rational scientific fact.
Max Moinian 180511
Climate Change IPCC: Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the (UNFCCC) defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition and climate variability attributable to natural causes. See also Detection and Attribution.
Global Warming Global Climate Disruption ... is a better term
“The phrase ‘global warming’ was something of a misnomer... it suggests that the phenomenon is something that is uniform around the world, that it’s all about temperature, and that it’s gradual.” Max Moinian 180511
Holdren, Science Advisor to President Obama
1958 “Two scientists & Meteora, the goddess of weather explain how it’s created and warn about the global threat of climate change.”
CORRECT:
“Climate change as a result of global warming”
Climate Change is denialism: “What we desperately need is an appropriate level of shock + anxiety concerning a specific ecological trauma -- indeed, the ecological trauma of our age.”
Chronic v. Episodic Risk the need to bridge shocks we experience with the stressors we cannot easily perceive
Art by Jenny Holzer
Sea Level Rise in Public Science Writing Susanna Lindstrom “Popular imaginations and news media are much less likely to reflect the slow and insidious changes of delayed effects and their victims than the accident and its immediate, visible impacts.”
Media how information is “framed” for the public Slow Violence Rob Nixon
“key source of information about the tangible, everyday
“A violence that occurs gradually and out of sight, a violence of delayed destruction that is dispersed across TIME and SPACE, an attritional violence that is typically not viewed as violence at all.”
situations that are a necessary complement to abstract information so that people can generate collective action frames.” Evades questions of responsibilty: bias towards SHOCKS creates distance between: eventual victims AND those responsible ....we respond to urgency
Max Moinian 180511
STRESSOR CHRONIC SLOW DISASTER SLOW VIOLENCE
SHOCK EPISODE
evades perception, intangible scale
“coherent, narrative units”
calls for systemic, radical change
“false immediacy”
“looming presence of an invisible
at a SPACE/TIME scale
yet far more real global climate”
that people can relate to emotional (experiential, characters) straightforward solutions
Risk Society
reflexive: public challenge the way information is packaged and deliverd by government and organizations
The critical force of all this fervent intellectual activity is radically and systematically constrained by its cultural heritage and unreflexive idiom” … “technical experts are given pole position to define agendas and impose bounding premises a priori on risk discourses.” (4)
Max Moinian 180511
POWER:
works in part by robbing the powerless of the inclination or ability to develop their own interpretations of political issues. With active, mindful political participation, we weave reality and a place for ourselves within it
Eliasoph, 1998
For we have to ask ourselves, here and now, do we wish to join that procession, or don’t we? On what terms shall we join that procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men? But, you will object, you have no time to think; you have your battles to fight, your rent to pay, your bazaars to organize. That excuse shall not serve you, Madam. Think we must. Let us never cease from thinking — what is this “civilization” in which we find ourselves? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men?
THREE GUINEAS, VIRGINIA WOOLF Max Moinian 180511
Risk Perception
Max Moinian 180511
Nat Hazards DOI 10.1007/s11069-011-0072-6 ORIGINAL PAPER
Flood risk perception in lands ‘‘protected’’ by 100-year levees Jessica Ludy • G. Matt Kondolf
Received: 2 August 2011 / Accepted: 15 December 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
Abstract Under the US National Flood Insurance Program, lands behind levees certified as protecting against the 100-year flood are considered to be out of the officially recognized ‘‘floodplain.’’ However, such lands are still vulnerable to flooding that exceeds the design capacity of the levees—known as residual risk. In the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California, we encounter the curious situation that lands below sea level are considered not ‘‘floodplain’’ and open to residential and commercial development because they are ‘‘protected’’ by levees. Residents are not informed that they are at risk from floods, because officially they are not in the floodplain. We surveyed residents of a recently constructed subdivision in Stockton, California, to assess their awareness of their risk of flooding. Median household income in the development was $80,000, 70% of respondents had a 4-year university degree or higher, and the development was ethnically mixed. Despite the levels of education and income, they did not understand the risk of being flooded. Given that literature shows informed individuals are more likely to take preventative measures than uninformed individuals, our results have important implications for flood policy. Climate-change-induced sea-level rise exacerbates the problems posed by increasing urbanization and aging infrastructure, increasing the threat of catastrophic flooding in the California Delta and in flood-prone areas worldwide. Keywords Risk perception Flood insurance 100-year flood Levee Residual risk Delta
J. Ludy G. M. Kondolf Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University of California, 202 Wurster Hall #2000, Berkeley, CA 94720-2000, USA e-mail: kondolf@berkeley.edu J. Ludy (&) Division of Flood Management, American Rivers, 2150 Allston Way, Suite 320, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA e-mail: jessica.ludy@gmail.com
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Weather v Climate “Climate is the history of weather.”
Max Moinian 180511
Diagram based on information in A Vast Machine, Paul N. Edwards
Max Moinian 180511
CLIMATE SCIENCE: Not a house of cards, but a tapestry, probably one of the most beautiful, sturdy and complex ever assembled. Of course there are a lot of holes in it, having holes is what weaving knots and nodes is about. But this tapestry is amazingly resilient because of the way it is woven— allowing data to be recalibrated by models and vice versa.
Jacob Bronowski, Ascent of Man, BBC,
Screen Shot 2018-05-02 at 8.22.16 AM. Description of Rowland & Molina’s 1974 work published in Nature on the occassion of their 1995 Novel Chemistry prize award.
Max Moinian 180511
What’s the use of having developed a science well enough to make predictions if, in the end, all we’re willing to do is stand around and wait for them to come true?
Sherwood Rowlands Atmospheric chemist and nobel laureate, discovered that chlorofluorocarbons contribute to ozone depletion
3 Types of Models : 1 simulation 2 reanalysis 3 data analysis NOT models v. data “Without models there are no data.” “The numbers don’t speak for themselves.” “The IPCC brings controversy within consensus, capturing the full range of expert opinion.”
A Vast Machine, Paul N. Edwards
Max Moinian 180511
“ shimmering ” reverberation of data images Introduction what we know about the past changes, which can be perceived as messy science, BUT the images “shimmer around a central line” that confirms global warming
Unless you have been in a coma since 1988, you have certainly heard or read a story that goes something like this: Global warming is a myth. It’s all model predictions, nothing but simulations. Before you believe it, wait for real data. “The climate-studies people always tend to overestimate their models,” the physicist Freeman Dyson told an interviewer in April 2009. “They forget they are only models.”1 In the countless political controversies over climate change, the debate often shakes out into a contest: models versus data. This supposed contest is at best an illusion, at worst a deliberate deception—because without models, there are no data. I’m not talking about the difference between “raw” and “cooked” data. I mean this literally. Today, no collection of signals or observations—even from satellites, which can “see” the whole planet—becomes global in time and space without first passing through a series of data models. Since both observing systems and data models evolve, global data also change. We have not one data image of the global climate, but many. The past, or rather what we can know about the past, changes. And it will keep right on changing. I call this reverberation of data images “shimmering.” Global data images have proliferated, yet they have also converged. They shimmer around a central line, a trend that tells us that Earth has already warmed by about 0.75°C (1.35°F) since 1900. Nor is there any such thing as a pure climate simulation. Yes, we get a lot of knowledge from simulation models. But this book will show you that the models we use to project the future of climate are not pure theories, ungrounded in observation. Instead, they are filled with data—data that bind the models to measurable realities. Does that guarantee that the models are correct? Of course not. There is still a lot wrong with climate models, and many of the problems may never be solved. But the idea that you can avoid those problems by waiting for (model-independent) data Excerpt from introduction, page xiii.
We will trust the data if we understand its limits better
Paul N. Edwards Professor in the School of Information, U of Michigan; research the history, politics, + cultural aspects of computers, information infrastructures, + global climate science
Fossil Fuels
Greenhouse Gases
Max Moinian 180511
A Selected Timeline of U.S. Energy This history of energy in the United States is deeply interwoven with technology, economics, political policies, consumer concerns, and worldwide events. Sources of energy both compete with, and complement, each other depending on the prevailing circumstances. This is a brief outline of key dates and events marking America’s development of various sources of energy. Use this as a guide. More comprehensive histories are available for each of these categories.
Coal 1673–74: The first record of coal in the United States was shown on a map prepared by Louis Joliet. The map notes charbon de terra (coal of the earth) along the Illinois River in northern Illinois. 1701: Coal was discovered near Richmond, Virginia. 1736: The location of several “cole mines” were recorded on a map. The mines were located along the upper Potomac River, near what is now the border of Maryland and West Virginia. 1748: The first commercial U.S. coal production began near Richmond, Virginia. 1750s: Coal was reported in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and what is now the state of West Virginia. 1758: The first commercial coal shipment in the United States was recorded. 1762: Pennsylvania’s anthracite deposits were found. Coal was used to manufacture shot, shell, and other military materials. 1769: James Watt patented the modern-day steam engine. Coal was used to produce steam for early steam engines. 1800s: Coal became the principal fuel used by steam-powered trains (locomotives). As the railroads branched into the coal fields, they became a vital link between mines and markets. 1816: Baltimore, Maryland, became the first city to light streets with gas made from coal. 1866: The practice of strip-mining (mining in strips of land) began near Danville, Illinois. Horse-drawn plows and scrapers were used to remove the top layer of dirt or rocks so that the coal could be dug and hauled away. 1875: Coal coke replaced charcoal as the chief fuel for iron-blast furnaces. 1877: A steam-powered shovel excavated some 10 feet of overburden (earth covering a coal deposit) from a 3-footthick coal bed near Pittsburg, Kansas. 1880s: Coal-cutting machines became available (before that, coal was mined underground by hand). 1882: The first practical coal-fired electric generating station, developed by Thomas Edison, went into operation in New York City to supply electricity for household lights.
This was the worst mining accident in United States history. 1950–present: themake growin 1990: The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 required many changes to gasoline and diesel With fuels to th The use of these cleaner fuels was phased-in during the 1990s. Since 1995, “reformulated” gasolin 1910: The U.S. Bureau of Mines was created to helppollute reduceless. accidents in mines. 1960: The Organization of Pet been used in places with the worst pollution problems. and Venezuela. The group has s 1940: Surface mining with auger machines was introduced. Since 1993: For the first time, the United States imported more oil and refined products from other countrie 1970: Production of petroleum produced — owing to growing demand andtrains declining U.S. production. 1950s: Most coal was used by industry. Many homesit were still heated by coal. Coal waspetroleum used by steam-driven highest level at 9.4 million barr and ships.
1997–98: The Asian financial crisis that occurred in 1997 had worldwide economic effects. As the Asian econ 1973: Referred as the 1960s: Most coal was used for generating electricity.shrank, (Today,their moredemand than 90% coal is used for electricity forofpetroleum products declined. The slow demand for petroleum, alongtowith theArab relucO generation.) of OPEC to cut its production quotas, led to the plummet of oil prices in 1998.United States and Holland to p OPEC nations added South Af OPEC was41% cut by 1971: Surface mines replaced underground mines as2001: the leading source petroleum of coal produced in themeasured United States. The of 11.0 barrels of The nation’s production an average oil perproduction day per well, be2 stations ranOf outevery of gasoli importance of surface mining has continued to grow1972 sincepeak. that time. U.S. petroleum consumption reached 19.7 million barrels per day, filling an all-time high. 10 b
of petroleum consumed in the United States, more than 4 barrels were consumed in the form of motor gasoli 1973: In reaction to the Arab O 1973–74: The OPEC oil embargo focused attentiontransportation on the energy sector crisis and resulted in an for increase in demand alone accounted two-thirds of all for petroleum used in the United States. To meet dem gasoline shortages and high pri U.S. coal. crude oil and petroleum products were imported at the rate of 11.9 million barrels per day, while exports mea generally considered a failure, a 1.0 million barrels per day. Net imports (imports minus exports) of crude oil and petroleum products more t 1977: The Surface Mining Control and Reclamationdoubled Act of 1977 was 1985 passedand by Congress. the Actof petroleum to the United States that year were between 2001. TheThe fivepurpose leading of suppliers 1975: Congress passed the Ene was to reduce the environmental impact of surface mining. ActArabia, requiredVenezuela, surface mines no longer being used to Canada,The Saudi Mexico, and Nigeria. price incentives. This act also c be “reclaimed” or restored to their natural state. efficiency (miles per gallon) of 2005: The record-setting hurricane season of 2005 caused massive damage to the U.S. petroleum and natural 1980: The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) Industries over $1largest billionsources of oil and gas production, was dealt a o infrastructure. Thestudy Gulf began. of Mexico, one ofspent the nation’s 1978–80: The Iranian Revoluti on air pollution control equipment. punch by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita during August and September. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 wasIran pas crude oil production from required increased use of renewable fuels for transportation and new measures to reduce pollution production. In 1980,from the gasol Iran1986: The Clean Coal Technology Act passed. diesel. Gasoline prices broke $3.00 per gallon for the first time. OPEC production was about o
1988: Wyoming displaced Kentucky as the leading coal-producing state. 2006: Refineries began using more ethanol, a renewable fuel, in response to the1980–85: Energy Policy Act. OPEC kept prices h
production than any other OP 1990: United States coal production topped 1 billion tons a year. 2008: For the first time, crude oil price broke $100 per barrel and gasoline prices brokeusing $4.00less pergasoline. gallon. The smaller, production from Saudi Arabia 2003: The United States sponsored a $1 billion, 10-year demonstration project to create the world’s first coal-based, 2010: On April 20, 2010, an explosion and fire occurred on the offshore drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, wh zero-emissions electricity and hydrogen power plant. been drilling an exploratory well in the Gulf of Mexico. The accident killed 11 1981: crewmembers left oil leakre The U.S.and Government from the unfinished intothrough the ocean forcoal months. On May 27, 2010, Secretary InteriorFor Salazar anno theof oilthe industry. the first tim 2005: Congress passed the Energy Policy Act of 2005, promoting the usewell of coal clean technologies. a 6-month hold or “moratorium” on deepwater drilling. prices.
2013: Electricity from power plants increasingly relies on natural gas rather than coal. This shift is due in part to cost 2014: The use of hydraulic fracturing, of “frakking,” is significantly increasing the supply of domestic oil from 1986: In 1986, Saudi Arabia st and in part to environmental concerns. already known reserves. This, in turn, is reducing the dependence on foreign oil.This Projections U.S. caused ansuggest oil glut,the and pri become an oil exporting nation within 30 years. prices remained low.
Oil
Electricity
1988: Alaska’s production at Pr day in 1999. By then, U.S. tota 1859: Although the use of oil in Europe and China dates back centuries, oil in America was first discovered when 1752: with Ben Franklin tiedwas a key a kite string during a thunderstorm, and proved that static electricity and lig a homemade rig drilled down 70 feet and came up coated oil. This rig neartoTitusville (in northwestern 1990–91: Iraq invaded Kuwait were the same thing. Pennsylvania) and was owned by “Colonel” Edwin L. Drake. Prices rose even higher when th the end of J 1800: Alessandro Volta (Italy) the first electric battery. The term volt iscountries. named inBetween his honor. 1890s: Mass production of automobiles began creating demand for gasoline. Beforeinvented this, kerosene used for heating barrel to more than $28 per ba had been the main oil product. troops began seeing militarytha su 1808: Sir Humphry Davy (England) invented the first effective lamp. The arc lamp was a piece of carbon dropped again. glowed connected by wires to a battery. 1920: With 9 million automobiles in the United States, gas when stations were opening everywhere.
1907: 362 men and young boys were killed in an underground explosion at the Monongah Mine in West Virginia.
1950–present: With the growing use of automobiles, oil became our most used energy source . 1960: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was formed by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The group has since grown to include 11 member countries.
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1970: Production of petroleum (crude oil and natural gas plant liquids) in the U.S. lower 48 states reached its highest level at 9.4 million barrels per day. Production in these contiguous states has been declining ever since. 1973: Referred to as the Arab Oil Embargo, several Arab OPEC nations embargoed, or stopped selling, oil to the United States and Holland to protest their support of Israel in the Arab-Israeli “Yom Kippur” War. Later, the Arab OPEC nations added South Africa, Rhodesia, and Portugal to the list of countries that were embargoed. Arab OPEC production was cut by 25 percent, causing some temporary shortages and the tripling of oil prices. Some filling stations ran out of gasoline, and cars had to wait in long lines for gasoline. 1973: In reaction to the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973, Congress passed laws that tried to protect consumers from gasoline shortages and high prices. The price controls of the Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973 were generally considered a failure, and they were later repealed. 1975: Congress passed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 aimed at increasing oil production by giving price incentives. This act also created the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) and required an increase in the fuel efficiency (miles per gallon) of automobiles. 1978–80: The Iranian Revolution, which began in late 1978, resulted in a drop of 3.9 million barrels per day of crude oil production from Iran from 1978 to 1981. At first, other OPEC countries made up for the drop in Iranian production. In 1980, the Iran-Iraq War began, and many Persian Gulf countries reduced output as well. By 1981, OPEC production was about one-fourth lower than it had been in 1978, and prices had doubled. 1980–85: OPEC kept prices high by producing less oil. Saudi Arabia acted as a “swing producer,” cutting more production than any other OPEC country. But high prices caused less oil to be used. For example, cars became smaller, using less gasoline. The drop in oil consumption meant that less oil needed to be produced. Thus, oil production from Saudi Arabia fell from 9.9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 3.4 million barrels per day in 1985. 1981: The U.S. Government responded to the oil crisis of 1978-1980 by removing price and allocation controls on the oil industry. For the first time since the early 1970s, market forces (supply and demand) set domestic crude oil prices. 1986: In 1986, Saudi Arabia stopped holding back production, and other OPEC members increased production. This caused an oil glut, and prices were almost cut in half. Oil consumption grew quickly in the late 1980s because prices remained low. 1988: Alaska’s production at Prudhoe Bay peaked at 2.0 million barrels per day and fell to 1.0 million barrels per day in 1999. By then, U.S. total output had dropped to 7.8 million barrels per day, 31% below its peak. 1990–91: Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990, causing crude oil and product prices to rise suddenly and sharply. Prices rose even higher when the United Nations (UN) limited the amount of oil that could be purchased from these countries. Between the end of July and August 24, 1990, the world price of crude oil climbed from about $16 per barrel to more than $28 per barrel. The price rose even higher in September, reaching about $36 per barrel. As UN troops began seeing military successes in Iraq, concerns about long-term supply problems were eased and oil prices dropped again.
Max Moinian 180511
1908: J. Spangler (United States) invented the first electric vacuum cleaner. 1990: The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 required many changes to gasoline and diesel fuels to make them pollute less. The use of these cleaner fuels was phased-in during the 1990s. Since 1995, “reformulated” gasoline has 1911: W. Carrier (United States) invented electric air conditioning. been used in places with the worst pollution problems.
1821: Michael Faraday (Englan to developing the electric moto 1826: Georg Ohm (Germany)
1913: A. Goss theproducts electric refrigerator. Since 1993: For the first time, the United States imported more oilinvented and refined from other countries than 1831: Using his invention the it produced — owing to growing petroleum demand and declining U.S. production. (made) by changes in an electro 1920: The Federal Power Commission (FPC) was established for licensing hydroelectric projects. understanding of electrical tran 1997–98: The Asian financial crisis that occurred in 1997 had worldwide economic effects. As the Asian economies 1921: Powerfor Plant in Wisconsin world’s first power plant to burn only pulverized coal. shrank, their demand for petroleum products declined. TheLakeside slow demand petroleum, along became with thethe reluctance 1832: Using Faraday’s principle of OPEC to cut its production quotas, led to the plummet of oil prices in 1998. delivering power for industry. P 1933: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was created. It was the first Federal power authority and was des wire. power.of oil per day per well, 41% below the 2001: The nation’s petroleum production measured to anprovide average regional of 11.0 barrels 1972 peak. U.S. petroleum consumption reached 19.7 million barrels per day, an all-time high. Of every 10 barrels 1835: Joseph Henry (United S 1935:4 Some the consumed New Deal in legislation during the Roosevelt Administration was designed to regulate of petroleum consumed in the United States, more than barrelsofwere the formpassed of motor gasoline. The and to bring to rural America. The Public Utility Holding Company Act ofDavenport 1935, which transportation sector alone accounted for two-thirdsutilities of all petroleum usedelectricity in the United States. To meet demand, 1837: Thomas (Unw break up powerful holding companies had bought up many smaller electric companies. Crea crude oil and petroleum products were imported at designed the rate ofto11.9 million barrels per day, while exportsthat measured appliances today. the Securities Exchange 1.0 million barrels per day. Net imports (imports minus exports) ofand crude oil andCommission petroleum products more than doubled between 1985 and 2001. The five leading suppliers of petroleum to the United States that year were 1844: Samuel Morse (United S 1936: Boulder (later renamed Hoover) Dam was completed. A 287 kilovolt power line stretched 266 miles fr Canada, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Mexico, and Nigeria. distances across wires. the dam in Boulder City, Nevada, to Los Angeles, California. The Rural Electrification Act of 1936 was aime 2005: The record-setting hurricane season of 2005 caused massive damage to the across U.S. petroleum and natural gas bringing electricity to farms the country. 1876: Charles Brush (United S infrastructure. The Gulf of Mexico, one of the nation’s largest sources of oil and gas production, was dealt a one-two current of electricity. punch by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita during August and Owing September. The electrification, Energy Policy Act of 2005 wasAmerican passed. Itfarms had electricity, compared with 11 percen 1942: to rural almost half of required increased use of renewable fuels for transportation and new measures to reduce pollution from gasoline and 1879: After many experiments, diesel. Gasoline prices broke $3.00 per gallon for the1950: first time. Almost all American farms had electricity. used for about 40 hours withou (Brush arc lamps) were first use 2006: Refineries began using more ethanol, a renewable fuel, in response to the Energy Policy Act. 1954: The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 was passed. It allowed private ownershipInc. of nuclear reactors. was Chaplin, in San Fransisco the fi and Pearson (United States) working for Bell Labs, invented the first solar cell. 2008: For the first time, crude oil price broke $100 per barrel and gasoline prices broke $4.00 per gallon. 1882: Thomas Edison opened world’s first central electric 1957: The Shippingport reactor in Pennsylvania was the first nuclear power plant to provide electricity to pow cus 2010: On April 20, 2010, an explosion and fire occurred the offshore unlike the power systems that w in theon United States. drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, which had been drilling an exploratory well in the Gulf of Mexico. The accident killed 11 crewmembers and left oil leaking opened in Wisconsin. Edward from the unfinished well into the ocean for months.1961: On May Secretary available of the Interior Salazar announced The27, first2010, commercially integrated circuits were produced by the Fairchild Semiconductor a 6-month hold or “moratorium” on deepwater drilling. 1883 of the individual transis Corporation (United States). All computer manufacturers started using chips instead Nikola Tesla (U.S. immigrant f and their accompanying parts. 2014: The use of hydraulic fracturing, of “frakking,” is significantly increasing the supply of domestic oil from from low voltage to high voltag already known reserves. This, in turn, is reducing the dependence on foreign oil. Projections suggest the U.S. could 1962: The Communications Satellite Act of 1962 encouraged the development of satellite communications. become an oil exporting nation within 30 years. Teslause. demonstrated the fi Steve Russell (United States) invented Spacewar! — the first game intended for1888: computer all units needed for electricity p appliances) lights.onGeorge 1964: International Business Machines Corporation (now IBM) used light emitting diodesand (LEDs) circuit to the AC system. Charles Brus in an early mainframe computer. 1752: Ben Franklin tied a key to a kite string during a thunderstorm, and proved that static electricity and lightning the windmill to charge batterie were the same thing. 1972: The arcade game Pong was created by Nolan Bushnell. 1895–96: The Niagara Falls hy 1800: Alessandro Volta (Italy) invented the first electric battery. The term volt is named in his honor. later, when(United a new alternating cu 1973: Scelbi, the first personal computer, designed by Nate Wadsworth and Bob Findley States), cam customers over 20 miles away 1K effective of programmable additional 15K of memory available. Dr. Martin Cooper (United Stai 1808: Sir Humphry Davy (England) invented the first lamp. Thememory, arc lamp with was aan piece of carbon that invented the first portable handset phone. glowed when connected by wires to a battery. 1903: The world’s first all turbi
Electricity
1976: The first commercial fiber optic cable is installed in Chicago for telephone signals.
1821: Michael Faraday (England) discovered the principle of electro-magnetic rotation that would later be the key ng use of automobiles, oiltobecame our most used energy hem developing the electric motor.source . ne has troleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was formed by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, 1826: Georg Ohm (Germany) defined the relationship between power, voltage, current and resistance in Ohms Law. since grown to include 11 member countries. es than 1831: Using his invention the induction ring, Michael Faraday (England) proved that electricity can be induced m (crude oil and natural gas plant liquids) in the U.S. lower 48 states reached its (made) by changes in an electromagnetic field. Faraday’s experiments about how electric current works led to the rels per day. Production in these contiguous states has been declining ever since. understanding of electrical transformers and motors. nomies Oil Embargo, several Arab OPEC nations embargoed, or stopped selling, oil to the ctance 1832: Using Faraday’s principles, Hippolyte Pixii (France) built the first dynamo, an electric generator capable of protest their support of Israel in the Arab-Israeli “Yom Kippur” War. Later, the Arab delivering power for industry. Pixii’s dynamo used a crank to rotate a magnet around a piece of iron wrapped with frica, Rhodesia, and Portugal to the list of countries that were embargoed. Arab 25 percent, causing somewire. temporary shortages and the tripling of oil prices. Some elow the ine, and cars had to wait in long lines for gasoline. barrels 1835: Joseph Henry (United States) invented the electrical relay, which could send electrical currents long distances. ine. The Oil Embargo of 1973, Congress passed laws that tried to protect consumers from mand, Thomas Davenport States) invented the electric motor, an invention that is used in most electrical ices. The price controls of1837: the Emergency Petroleum(United Allocation Act of 1973 were asured appliances today. and they were later repealed. than
1844:Act Samuel Morse (United States) oil invented the electric telegraph, a machine that could send messages long ergy Policy and Conservation of 1975 aimed at increasing production by giving distances across(SPR) wires.and required an increase in the fuel created the Strategic Petroleum Reserve automobiles. l gas 1876: Charles Brush (United States) invented the open coil dynamo (or generator) that could produce a steady one-two of electricity. ion, which began in late current 1978, resulted in a drop of 3.9 million barrels per day of ssed. It n from 1978 to 1981. At first, other OPEC countries made up for the drop in Iranian line and 1879: AfterGulf many experiments, -Iraq War began, and many Persian countries reducedThomas output Edison as well.(United By 1981,States) invented an incandescent light bulb that could be for about 40 hours without one-fourth lower than it used had been in 1978, and prices had burning doubled.out. By 1880, his bulbs could be used for 1,200 hours. Electric lights (Brush arc lamps) were first used for public street lighting in Cleveland, Ohio. California Electric Light Company, in San Fransisco the first electric company to sell electricity to customers. high by producing less oil.Inc. Saudi Arabia acted aswas a “swing producer,” cutting more PEC country. But high prices caused less oil to be used. For example, cars became e drop in oil consumption meant that less oil needed to the be produced. Thus, oil station in New York City. The power station was one of the 1882: Thomas Edison opened Pearl Street power fell from 9.9 million barrels per first day in 1980electric to 3.4 million barrelsand per could day inpower 1985. 5,000 lights. It used a direct current (DC) power system, world’s central power plants hich had unlike the power systems that we use today which use alternating current (AC). The first hydroelectric station king esponded to the oil crisisopened of 1978-1980 by removing price and allocation on on a Christmas tree. in Wisconsin. Edward Johnson first put controls electric lights ounced me since the early 1970s, market forces (supply and demand) set domestic crude oil 1883 Nikola Tesla (U.S. immigrant from Austrian Empire) invented the Tesla coil, a transformer that changed electricity m topped holding back production, othertoOPEC members increased production. from lowand voltage high voltage, making it easier to transport over long distances. could ices were almost cut in half. Oil consumption grew quickly in the late 1980s because 1888: Tesla demonstrated the first polyphase alternating current (AC) electrical system. His AC system included all units needed for electricity production and use: generator, transformers, transmission system, motor (used in rudhoe Bay peaked at 2.0appliances) million barrels per dayGeorge and fellWestinghouse, to 1.0 million the barrels and lights. headper of Westinghouse Electric Company, bought the patent rights al output had dropped toto7.8 barrelsCharles per day,Brush 31% (United below itsStates) peak. was the first to use a large windmill to generate electricity. He used themillion AC system. ghtning the windmill to charge batteries in the cellar of his home in Cleveland, Ohio. t on August 2, 1990, causing crude oil and product prices to rise suddenly and sharply. he United Nations (UN)1895–96: limited theThe amount of oil that could be purchased from these Niagara Falls hydropower station opened. It originally provided electricity to the local area. One year July and August 24, 1990, thewhen worldaprice crude oil current climbed(AC) frompowerline about $16was per opened, electric power from Niagara Falls was sent to later, new of alternating arrel. The price rose even customers higher in September, reaching about $36 per barrel. over 20 miles away in Buffalo, New York.As UN uccesses in Iraq, concerns about long-term supply problems were eased and oil prices at 1903: The world’s first all turbine station opened in Chicago.
nd) discovered the principle of electro-magnetic that would be the(ATMs) key 1977: The first networkrotation of automated tellerlater machines was developed. or.
1998: Ericsson, IBM, Intel, and Nokia cooperated to develop Bluetooth technology that allows wireless defined the relationshipcommunication between power, voltage, resistance in Ohms Law. betweencurrent mobileand phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras, and video game consoles.
induction ring, Michael Faraday (England) proved that electricity can be induced 2001: The iPod, a portable media player, was launched by the Apple Corporation. omagnetic field. Faraday’s experiments about how electric current works led to the nsformers and motors. 2004: With the full color range of the high-power LEDs, more advanced architectural designs and stage and studio lighting were developed. Colored LEDs reduce power consumption. es, Hippolyte Pixii (France) built the first dynamo, an electric generator capable of Pixii’s dynamo used a crank to rotate a magnet around a piece of iron wrapped with signed
Hydropower
States) invented the electrical relay, which could send electrical currents long distances. e public 1880: Michigan’s Grand Rapids Electric Light and Power Company generated DC electricity, using hydropower was States) invented the atelectric the Wolverine Factory. beltedelectrical to a water turbine at the factory generated electricity to light 16 nited motor, anChair invention thatAisdynamo used in most ation of brush-arc lamps in the store front.
1881: Street lamps in thethat citycould of Niagara Falls were powered by hydropower (direct current). States) invented the electric telegraph, a machine send messages long rom ed at 1882: The world’s first central DC hydroelectric station provided power for a paper mill in Appleton, Wisconsin. States) invented the open coil dynamo (or generator) that could produce a steady 1888: About 200 electric companies relied on hydropower for at least part of their generation. nt in The Austin an Dam, near Austin, Texas, , Thomas Edison (United1893: States) invented incandescent light bulb was that completed. could be It was the first dam specifically designed for generating ut burning out. By 1880,hydropower. his bulbs could be used for 1,200 hours. Electric lights ed for public street lighting in Cleveland, Ohio. California Electric Light Company, Fuller, 1899: The Rivers and First Federal Water Power Act required special permission for a hydroelectric plant to be built first electric company to sell electricity to customers. and operated on any stream large enough for boat traffic. the Pearl Street power station in New York City. The power station was one of the wer plants and could power 5,000 lights. It used a direct current (DC) power system, stomers 1901 we use today which use alternating currentWater (AC).Power The first station The first Federal Acthydroelectric required special permission for a hydroelectric plant to be built and operated on Johnson first put electricany lights on a large Christmas tree. stream enough for boat traffic.
stors 1902: The Reclamation Act of 1902 created the United States Reclamation Service, later renamed the U.S. Bureau from Austrian Empire) invented the TeslaThe coil,Reclamation a transformerService that changed electricity of Reclamation. was formed to manage water resources and was given the authority to ge, making it easier to transport over long distances. build hydropower plants at dams.
first polyphase alternating current electricalService system.installed His AC system includedplant at the Arizona construction site of the Theodore 1905: The(AC) Reclamation a hydropower production and use: generator, transformers, motor (used Roosevelt Dam. Thetransmission power plantsystem, was originally built in to provide electricity for constructing the dam, but sales of the head extra of Westinghouse Electric Company, boughtand theimproved patent rights tWestinghouse, boards electricity helped pay for the project life in the local community. sh (United States) was the first to use a large windmill to generate electricity. He used es in the cellar of his home in Cleveland, Ohio. 1933: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established to take charge of the hydroelectric potential of the
Mississippi River in the Tennessee Valley. Construction of the Grand Coulee Dam began on the Columbia River. ydropower station opened. It originally provided the local area. Oneelectric year generating capacity than any other dam in North Originally built to meetelectricity irrigationtoneeds, it had more urrent opened, electric power from Niagara Falls was sent to me with(AC) powerline was America. in Buffalo, New York. ates) 1936: Boulder Dam (later renamed the Hoover Dam) began operating on the Colorado River. The hydropower ine station opened in Chicago. plant produced up to 130,000 kilowatts of electricity. 1937: The Army Corp of Engineers finished the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River.
1908: J. Spangler (United States) invented the first electric vacuum cleaner.
1977: The first network
1911: W. Carrier (United States) invented electric air conditioning.
1998: Ericsson, IBM, I communication betwee
1913: A. Goss invented the electric refrigerator. 1920: The Federal Power Commission (FPC) was established for licensing hydroelectric projects.
2001: The iPod, a porta
1921: Lakeside Power Plant in Wisconsin became the world’s first power plant to burn only pulverized coal.
2004: With the full col lighting were developed
1933: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was created. It was the first Federal power authority and was designed to provide regional power.
Hydropowe
1935: Some of the New Deal legislation passed during the Roosevelt Administration was designed to regulate public utilities and to bring electricity to rural America. The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, which was designed to break up powerful holding companies that had bought up many smaller electric companies. Creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission
1880: Michigan’s Grand at the Wolverine Chair brush-arc lamps in the
1936: Boulder (later renamed Hoover) Dam was completed. A 287 kilovolt power line stretched 266 miles from the dam in Boulder City, Nevada, to Los Angeles, California. The Rural Electrification Act of 1936 was aimed at bringing electricity to farms across the country. 1942: Owing to rural electrification, almost half of American farms had electricity, compared with 11 percent in
1881: Street lamps in th 1882: The world’s first
1888: About 200 electr
1950: Almost all American farms had electricity.
1893: The Austin Dam hydropower.
1954: The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 was passed. It allowed private ownership of nuclear reactors. Chaplin, Fuller, and Pearson (United States) working for Bell Labs, invented the first solar cell.
1899: The Rivers and F and operated on any str
1957: The Shippingport reactor in Pennsylvania was the first nuclear power plant to provide electricity to customers in the United States.
1901 The first Federal Water any stream large enough
1961: The first commercially available integrated circuits were produced by the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation (United States). All computer manufacturers started using chips instead of the individual transistors and their accompanying parts. 1962: The Communications Satellite Act of 1962 encouraged the development of satellite communications. Steve Russell (United States) invented Spacewar! — the first game intended for computer use. 1964: International Business Machines Corporation (now IBM) used light emitting diodes (LEDs) on circuit boards in an early mainframe computer. 1972: The arcade game Pong was created by Nolan Bushnell. 1973: Scelbi, the first personal computer, designed by Nate Wadsworth and Bob Findley (United States), came with 1K of programmable memory, with an additional 15K of memory available. Dr. Martin Cooper (United States) invented the first portable handset phone. 1976: The first commercial fiber optic cable is installed in Chicago for telephone signals.
1902: The Reclamation of Reclamation. The Re build hydropower plant
1905: The Reclamation Roosevelt Dam. The po extra electricity helped
1933: The Tennessee Va Mississippi River in the Originally built to mee America.
1936: Boulder Dam (la plant produced up to 1 1937: The Army Corp
1949: Almost one-third of the Nation’s electricity came from hydropower.
1945–78: Once World W as a fuel was drastically r available anywhere in th
1961: The Columbia River Treaty was signed between the United States and Canada. Under the treaty, Canada built two dams for storage and one dam for generation. This resulted in greater power and flood control, which benefited U.S. facilities downstream.
1974: The first of many and Demonstration Act materials (including was
1977: The Federal Power Commission was disbanded by Congress. A new agency was created, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), to regulate energy production and transmission.
1975: The United States booster for gasoline. The levels of lead in gasoline
1941: Grand Coulee, the Nation’s largest hydroelectric dam, began operation.
1978: Congress passed the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978. The Act required utilities to purchase electricity from qualified independent power producers. Portions of the Act stimulated growth of smallscale hydro plants to help meet the nation’s energy needs. 1980: Conventional hydropower plant capacity nearly tripled in United States since 1940. Poor salmon runs in the Columbia River system prompted Congress to pass the Pacific Northwest Power Planning and Conservation Act of 1980. These laws resulted in a more complex, expensive process to obtain a license for a hydroelectric facility. 2006: The United States ranked among the Top 4 countries in the world for hydroelectric generation, along with China, Canada, and Brazil. These countries generated 44% of the world’s electricity from hydropower. Today: Between 6% and 10% of U.S. electricity comes from hydropower, depending on water supply and annual rainfall. In total, the United States has about 80,000 megawatts of conventional capacity and 18,000 megawatts of pumped storage capacity.
Ethanol 1826: Samuel Morey developed an engine that ran on ethanol and turpentine. 1860: German engine inventor Nicholas Otto used ethanol as the fuel in one of his engines. Otto is best known for his development in 1876 of a modern internal combustion engine (referred to as the Otto Cycle).
1978: The term gasohol blend of gasoline with at or coal. For this reason, Federal excise tax on gas for every gallon of ethan
1979: The marketing of Chevron, Beacon, and T
1980–84: The first U.S. facilities existed, produci ethanol producers and b Act of 1980 offered insu in loan guarantees for ea guarantees for biomass e Congress placed an impo were able to ship less exp
1983: The Surface Trans cents per gallon.
1896: Henry Ford built his first automobile, the quadricycle, to run on pure ethanol.
1984: The number of eth ethanol subsidy to 60 ce
1908: Henry Ford produced the Model T. As a flexible fuel vehicle, it could run on ethanol, gasoline, or a combination of the two.
1985: Many ethanol pro plants (45%) remained o
1917–18: During World War I, the need for fuel drove up ethanol demand to 50–60 million gallons per year.
1988: Ethanol was first u oxygen) for winter use to
1920s: Gasoline became the motor fuel of choice. Standard Oil began adding ethanol to gasoline to increase octane and to reduce engine knocking. 1930s: Fuel ethanol gained a market in the Midwest. Over 2,000 gasoline stations in the Midwest sold gasohol, which was gasoline blended with 6% to 12% ethanol.
1990: The Omnibus Bud ethanol. Ethanol plants b reducing technologies. A mill plants that produce
1941–45: Ethanol production for fuel use increased, owing` to a massive wartime increase in demand for fuel, but most of the increased demand for ethanol was for non-fuel wartime uses.
1995–96; With a poor c passed subsidies to help
1945–78: Once World War II ended, with reduced need for war materials and with the low price of fuel, ethanol use as a fuel was drastically reduced. From the late 1940s until the late 1970s, virtually no commercial fuel ethanol was available anywhere in the United States.
da built enefited
1974: The first of many legislative actions to promote ethanol as a fuel, the Solar Energy Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1974 led to research and development of the conversion of cellulose and other organic materials (including wastes) into useful energy or fuels.
nergy
1975: The United States begins to phase out lead in gasoline. Ethanol becomes more attractive as a possible octane booster for gasoline. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the initial regulations, requiring reduced levels of lead in gasoline in early 1973. By 1986 no lead was allowed in motor gasoline.
s to mallin the Act of
1978: The term gasohol was defined, for the first time, in the Energy Tax Act of 1978. Gasohol was defined as a blend of gasoline with at least 10 percent alcohol by volume, excluding alcohol made from petroleum, natural gas, or coal. For this reason, all ethanol to be blended into gasoline is produced from renewable biomass feedstocks. The Federal excise tax on gasoline at the time was 4 cents per gallon. This law amounted to a 40-cents-per-gallon subsidy for every gallon of ethanol blended into gasoline.
with
1979: The marketing of commercial alcohol-blended fuels began by the Amoco Oil Company, followed by Ashland, Chevron, Beacon, and Texaco.
.
nnual atts of
own for
1980–84: The first U.S. survey of ethanol production was conducted. The survey found fewer than 10 ethanol facilities existed, producing about 50 million gallons of ethanol per year. Congress enacted a series of tax benefits to ethanol producers and blenders. These benefits encouraged the growth of ethanol production. The Energy Security Act of 1980 offered insured loans for small ethanol producers (less than 1 million gallons per year), up to $1 million in loan guarantees for each project that could cover up to 90% of construction costs on an ethanol plant; price guarantees for biomass energy projects; and purchase agreements for biomass energy used by Federal agencies. Congress placed an import fee (tariff) on foreign-produced ethanol. Previously, foreign producers, such as Brazil, were able to ship less expensive ethanol into the United States. 1983: The Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982 (signed in early 1983) increased the ethanol subsidy to 50 cents per gallon. 1984: The number of ethanol plants in the United States peaked at 163. The Tax Reform Act of 1984 increased the ethanol subsidy to 60 cents per gallon. 1985: Many ethanol producers went out of business, despite the subsidies. Only 74 of the 163 commercial ethanol plants (45%) remained operating by the end of 1985, producing 595 million gallons of ethanol for the year.
r.
octane
hol,
el, but
1988: Ethanol was first used as an oxygenate in gasoline. Denver, Colorado, mandated oxygenated fuels containing oxygen) for winter use to control carbon monoxide emissions. 1990: The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 decreased the ethanol subsidy to 54 cents per gallon of ethanol. Ethanol plants began switching from coal to natural gas for power generation and adopting other costreducing technologies. An expanding market and the high cost of fructose corn syrup encouraged expansion of wet mill plants that produce the syrup as a by-product of the ethanol production process. 1995–96; With a poor corn crop and the doubling of corn prices in the mid–1990s to $5 a bushel, some States passed subsidies to help the ethanol industry.
Hart dug a 27-foot well to try and bring a larger flow of gas to the surface. Expanding on Hart’s work, the Fredo 1997: Major U.S. auto manufacturers began mass production of flexible-fueled vehicle models capable of 1980s: California’s Standard O Gas Light Company was eventually formed, becoming theoperating first American natural gas company. on E-85, gasoline, or both. Despite their ability to use E-85, most of these vehicles used gasoline as their only fuel energy systems a relatively firm because of the scarcity of E-85 stations. like geothermal 1859: Edwin Drake drilled the first commercial well and hit oil and natural gas at 69 feet below theenergy earth’sfacilitie surfac
A 2-inch diameter pipeline was built, running 5½ miles from the well to the village of Titusville, Pennsylvania. Th 1998: The ethanol subsidy was extended through 2007 with gradual reduction from 54 cents pernatural gallon to milestone mayabe considered the beginning of the gas51industry in America. 1982: Geothermal (hydrotherm cents per gallon in 2005. 1984: Utah’s first commercial g 1885: Robert Bunsen invented what is now known as the Bunsen burner. The Bunsen burner produced a flame t 2002: U.S. automakers continued to produce large numbers of E-85-capable vehicles to meet Federal regulations megawatt capacity. Nevada’s fir could be safely used for cooking and heating by mixing the right proportion of natural gas and air. The invention that required a certain percentage of fleet vehicles capable of running on alternative fuels. Over 3 million of these Springs. thermostatic devices allowed the flame’s temperature to be adjusted and monitored. vehicles were in use. At the same time, several States were encouraging fueling stations to sell E-85. With only 169 stations in the United States selling E-85, most E-85 capable vehicles are still operating on gasoline instead of on 1989: DOE and the Electric Po 1890s: Electricity began to replace natural gas for lighting purposes. E-85. plant in Texas, extracting meth
1891: One of the first that lengthy pipelines wassold constructed, which was 120 miles long,1990: and carried naturalfor gasgeothe from 2005: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 was responsible for regulations ensured gasoline in the United States DOE funding wellscalled in central Indiana to the Standard. city of Chicago. This early pipeline contained a minimum volume of renewable fuel, the Renewable Fuels The regulations aimed to was not very efficient. low of $15 million. double, by 2012, the use of renewable fuel, mainly ethanol made from corn. 1925: The first all-welded pipeline, over 200 miles in length, was built — from Louisiana to Texas. 1992: The Puna field of Hawai 2007: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 expanded the Renewable Fuels Standard to require that 36 billion gallons of ethanol and other fuels be1937: blended into gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel by 2022. In 2007, theits rotten-egg smell, to 1994: California odorless Energy becam Natural gas distributors began adding mercaptan, with the otherwise natu United States consumed 6.8 billion gallons ofgas ethanol billion of detected. biodiesel. An Argonne National — soand that0.5 leaks cangallons be easily Laboratory study compared data on water, electricity, and total energy usage from 2001 and 2006. During 1995: Worldwide geothermal c this period, America’s ethanol industry achieved improvements efficiency demand and resource use while increased processed 15 million pounds o 1906–1970: U.S.inresidential for natural gasit grew fifty times. production nearly 300%. resource assessment of 10 West a geothermal resource gre 1940s–1960s: The nation began a massive expansion of its pipeline network, whichwith led to rapid growth of natura 2008: U.S. ethanol production capacity was atgas 7.2markets. billion gallons, an additional 6.2 billion gallons capacity Duringwith the 1950s and 1960s, thousands of of miles of pipeline were constructed throughout the Unite under construction. 1999: California’s geothermal States. Today, the U.S. interstate pipeline network, laid end-to-end, would stretch almost 12 times around the eap 2011: More than 200 ethanol plants produce 13.5 billion gallons. 1971: Gas well productivity peaked at 435 thousand cubic feet per well per day.
2000: The DOE and industry It was a cooperative effort to fin United States. 1973: U.S. natural gas production reached a record-high of 21.7 trillion cubic feet before starting a long period o decline. 2004: Geothermal energy costs 1904: The first dry steam geothermal power plant was built in Italy. The plant today provides power to about 1 1983: The cost of natural gas for residential users set a record high of $10.06 per thousand cubic (measured 2006: The U.S.feet geothermal ind million households. constant 2004 dollars). thermal energy in direct use su kilowatt power plant that used 1960: The first commercial-scale development tools were placed in California at The Geysers, a 10-megawatt unit 1986–present: Consumption of natural gas began to grow faster than production. Net imports, as a share of natu owned by Pacific Gas & Electric. gas consumption, more than tripled. These imports nearly all came by pipeline from2008: Canada. Small Idaho’s firstshipments commercialw tanker as liquefied natural gas from Algeria and, in recent years, from a few other countries. New dril 1970: Re-injection of spent geothermal waterbrought back intobythe production reservoir was introduced as a way to dispose of waste water and to extend reservoir life. technology made offshore sites more important. Over the next 20 years, about one-fifth of all U.S. production ca from offshore sites. 1972: Deep well drilling technology improvements led to deeper reservoir drilling and to access to more resources. 1626:contract. French explorers discove 1990: The New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) issued the first natural gas futures A futures cont 1974: Scientists began to develop the first hotisdry (HDR)today reservoir at Fenton New Mexico. HDR instrument) to be paid for and delivered in the an rock agreement on the price ofHill, a commodity (orAn financial power facility was tested at the site in 1978 and started to generate electricity two years later. 1816: Natural gas was used in future. The Clean Air Act Amendments required many changes to fossil fuels to make them pollute less. The use in North of these cleaner fuels was phased-in during the 1990s. Natural gas was promoted asEurope cleanerand burning fuelAmerica in powe 1978: U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funding for geothermal research andincreasing development was of increased from coal and not extracted fro generation and transportation, the use natural gas. substantially. The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 was enacted to promote greater use of renewable energy, cogeneration and small power projects. 1821: In Fredonia, New York, 1998: About 5.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas were reported as being used for vehicles.
Geothermal
Natural Gas
2000: Natural gas consumption peaked at 23.3 trillion cubic feet.
Hart dug a 27-foot well to try and bring a larger flow of gas to the surface. Expanding on Hart’s work, the Fredonia 1939: Roosevelt received a letter from Albert Einstein on the possibility of aThe uranium weapon. 2001: share of natural gas Gas Light Company was eventually formed, becoming thePresident first American natural gas company.
operating only fuel
n to 51
ulations of these only 169 ad of on
ited States med to
quire that 7, the ational g eased
of capacity
1980s: California’s Standard Offer Contract system for PURPA-qualifying facilities provided renewable electric energy systems a relatively firm, stable market for output, allowing the financing of capital-intensive technologies like geothermal energy facilities. 1982: Geothermal (hydrothermal) electric generating capacity, reached a new high of 1,000 megawatts. 1984: Utah’s first commercial geothermal power plant began operating at Roosevelt Hot Springs with a 20 megawatt capacity. Nevada’s first geothermal binary power production plant began operating at Wabuska Hot Springs. 1989: DOE and the Electric Power Research Institute operated a 1-megawatt, geopressured power demonstration plant in Texas, extracting methane and heat from brine liquids. 1990: DOE funding for geothermal energy research and development declined throughout the 1980s and reached a low of $15 million. 1992: The Puna field of Hawaii began electrical generation at a 25 megawatt geothermal plant. 1994: California Energy became the world’s largest geothermal company through its acquisition of Magma Power. 1995: Worldwide geothermal capacity reached 6,000 megawatts. At Empire Nevada, a food-dehydration facility processed 15 million pounds of dried onions and garlic a year, using geothermal resources. A DOE low-temperature resource assessment of 10 Western States identified nearly 9,000 thermal wells and springs and 271 communities with a geothermal resource greater than 50ºC. 1999: California’s geothermal power plants provided 54.9% of the state’s electricity. 2000: The DOE and industry worked together on the Geothermal Resource Exploration and Definition Program. It was a cooperative effort to find, evaluate, and define additional geothermal resources throughout the western United States.
bout 1
watt unit to dispose
resources.
n HDR
ed r use of
2004: Geothermal energy costs dropped from 10 to 16 cents per kilowatt hour to 5 to 8 centers per kilowatt hour. 2006: The U.S. geothermal industry became a $1.5 billion a year business that involved electricity generation and thermal energy in direct use such as indoor heating, greenhouses, food drying, aquaculture. Alaska installed a 200 kilowatt power plant that used low-temperature (74ºC) geothermal water along with cooling water (4ºC). 2008: Idaho’s first commercial geothermal power plant began operating.
Natural Gas 1626: French explorers discovered Native Americans burning gases that were seeping into and around Lake Erie. 1816: Natural gas was used in Baltimore to fuel street lamps. During the 19th century, natural gas was used in Europe and in North America as a lighting fuel. Most of the natural gas produced at that time was manufactured from coal and not extracted from the earth, as it is today. 1821: In Fredonia, New York, William Hart dug the first successful well that was intended to produce natural gas.
Max Moinian 180511
German andtheseized what was then the world’s only 2003:heavy-water After years production of decline, gap 1859: Edwin Drake drilled the first commercial well1940: and hit oil andtroops naturaloccupied gas at 69Norway, feet below earth’s surface. average natural well producl A 2-inch diameter pipeline was built, running 5½ miles from the well the village of Titusville, This Philip Abelson andtoEdwin McMillan (UnitedPennsylvania. States) demonstrated that neutrons captured by gas uranium-238 milestone may be considered the beginning of the natural gas industry in America. the creation of elements 93 and 94, neptunium and plutonium. A new element (atomic number 94), was fou 2004: Over one-fourth of U.S. named plutonium. American physicists confirmed that plutonium was fissionable, thus usable for a bomb. 1885: Robert Bunsen invented what is now known as the Bunsen burner. The Bunsen burner produced a flame that The record-setting could be safely used for cooking and heating by mixing theThe right proportionProject of natural gas and air. TheUnited invention of to secretly build2005: 1942: Manhattan was formed in the States the atomic bomb for usehurric in W The Gulf offrom Me thermostatic devices allowed the flame’s temperatureWar to be monitored. controlled nuclear chain reaction led by Enricoinfrastructure. II.adjusted The firstand self-sustaining, Fermi (U.S. immigrant two punch by Hurricanes Katr and other scientists at the University of Chicago. went off-line. U.S. residential n 1890s: Electricity began to replace natural gas for lighting purposes. thousand cubic feet. 1945: The first test of a nuclear weapon, code-named Trinity,occurred at Alamogordo, New Mexico. 1891: One of the first lengthy pipelines was constructed, which was 120 miles long, and carried natural gas from The United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, and three days later dropped another one o 2006: wells in central Indiana to the city of Chicago. This Nagasaki, early pipeline wasJapan not very efficient. less than two weeks later, ending World War Japan. surrendered II. A record 31,687 natural
2007: U.S.Atomic imports of liquefied 1925: The first all-welded pipeline, over 200 miles in1946: length, built — fromAct Louisiana Thewas Atomic Energy (AEA) to ofTexas. 1946 was passed, establishing the United States Energy
Commission (AEC) to control nuclear energy development and to explore peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Fi 2010: OnCongressional April 20, 2010, an e 1937: Natural gas distributors began adding mercaptan, with its rotten-egg totesting the otherwise odorless natural demonstrations against smell, nuclear were held in Times Square, New York. The Joint Comm been drilling an exploratory we gas — so that leaks can be easily detected. on Atomic Energy was established to oversee all civilian and military nuclear affairs. from the unfinished well into t a 6-month holdusable or “moratorium 1906–1970: U.S. residential demand for natural gas1951: grew fifty times. An experimental breeder reactor (EBR Reactor I, or EBR-I) in Idaho produced the first electric
from the atom, lighting four light bulbs. Scientists had already known that nuclear power could produce elec 1940s–1960s: The nation began a massive expansion of its pipeline network, which led to rapid growth of natural The purpose of the experimental EBR was to prove that a breeder reactor could produce more fuel than it use gas markets. During the 1950s and 1960s, thousands of miles of pipeline were constructed throughout the United States. Today, the U.S. interstate pipeline network, laid end-to-end, would stretch almost 12 times around the earth. 1953: The first nuclear-powered submarine, the U.S.S. Nautilus, was launched. Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace 1905: Albert Einstein (U.S. im Program proposed an international agency to develop peaceful nuclear technologies. The first Boiling Reactor of physics when he unified mas 1971: Gas well productivity peaked at 435 thousand cubic feet per well per day. Experiment reactor was built in Idaho. It demonstrated that steam bubbles in the reactor core did not cause a 20th century was Einstein’s dev instability problem. It was, instead, a rapid, reliable, and effective mechanism for limiting power. This could p speed of light). 1973: U.S. natural gas production reached a record-high of 21.7 trillion cubic feet before starting a long period of a reactor against “runaway” events. decline. 1915: The general theory of rel Thehigh Atomic EnergyperAct of 1954cubic was passed. It was the of the proposed thatoriginal gravity,Energy as well aA 1983: The cost of natural gas for residential users set1954: a record of $10.06 thousand feet (measured in first major amendment which gave the civilian nuclear energy program further access to nuclear technology. constant 2004 dollars). 1919: Rutherford (United Kin beginning program between government industry to dev oxygen wasand the first artificially 1986–present: Consumption of natural gas began to1955: grow The fasterAEC thanannounced production.the Net imports, of as aa cooperative share of natural nuclear power plants. Arco, Idaho, (population 1,000) became the first U.S. town powered by nuclear energy gas consumption, more than tripled. These imports nearly all came by pipeline from Canada. Small shipments were power was provided by an experimental reactor, BORAX III, at the Idaho National Energy Laboratory. 1929: Ernest O. Lawrence (Un brought by tanker as liquefied natural gas from Algeria and, in recent years, from a few other countries. New drilling energy beams for use in nuclea technology made offshore sites more important. Over the next 20 years, about one-fifth of all U.S. production came 1957: The first time that power was generated from a commercial nuclear plant,invention at Santa and Susana, California. for results obtain from offshore sites. Price-Anderson Act enacted. This legislation was designed to limit the financial risk of nuclear plant owners in event of an Thegas firstfutures full-scale nuclear power plant (Shippingport, Pennsylvania) service. 1932: Jamesbegan Chadwick (United 1990: The New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) issued theaccident. first natural contract. A futures contract hydrogen and used in nuclear r is an agreement today on the price of a commodity (or financial instrument) to be paid for and delivered in the 1960: The AEC published 10-year for nuclear future. The Clean Air Act Amendments required many changes to fossil fuels toits make themplan pollute less. Theenergy. use Small nuclear power generators were first used remote areas to power weather stations and to light buoys for sea navigation. 1934: Enrico Fermi (U.S. imm of these cleaner fuels was phased-in during the 1990s. Natural gas was promoted as cleaner burning fuel in power elements beyond uranium, not generation and transportation, increasing the use of natural gas. 1964: President Lyndon Johnson signed the Private Ownership of Special Nuclear Materials Act ofPrize 1964, wh He won the Nobel in Phy allowed theasnuclear energy 1998: About 5.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas were reported being used forindustry vehicles.to own the fuel for its units. After June 30, 1973, private ownership of th 1938: The process of splitting u uranium fuel became mandatory. Fritz Strassman (Germany). 2000: Natural gas consumption peaked at 23.3 trillion cubic feet. 1970: The First Earth Day was celebrated. Electricity “brownouts” hit the Northeast during a heat wave. A
Nuclear
onia Offer Contract system for PURPA-qualifying facilities renewable electric 2001: The share of natural gas provided coming from imports peaked at 16.2%. m, stable market for output, allowing the financing of capital-intensive technologies es. ce. 2003: After years of decline, gas well productivity reached a record low at 124 thousand cubic feet per day. The
This average natural gas well produced only 29% as much as in 1971. mal) electric generating capacity, reached a new high of 1,000 megawatts.
2004: Over one-fourth of U.S. production came from Texas. geothermal power plant began operating at Roosevelt Hot Springs with a 20 that rst geothermal binary power production plant began operating at Wabuska Hot n of 2005: The record-setting hurricane season of 2005 caused massive damage to the U.S. natural gas and petroleum infrastructure. The Gulf of Mexico, one of the nation’s largest sources of oil and gas production, was dealt a onetwooperated punch aby1-megawatt, Hurricanesgeopressured Katrina and power Rita. Many Gulf of Mexico wells, terminals, processing plants, and pipelines Power Research Institute demonstration wentliquids. off-line. U.S. residential natural gas prices were the highest ever recorded in September, reaching $16.66 per hane and heat from brine thousand cubic feet. mermal energy research and development declined throughout the 1980s and reached a 2006: A record 31,687 natural gas wells were drilled.
2007: U.S. imports of liquefied natural ii began electrical generation at a 25 megawatt geothermal plant.gas (LNG) reached a record level of 771 billion cubic feet.
me the world’s largest geothermal company through acquisition Magma Power. ural 2010: On April 20, 2010, anitsexplosion andoffire occurred on the offshore drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, which had been drilling an exploratory well in the Gulf of Mexico. The accident killed 11 crew members and left oil leaking capacity reached 6,000from megawatts. At Empire the unfinished wellNevada, into thea food-dehydration ocean for months.facility On May 27, 2010, Secretary of the Interior Salazar announced of dried onions and garlic a year, using resources. A DOE low-temperature a 6-month hold geothermal or “moratorium” on deepwater drilling. tern States identified nearly 9,000 thermal wells and springs and 271 communities eater than 50ºC. al ed power plants provided 54.9% of the state’s electricity. arth.
Nuclear
1905: Albert Einstein (U.S. immigrant from Germany) wrote the special theory of relativity. He created a new era worked together on the Geothermal Resource Exploration and Definition Program. of physics when he unified mass, energy, magnetism, electricity, and light. One of the most significant events of the nd, evaluate, and define additional geothermal resources throughout the western 20th century was Einstein’s developing the formula of E=mc2 (that is, energy equals mass times the square of the of speed of light).
1939: President Roosevelt received a letter from Albert Einstein on the possibility of a uranium weapon. 1940: German troops occupied Norway, and seized what was then the world’s only heavy-water production plant. Philip Abelson and Edwin McMillan (United States) demonstrated that neutrons captured by uranium-238 lead to the creation of elements 93 and 94, neptunium and plutonium. A new element (atomic number 94), was found and named plutonium. American physicists confirmed that plutonium was fissionable, thus usable for a bomb. 1942: The Manhattan Project was formed in the United States to secretly build the atomic bomb for use in World War II. The first self-sustaining, controlled nuclear chain reaction led by Enrico Fermi (U.S. immigrant from Italy) and other scientists at the University of Chicago. 1945: The first test of a nuclear weapon, code-named Trinity,occurred at Alamogordo, New Mexico. The United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, and three days later dropped another one on Nagasaki, Japan. Japan surrendered less than two weeks later, ending World War II.
1951: An experimental breeder reactor (EBR Reactor I, or EBR-I) in Idaho produced the first usable electric power from the atom, lighting four light bulbs. Scientists had already known that nuclear power could produce electricity. The purpose of the experimental EBR was to prove that a breeder reactor could produce more fuel than it used.
1979: The accident at t on March 28, 1979, wa malfunctions, design-re but only very minute re sweeping changes in em protection, and many o industry. Completing a nuclear fuel. The ban’s p nuclear weapons.
1953: The first nuclear-powered submarine, the U.S.S. Nautilus, was launched. Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace Program proposed an international agency to develop peaceful nuclear technologies. The first Boiling Reactor Experiment reactor was built in Idaho. It demonstrated that steam bubbles in the reactor core did not cause an instability problem. It was, instead, a rapid, reliable, and effective mechanism for limiting power. This could protect a reactor against “runaway” events.
ered burning gases that were (United seeping into and around Lake Erie. tractNative Americans1932: James Chadwick Kingdom) discovered the neutron as well as studied the deuterium, known as heavy hydrogen and used in nuclear reactors. Baltimore to fuel street lamps. During the 19th century, natural gas was used in e of the natural gas produced at that time wasItaly) manufactured eras a lighting fuel. Most 1934: Enrico Fermi (U.S. immigrant from irradiated uranium with neutrons. He believed he had produced om the earth, as it is today. elements beyond uranium, not realizing that he had split the atom, thus achieving the world’s first nuclear fission. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery in 1938. William Hart dug the first successful well that was intended to produce natural gas.
1960: The AEC published its 10-year plan for nuclear energy. Small nuclear power generators were first used in remote areas to power weather stations and to light buoys for sea navigation.
plant. 1973: President Nixon proposed cubic replacing the day. Atomic as well productivity reached a record low at 124 thousand feet per The Energy Commission with the Energy Research and ced in 1971. leadonly to 29% as much asDevelopment Administration and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The Arab Oil Embargo occurred, in which und and several Arab nations in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) embargoed, or stopped selling, . production came from Texas. oil to the United States and Holland to protest their support of Israel in the Arab-Israeli “Yom Kippur” War. Arab OPEC production was cut by 25%, which caused some temporary shortages and helped oil prices to triple. This cane season of 2005 caused massive damage to the U.S. natural and petroleum World contributed to an increased interest in gas alternatives to petroleum, including nuclear power. exico, one of the nation’s largestutilities sourcesordered of oil and production, was dealt a one- record. Italy) U.S. 41 gas nuclear power plants, a one-year rina and Rita. Many Gulf of Mexico wells, terminals, processing plants, and pipelines natural gas prices were the highest in September, reaching $16.66 perservice (Commonwealth Edison’s Zion Nuclear Power 1974: Theever firstrecorded 1,000-megawatt nuclear plant went into Plant, Unit 1). The Atomic Energy Commission was abolished, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) on was created to regulate the nuclear industry. The Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy was also l gas wells were drilled. abolished.
d natural gas (LNG) reached level of 771 billion feet. 1975:a record The Energy Research and cubic Development Administration began operating. irst explosion and fire occurred on the offshoreCarter drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, whichand hadDevelopment Administration with the Federal Energy mittee 1977: President combined the Energy Research ell in the Gulf of Mexico.Administration, The accident killed 11 crew andof leftEnergy. oil leaking creating the members Department the ocean for months. On May 27, 2010, Secretary of the Interior Salazar announced m” on deepwater drilling.1979: The accident at the Three Mile Island Unit 2 (TMI-2) nuclear power plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, power
ctricity. ed.
on March 28, 1979, was the most serious in the U.S. nuclear power plant industry’s operating history. Equipment malfunctions, design-related problems, and human error led to led to a partial meltdown of the TMI-2 reactor core but only very minute releases of radioactivity. Although no deaths or injuries resulted, the accident brought about e sweeping changes in emergency response planning, reactor operator training, human factors engineering, radiation mmigrant from Germany) wrote the special theory of relativity. He created a new era r protection, and many other areas of nuclear power plant operations. These changes enhanced the safety of the ss, energy, magnetism, electricity, and light. One of the most significant events of the an industry. Completing a process begun by President Ford, President Carter banned the use of reprocessed uranium in veloping the formula of E=mc2 (that is, energy equals mass times the square of the protect nuclear fuel. The ban’s purpose was to prevent the used fuels from falling into the wrong hands and being used for nuclear weapons.
lativity was published by Albert Einstein (U.S. immigrant from Germany). He Act, 1980: For the first and time, nuclear energy generated more electricity than oil in the United States. as motion, could affect the intervals of time space.
1981: Ronald lifted the ban on reprocessing used nuclear fuel. ngdom) bombarded nitrogen gasPresident with alpha. The Reagan transmutation of nitrogen into velop induced nuclear reaction. y. The 1983: The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 was signed, approving the development of a high-level nuclear waste repository. Nuclear energy generated moretoelectricity nited States) conceived the idea for the first cyclotron, a device used produce than high-natural gas. ar physics experiments. He was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for this The with it. 1984: Nuclear replaced hydropower as the second-largest source of electricity in the United States, after coal. ned n the 1986: The Perry power plant the in Ohio became the 100th U.S. nuclear power plant in operation. The world’s worst d Kingdom) discovered the neutron as well as studied deuterium, known as heavy nuclear power accident happened at the Chernobyl plant in the former USSR (now Ukraine). reactors. in 1986: A catastrophic nuclearHe accident at he a power plant in Chernobyl in the Ukraine (the former Soviet Union) migrant from Italy) irradiated uranium with neutrons. believed had produced releases radioactive particlesthe in world’s the atmosphere thatfission. prevailing winds carry over northern Europe. The event t realizing that he had split the atom, thus achieving first nuclear hich the unique safety concerns of using nuclear power and calls into question the training of employees who ysics for this discovery inhighlights 1938. he work at the plants, as well as safety procedures and equipment variations from nation to nation. uranium atoms, called nuclear fission, was demonstrated by scientists Otto Hahn and 1987: Congress selected Yucca Mountain in Nevada for study as the first high-level nuclear waste repository site, although the location has yet to be used.
1974: The first 1,000-m Plant, Unit 1). The Ato was created to regulate abolished.
1975: The Energy Rese
1954: The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 was passed. It was the first major amendment of the original Energy Act, which gave the civilian nuclear energy program further access to nuclear technology.
“brownout” is a reduction or cutback in electric power, especially as a result of a shortage, mechanical failure, or overuse by consumers. coming from imports peaked at 16.2%.
1973: President Nixon Development Administ several Arab nations in oil to the United States OPEC production was contributed to an incre U.S. utilities ordered 41
1946: The Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1946 was passed, establishing the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to control nuclear energy development and to explore peaceful uses of nuclear energy. First demonstrations against nuclear testing were held in Times Square, New York. The Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy was established to oversee all civilian and military nuclear affairs.
s dropped from 10 to 16 cents per kilowatt hour to 5 to 8 centers per kilowatt hour. 1915: The general theory of relativity was published by Albert Einstein (U.S. immigrant from Germany). He in thatbusiness gravity,that as well as motion, could affect theand intervals of time and space. dustry became a $1.5 proposed billion a year involved electricity generation uch as indoor heating, greenhouses, food drying, aquaculture. Alaska installed a 200 1919: Rutherford (United Kingdom) bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha. The transmutation of nitrogen into low-temperature (74ºC) geothermal water along with cooling water (4ºC). ural oxygen was the first artificially induced nuclear reaction. were geothermal power plant began operating. lling 1929: Ernest O. Lawrence (United States) conceived the idea for the first cyclotron, a device used to produce highame energy beams for use in nuclear physics experiments. He was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics for this invention and for results obtained with it.
1938: The process of splitting uranium atoms, called nuclear fission, was demonstrated by scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman (Germany).
“brownout” is a reducti overuse by consumers.
1955: The AEC announced the beginning of a cooperative program between government and industry to develop nuclear power plants. Arco, Idaho, (population 1,000) became the first U.S. town powered by nuclear energy. The power was provided by an experimental reactor, BORAX III, at the Idaho National Energy Laboratory. 1957: The first time that power was generated from a commercial nuclear plant, at Santa Susana, California. The Price-Anderson Act enacted. This legislation was designed to limit the financial risk of nuclear plant owners in the event of an accident. The first full-scale nuclear power plant (Shippingport, Pennsylvania) began service.
1964: President Lyndon Johnson signed the Private Ownership of Special Nuclear Materials Act of 1964, which allowed the nuclear energy industry to own the fuel for its units. After June 30, 1973, private ownership of the uranium fuel became mandatory. 1970: The First Earth Day was celebrated. Electricity “brownouts” hit the Northeast during a heat wave. A
1977: President Carter Administration, creatin
1980: For the first time
1981: President Ronald
1983: The Nuclear Was repository. Nuclear ene
1984: Nuclear replaced
1986: The Perry power nuclear power accident
1986: A catastrophic nu releases radioactive part highlights the unique sa work at the plants, as w
1987: Congress selected although the location h
1989: Nuclear power plants provided 19% of the electricity used in the United States; 46 units entered service during the 1980s.
Photovolt
1993: Two decades after the first oil embargo, the 109 nuclear power plants operating in the United States provided about one-fifth of the nation’s electricity.
1905: Albert Einste these theories.
1994: The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued final design approval for the first two of four advanced nuclear power plant designs — General Electric’s Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR) and ABB Combustion Engineering’s System 80+.
1950s: Inventors at cell (6%) made from everyday electrical e
1996: The NRC granted the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) a full-power license for its Watts Bar 1 nuclear power plant. This was the last unit to be licensed in the United States in the 20th century. Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 6, the world’s first Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, began commercial service in Japan.
1955: Western Elec products included P
1998: Baltimore Gas and Electric Co. submitted an application to renew the license of its two-unit Calvert Cliffs nuclear power plant—the first U.S. company to apply for a 20-year extension of its 40-year license. 2000: The NRC issued the first-ever license renewal to Constellation Energy’s Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, allowing an additional 20 years of operation. The NRC approved a 20-year extension to the operating license of Duke Energy’s three-unit Oconee Nuclear Station. 2001: The National Energy Plan was published in May 2001. The Plan included a significant role for nuclear power in meeting energy demand and for reducing air pollution levels. 2002: The Nuclear Power 2010 Program, developed in 2002, was a joint government/industry cost-shared effort to identify sites for new nuclear power plants, develop and bring to market advanced nuclear plant technologies, evaluate the business case for building new nuclear power plants, and demonstrate untested regulatory processes. On April 30, the oldest nuclear power plant in the world, Obninsk (located in Russia), closed down its sole reactor. Nuclear power provided about 16% of the world’s electricity. 2003: On August 14, the Nation’s largest-ever power outage left much of the Northeast and parts of Canada without electricity for several days. A transmission line in Ohio strained the electrical system so much that plants all over the grid, including nine U.S. and eight Canadian commercial nuclear reactors, were shut down. 2005: On January 3, Lithuania, the world’s most nuclear-dependent nation, began the complete and final shutdown of one-half of its nuclear capacity. Lithuania’s nuclear reactors are being shutdown owing to safety concerns. They have the same design as the reactors at Chernobyl, the site of the world’s worst nuclear accident. The Polish Government decided to build the Nation’s first nuclear power plant. President Bush signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005, which included measures to encourage the nuclear industry to build new nuclear power plants. (No construction of a nuclear plant has begun since 1971.) 2006: A survey, in the United States, found a high level of support for nuclear energy among the public; with 68% favoring nuclear energy as one way to generate electricity and 49% stating a need to build more nuclear plants. 2007: Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant Unit 1 was the first U.S. nuclear reactor to come online in the 21st century. Shut down in 1985, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) decided in 2002 to restart the unit. It had the capacity to supply electricity to about 650,000 homes. 2011: An earthquake and subsequent tsunami caused severe damage to the nuclear power plant at Fukushima, Japan. The event renewed discussion on the safety of nuclear power plants.
1958: Federal suppo Vanguard satellite.
1973: Spurred by th
1970s: By the late 1 Government at the buildings sector.
1978: The Energy T The Solar Photovolt over 10 years, to im Photovoltaic energy systems in Federal f
1980: The Carlisle h Associates. It featur superinsulation, int 7.5-peak-watt phot 1980 was enacted, r business tax credit t
1989: The Renewab the operational relia costs, and improve private partnership generating systems. the California Ener
1992: The Universi first time
1993: Pacific Gas an California. The 500 amount of power is New world-record e respectively, were ac
Photovoltaic
ded
1905: Albert Einstein published a paper on the photoelectric effect. He would win 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for these theories.
d ion
1950s: Inventors at Bell Labs (Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson) developed a more efficient PV cell (6%) made from silicon. This was the first solar cell capable of generating enough power from the sun to run everyday electrical equipment.
ower
1955: Western Electric began to sell commercial licenses for silicon photovoltaic technologies. Early successful products included PV-powered dollar bill changers and devices that decoded computer punch cards and tape. 1958: Federal support for photovoltaic technology was initially tied to the space program to provide power for the Vanguard satellite.
s
1973: Spurred by the oil embargo, interest in space applications of photovoltaics grew.
t,
1970s: By the late 1970s, a program for the development of distributed photovoltaics was established by the U.S. Government at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, focusing on design and demonstration issues for the buildings sector.
ower
t , . tor.
hout the
own
h
o
8%
1978: The Energy Tax Act of 1978 established a 10-percent investment tax credit for photovoltaic applications. The Solar Photovoltaic Energy, Research, Development and Demonstration Act of 1978 committed $1.2 billion, over 10 years, to improve photovoltaic production levels, reduce costs, and stimulate private sector purchases. Photovoltaic energy commercialization program accelerated the procurement and installation of photovoltaic systems in Federal facilities. 1980: The Carlisle house (Massachusetts) was completed with participation from MIT, DOE, and Solar Design Associates. It featured the first building-integrated photovoltaic system, passive solar heating and cooling, superinsulation, internal thermal mass, earth-sheltering, daylighting, a roof-integrated solar thermal system, and a 7.5-peak-watt photovoltaic array of polycrystalline modules from Solarex. The Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980 was enacted, raising the residential tax credit to 40% of the first $10,000 for photovoltaic applications, and the business tax credit to 15%. The Act also extended the credit to the end of 1981. 1989: The Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Technology Competitiveness Act of 1989 sought to improve the operational reliability of photovoltaic modules, increase module efficiencies, decrease direct manufacturing costs, and improve electric power production costs. PV for Utility Scale Applications (PVUSA), a national publicprivate partnership program, was created to assess and demonstrate the viability of utility-scale photovoltaic electric generating systems. PVUSA participants include the DOE and other agencies, the Electric Power Research Institute, the California Energy Commission, and Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) and eight other utilities. 1992: The University of South Florida fabricated a 15.89% efficient thin-film cell, breaking the 15% barrier for the first time 1993: Pacific Gas and Electric completed the installation of the first grid-supported photovoltaic system in Kerman, California. The 500-kilowatt system was the first effort aimed at “distributed power,” whereby a relatively small amount of power is carefully matched to a specific load and is produced near the point of consumption. New world-record efficiencies in polycrystalline thin film and in single-crystal devices, approaching 16% and 30%, respectively, were achieved in 1993.
he
more aic ed for ed capacity
d ucent
1983: California’s Standard Offer Contract system provided renewable electric energy systems with a relatively firm, stable market for their output. This system allowed the financing of capital-intensive technologies such as solar thermal-electric. The SEGS I plant (13.8-megawatt) was installed, the first in a series of Solar Electric Generating Stations (SEGS). SEGS I used solar trough technology to produce steam in a conventional steam turbine generator. Natural gas was used as a supplementary fuel for up to 25% of the heat input. 1992: A 7.5-kilowatt dish prototype system became operational, using an advanced stretched-membrane concentrator, through a joint venture of Sandia National Laboratories and Cummins Power Generation. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 restored the 10% investment tax credit for independent power producers, using solar technologies. 1994: The first solar dish generator, using a free-piston Stirling engine, was tied to a utility grid. The Corporation for Solar Technology and Renewable Resources, a public corporation, was established to facilitate solar developments at the Nevada Test Site. 3M Company introduced a new silvered plastic film for solar applications. 2000: A 12-kilowatt solar electric system, in Colorado, was the largest residential installation in the United States to be registered with the U.S. Department of Energy’s Million Solar Roofs Initiative. The system provided most of the electricity for the family of eight’s 6,000-square-foot home.
es. ation’s
2001: Home Depot began selling residential solar power systems in three stores in San Diego, California. NASA’s solar-powered aircraft, Helios, set a new world altitude record for non-rocket-powered craft: 96,863 feet (more than 18 miles).
res solar s the
2002: Students from the University of Colorado built an energy-efficient solar home for the Solar Decathlon, a competition sponsored by the Department of Energy. Student teams integrated aesthetics and modern conveniences with maximum energy production and optimal efficiency.
ed surplus In over the
2013: Awaiting final regulatory approval, the Blythe Solar Power Project in southeast California will have the capacity to produce 1,000 megawatts of electricity – enough to power roughly 800,000 homes. When completed, the Blythe plant would nearly double the current 585 megawatts of installed commercial-scale solar generation nationwide and would have a capacity to generate nearly three times the electricity produced at the country’s largest solar facility – the nine-unit, 354-megawatt Solar Energy Generating Systems plant in Kramer Junction, Calif.
s of the
Transportation
atory
1787: John Fitch (United States) successfully tested his invention, a 45-foot steamboat, in the Delaware River. 1832–39: Robert Anderson (Scotland) built the first electric car.
om as added tion
the of 96%.
1840: The railroad was just getting started with only 3,000 miles of track in the entire country. 1860: The railway system in the United States had grown to over 30,000 miles of track. 1870: By 1870, railroads had been built from coast to coast. Railroad companies continued to build hundreds of thousands of miles of new tracks over the next 30 years. Railroads provided a connection between rural areas and cities, and allowed farmers to sell their produce in far away places. 1880–1905: Electric street car and trolley systems were built in Washington, DC, and in other U.S. cities. Streetcars made it easier for people to travel farther distances and encouraged the development of new suburbs.
Max Moinian 180511
1893: The Duryea brothers, Charles and Frank, started the first U.S. car company. Their company produced 1983: California’s Standard Off gasoline-powered limousine until 1920. 1994: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) developed a solar cell made of gallium indium stable market for their output. phosphide and gallium arsenide; it was the first one of its kind to exceed 30% conversion efficiency. thermal-electric. The SEGS I p 1908: Henry Ford first produced the Model T car. It was designed to use ethanol, gasoline, or any combina Stations (SEGS). SEGS I used the two fuels. Cities began switching from streetcars to buses for public transportation. 1999: Construction was completed on Four Times Square in New York, New York. The office building had more Natural gas was used as a suppl
energy-efficient features than any other commercial skyscraper and included building-integrated photovoltaic 1918: The U.S. PosttoOffice used airplanes to move the mail an air transportation panels on the 37th to 43rd floors, on the south- and west-facing facades, produce part of electricity needed for in order to establish 1992: A 7.5-kilowatt dishsystem prot 15, Lt. Jamessolar Edgerton flewhigh the efficiency mail fromresulted Philadelphia to Washington during the firstthrough scheduled air m the building. Spectrolab, Inc., and the NREL developMay a 32.3% efficient cell. The concentrator, a joint v flight. from combining three layers of photovoltaic materials into a single cell. Worldwide, installed photovoltaic capacity The Energy Policy Act of 1992 reached 1,000 megawatts. technologies. 1920: As Americans now owned 8 million cars, the Ford Motor Company manufactured the Model T in lar numbers. 2001: BP and BP Solar announced the first BP Connect gasoline retail and convenience store in the United 1994: The first solar dish gener
States. The Indianapolis, Indiana, service station features a solar-electric canopy. The canopy contains translucent Solar Technology and Renewab 1927:into Theglass. airline business got its start when the U.S. Post Office turned over the air mail delivery to private com photovoltaic modules made of thin-film silicon integrated Nevada Test Site. 3M Com
1944: Rail ittravel during as World Warsilicon II, reaching 2007: The 40% conversion efficiency barrier is broken, making twicegrew as efficient a typical cell. a record 98 billion passenger-miles. 2000: A 12-kilowatt solar elect be registered with the U.S. Dep 1950 electricity for the family of eigh With Americans now owning 50 million cars, oil surpassed coal as the country’s number one fuel source. 2001: Home Depot began selli 1955: More Americans traveled byinairthe than by train. NASA’s solar-powered aircraft, 1947: Energy was scarce during World War II so passive solar buildings became popular United States. (more than 18 miles). Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company published a book titled, Your Solar House, which profiled 49 of the nation’s greatest solar architects. 1956: Malcom McLean, a trucking magnate, loaded trailers onto a ship and sent them by sea for less than t Students fromtrailers) the Unive cost of trucking them overland. He was credited with shipping the first load of2002: containers (truck ab competition sponsored by thewD Mid–1950s: Frank Bridgers (United States) designed cargo the world’s building that features solar signed the Federal-Aid ship, first fromcommercial New Jerseyoffice to Texas. President Eisenhower Highway Act of 1956, with maximum energy product water heating and passive design. The Bridgers-Paxtonestablished Building isthe listed in the National Interstate HighwayHistoric System.Register as the world’s first solar-heated office building. final companie regulatory 1958: Pan American ushered in the Jet Age with the Boeing 707. The Jet Age 2013: beganAwaiting when airline capacity to produce 1,000 meg 1973: The University of Delaware built “Solar One,” replacing a PV/thermal hybridplanes system. Roof-integrated fedhad surplus propeller with jet planes. Jet arrays engines far fewer moving parts; so they were more reliable the Blythe wouldtremend nearly d power through a special meter to the utility during theand day; power to was purchased utility atwhich night.was In less expensive than gasoline, cheaper operate. Theyfrom usedthe kerosene, andplant produced nationwide and would have ac addition to providing electricity, the arrays were like flat-plate thermal collectors; fans blew warm air from over the thrust for their weight. solar facility – the nine-unit, 35 array to heat storage bins. 1969: 80% of working men and 61% of working women could drive. 1974: The Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) was formed. The organization represents the interests of the solar industry and acts as a lobbying group in Washington, 1970:DC. The Boeing 747 was the first “jumbo jet” with 4 engines and 400 seats. Freight moved by train surpas
Solarthermal
Transportation
World War II peak of 771 billion ton-miles. 1977: The Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) was formed (now the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1787: John Fitch (United State [NREL]), a national laboratory that provides research1971: and development support for solarofand Congress relieved railroads thephotovoltaic costs of running passenger trains. Amtrak, the National Railroad Pa technologies. 1832–39: Robert Corporation, started operations in 1971, taking over long-distance train service from nearly all Anderson of the rail(Sc ca
1978: The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 mandated the purchase of electricity from 1840: The railroad was just get 1974: President Richard Nixon signed the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act of 1974, part of a qualifying facilities that meet certain standards on energy source and efficiency. A 15% energy tax credit was added nationwide effort to reduce oil consumption. to an existing 10% investment tax credit, providing incentive for capital investment in solar thermal generation 1860: The railway system in th facilities for independent power producers. 1975: Congress passed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act, which among various mandates, required c 1870: By 1870, railroads had b makers to begin building more fuel efficient cars. By 1985, the Act required new cars and trucks to meet an 1981: California enacted a 25% tax credit for the capital costs of renewable energy systems. thousands of miles of new track Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ) Standard of 27.5 miles per gallon. cities, and allowed farmers to s 1982: Solar One, a 10-megawatt central receiver demonstration project, was first operated and established the 1978: Energythe Taxsystem Act ofachieved 1978 established a gasofguzzler from $1,000Electric to $7,700 percar ve feasibility of power tower systems. In 1988, the final year of The operation, an availability 96%. tax, a tax ranging 1880–1905: street on gas-guzzling automobiles. President Jimmy Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act offor 1978, which in made it easier people to trav competition among airlines.
1893: The Duryea brothers, Charles and Frank, started the first U.S. car company. Their company produced a By 1985: New cars and light tr gasoline-powered limousine until 1920. fuel economy of 27.5 miles per 1941: For several months during World War II, the Smith-Putnam wind turbine supplied power to the local at to “Grandpa’s Knob,” a hilltop near Rutland, Vermont. Its blades were 5380% meters (175 feet) inhad dia 1908: Henry Ford first produced the Model T car. Itcommunity was designed use ethanol, gasoline, or any combination of 1995: of households the two fuels. Cities began switching from streetcars to buses for public transportation. 1950s: Most windmill companies in the United States went out of business.
1999: The first hybrid electric v 1918: The U.S. Post Office used airplanes to move the mail in order to establish an air transportation system. On United States. 1973: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil embargo caused the prices of oil to ri May 15, Lt. James Edgerton flew the mail from Philadelphia to Washington during the first scheduled air mail sharply. High oil prices increased interest in other energy sources, such as wind energy.Americans owned 220 m flight. 2000:
With funding from the National Science and the U.S. Department ofof Energy, the Nath 1920: As Americans now owned 8 million cars, the 1974–82: Ford Motor Company manufactured the Model T inFoundation large 2001: A total 98.8 million Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) led an effort to increase wind power technology at the Lewis numbers. motorcycle). Research Center in Cleveland , Ohio. NASA developed 13 experimental wind turbines with four major desig (200 kilowatts); MOD-1 the first turbine in 19792003: over 1Sport megawatt); the MOD1927: The airline business got its start when the U.S.MOD-0A Post Office turned over airthe mail delivery(2tomegawatts, private companies. utility vehicles (SU megawatts) and the MOD-5B (3.2 megawatt). 1944: Rail travel grew during World War II, reaching a record 98 billion passenger-miles. 2005: Trucking accounted for 6 1978: Congress passed the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 to gas encourage theforuse of an natural pipelines 9%, renewable energy and cogeneration facilities (plants that have another purpose besides producing electricity). 1950 PURPAcoal requires companies buyfuel extra electricity from renewable and cogeneration facilities that mee With Americans now owning 50 million cars, oil surpassed as theutility country’s numbertoone source. 2007: The Energy Independen certain qualifications, called qualifying facilities (QFs). The amount that a utility pays must be equal to the co standard for cars and light truc 1955: More Americans traveled by air than by train.it would have taken the utility to produce the same amount of electricity, calledmiles per gallon by 2020, a 40% the avoided cost. renewable fuel standards requir 1956: Malcom McLean, a trucking magnate, loaded1979: trailers onto sent them sea1for less than(MOD-1), the Safety Administration finalized The firsta ship windand turbine rated by over megawatt began operating; MOD-1 had a 2-megawatt cost of trucking them overland. He was credited with shipping the first trailers) aboard awas about 40 cents per kilowatt hour. capacity rating. Theload costofofcontainers electricity (truck from wind generation cargo ship, from New Jersey to Texas. President Eisenhower signed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which 2013: A record 31.2 million pa established the Interstate Highway System. trainfor linking Washington, D.C 1980: The Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act of 1980 further increased tax credits businesses that used renewable energy. The Federal tax credit for wind energy reached 25%, rewarding those businesses choosing t 1958: Pan American ushered in the Jet Age with therenewable Boeing 707. The Jet Age began when airline companies began energy. replacing propeller planes with jet planes. Jet engines had far fewer moving parts; so they were more reliable, safer, and cheaper to operate. They used kerosene, which was lessBecause expensive and producedCalifornia tremendous 1983: of athan needgasoline, for more electricity, began using a contract system that allowed certain ren thrust for their weight. 1850s: Halladay and Jo and cogeneration facilities (or in other words, QFs) to lock into rates that would makeDaniel electricity generated fr AmericanPrices West.were It had an open renewable technologies, like wind farms and geothermal plants, more cost competitive. based on t 1969: 80% of working men and 61% of working women couldby drive. Company. costs saved not building planned coal plants.
Wind
1970: The Boeing 747 was the first “jumbo jet” with 4 engines and 400 seats. Freight moved by train surpassed the Late 1880s: Thomas O. Perry c World War II peak of 771 billion ton-miles. invented the mathematical 1985: Many wind turbines were installed in California in the early 1980s to help meet growing electricitywin nee greater1,000 liftingmegawatts, power and en sm to take advantage of government incentives. By 1985, California wind capacityhad exceeded 1971: Congress relieved railroads of the costs of running passenger trains. Amtrak, the National Railroad Passenger power to supply 250,000 homes. These wind turbines were very inefficient. also started the Aermotor Com Corporation, started operations in 1971, taking over long-distance train service from nearly all of the rail carriers. efficient. Six million windmills from catalogs or traveling salesm 1987: The MOD-5B was the largest wind turbine operating in the world — with a rotor diameter of nearly 1 1974: President Richard Nixon signed the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act of 1974, part of a wood, and mill grain. meters (330 feet) and a rated power of 3.2 megawatts. nationwide effort to reduce oil consumption.
1888: Charles F. Brush used th 1988: Many of the hastily installed turbines of the early 1980s were removed and later replaced with more rel 1975: Congress passed the Energy Policy and Conservation Act, which among various mandates, required car produce electricity started to be models. makers to begin building more fuel efficient cars. By 1985, the Act required new cars and trucks to meet an average Brush Electric Co. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ) Standard of 27.5 miles per gallon. 1989: Throughout the 1980s, DOE funding for wind power research and development reachingthe its 1893: In declined, Chicago, Illinois, 1989. 1978: The Energy Tax Act of 1978 established a gas point guzzlerintax, a tax ranging from $1,000 to $7,700 per vehicle 15 windmill companies that sh on gas-guzzling automobiles. President Jimmy Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, which increased 1990: More than 2,200 megawatts of wind energy capacity was installed in California — more than half competition among airlines. Early 1900s: Windmills in of Calth world’ s capacity at the time.
da By 1985: New cars and light trucks were required to meet a Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard for ffer Contract system provided renewable electric energy systems with a relatively firm, fuel economy of 27.5 miles per gallon. This system allowed the financing of capital-intensive technologies such as solar plant (13.8-megawatt) was installed, the first in a series of Solar Electric Generating ation of 1995: 80% of households had at least one vehicle per driver. solar trough technology to produce steam in a conventional steam turbine generator. lementary fuel for up to 25% of the heat input. 1999: The first hybrid electric vehicle, powered by both a rechargeable battery and gasoline, became available in the m. On system became operational, United States. totype using an advanced stretched-membrane mail venture of Sandia National Laboratories and Cummins Power Generation. 2000: Americans owned 220 million cars. 2 restored the 10% investment tax credit for independent power producers, using solar
rge 2001: A total of 98.8 million households (92%) owned or possessed a light-duty vehicle (car, small truck, or motorcycle). rator, using a free-piston Stirling engine, was tied to a utility grid. The Corporation for ble Resources, a public corporation, was established to facilitate solar developments at mpanies. 2003: plastic Sport utility (SUVs) accounted for 27% of all light-duty vehicle sales, up 6.8% from 1990. mpany introduced a new silvered film forvehicles solar applications.
2005: accounted for 65% of energy usedStates for transporting freight. Water transportation accounted for 18%, tric system, in Colorado, was theTrucking largest residential installation in the United to natural pipelines for 9%, Class I railroads partment of Energy’s Million Solargas Roofs Initiative. The and system provided mostfor of 8%. the ht’s 6,000-square-foot home. 2007: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 set a new corporate average fleet efficiency (CAFE) forthree cars stores and light trucks. TheCalifornia. new standard requires car makers to meet a fleet wide average of at least 35 ing residential solar powerstandard systems in in San Diego, miles per gallon 2020, a 40% increase the old Helios, set a new world altitude record forby non-rocket-powered craft:over 96,863 feetstandard. The Energy Independence and Security Act also set renewable fuel standards requiring an increase in the use of ethanol blended into gasoline. National Highway Traffic the Safety Administration finalized new CAFE standards for light trucks, to be phased in by 2011. ersity aof Colorado built an energy-efficient solar home for the Solar Decathlon, a board Department of Energy. Student integrated aesthetics and modern conveniences which 2013: teams A record 31.2 million passengers traveled on Amtrak, whose 300 daily trains serve 46 states. Amtrak’s Acela tion and optimal efficiency. train linking Washington, D.C., New York and Boston runs at speeds up to 150 mph.
esy approval, began the Blythe Solar Power Project in southeast California will have the gawatts e, safer, of electricity – enough to power roughly 800,000 homes. When completed, double the current 585 megawatts of installed commercial-scale solar generation dous capacity to generate nearly1850s: three times theHalladay electricityand produced at the country’s Daniel John Burnham workedlargest to build and sell the Halladay Windmill, designed for the 54-megawatt Solar EnergyAmerican Generating Systems plant in Kramer Calif. West. It had an open towerJunction, design and thin wooden blades. They also started the U.S. Wind Engine Company.
Wind
nssed the
Late 1880s: Thomas O. Perry conducted over 5,000 wind experiments trying to build a better windmill. He invented the mathematical windmill, which used gears to reduce the rotational speed of the blades. This design es) successfully tested his invention, a 45-foot steamboat, in the Delaware River. had greater lifting power and smoother pumping action, and the windmill could operate in lighter winds. Perry assenger also started the Aermotor Company with LaVerne Noyes. The development of steel blades made windmills more cotland) built the first electric car. arriers. efficient. Six million windmills sprang up across America as settlers moved west. Homesteaders purchased windmills from catalogs or traveling salesmen or, otherwise, built their own. Mills were used to pump water, shell corn, saw tting started with only 3,000 miles of track in the entire country. a wood, and mill grain.
he United States had grown to over 30,000 miles of track. 1888: Charles F. Brush used the first large windmill to generate electricity in Cleveland, Ohio. Windmills that car produce electricity started to be called wind turbines. In later years, General Electric acquired Brush’s company, been built from coast to coast. Railroad companies continued to build hundreds of n average Brush Electric Co. ks over the next 30 years. Railroads provided a connection between rural areas and sell their produce in far away places. 1893: In Chicago, Illinois, the World’s Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World’s Fair) highlighted ehicle 15 windmill companies their goods. and trolley systems were built in Washington, DC,that and showcased in other U.S. cities. Streetcars ncreased vel farther distances and encouraged the development of new suburbs. Early 1900s: Windmills in California pumped saltwater to evaporate ponds. This provided gold miners with salt.
rucks were required to meet a Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standard for 1992: The Energy Policy Act of 1992 called for increased energy efficiency and renewable energy use and authorized r gallon. a production tax credit of 1.5 cents per kilowatt hour for wind-generated electricity. It also reformed the Public ameter. Utility Holding Company Act to help make smaller utility companies more able to compete with larger ones. at least one vehicle per driver.
U.S. Windpower developed of theavailable first commercially available variable-speed wind turbines, the 33M-VS. vehicle, powered by both1993: a rechargeable battery and gasoline,one became in the The development was completed over five years, with the final prototype tests completed in 1992. The $20-million ise project was funded mostly by U.S. Windpower, but also involved Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Pacific Gas & Electric, and Niagara Mohawk Power Company. million cars.
tional households (92%) owned1995: or possessed a light-duty vehicle (car, small truck, or Commission, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission In a ruling against the California Public Utility (FERC) refused to allow utilities to pay qualifying renewable facilities (QFs) rates that were higher than the utilities’ gns: the avoided cost, the amount that it would cost the utility to produce the same amount of electricity. -2 (2.5 UVs) accounted for 27%The of allU.S. light-duty vehicleofsales, up 6.8% from 1990. Department Energy’s (DOE) Wind Energy Program lowered technology costs. DOE’s advanced turbine program led to new turbines with energy costs of 5 cents per kilowatt hour of electricity generated. 65% of energy used for transporting freight. Water transportation accounted for 18%, nd Class I railroads for 8%. Mid-1990s: Ten-year Standard Offer contracts written during the mid-1980s (at rates of 6 cents per kilowatt hour and higher) began to expire. The new contract rates reflected a much lower avoided cost of about 3 cents per et and Security Act of 2007 nce set a hour new corporate average fleet hardships efficiency for (CAFE) kilowatt and created financial most qualifying renewable and cogeneration facilities (QFs). ost that cks. The new standard requires car makers to meetofa most fleet wide of at least Kenetech, the producer of theaverage U.S.-made wind35generators, faced financial difficulties; it sold off most of its % increase over the old standard. The Energy Independence and Security Act also set assets and stopped making wind generators. ring an increase in the use of ethanol blended into gasoline. National Highway Traffic d new CAFE standards for lightWind trucks,generated to be phased in by 2011. 1999: electricity reached the 2,000 megawatt mark.
assengers traveled on Amtrak, whose 300 daily trains serve states. Amtrak’s Acela 1999–2000: Installed capacity of 46 wind-powered, electricity-generating equipment exceeded 2,500 megawatts. C., New York and BostonContracts runs at speeds up to 150farms mph. continued to be signed. The cost of electricity from wind generation was from 4 to 6 for new wind to use cents per kilowatt hour.
2003: Installed capacity of wind-powered, electricity-generating equipment was 4,685 megawatts. newable ohn build and sell the Halladay Windmill, designed for the romBurnham worked to 2004: The cost of electricity from wind generation was 3 to 4.5 cents per kilowatt hour. nthe tower design and thin wooden blades. They also started the U.S. Wind Engine
2005: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 strengthened incentives for wind and other renewable energy sources. conducted over 5,000 wind experiments trying to build a better windmill. He ndmill, to reduce the rotational speed of the blades. This design eds andwhich used gears 2006: DOE’s budgetcould for wind subsidies waswinds. aboutPerry $500 million — about 10 times as much as the 1978 level. moother pumping action, and the windmill operate in lighter nough mpany with LaVerne Noyes. The development of steel blades made windmills more 2007: Windmoved power west. provided 5 percent of the renewable energy used in the United States. U.S. wind power s sprang up across America as settlers Homesteaders purchased windmills electricity, average, power thesaw equivalent of over 2.5 million homes. Installed capacity of men or, otherwise, built produced their own.enough Mills were used to on pump water,toshell corn, 100 wind-powered, electricity-generating equipment was approaching 17,000 megawatts — more than four times the capacity in 2000.
he first large windmill to generate electricity in Cleveland, Ohio. Windmills that liable exceeds 60,000Brush’s megawatts. Wind turbine fields are common sights across the nation’s e called wind turbines. In2013: later U.S. years,production General Electric acquired company, heartland, western states, and northeast.
s World’s low Columbian Exposition (also known as the Chicago World’s Fair) highlighted howcased their goods.
Wood
he Wood was the This primary fuel for heating cooking lifornia pumped saltwater1860: to evaporate ponds. provided gold minersand with salt. in homes and businesses, and was used for steam in industries, trains, and boats.
1941: For several months during World War II, the Smith-Putnam wind turbine supplied power to the local community at “Grandpa’s Knob,” a hilltop near Rutland, Vermont. Its blades were 53 meters (175 feet) in diameter. 1950s: Most windmill companies in the United States went out of business.
1992: The Energy Polic a production tax credit Utility Holding Compa
1973: The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) oil embargo caused the prices of oil to rise sharply. High oil prices increased interest in other energy sources, such as wind energy.
1993: U.S. Windpower The development was c project was funded mos Gas & Electric, and Ni
1974–82: With funding from the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) led an effort to increase wind power technology at the Lewis Research Center in Cleveland , Ohio. NASA developed 13 experimental wind turbines with four major designs: the MOD-0A (200 kilowatts); the MOD-1 (2 megawatts, the first turbine in 1979 over 1 megawatt); the MOD-2 (2.5 megawatts) and the MOD-5B (3.2 megawatt).
1995: In a ruling again (FERC) refused to allow avoided cost, the amou The U.S. Department o program led to new tur
1978: Congress passed the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978 to encourage the use of renewable energy and cogeneration facilities (plants that have another purpose besides producing electricity). PURPA requires utility companies to buy extra electricity from renewable and cogeneration facilities that meet certain qualifications, called qualifying facilities (QFs). The amount that a utility pays must be equal to the cost that it would have taken the utility to produce the same amount of electricity, called the avoided cost.
Mid-1990s: Ten-year St hour and higher) began kilowatt hour and creat Kenetech, the producer assets and stopped mak
1979: The first wind turbine rated over 1 megawatt (MOD-1), began operating; MOD-1 had a 2-megawatt capacity rating. The cost of electricity from wind generation was about 40 cents per kilowatt hour.
1999: Wind generated
1980: The Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act of 1980 further increased tax credits for businesses that used renewable energy. The Federal tax credit for wind energy reached 25%, rewarding those businesses choosing to use renewable energy. 1983: Because of a need for more electricity, California began using a contract system that allowed certain renewable and cogeneration facilities (or in other words, QFs) to lock into rates that would make electricity generated from renewable technologies, like wind farms and geothermal plants, more cost competitive. Prices were based on the costs saved by not building planned coal plants.
1999–2000: Installed c Contracts for new wind cents per kilowatt hour
2003: Installed capacity
2004: The cost of electr
2005: The Energy Polic 1985: Many wind turbines were installed in California in the early 1980s to help meet growing electricity needs and to take advantage of government incentives. By 1985, California wind capacity exceeded 1,000 megawatts, enough power to supply 250,000 homes. These wind turbines were very inefficient.
2006: DOE’s budget fo
1987: The MOD-5B was the largest wind turbine operating in the world — with a rotor diameter of nearly 100 meters (330 feet) and a rated power of 3.2 megawatts.
2007: Wind power pro produced enough electr wind-powered, electrici capacity in 2000.
1988: Many of the hastily installed turbines of the early 1980s were removed and later replaced with more reliable models.
2013: U.S. production heartland, western state
1989: Throughout the 1980s, DOE funding for wind power research and development declined, reaching its low point in 1989. 1990: More than 2,200 megawatts of wind energy capacity was installed in California — more than half of the world’ s capacity at the time.
1890: Coal had replaced much of the wood used in steam generation. 1900: Ethanol was competing with gasoline to be the fuel for cars. 1910: Most rural homes were still heated with wood. In towns, coal was displacing wood in homes. 1930: Over half of all Americans lived in cities in buildings heated by coal. Rural Americans still heated and cooked with wood. Diesel and gasoline were firmly established as the fuel for trucks and automobiles. Street cars ran on electricity. Railroads and boats used coal and diesel fuel. 1950: Electricity and natural gas had replaced wood heat in most homes and commercial buildings. 1974: Some Americans used more wood for heating because of higher energy costs. Some industries switched from coal to waste wood. The paper and pulp industry also began to install wood and black liquor boilers for steam and power, displacing fuel oil and coal. 1984: Burlington Electric (Vermont) built a 50-megawatt, wood-fired plant with electricity production as the primary purpose. This plant was the first of several built since 1984. 1990: The capacity to generate electricity from biomass (not including municipal solid waste) reached 6 gigawatts. Of 190 biomass-fired, electricity-generating facilities, 184 were non-utility generators, mostly wood and paper. 1994: Successful operation of several biomass gasification tests identified hot gas cleanup as key to widespread adoption of the technology.
Wood
1860: Wood was the pr industries, trains, and b
Peak Oil World oil and gas reserves are estimated in four ways: 1) those that are economically recoverable (this is what is used most often), also known as proven reserves, 2) those that are technically recoverable (we think we could recover these in the future), 3) total or in-place reserves (the total amount of oil and gas we know of but know we can’t get it all out yet), and 4) Unknown reserves (those we do not know about yet, primarily under ice sheets).
Max Moinian 180511
Max Moinian 180511
U ;t: A 12
I THURSDAY, JANUARY 23. 1997
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N o b o d y m e n tio n e d th a t tKi ffffPjtff find tWhinff t b e d r o u g h ts o f A D 1 2 0 0 o c c u r r e d ci e m i s s i o n s o f t h e g r e e n h o u s e b u t a s ta t is t ic a ll y s ig n if ic a n t c o d i n g a s e s f o r e c a s t to c a u s e d r e a d e d w ith o u t a n y a s s is ta n c e fro m a v e ra g e d o v e r m a n k in d a n d w e re a n d a re a s n a t lo b a l w a r n in g , u r a l a s f lo o d s , h u r r i c a n e s , n o r m a l h is s ig n i f ic a n t th e e n tir e s o u th r a i n f a l l , a n d f r o z e n W a s h in g to n . h s n g e I n p o lic y e r n b s lf o f th e S o h o w La M r. G o r e g o in g to s e ll /ill be p ro p la n e t. I t tu r n s o u t th e s e h i a c o m m i t m e n t to t n e g r e a t e s t T h e c u rr e n tly o u n c e d b y tb e ‘s k e p tic s ” w e re r ig h t, f a s h i o n a b l e e c o n o m i c i n t e r v e n t i o n in th e h i s ic e p re s id e n t, lo s t l ik e l y i n a n t o r y o f m a n ? E x t r e m is m ! O K . th e e x p la n a tio n is a n d M r. G o re c a n 't p l a n e t i s n 't a s w a r m a s I s a id it d d ress a t G eo rg e t h a t th e w a n n i n g / a s h i n g t o n U n iis b e in g " h i d d e n 2 w o u ld b e . b u t th e r e a rc m o re ig n o r e it. " e x t r e m e " e v e n ts . H e is a lr e a d y o n srsity. b y o t h e r i n d u s tr iV ic e P r e s id e n t r e c o r d a s s a y in g t h a t " i n te n s e r a i n . . . . . P I mmmmmm, SI C o m p o u n d s , J G o r e k n o w s t h is f a l l s h a v e i n c r e a s e d in s u m m e r n a m e ly f in e l y . g o in g to b e t h e s e ll o f h i s life , d iv id e d s u lf a te a e r o s o ls t h a t s c r e e n o v e r a g r i c u l t u r a l r e g io n s ." e r a u s e s o m e t h in g i s v e r y w r o n g H e r e h e u s e s th e w o rk o f f e d e r th e s ta t a n d b r ig h te n th e c lo u d s . T h e y n th t h e s u r e s h o t f o r e c a s ts o f d i a l c lim a to lo g is t T bm K a r l, w h o a r t a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly f o u n d in th e la te a p o c a ly p s e th a t c o r e d h is r e c e n tly p u t o u t a p r e s s re le a se , in d u s tr ia l N o r th e r n H e m is p h e r e , e s t- s e l l in g 1 9 9 2 b o o k “ E a r t h in w h i c h j u s t h a p p e n e d to b e c o n c u r a n d th e y r a i n o u t b e f o r e th e y h e a d ie B a l a n c e .- T h e r e , b e m a d e g r e a t s o u th o f th e e q u a to r . r e n t w i t h t h e C a l if o r n ia flo o d s, s a y oliC ical h a y o u t o f a n a p p a r e n t " s d in g " e x t r e m e " r a i n s a r e i n c r e a s in g , O b v io u s ly , t h e f a s h io n a b le e x p la n tif ic c o n s e n s u s * o f d r a m a tic a n d t h a t o t h e r " e x t r e m e " i n d ic a n a tio n is p r e t t y d a r n e d w r o n g . O th t o r s a r e g o i n g a l o n g . M r. K a r l a rm in g , s u p p o r te d b y s U n ite d e r w is e t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e in fo rm e d u s th e r e w a s n o p re s s u re a b o rts r e p o r t s t a t i n g t h a t t h e c h w o u ld b e w a r m i n g u p w ith a p o c a to r e p o r t t h e s e r e s u l t s o r e x a g g e r u t e m o d e l s p r o j e c t i n g g lo o m a n d ly p tic a b a n d o n , w h e n th is w a s oom w e re - g e n e ra lly r e a lis tic " a te . p o i n te d o u t i n a d e n s e l y w r i t t e n W h a t M r. K a r l a c tu a l ly f o u n d is (r. G o r e l a b e l e d a n y o n e w i t h a a r tic le in th e D e c . 12 e d itio n o f th a t th e r e h a s b e e n a n in c re a s e , h D. in C l i m a t o l o g y ( t h e r e a r e N a tu re , p r o p o n e n ts o f th e c u rr e n t ,-wer t h a n SO a u c h i n d iv i d u a ls in a v e ra g e d a c ro s s th e c o u n try o f o n e f a s h io n w e r e f o r c e d to a g r e e . d a y in e v e r y 7 3 0 in w h ic h it r a i n s ie w o rld ) w h o m i g h t d i s a g r e e a s a Y ou n e v e r r e a d a b o u t th a t 2 i n c h e s o r m o r e . T h a t 's r ig h t — w em ber o f “ a s m a l l b u t v o c a l b a n d b e c a u s e o f M r. G o r e * d e a l w ith th e o n e in e v e r y tw o y e a r s — s o m e ( s k e p tic s ." e n v i r o n m e n t a l j o u r n a l i s t s : D o n 't 11t u r n s o u t t h e s e " s k e p ti c s " w e r e t h i n g t h a t n e i t h e r y o u o r I w o u ld r e p o r t a n y g o o d n e w s a n d I ’ll t r e a t a h i, a n d M r. G o r e c a n 't i g n o r e It. n o t ic e u n l e s s w e h a d b e e n s tu n n e d y o u r ig h t w h e n I b e c o m e p r e s id e n t. ^hat w a s h e re s y fo u r y e a rs a g o — in to t r u e b e l i e f b y o u r b e n if ic e n i J u s t r e p o rt (o r c o n s tru e , m ak e u p , u t t h e c lim a te m o d e l s w e r e f o re g o v e rn m e n t T h r e e in c h r a in s a re w h a te v e r ) h a d n e w s . J u s t to o i n f r e q u e n t to s h o w a s i g ta rin g w a y to o m u c h w a r m i n g — N e e d p r o o f? T h e p r e s s w a s a ll n i f i c a n t t r e n d a v e r a g e d a c r o s s th e n o w " c o n s e n s u s ." S c i e n t i s t s w h o o v e r a n a r t i c l e , in th e v e r y s a m e
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U n tie d S l a te s , a c c o r d i n g to M r K u rt. M r. K a r l a n d M r. G o r e c a ll iw o in c h e rs " e x tre m e " a n d “to rre n t ia l ." r e s p e c t i v e l y . M o r e lik e ly , t h e y 'r e " b e n e f ic ia l " b e c a u s e a fu ll 7 0 p e r c e n t o f a ll r a i n s t o r m s th a t a r e g r e a t e r t h a n 2 i n c h e s a r e le s s t h a n 3 F in d m e a M i d w e s t e r n f a r m e r w h o g e n e r a l l y w o u ld r a t h e r n o t h a v e t h a t r a in , g iv e n th e f a c t th a t u u r a v e r a g e s u m m e r p u ls t h e C o r n D ell in m o is t u r e s tr e s s M r K a r l a ls o h a s lo o k e d .a t w h a t s h o u ld h e t h e m u st o b v io u s s ig n o f A p o c a ly p s e S o o n — th e p e r c e n t o f t h e U n ite d S ta le s th a t is e x p e r i e n c in g m u c h - a b o v e n o r m a l t e m p e r a t u r e s N o s ig n if ic a n t c h a n g e is d e te c ta b le s in c e IV It), th e s t a r t of
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h i s s tu d y . W h a t a b o u t e x t r e m e c o ld ? I n d e e d : t h e r e h a s b e e n a s ig n ific a n t r e d u c tio n in th e p e r c e n t o f th e c o u n tr y c o v e re d b y e x tr e m e ly c o ld t e m p e r a t u r e s s in c e 1910 T h is is c o n s is te n t w ith o th e r w o rk th a t s h o w s th a t th e a ir m a s s th a t m o st r e f l e c t s c l i m a t e c h a n g e is th e d r e a d e d S ib e r ia n E x p r e s s , w h ic h h a s w a r m e d f ro m -40 d e g r e e s C to -38 d e g r e e s C Tklk a b o u t c h a n g e in e x tr e m e s ! E x p e c t to s e e a n in c r e a s in g v ol u m e o f m is le a d in g c lim a te h y p e o v e r th e c o m in g y ea r, to ju s tify to th e A m e ric a n p e o p le ih e d e s tr u c tio n o f t h e ir c u r r e n t w ay o f e n e rg y lif e F o r M r G o r e , w in n in g th is a rg iin ic n l is g o in g to h e a lot m o re d iffic u lt th a n w in n in g th e p r e s i
d e n c y in th e y e a r 2000 J u s t for th e sa k e o f e x tre m ism , le t* se t th e re c o rd stra ig h t. S tu d ies in d ic a te d ial a g ric u ltu ra lly benefi c ia l r a i n s a r e in c r e a s i n g in th e b r e a d b a s k e t o f th e w o rld . T h e e x tre m e cold te m p e ra tu re s o f w in ter h a v e m o d e ra te d a bit (not en o u g h , in m y m in d ), w hile th e e x tre m e h e a t of s u m m e r h a s n ’t c h a n g e d in a n y d e le c ta b le fashion If th is w as caused by p eo p le , G od B less k m , w e've got lu w rite law s to sto p it
1‘umck J Michaels is professor of environmental sciences o t the thnversity of Virginia and a mem ber of ihe S c ie n c e and Environ mental Ppii^yAroject.
“ CLI FI “
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1988 "A World of Ideas with Bill Moyers,” television.
“Democracy cannot survive overpopulation. Human dignity cannot survive overpopulation… The more people are there, the less one person matters.”
Max Moinian 180511
Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer and professor at Boston University
“Patterns of accelerating resource use, and their variation among regions, are important but secondary: problems of wasteful consumption can be solved if population growth is halted.�
Robert May
Carrying Capacity (Bartlett) “The greater degree to which the carrying capacity has been exceeded, the more probable it is that coercion will become a factor in these programs.” “A major use of technology is, and has been, to accommodate the growth of populations, and to remove recognition of the importance of living within the carrying capacity of the environment.” “The inevitable and unavoidable conclusion is that if we want to stop the increasing damage to the global environment, as a minimum, we must stop population growth.” The limit to the number of humans the earth can support in the long term without damage to the environment
Sustainable “ Growth ” An oxymoron “Whether the growth is smart or dumb, the growth destroys the environment.”
Sustainable “ Development ” (Daly, 9) “Development without growth beyond carrying capacity, where development means qualitative improvements and growth means quantitative increase.”
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reservoirs, through wells drilled from the surface.
Fracking
However, unconventional deposits are primarily those where the oil and gas could not migrate to conventional traps, but are stuck in the very tight and tiny pores and fractures in these tight rocks, mainly shales and tight sandstones, or are not very fluid like heavy oils and tars. The ability to seriously exploit these unconventional reserves did not exist practically before 2000. Think of conventional versus unconventional oil like jelly donuts versus tiramisu (see figure). Drilling into conventional sources is like sticking a straw in a jelly donut – the petroleum is trapped in a large single formation that just flows out under pressure.
Drilling into conventional sources is like sticking a straw in a jelly donut – the petroleum is trapped in a large single formation that just flows out under pressure. Drilling into unconventional sources like oil and gas shale is quite different, more like tiramisu – the petroleum is in many layers that have to be individually tapped using horizontal drilling and fracking methods to open up the rock. Source: Jim Scherrer [-] https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2017/03/02/no-peak-oil-for-america-or-the-world/#670a72a24220
"Saudi Arabia has a bunch of really big jelly donuts. The United States has lots of tiramisu, plus some pretty good jelly donuts as well. But we keep finding more tiramisu."
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3/18/2018
No Peak Oil For America Or The World
/ Energy / #ChangeTheWorld MAR 2, 2017 @ 06:00 AM
38,303
No Peak Oil For America Or The World
Dr. James Conca is an expert on energ y, nuclear and dirty bombs, a planetary geologist, and a
James Conca , CONTRIBUTOR
professional speaker
I write about nuclear, energy and the environment FULL BIO Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own.
Oil is more plentiful than you can imagine. And we keep figuring out easier and more economical ways to get it out of the ground. In 1938, the famous geologist M. King Hubbert came up with the concept of peak oil, which is defined as having extracted half of the recoverable, conventional oil reserves. After that, oil production declines and cannot keep up with growing demand as the population continues to rise.
We used to think about Peak Oil like this – the reserves are finite, we know where they are and how long they will last, and we will start running out soon. But with recent technological innovations, we keep finding new oil deposits that are https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2017/03/02/no-peak-oil-for-america-or-the-world/#670a72a24220
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Geo Engineering “A comic faith in technofixes” “whether secular or religious: technology will somehow come to the rescue of its naight but very clever children, or what amounts to the samer thing, God will come the the rescule of his disobedient but ever hopeful children.” (Haraway, 3)
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Scenario Planning
Collaborative Governance (Innes & Booher)
(Mandarano)
Emerges in response to crisis in democracy Goals are more fluid facilitate the development of resilience and adaptive strategies New mental model and approach Evaluating Collaborative Planning Process matters but it is not enough Outputs / outcomes Governance Implies that there are more actors than just government The role of an outside actor “Provides a venue for organized and unorganized interests to present their views and analyses on pressing contemporary problems, or to frame or reframe issues in such a way that they can be dealt with by governments� Howlett et al.(122), Ostrom (23)
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Risk Assessment Societal Risk = Probability of HAZARD occurring x IMPACT ** to get (H) and (I), you have to make all kinds of assumptions through risk assessment Decision-making is a product of risk assessment AND risk management **impact as important as probability 1. Trust 2. Cognitive biases Importance placed on things right in front of me or that I experienced Tricks of the mind 3. Lack of reliable information Risk Communication How should you communicate to the public? Does it matter who you’re communicating it to? Who communicates the info? Empathizing first is very significant Be as simple as possible Making that list of hazards is a subjective evaluation Given your models and studies, That moves on to another subjective stage of risk assessment …this series of judgements should engage the public (at least they should understand what’s going on)
The IPAT Equation
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THRESHOLD / TIPPING POINT
1995
new system
system
Coping Capacity
RESILIENCE
Resilience in Individual Development: Successful Adaptation despite Risk & Adversity MASTEN
Social Resilience
STABILITY
2 : an ability to recover from or adjust easily to misfortune or change
The City Resilient MEYEROWITZ
Resilient City: The Economic Impact of 9/11 CHERNICK
Terrorism NATIONAL SECURITY Is “stability” maladaptive?
A Typology of Resilience: Rethinking Institutions for Sustainable Development
Social & Ecological Resilience: Are they Related?
TIMMERMAN
DOVERS & HANDVER
ADGER
1981
1992
2000
1971
1988
1996
SCHON
IPCC
HOLLING & MEFFE
Beyond the Stable State
Inaugurated OSTROM
Command & Control and the Pathology of Natural Resource Management
Governing the Commons
Complex Adaptive Systems
C.S. HOLLING
Resilience & the Stability of Ecosystems
We don’t have to predict the future, but we have to prepare for it
DOVERS & HANDMER
The behavior of ecological systems could be defined by two distinct properties: Resilience
Stability
Absorb Persistence Adaptive cycle
Status quo Single-state Equilibrium
EC O LO GY
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Proactive
Accept change
(photography)
Vulnerability, Resilience, & the Collapse of Society
“ Resilience ” 1 : the capability of a strained body to recover its size and shape after deformation caused especially by compressive stress
Reactive
Status quo
1,006 peer-reviewed articles, mostly cited in the field of ECOLOGY
Mitigation v. Adaptation
E N G I N E E RI N G
A Typology of Resilience: Rethinking Institutions for Sustainable Development “Locked” at the margins of political economy
P SYC H O LO GY
I N ST I T U T I O N A L
S O C I O LO GY
D I S A ST E R M A N AG E M E N T
2015
“The contents of this book demand that we question its very title”
“It also matters which active interventions are deployed to delay or alter that system’s change, and it matters who directs the interventions, and who are the intended beneficiaries... and who actually benefits.”
“Who will take control of the term and drive its usage?”
The Resilient City VALE & CAMPANELLA
“The ideas, arguments, & propositions of ecology have played an outsized role in the evolution of resilience theory”
The Politics of Resilient Cities: Whose Resilience & Whose City?
Exposure — Resistence — Resilience
The Vulberability of Cities: Natural Disasters & Social Resilience
VALE
Leading through Adversity Restoring Economic Dynamism Strengthening Societal Resilience
PELLING
Human-centered, Natural hazards
Adopts the term “reslience” UN/ISDR
WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM
Adaptive Capacity
100 Resilient Cities
IPCC
ROCKEFELLAR FOUNDATION
2003
2013
2016
2018 2017
2006
2010
2012
2015
HOLLNAGEL ET AL
HOLLING
PORTER & DAVOUDI
FISICHELLI
Engineering Resilience: Concepts & Precepts
Ecological Resilience & Engineering Resilience
The Politics for Resilience in Planning: A Cautionary Tale
PICKETT ET AL
COYLE
“Resilience appears to be fast replacing sustainability as the buzzword of the moment. It may well follow a similar fate and become a hollow concept for planning; an empty signifier which wan be filled to justify almost any ends.”
Is ‘Resilience’ Maladaptive? Towards an Accurate Lexicon for Climate Change Adaptation Expanded concept “coverd the entire climate adaptation spectrum, & thus is simply synonymous with the overarching concept of adaptation & therefore meaningless in communicating specific intent.”
Resilient Cities: Meaning, Metaphor, & Models
Sustainable & Resilient Communities
for Integrating the Ecological, Socioeconomic, & Planning Realms
SHEFFI
GOLDSTEIN
SHAW
FLEMING
The Resilient Enterprise:
Collaborative Resilience: Moving through Crisis to Opportunity
Reframing Resilience: Challenges for Planning Theory & Practice
Lost in Translation: The Authorship & Argumentation of Resilience Theory
Overcoming Vulnerability for Competitive Advantage
“Bouncing forward” instead of bouncing back
EC O N O M I C
COMMUNIT Y
U RB A N
Hyperspecialization Theory Practice Sustainability? Mitigation? Adaptation?
“ Resilience ” Ecological
Engineering
“capacity to persist” systems theory adaptive cycle understand/manage the dynamic interactions between human + natural systems
rooted in risk management identify optimal configurations/materials to minimize effects of a catastrophic event
Sociological /Psychological
coping capacity social fabric ability of individuals/groups to persist during period of upheaval
Planning /Design
translation of ecological perinciples into physical form (redundancy, selforganization) ....devising protective infrastructures for coastal environnments
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for who? Resilience analysis does not engage with the material, social, and symbolic landscape that constitutes the lived experience of the communities whose resilience is being sought (Adger, 2009)
sustainability ---> resilience “the ideas, arguments, and propositions of ecology have played an outsized role in the evolution of resilience theory.”
“a process, not an object or outcome” mitigation v. adaptation controlled vertical grey infrastructure
distributed horiziontal green infrastructure
“ Resilience ” Risk
Adaptation
“a systematic way of dealing with the hazards and insecurities induced and introduced by modernization itself ” defined by the mass media and scientific or legal professions Beck
Mitigation
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A state reflecting how individuals deal with certain stressors (v. Resilience as a trait, reflecting a general ability to master challenges)
Transformation
BIG U “it is to build to a fixed height of 16 feet based on projected sea level rise to the year 2050. But what happens after 2050? Klaus Jacob seawalls increase risk in the long-term! False sense of security; that will end up in more development where it shouldn’t be
Extreme Cities “The Jargon of Resilience”
Adaptive Capacity Brian Goldstein Narrating Resilience: Transforming Urban Systems Through Collaborative Storytelling
“enhanced through collaborative problem-solving, social learning, and enaging a diversity of stakeholders and knowledge practices� grounded in: a strong connection to place ample social capital dense social networks a positive outlook�
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G. Wong-Parodi et al. / Climate Risk Management 10 (20 G.
WongParodi
Fig. 1. Study 1 stimuli (Allison Joyce/Getty Image
Two Experiments
frames are EQUIVALENT Results when thinking about past event
Results 1. Write a story about the picture Flooding essays Flooding“frame essaysmatters when (either resilience or adaptation) thinking about a Adaptation The Resilience and Adaptation essays were Theequally Resilience long, and with mean word essay co stream of= future risks� 279.1 (Median = 291, SD = 81.1), respectively. 279.1 We (Median compared 291, them SD =on 81.1), 68 psycho respect Inquiry and Word Count tool (Pennebaker Inquiry et al.,and 2007), Word finding Countonly toolfour (Penneb signi number expected by chance. Compared number to the Adaptation expected by essays, chance. Resilience Comparee brother, children) and used inclusion words brother, (e.g., children) and, between), and used andinclusion less oftenw 2. Fictional coastal city flood mapping tool adverbs (e.g., slowly, quickly). Although adverbs these differences (e.g., slowly,must quickly). be treated Althou Resilience does emphasize social ties asResilience integral todoes healthy emphasize coping social (Antonovs ties Werner, 1993). Werner, 1993). 3 policy scenarios: associated with an increased Resilience concern about risk, but less Adaptation willingness to take individual action Concern about flooding Concern about flooding
One-way Analysis found no Analysis differences on the three (ANO No Policyof Variance (ANOVA) smaller, One-way more manageable risk of Variance Comparing rows a and b, participants in both Comparing conditions rowsexpected a and b, floods participants about in 1 ered tolerable. They also expressed a strong ered predisposition tolerable. They to also purchase expressed flood ains st place. place. Max Moinian 180511
3 1–7 015) Wong-Parodi 1–7 et al. / Climate Risk Management 10 (2015)
3
es).Fig. 1. Study 1 stimuli (Allison Joyce/Getty Images).
“Thinking about a flood that already happened focused participants on adapting to a specific event WHILE
ounts ys were of 259.7 equally (Median long, with = 264, mean SD =word 91.8) counts and of 259.7 (Median = 264, SD = 91.8) and diverting their attentionmarkers away from olinguistic tively. Wemarkers compared scored them by onthe 68 Linguistic psycholinguistic scored by the Linguistic about preparing for possible baker ificantetdifferences al., 2007), (.01 finding < thinking p <only .05),four about significant the differences (.01 < p < .05), about the ed essays to the more Adaptation often mentioned essays, family (e.g., essays more often mentioned family (e.g., futureResilience challenges.” nwords referenced (e.g., and, timebetween), (e.g., until,and end) less and often used referenced time (e.g., until, end) and used ugh cautiously, these differences the psychological must beconcept treated of cautiously, the psychological concept of sky as integral et al., 1971; to healthy Hill, 1958; coping Masten, (Antonovsky 2001; et al., 1971; Hill, 1958; Masten, 2001;
“Concern undermines action, unless accompanied by plausible plans.”
OVA) measures foundofno concern differences (Tableon1,the rows three a–c). measures of concern (Table 1, rows a–c). 1.5 n both ft higher conditions than the expected level that floods they about consid1.5 ft higher than the level that they considsurance trong predisposition (row c) if they to lived purchase in the flood depicted insurance (row c) if they lived in the depicted
Urban Design
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6601 LANDSCAPE ESSAYS-A1_246 x 174 mm 30/07/2015 16:40 Page 214
Pierre Bélanger
scenarios, section profiles and construction sequences—that enable a level of precise approximation and strategic generalization, can exploit situations of uncertainty and indeterminacy, promoting flexible forms of spatial imagination, inviting creativity and critical reflection. Combined together, maps, drawings, diagrams and photographs actively engage a field of various levels of engagement, not so much to seek out agreement, but to expose multiple, latent possibilities. As the field takes the geographic turn, this projective potential of mapping renders regional complexities more palpable, and closer to the ground . . . an emerging agency formed by senses and sensations, between uncertainties and interactions, content and contingency, the temporal and the transmissive, that ultimately lie between image and imagination (Figure 8.19). PROTOECOLOGIES As the ultimate infrastructural scale, the agency time and temporality extends and expands the medium of landscape through the malleability of terrain and territory, as futurist geographer J. B. Jackson writes: a landscape is not a natural feature of the environment but a “synthetic” space, a man-made system of spaces superimposed on the face of the land, functioning and evolving . . . a composition of man-modified spaces to serve as infrastructure or background for our collective existence; and if “background” seems inappropriately modest we should remember that in our modern sense of the word it means that which underscores not only our identity and presence but also our history . . . a landscape is thus a space deliberately created to speed up or slow down the process of nature . . . it represents man taking upon himself the role of time.63
Figure 8.2 Open syste flow diagr representa region by Odum sho vectors, an of energy Courtesy o University
From Belanger, Is Landscape Infrastructure, p.214. “Figure 2148.20 Open systems: regional flow diagram of a representative urban region by Howard T. Odum showing ranges, vectors, and magnitudes of energy flows. Courtesy of Colorado University Press.
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20 ems: regional ram of a ative urban Howard T. owing ranges, nd magnitudes flows. of Colorado y Press.
Max Moinian 180511
“ Blue Marble ”
Max Moinian 180511
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Chapter 1
Thinking Globally
In 1968, three American astronauts became the first human beings ever to see Earth’s full disk from space. President Lyndon B. Johnson mailed framed copies of the Apollo mission’s photographs to the leaders of every nation as an allegory of the inevitable unity that encompasses all human division and diversity and binds us to the natural world. By then, of course, representations of Earth as a globe were already centuries old. Nevertheless, many saw a transfiguring power in the awesome beauty of those famous photographs. That small blue ball, spinning alone in darkness: it hit you like a thunderclap, a sudden overwhelming flash of insight. You saw, all at once, the planet’s fragility, its limits, and its wholeness, and it took your breath away. The law professor Lawrence Tribe once called it a “fourth discontinuity,” as massive a perspectival shift as those brought on by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud.1 By 1969, according to rumor, David Brower, founder of Friends of the Earth, had distilled Tribe’s “fourth discontinuity” into four words: “Think globally, act locally.”2 Whatever you think of it as a political principle, “Think globally, act locally” remains arresting in its boldness. It captures an entire philosophy, complete with ontology, epistemology, and ethics, in a bumper-sticker slogan. It asserts an intimate relationship between two vastly different scales: macro, world-scale environmental and economic systems, on the one hand, and the micro sphere of individual choice and action, on the other. It extends an arrow of agency, comprehending macro effects as the results of vast aggregations of micro causes. Thus it locates the meaning of individual action in its relationship to the gigantic whole. Finally, it affirms that global change matters so deeply that it should occupy the intimate corners of everyday awareness and guide each person’s every choice. “Thinking globally” meant seeing the world as a knowable entity—a single, interconnected whole—but in a sense that lacked the secure stasis
Figure 1.1 Photograph of Earth taken from Apollo 8, December 1968. Image courtesy NASA.
of maps, parlor globes, or pre-Darwinian cosmologies. Instead, it meant grasping the planet as a dynamic system: intricately interconnected, articulated, evolving, but ultimately fragile and vulnerable. Network, rather than hierarchy; complex, interlocking feedbacks, rather than central control; ecology, rather than resource: these are the watchwords of the new habit of mind that took Earth’s image for its emblem. Those photographs and that slogan conveyed all this, and more, not just because of what they said but also because of when they said it.3 They fell directly into an overdetermined semiotic web prepared by (among
Excerpt from Chapter 1, A Vast Machine, Paul N. Edwards
GAIA the planet is discovered to be a living, breathing entity (Lames Lovelock)
ANTHROPOCENE refuge existed on land + sea masses
HOLOCENE could not exist as an object of knowledge without systems theory + instruments “a way of seeing the earth from space” (optics)
CAPITALOCENE (or) “plantationocene” capital acumulation preceeds the industrial revolution
“It is our job as thinkers to somehow engage in telling + changing the stories so that they are livable” - Ursula Gwen not about the hero /humanity “big enough stories” Max Moinian 180511
Donna Haraway
Disaster Capitalism
â&#x20AC;&#x153;threatâ&#x20AC;? terrorism + natural hazard
Max Moinian 180511
Max Moinian 180511
Max Moinian 180511
Army Corps of Engineers 1800
US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
1900
1936
1944
RIVERS + HARBORS ACT
FLOOD CONTROL ACT
FLOOD CONTROL ACT
Declared flood control to be acceptable federal government activity + authorized more than 200 construction projects;
allowed the Army Corps to build multiple-purpose reservoirs, mainly for irrigation, navigation, water supply, hydropower, and recreation
Army Corps of Engineers, required that construction located within the plans and specific dam sites be Department of Defense, is the approved by the Army Corps nation's oldest water resource of Engineers, who mainly built agency, dealing primarily levees in the 20th c. with the construction and maintenance of navigable streams and harbor for civilian and military construction.
Army Corps + Department of Agriculture shared responsibility +
first use of cost-benefit analysis as decisionmaking tool authorizes physical structures as flood control means
Max Moinian 180511
1968
NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM
“Scientists turned the climate record upside down.” Subsidizes development in floodplains
Fortress Urbanism
Max Moinian 180511
Screen Shot 2018-03-16 at 11.27.12 PM US Army Corps of Engineer’s website for “Engineering with Nature”
Denial NOT greed, inhumanity, carelessness consciousness = pain apathy = the mask of suffering
Apathy nonresponse “the refusal or inability to experience pain” helplessness “a way of adapting, of defending oneself in a situation that is utterly overwhelming and where there is no end in sight”
Kari Norgaard . Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life.
Max Moinian 180511
Denial operates in the slippage zone between knowing and not knowing:
We are vaguely aware of choosing not to look at the facts, but not quite conscious of just what it is we are evading. We know, but at the same time we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know
Hyperobjects OOO Object-Oriented Ontology “unique form of realism + non-anthropocentric thinking” The gap between PHENOMENON + THING
global climate
weather
“I can think and compute climate, but I can’t directly see or touch it” Timothy Morton, Hyperobjects
“I can’t locate the gap anywhere in my given, phenomenal, experiential, scientific space.” Things never coincide with their phenomena (Kant)
Max Moinian 180511
the idea of the END OF THE WORLD is not effective
the being we are supposed to feel anxiety about and care for is gone
UNLESS WE ACT NOW environmentalist plea must stop in oprder to reach full ecological coexistence
“ OBJECTS IN MIRROR MAY BE CLOSER THAN THEY APPEAR ”
“We talk about climate change being driven by carbon emmisions but really i think right now the major driver is construction - the construction industry.” “This whole spree of dam building . . . whats behind it? it’s the cement industry.”
Cement is the most carbon heavy
Amitav Ghosh Author of The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable Max Moinian 180511
“The triumphant procession of the industrial system causes the boundaries between nature and society to become blurred. Accordingly, destructions of nature can no longer be shifted off onto the ‘environment’ either, but as they are universalized by industry, they become social, poltical, economic and cultural contradictions inherent in the system.”
Max Moinian 180511
Destructive response to the horrors of the anthropocene: “The game is over, it’s too late, there’s no sense in trying to make anything any better, or at least no sense in having any active trust in each other in working and playing for a resurgent world.”
Donna Haraway
Max Moinian 180511
If it is of such a nature that it requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law
Any man who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust and willingly accepts the penalty by staying in jail in order to arouse the conscience of the community on the injustice of the law is at that moment expressing the very highest respect for law
Think we MUST!
Profiles January 8, 1966 Issue
In the Outlaw Area By Calvin Tomkins
W
hen Richard Buckminster Fuller was in New Zealand a year ago, he spent several rewarding hours at the University of Auckland with a friend of his, a cultural anthropologist who also happens to be Keeper of the Chants of the people he belongs to, the Maoris. These chants go back more than �fty generations and constitute, in effect, an oral history of the Maoris, and Fuller, a man who is intensely interested in almost everything, undertook to persuade his friend that it was high time they were recorded on tape and made available to scholars, himself included. The anthropologist said that he had often thought of recording them, but that, according to an ancient tradition, the Keeper of the Chants was allowed to repeat them only to fellow-Maoris. Fuller thereupon launched into an extensive monologue. It was buttressed at every point by seemingly irrefutable data on tides, prevailing winds, boat design, mathematics, linguistics, archeology, architecture, and religion, and the gist of it was that the Maoris had been among the �rst peoples to discover the principles of celestial navigation, that they had found a way of sailing around the world from their base in the South Seas, and that they had done so a long, long time before any such voyages were commonly believed to have been made—at least ten thousand years ago, in fact. In conclusion, Fuller explained, with a straight face, that he himself had been a Maori, a few generations before the earliest chant, and that he had sailed off into the seas one day, lacking the navigational lore that gradually worked its way into the chants, and had been unable to �nd his way back, so that he had a personal interest in seeing that the chants got recorded. We have Fuller’s assurance that the anthropologist is now engaged in recording all the chants, together with their English translations.
T
he somewhat overwhelming effect of a Fuller monologue is well known today in many parts of the world, and while his claim to Maori ancestry must remain open to question, even that seems an oddly plausible conjecture. An association with the origins of circumnavigating the globe would be an ideal background for his current activities as an engineer, inventor, mathematician, architect, cartographer, philosopher, poet, cosmogonist, and comprehensive designer whose ideas, once considered wildly
Henry David Thoreau
Max Moinian 180511
Virginia Woolf
Martin Luther King Jr.
TRY STUFF, try everything. One thing we need is better outlaws
Risk society requires us to be reflexive
All improvement has to be made in the OUTLAW AREA
Buckminster Fuller
Stewart Brand
Ulrich Beck
Impossible Conversations A lot of thinkers, scholars, and activistivst seem to have been telling us to question system of power and break tbe rules .
There are no appearances to be photographed, no experiences to be copied , in which we do not take part. SCIENCE, like art, is not a copy of nature but a recreation of her
Science has done more than to fill in the details of a story: it has set new standards of objectivity in description of the past... it curbs the freedom of self-expression in history
Max Moinian 180511
Nigel Calder
Reality is formed through our participation with things: material objects, images, values, cultural codes, places, cognitive
Jacob Bronowski
James Corner
The triumphant procession of the industrial system causes the boundaries between NATURE and SOCIETY to become blurred
The doctrine of objectivity... the view of infinite vision ... is an illusion, a god trick
Ulrich Beck
Donna Haraway
Impossible Conversations A lot of thinkers, scholars, and activistivst seem to have been telling us to question system of power and break tbe rules .
Given that many people do know the grim facts, how do they manage to produce an everyday reality in which this urgent social & ecological problem is invisible?
Kari Norgaard
Max Moinian 180511
We often assume that political activism requires an explanation, while inactivity is the normal state of affairs. But it can be as difficult to ignore a problem as to try to solve it
Nina Eliasoph
Culture influences action not by providing the ultimate values toward which action is oriented, but by shaping a repertoire or toolkit
Ann Swidler
Americans are good at responding to a crisis and then going home to let another crisis... we tend to think of political engagement as something for emergencies... rather than a part, even a PLEASURE, of everyday life
Rebecca Solnit
Impossible Conversations A lot of thinkers, scholars, and activistivst seem to have been telling us to question system of power and break tbe rules .
Max Moinian 180511