McNair Scholars Research Journal 2013-2016, vol. 6

McNair Scholars Research Journal 2013-2016 Volume 6

Division of Student Services University of Nevada, Reno

The contents of this journal were developed under a federal grant from the U.S. Department of Education, at $231,000 annually. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

McNair Scholars Research Journal 2013 -- 2016 Volume 6

Published by the Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program University of Nevada, Reno A Division of Student Services Mail Stop #0075 Reno, Nevada 89557 (775) 784-6044 www.unr.edu/mcnair McNair Program Staff Maritza Machado-Williams: Director Perry Fittrer: Assistant Director Nanci Fowler: Program Officer Heather Williams: Student Success Specialist The McNair Journal is the official journal of the Ronald E. McNair Scholars Post Baccalaureate Achievement Program at the University of Nevada, Reno. The program is designed to provide research opportunities and other related academic experiences that promote the acquisition of the doctoral degree (Ph.D.) for first generation, low-income, and underrepresented college juniors and seniors. The McNair program is federally funded at $231,000 per year. The program was created by congress in an effort to increase the number of underrepresented persons pursuing teaching, research, and administrative careers in higher education.

Acknowledgments A very special thank you to the University of Nevada, Reno Graduate School for their generous and invaluable support of the McNair Scholars Program! We are also thankful for faculty and administrators on the UNR campus who support this program. Faculty mentors fill the most important role in guiding scholars to success.

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FORWARD

It is my honor to introduce the sixth edition of the University of Nevada, Reno McNair Scholars Journal. The research found in this journal is the culmination of many intensive undergraduate research projects completed by our McNair Scholars from 2013 to 2016. We are very proud of our McNair Scholars!

Perry Fittrer Assistant Director of McNair Scholars Program University of Nevada, Reno

The purpose of the McNair program is to assist undergraduate students from backgrounds that are traditionally underrepresented in graduate school to prepare for the pursuit of a doctoral degree. The foundation of the program is based on the services provided by our academic mentors who guide scholars through the development, execution, and presentation of a substantive research project. The research papers published in this edition of the McNair Scholars Journal are the product of the strong collaborative relationships between our scholars and their academic mentors. I offer my most sincere thanks to our academic faculty who have given so generously of their time and talent to mentor our scholars. Most importantly, I would like to acknowledge the scholars whose papers were selected for publication. Completing these research projects, and publishing them in this journal, is a critical step in becoming a scholar, graduate student, and contributor to their respective fields.

Our McNair Scholars are preparing to become part of a highly educated generation that will contribute to a prosperous future for our country; they will also serve as role models and mentors for those who follow in their footsteps. As a result of their hard work in the McNair program, our scholars have gone on to earn numerous doctoral and master’s degrees since the inception of the program at the University of Nevada, Reno in 2002. The scholars in this journal are part of that proud tradition with many of them currently pursuing doctoral degrees at institutions across the nation. I have no doubt that the scholars in this journal will be successful in graduate study and bring a new perspective to the research and practice in their discipline.

I would also like to give thanks to the entire McNair and Academic and Opportunity Support Programs staff for their support of our scholars.

Congratulations to all who have contributed to the success of our scholars and our program!

Perry Fittrer Perry Fittrer, Assistant Director

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BACKGROUND Background: The purpose of the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Program is to encourage undergraduates from backgrounds that have been historically underrepresented in university faculty and research professions to pursue doctoral degrees. The federally funded program is in its thirteenth year at the University of Nevada, Reno. Dr. Ronald McNair, whose journey to become an astronaut inspires all who seek to achieve ambitious dreams, is a fitting namesake for the program. Although Dr. McNair died in the explosion of the Challenger space craft, his strong message of self-determination still resonates with those who strive for excellence: “Whether or not you reach your goals in life depends entirely on how well you prepare for them and how badly you want them.�

-Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Program Overview: The foundation of the McNair Scholars Program is the summer research institute. For nine weeks, scholars engage in research projects closely guided by academic faculty mentors. For many students, the summer institute provides their first experience conducting original research and their first opportunity to work closely with a faculty mentor. The relationship forged between scholar and mentor can be the most significant academic connection that a scholar makes at the university.

In addition to conducting research, scholars also take part in GRE preparation workshops during the summer institute. During the academic year, scholars participate in McNair seminars that assist them to complete competitive graduate school applications and provide information related to financing graduate education.

Scholars attend national McNair conferences where they present their research and connect with other scholars and faculty from across the country.

In addition to receiving a $3,500 research stipend during the summer institute, scholars also benefit from waived application fees at many graduate schools. GRE fee waivers are also available to McNair Scholars. The greatest benefits, though, are not financial. The McNair program enables scholars to form lasting bonds with fellow scholars and with academic mentors. These relationships allow scholars to see themselves in roles they might not otherwise have considered possible such as professors, researchers, and administrators in institutions of higher education.

Eligibility: Students are eligible for the McNair program if they have completed at least 30 credits, but not more than 92 credits and have a cumulative grade point average of at least 2.9. Students must also meet the federal criteria for selection: neither parent has a bachelor’s degree and the student demonstrates financial need OR the student is a member of a group that is traditionally underrepresented in graduate school: African American, Native American, Hawaiian / Pacific Islander, or Hispanic/Latino. Students must be U.S. citizens or eligible noncitizens (eligible for U.S. federal aid).

Application Process: Applications are available on the McNair web site: www.unr.edu/mcnair or from the McNair Office located in Suite 450 of the Pennington Student Achievement Center.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii iii iv 2 13 23 64 74 89 106 116 125 140 148 183 220 249 265 282 293 313 324 333 361 379 418

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Forward Background Table of Contents Nayesdi Badillo Delgado Rebecca Bustos Jonathan Carral Timothy Christy Iyana Esters Allister Frazier Gabreella Friday Vicente M. Gapuz III Luis Garcia Hernandez Sarah Gebrezghi Heather Gilmore Steven Hammonds Ashley Izquierdo Megan Key Jeannette Martinez Miguel Martinez Taylor Martinez Jorge Perez-Aguilar Courtney Smith Melinda Spooner Federico Urbano-Munoz Jose Valencia Brandon Woudhuysen

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McNair Scholars Research Papers 2013-2016

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NAYESDI BADILLO DELGADO

Parent Involvement Facilitators: Making Powerful Parent-Teacher Connections through Communication

Nayesdi Badillo Delgado Major: Criminal Justice & Spanish Mentor: Dr. Margaret Ferrara Graduated: 2013 Master’s Degree: Higher Education and Student Affairs, Virginia Tech University Graduated: 2015

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Parents play an important role in their children’s academic success.

They may inquire about their student’s academic progress or talk to the teacher or other school representatives if they have any concerns regarding the academic development of their children. However, some parents can feel intimidated by a simple conversation due to their limited or lack of English comprehension. This is the case for many Latino parents who not only have language limitation but also cultural limitation. These limitations create a communication gap between schools and parents. Because parents, guardians, and the community play a vital role in a child’s education, a western region urban school district has instituted liaisons who serve as bridges between the school, the teacher, and the parents to help reduce this gap. These liaisons are known as Parent Involvement Facilitators (PIF).

Some of these Parent Involvement Facilitators teach English classes to Latino parents. The purpose of this qualitative study is to look more closely at strategies and curriculum that two parent involvement facilitators have found successful when helping Hispanic parents in their schools learn English.

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NAYESDI BADILLO DELGADO Literature Review Parents play an important role in their children’s academic success. Most parents can inquire about their student’s academic progress and speak with the teacher or other school representatives if there are any concerns regarding the progress of the pupil. However, some parents can feel intimidated by a simple conversation due to their limited or lack of English comprehension. This is the case of Latino parents who have language limitation and difficulty communicating with school faculty. These limitations create a communication gap between school and parents (Good, Masewicz, & Vogel, 2010). In an effort to reduce such gaps, a western region urban school district has liaisons who serve as bridges between the parent, the school, and the teacher. Such liaisons are better known as Parent Involvement Facilitators (PIF’s). One of the main duties of PIF’s is to “Provide material and training to help parents work with their children to improve their children's achievement, such as literacy training and using technology, to foster parent involvement” (Unnamed School, n.d). Some PIF’s have opted to teach English classes to Latino parents as part of the literacy training for parents. This research examines the curriculum techniques that two PIF’s use in order to teach English to Latino parents and to see how these programs help parents learn English in their classes in order to become more involved in their child’s education.

Parent literacy can serve as a powerful tool for schools and families. Such tools encourage parent involvement in a child’s education (Larrotta & Yamamura, 2011). However, the language barrier for Latino parents has been identified as one of the factors that contribute to a weak involvement between the school –the administrators and teachers – and the parents (Bohon, Macpherson & Atiles, 2005). Despite this language barrier, many Latino parents try to become involved with their children’s education due to the fact that they believe it is their obligation (Delgado Gaitan, 1992).

This has been supported by researchers such as Domina (2005) who states that parent involvement is important for parents because it helps them to be active in school decisions.

Involvement is also important as parents represent the diversity that is in school today and schools need to understand families whose native language is not English (Domina, 2005).

Hoover-Dempsey and Sadler (1997) explained that in order for parents to be involved in schools, they need to be motivated to take on these tasks. The first reason that parents are motivated is because they are interested in the success of their child. According to parental role construction theory, parents believe that their involvement in their child’s education is a normal requirement and a responsibility (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Role construction is defined by the expectations of social and relevant personal beliefs. That is, parents feel obligated to fulfill their role as “parents” by becoming involved in their child’s academics. Such obligation is not only affected by the personal beliefs of the parent but also because that is what is socially expected of McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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them. For this reason, parents feel motivated to become involved in parent involvement practices.

Therefore, when a teacher gives recommendations for parents to help their child in a specific area, parents tend to increase time spent with their child concerning academics (Biddle, 1979, 1986). The parent construction role is a personal motivator that helps parents become involved.

Additionally, a second personal motivator that shapes parents’ involvement in their children’s education is self-efficacy. These are the goals a person chooses to set and pursue as well as to work hard and to be persistent in order to achieve them (Bandura, 1997). Consistent with selfefficacy theory, parents make decisions regarding involvement mainly by perceiving the outcomes that can result due to their actions (Bandura, 1989). Parents with high efficacy usually have a higher sense of involvement and also tend to make positive decisions about the constant engagement in their child’s education. Such a sense of high efficacy causes parents to persist over the face of any challenge or barriers in order to acquire successful outcomes (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). According to Bandura (1989; 1997), self-efficacy theory is socially constructed because it is formed by four personal experiences that shape such construction: personal mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and psychological experiences. In line with these personal experiences, many parents tend to be influenced by significant people and school, causing in the parent a sense of involvement in their child’s school and academics.

Purpose of the Paper The purpose of the present research is to examine the strategies and curriculum that two parent involvement facilitators have found successful in helping Hispanic parents in their schools learn English. Much research has been done regarding parent involvement, but there is limited research on how adults in the school, in this case Parent Involvement Facilitators, help parents learn English in order to become more involved in their children’s education. It is anticipated that through this study, Parent Involvement Facilitators will showcase what strategies they use that are effective in helping their parents learn English. A further intent of the study is to determine to what degree parents who do learn English through the support of the Parent Involvement Facilitators will become more involved in the school over time. One way to evaluate the degree to which parents became more involved will be through looking at levels of attendance to class and attendance at school workshops and school events, in general.

Method Participants The researcher conducted a qualitative case study of the curriculum used by two Parent

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NAYESDI BADILLO DELGADO Involvement Facilitators (PIF’s) who had at least three years of experience teaching English to Latino parents in two elementary schools in a western region urban school district. The study included information about the demographics of the school in terms of number of students, levels of diversity, socio-economic status, and Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) status. These data were gained by looking at the current Nevada State Report Card.

Data Sources An audio recorder was used in order to record the interview. Interviews took place at the subject’s respective facilities because it offered a safer environment for the subjects to freely express their ideas and privacy both for the information and the individual. The subject's privacy was protected by conducting the interviews in a classroom, with the door closed and with only the interviewer present.

The following questionnaire was asked of participants: 1. How long have you been a Parent Involvement Facilitator?

2. In your own words, how would you describe your job as a Parent Involvement Facilitator?

3. How many years have you been teaching English to Latino parents?

4. Have you had any formal training in teaching English to adults? To Latino adults?

5. Why did you decide to teach English classes for parents?

6. Are the majority of the parents whom you teach Latino?

7. How many classes do you teach each week? Are they scheduled at different times?

8. On average, how many parents attend each session?

9. What are some strategies that you use in your curriculum to teach English?

10. What are effective strategies to help parents with everyday conversation? With filling-out forms? Talking to teachers?

11. Why do you use the strategies you mentioned over others?

12. What are some challenges that limit your ability to teach English to parents? (e.g., financial, materials) 13. On average, out of the parents you have in class how many do you see becoming involved in school such as coming to school workshops?

14. Do you believe that parents who take your classes are more involved due to taking the class?

Why or why not?

15. Do you, as a PIF, believe that the English language barrier is one of the causes for Latino parents not to become involved in their child’s education? Why or why not?

16. Do you see any other factors that might be challenging for Latino Parents to become involved in school?

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NAYESDI BADILLO DELGADO Procedure The study took place at two elementary schools in the western United States in an urban school district. Contact with the PIFs was made through the school principal and the Parent Involvement Supervisor for Parent Involvement Facilitator recruitment in the school district. In order to protect PIF’s identity, the participants were called PIF 1 and PIF 2. Demographic information on the schools was obtained from the interviews conducted at each school site on an individual basis.

Interviews took between 45 minutes and 90 minutes and were recorded and later transcribed. All interviews took place in English. The interview data was used to help determine what makes a PIF’s teaching strategies effective for helping Latino parents learn English. In addition, time was spent at the school looking at materials that each of the PIF’s used in order to teach English to his or her parents. The researcher also looked at records that were available through the PIF in order to determine the levels of frequency of parents’ (unnamed) attendance to class and attendance at school workshops and school events, in general.

Data Analysis The researcher used comparative analysis of data findings by comparing PIF I to PIF II answers.

Answers were analyzed to determine what the PIF’s had in common and what differed. The combining of both reports took place in order to make a comprehensive list of effective strategies for teaching Latino parents how to speak English. Also, the PIF’s comments were compared to what has been written in the research findings on parent efficacy at school. In addition, the researcher compared the levels of frequency in the parents of each PIF in terms of attendance to class and attendance at school workshops and school events, in general. These data helped write a descriptive outcome of the successes and challenges of each PIF in terms of teaching English to parents in his or her school, respectively.

Findings The findings from this study are reported in terms of overall categories based on the questions asked. These categories are Description, Teaching Experience, School Demographics, Reason for Class, Details about the Course, Strategies to Teach English, Parent Preferred Topics, Parents’ Reasons for Taking Courses, Challenges, English as a Barrier, Additional Factors as Barriers, and Learned Skills.

Description and Teaching Experience PIF 1 has been working for 8 years as a PIF and teaching English classes to adults, including parents, for 4 years. PIF 2 has been working as a PIF for 14 years and has been teaching English at her school and independently for 6 years. Both of the PIF’s speak Spanish and English fluently.

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PIF 1 is Hispanic and PIF 2 is White and both are females. PIF 1 had formal training in teaching English; she disclosed that she taught English at a community college in the South. PIF 2 reported that she did not have any formal training in teaching English; she follows a teaching guide when she teaches English.

Demographics Both schools are Title I and both schools are in at least the third year of Need of Improvement.

AYP is the federal accountability benchmark for schools. Under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, AYP is used to determine if schools are making sufficient progress toward educating students.

NCLB requires states to use a single accountability system for public schools to determine whether all students, as well as individual subgroups of students, are making progress toward meeting state academic content standards(Unnamed School, n.d). The number of elementary students (K-5) in both schools is around 500 and the majority of the students in the schools are Hispanic. A difference is that the number of students with an IEP in School I is 122 while the number of students in School 2 is 64 students.

Reason for Class PIF 1 reported that parents do not have transportation to centers where they can learn English.

She said, “If parents are already at school, why not take advantage and have a class?” (PIF 1, June 13, 2012). PIF 2 commented that she teaches English because she wants to empower parents in their child’s education, “It’s important for parents who are going to stay in this country to know English; it is very empowering. It also helps build self-esteem and also benefits student’s achievement; when the parents can speak, read, and write English, they can help their kids better and that will help their kids’ academics” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012). Both subjects commented that one of the main reasons they teach an ELA class is because they want to help parents become involved in school and ultimately help their children succeed academically.

Details about the Course PIF 1 has her English class every Tuesday from 10 am to 11:30 am. The average number of parents that attend her class is 8; all of them are Hispanic. PIF 2 holds three different classes at the same time 9:30-11:30 but on different days. In English for Beginners, which is her first class, she has 8 parents and it is held every Tuesday. Her second class is advanced reading; there are 10 parents in this class and this class is held every Wednesday. The Advanced English class is held every Thursday and there are 12 parents in this class. All her students are Hispanics.

Strategies to Teach English Before developing a curriculum for her class, PIF 1 assesses the parent’s educational level by McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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giving them a short exam and tries to develop a balanced curriculum. PIF 1 teaches parents how to use phonics and how to pronounce words at a second grade level. Singing poems, talking and writing are some of the ways PIF 1 encourages parents to talk and write in English; “They are starting to talk to me in English and writing, that’s what matters” (PIF 1, June 13, 2012). Another way in which parents get to practice their English is by processing work orders that are given by PIF 1. When these orders are given to the parents, they have to read them and tell the other person in English how many copies need to be made, for who the copies are and how to process the order. PIF 2 uses similar strategies to teach English. She uses a book called Side by Side Series which encompasses reading, writing, speaking, listening, comprehension and conversation. In order to achieve effective learning, she uses repetition and visual aids to help parents have a better grasp of the language; “The strategy that best helps me is repetition and we do not rush through chapters” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012). PIF 2, like PIF1, exposes parents to practice their English skills by taking them on fieldtrips. Both PIF’s indicated that parents want to learn English that can be used in the real world. For example, they have made comments like, “If a teacher asks me a question how can I respond to that question” (PIF 1, June 13, 2012).

Parents’ Reasons for Taking Courses While PIF 1 pointed out that parents take her English class because they want to have more bonding with their kids and attend workshops that can help them become better at parenting, PIF 2 indicated a similar reason for parents to learn English. She stated that parents want to feel comfortable helping their kids academically, “I [PIF II] call that parent empowerment, it empowers all family” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012).

Parent Involvement When each PIF was asked if parents that take English classes become more involved, both agreed that the majority do. PIF 1and 2 said that due to the parents’ involvement, teachers and staff began to recognize them and build a relationship with them. In PIF 1’s school, parents that volunteer have ID’s and are placed in charge of the Fruit and Vegetable Program. In PIF 2’s school, parents who volunteer perform different tasks such as interpreting and are recognized each year for their hard work.

English as a Barrier for Involvement PIF 1 believes that sometimes not knowing English is not a barrier but rather an excuse for parents to not become involved. On the other hand, PIF 2 believes that not knowing English is one of the barriers but not the main barrier; “I do not necessarily think it is language. I think that the biggest barrier for Latinos for not being involved is basically work or lack of transportation” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012).

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Challenges Parents have to Becoming Involved: Both PIFs stated that their school’s principals are supportive of the ELA class. However, PIF 1 remarked that the biggest challenge for parents to become involved is parent teacher communication, “Teachers have this like routine message that they give parents and that does not work, you have to do it at a personal level. Teachers have to say what they have seen in particular with that student, how he is doing, what things he needs to improve and how parents can help” (PIF 1, June 13, 2012). Both PIF’s opinions as to what prevents parents from becoming involved were that the parents lack of comprehension of the school system makes parents feel inadequate to help their child and this creates a lack of parent involvement; “I do not think they realize how important it is for them [parents] to be involved” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012). The insecurity of parents only worsens as the school system shows a lack of student/ parent cultural comprehension. PIF 2 denominated this lack of comprehension as the biggest barrier for parents to not become involved; “Most of the parents come from ranches and towns, perhaps where they do not have education; therefore, they are not familiar with the education system” (PIF 2, June 25, 2012).

While both PIF’s agreed that parent – teacher communication and cultural appreciation is needed, PIF 1 also mentioned that the lack of transportation and work schedules are also factors that prevent parents from becoming involved in their children’s education.

Learned Skills In school 1, parents have not just learned to read, write and speak English, they have also learned work, social and volunteer skills. Through work orders, PIF 1 has taught parents to process an order and follow a chain of command. Parents have also learned how to work as a team and how to deliver orders from being in charge of the Fruit and Vegetables Program of the school.

According to PIF 1, parents have also learned to socialize. She explained that many parents pick their kids up from the pre-school program and eat lunch together with other parents at the school. Parents soon find themselves in friendships with other parents and also teachers, since these parents feel comfortable enough in the school settings to become volunteers. On the other hand, PIF 2 shared similar parent learned skills. She noted that the majority of the parents that are in an English class have become school volunteers and interpreters during Parent Teacher conferences because they have learned how to feel comfortable and appreciated in the school’s setting. According to her, parents only need to build their confidence to feel capable of becoming involved in their child’s education.

Conclusion For the most part, the two PIFs had much in common in terms of the demographics of their school

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and their reasons for teaching English to their parents. Both PIFs strongly believe that their duty to help parents become involved in their child’s education is pivotal. It is through their English class that PIF’s have built parents’ self-confidence. Due to this exposure, parents begin to feel comfortable in the school’s settings. Parents, teachers and communities have built strong parent teacher communities. What is different about the two PIF’s is their teaching strategy; PIF 1 tries to expose parents to an environment where they can practice their English. On the other hand, PIF 2 teaches parents theory first and then exposes them to practice.

Although both PIFs stated that understanding the parents’ cultural backgrounds is important. PIF2 commented that having knowledge of the Spanish language has been an important tool at the time of teaching English. Even though she is not a native Spanish speaker, her formal studies, years of experience, and practice of the language with her husband, who is a native Spanish speaker, has helped her understand why students struggle with the English language. She understands the linguistic differences between both languages. She provided the linguistic example of the preposition “in” and “on.” She explained that in Spanish there is no significant difference between both prepositions. As a consequence, many of her students struggle with these prepositions in English. PIF 2’s knowledge of the Spanish language has enabled her to efficiently help her students learn the English language.

PIF 2’s dedication to help her community does not stop with her effort to teach English at the school where she works. During the evenings, she and her husband have an office where they teach English and U.S. citizenship classes to adults. This office is located in a low income neighborhood and has been offering these classes since 2006. While the English classes are offered at no cost, the citizenship class is offered at a relatively low price; due to the low economic status of the people who need to take this class. PIF 2 and her husband strongly believe that teaching English to adults does not only empower them to become involved in their children’s academics but also provides these adults an opportunity to have a better job.

Therefore, PIF 2 and her husband spend their evenings teaching these classes.

Limitations This investigation is limited due to the small size of the sample population. Since both PIFs are females, there is no male perspective which could contribute to a different result. Both elementary schools are composed of a relatively small student population , are in the same school district, and are Title I schools. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized. In order to have a more individualistic and direct opinions from parents, there needs to be a future investigation to corroborate if the results PIFs perceive are the same parents perceive due to taking an English class.

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NAYESDI BADILLO DELGADO Implications Throughout the interviews, the lack of transportation, comprehension of the school system, and communication were emergent themes besides the language barrier for the lack of parent involvement in their children’s education and school. Despite these barriers, both PIFs try to teach English to Latino parents in order to give them a voice in their child’s education. Taking into consideration parent construction role theory and self-efficacy theory, parents that take the English class perceive the class as a tool to accomplish their parental role, which is helping their child succeed academically. According to self-efficacy theory, parents have a higher sense of involvement and also tend to positively make the choice of become more engaged in their child’s education. When parents have a sense of involvement, they persist over the face of many challenges or barriers (Hoover-Demsey &Sandler, 1997).The involvement of parents in school and student’s education after taking an English class can be attributed to the self-confidence and appreciation parents perceive due to taking an English class. Therefore, in this study it can be implied that having an English class for parents at the school where their child attends can build a network of communication and trust for the parent to become involved. Since parents are constantly attending their English class, teachers and staff begin to recognize them and in exchange parents begin to recognize them as well. At the same time, they are becoming familiarized with the school system and other parents.

References Bandura, A. (1989). Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy.

Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 729-735.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Biddle, B. J. (1979). Role theory: Expectations, identities, and behavior. New York: Academic Press.

Biddle, B. J. (1986). Recent developments in role theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 12, 6792.

Bohon, S. A., Macpherson, H., & Atiles, J. H. (2005). Educational Barriers for New Latinos in Georgia. Journal of Latinos and Education, 4, 43–58.

Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1992). School matters in the Mexican-American home: Socializing children to education. American Education Research Journal, 29 (3), 495–513.

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Domina, T. (2005). Leveling the home advantage: Assessing the effectiveness of parental involvement in elementary school. Sociology of Education, 78, 233-249.

Good, M. E., Masewicz, S., & Vogel, L. (2010). Latino English Language Learners: Bridging Achievement and Cultural Gaps Between Schools and Families. [Article]. Journal of Latinos & Education, 9(4), 321-339. doi: 10.1080/15348431.2010.491048 Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research, 67, 3–42.

Larrotta, C., & Yamamura, E. K. (2011). A Community Cultural Wealth Approach to Latina/Latino Parent Involvement: The Promise of Family Literacy. [Article]. Adult Basic Education & Literacy Journal, 5(2), 74-83.

Unnamed School District (n,d,).

Parent Involvement.

Retrived fromhttp://www.unnamedschool.org/district/programs/title-i/parent-involvement>.

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Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

REBECCA BUSTOS

Elders’ Views Regarding Oral Health

Rebecca Bustos Major: Public Health Mentor: Dr. Susan Harris & Dr. Judith Sugar Graduating: 2017

The objectives of this research project was to gain an in-depth knowledge of the multifactorial health topic of oral care of the elder population (65+) in Washoe County, Nevada. There are various health reports concerning elders, but there is a lack of research and reports at the community level addressing oral health specifically. As part of the greater public health efforts to qualitative research on Washoe County elders’ perspectives on their oral health was done through the use of focus groups (N = 6) with a total of 28 participants.

Through the use of focus groups, participants’ viewpoints were collected, analyzed and summarized with findings reported via this research paper. Findings such as twenty-seven out of the twentyeight participants agreed that oral health affects general health and all took initiative to take care of their oral health in some manner were concluded. Although, all participants stated that they took care of their oral health, a majority still had difficulties in receiving dental care. Most participants are disadvantaged in receiving oral health care due to the cost with or without insurance. Recommendations for the future include large-scale survey research in Nevada and for dentist in the community to be more involved.

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REBECCA BUSTOS Introduction Various research has been conducted on the topic of elder health, but little research has been done at the community level addressing this issue especially with findings disseminated to key stakeholders. Thus, there is a lack of general knowledge about elders’ oral health. This may be influencing the likelihood of sub-level care being provided to elder populations because policies and health care providers are not aware of elders’ needs. The older adult population (65+) currently makes up 13% of the population in Washoe County (Nevada State demographer, 2014).

This is a pressing concern because Washoe County is experiencing a tremendous growth with the elder population and it is expected to increase by 31.5% by the year 2020 (Nevada state demographer, 2014). According to a report published by WHO’s World Oral Health Report 2003, oral disease is the fourth most expensive disease to treat in industrialized countries. Not only would knowing how to address oral care with elders be cost effective through prevention, but it could also improve quality of life of elders. There are scarce health care outlets for low-income elders to access oral care. According to the Nevada Division of Health Care Financing and Policy (DHCFP), state Medicaid provides emergency only dental procedures for low-income adults.

Medicare Part A is a federal insurance program that covers adults age 65 and older who have a social security number. Medicare Part A only covers hospital visits, and dental services are limited to emergency dental procedures. This reduces oral health care access to emergency visits, if a patient’s only form of insurance is Medicare Part A. According to the Elders Count 2013, more than half of respondents with incomes of $25,000 a year or less had not accessed oral health care within the past year. As a conclusion, elders are at a disadvantage for receiving preventative services and overall maintenance of good oral health. The purpose of this research is to get an indepth view of elders’ oral health care in Washoe County, and to better assess the needs at the community level. The final step is to make recommendations to agencies and providers.

Literature Review Health Care Coverage Dental coverage that is accessible to elders and adults (18+) with low income is very limited.

Medicaid provides a form of insurance for those at are deemed to be living in poverty. This form of insurance is mandated for states to provide. In terms of oral care, stales are mandated to provide full dental coverage to those that are under 18. According to the National Academy for State Health Policy, It is optional for states to include oral health care for Medicaid recipients over the age of 18 (2008, p. 1). State Medicaid programs are not required to cover adult services.

Medicare coverage does not cover any dental services unless it an indirect procedure done in a hospital visit (Medicare.gov). State Medicaid programs are not required to cover adult services.

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The Nevada is one of those states that does not have adult dental Medicaid coverage (NASHP 2008;DHCFP). To further state the case that elders in the Washoe County community, a report form the Elders Count 2013, states that more than half of respondents with incomes of $25,000 a year or less had not accessed oral health care within the past year (p. 62). According to the Elders Count 2013 survey report 65% of elder (65+) incomes were less than $32,000 a year (p. 3). As a conclusion, elders are at a disadvantage for receiving preventative services and overall maintenance of good oral health.

Views on Oral Health In addition, to the lack of coverage by both Medicaid and Medicare, there are some cultural differences in regards to how elders may view their oral health. Thus, it is critical to review the literature as to what research has shown on the views that elders may have in general health and how oral health fits into that. According to Muirhead, Marcenes, and Wright (2013), elders that have a higher mistrust with dentists tend to have higher needs for oral care. Thus, it is important to look locally if elders experience mistrust or what their reservations and apprehensions are in regards to receiving oral care.

Holistic View: Oral Health and Quality of Life We are living longer than we ever have before. Thus, the need for overall maintenance of good health is need. As a society, we want our growing elders to experience older life with quality. Oral health plays a big role in the maintenance of quality in later life. Research publish by the Indian Journal of Gerontology states â€œâ€Śoral health problems are more frequently found in an older adult population for whom other health problems are often a priorityâ€? (Tirth, Pal, Tandon, 2012, p.

442). Another compelling reason as to start focusing more on oral care is that the literature states and relates that oral care affects general health (WHO, 2005, p. 87).

Oral Health Needs If left untreated there are various secondary affects of untreated health diseases such as oral pain, difficulty chewing and as a results swallowing as well (Tirth et., 2012). Elders also present different body systems and health afflictions that are distinct to their age group. For example the common use of polypharmacy has to be taken into account when addressing and evaluating oral health (Tirth et., 2012,p. 442 ). Some drugs that elders commonly take like antihistamines can have negative affects like dry mouth (Tirth et., 2012, p.444). Dry mouth otherwise known as xerostomia can have several detrimental affects for elders. Primarily due to the glands not producing enough saliva and therefore reducing the antimicrobial properties that helps fight off bacteria. As a result elders can be at a higher risk for caries and systemic infections as a result from bacteria originating from the mouth.

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Research Methods Objectives Identify issues, opinions and thoughts, and the environmental factors that affect the way elder people view and maintain oral health.

Gather a needs-based research concerning oral health care through the use of focus groups Make Present findings via paper and poster presentation Research Team An interdisciplinary research team, comprised of gerontology faculty which served as mentors throughout the research process, a faculty member from the TMCC dental hygiene program that helped in giving background information on oral health in northern Nevada which led to the focus group questions, two scribes to help with data collection, a research assistant to assist with coding and one undergraduate research student as the principle investigator of this research study.

Research Participants Recruitment A qualitative focus group study design was conducted with participants that reside in Washoe County in northern Nevada. The target population was from different zip codes located within in the Reno/Sparks area. This was done in efforts to achieve a representative sample of the elder population that resides in Washoe County, thus making the research more translatable to the area of interest. The institutions were recruitment took place were at, Washoe Country Senior Services, Sparks Senior Citizen Center, and through the Retired and Senior Volunteer program based out of the Sanford Center for Aging at the University of Nevada, Reno. Flyers were distributed to Washoe County Senior Services, Sparks Senior Citizens Center, and via email to RSVP volunteers. The use of McDonald’s gift cards with a value of ten dollars was used as an incentive for participants to join the research study. The final exemption and approval of the study from the Institutional Review Board was granted on July 17, 2015, which led to recruitment efforts detailed previously.

Materials Refreshments and light snacks were provided for participants to create a friendly and comfortable environment. A poster board was used to record the answers for the data collection. The six questions that were asked during the focus group were also printed out to eliminate any confusion and for the purpose of keeping participants on track during discussion. The set up of the focus group was around a table with all participants including the mediator facing one another. The poster board were the data was collected was positioned in a manner that participants were not able to see their answers being written, nor the expressions of the scribe.

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REBECCA BUSTOS The following questions were asked in this order during the focus group: 1. Do you like going to the dental office?

2. Do you believe oral health care is important for general health why or why not?

3. Are there any obstacles that prevent you from receiving oral health care?

4. How do you maintain your oral health? (what is your oral health care routine) 5. Has anyone from an agency or program ever helped you find or pay for dental care? a. How did they help you? (e.g., give you a list of dentists or a specific referral, make an appointment) 6. In what ways do you think you could help dental professionals to better understand seniors or provide appropriate services?

Procedure A protocol, refer to figure 1, was established for the mediator to follow during the focus groups.

The focus group was designed to be completed in forty-five minutes. To commence the focus groups, refreshments were offered followed by an introduction of the facilitator and scribe. Then an overview of study detailing the purpose, outcomes, expectations and role of the participants, was given. Lastly, before commencing the actual focus group, the consent form, which did not have to be signed was reviewed along with contacts and answering any questions. The bulk of the focus group consisted of discussion of the six research questions. The focus group mediators consisted of two people: one directly involved with participants by taking the role of asking questions, probing and guiding the discussion. The mediator should be as unbiased as possible and try not to agree or disagree with any answers or comments being said. The other mediator will serve the sole purpose of a scribe, writing down answers on a poster board. Answers are to be recorded as they are being spoken as concisely as possible trying not to omit any details. It is important to get direct short quotes if possible.

Figure 1. Focus Group Protocol.

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REBECCA BUSTOS Analysis After each question was asked and discussed, the mediator summarized the responses to ensure that they were an accurate representation of what participants wanted to convey. All answers were transcribed from the poster board onto an excel file. The answers were separated onto different sheets in excel to represent the different focus group and their respective answers to all questions. Another set of sheets in excel was created to place the answers from all the focus groups for each question. Once the codes were finalized for each asked question, coding began by categorizing answers that best fit into the created codes. The finalized codes and data were given to a second research assistant to complete the coding separately. Both researchers then reviewed coded data and came to an agreement on coding when answers did not match with their respective codes.

Trustworthiness and Creditability Creditability was enhanced with the use of an unpaid student research assistant. The research assistant coded the research data to minimize bias, resolve conflicts with the coding, and establish inter-rater reliability—adding to the validity of the research.

Results Characteristics of Participants Participants formed a total of six focus groups. Twenty-eight people participated in the focus groups. The average age was 68.5 with slightly more female participation at a total of 53.6%. Over 90% of the participants were retired. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the participants with more detail.

N

Table 1: Characteristics of the focus group participants.

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Age Mean Range Gender Male Female Ethnicity/Race White Hispanic Asian Other Occupation Retired Non-retired Dental Coverage Yes No

%

68.5 yrs 62 - 81 13 15

46.4 53.6

21 4 2 1

75 14.3 7.1 3.6

26 2

92.9 7.1

18 10

64.3 35.7

McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

REBECCA BUSTOS Data Collected There were eighteen answers out of more than one hundred recorded answers total that had different codes with the mediator and the “blind” coder, the research assistant. Those eighteen answers with conflicting codes were discussed and a final code was given that two agreed on. All data is on excel with no sensitive information identifying participants or linking participants to any specific answer.

Question One: Do you like going to the dental office?

A little over half of the responses stated that they liked going to the dental office. About half of the respondents stated that they were comfortable going to a dental office, most of them due to a positive relationship with their dentist and the office staff. Those that responded stating that they did not like to go to the dental office was due to pain and discomfort experienced during the visits. Answers like “ doesn't like the sound of the drill” and “uncomfortable having hands in my mouth and neck hurts” were reasons as to why they did not like going to the dental office.

Question Two: Do you believe oral health care is important for general health? Why or why not?

Out of the thirty-five recorded answers, one disagreed with the question and answered with a “no, has never made the connection.” Twenty-three percent of the responses agreed to the question as a result of a personal experience of seeing another person suffer or deal with issues caused by an oral health problem. Around one person per group had a similar experience dealing with issue.

Question Three: Are there any obstacles that prevent you from receiving oral health care?

The biggest obstacle preventing participants from receiving oral health care came down to the cost of care being too high. The lack of good or no insurance coverage made it too much to afford.

Half of the valid responses to the question agreed that the cost due to lack of insurance and general cost prevented them from seeking out dental care. Those that had no obstacles stated that they had good insurance coverage. One response stated that they had no obstacles because they have no teeth, so doesn't see the need for a dentist.

Question Four: How do you maintain your oral health? (What is your oral health care routine?)

This question yielded a varied response. All participants had different methods of maintaining their oral health. All of the participants did something for their maintaining their oral health via flossing, brushing, mouth rinses and using waterpiks. The synthesized data showed that all of the participants brushed their teeth (except one without teeth and dentures) at least once daily and all participants flossed teeth occasionally meaning at least once a week.

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Question Five: Has anyone from an agency or program ever helped you find or pay for dental care?

How did they help you? (e.g., give you a list of dentists or a specific referral, make an appointment) Two of the respondents received helped from Adopt-A-Vet dental program. Another participant applied to an undisclosed program and was pending approval. The rest of the participants have received no help nor have applied for any programs that may exist. Most participants have never looked into any program due to no need due to good insurance coverage, or simply have not searched. Those that have agreed that it was still too expensive for assistance programs or that there aren’t any. The predominant answer was that there were no programs to help them out.

Question Six: In what ways do you think you could help dental professionals to better understand seniors or provide appropriate services?

The largest response was for dentists or appropriate agencies to publish and distribute information concerning oral health care, so that elders can take care of their oral health properly at home. The idea of spreading knowledge and allowing for an exchange of information directly with dentist or via flyers was widely agreed on. A large portion of the recorded answers were similar to the following, “tell more about resources” and “more flyers to promote resources.” Other answers included more involvement with dentist in the community by volunteerism, free work or workshops. Answers like being friendly and having short waiting times were responded at the same rate.

Discussion Overview of Major Results From the data collected, we can conclude that elders in our region need and want more access to dental care and oral health information. In addition to more access, the biggest limiting factor to receive dental health care was cost either because of not great insurance coverage or no insurance coverage. 64.3% of the participants in this study stated they had dental insurance and still had issues receiving care. This information agrees with the literature stating that the elderly are at a disadvantage in receiving oral health even with insurance. More than half of the participants stated they had insurance, so it could be possible that those with insurance had Medicare and or Medicaid, which does not cover a comprehensive range of procedures. Our general population and elder population is aware of the benefits of oral care and its affects on general health and are making an effort to take care of their oral health via different methods. Also, most participants had a positive view on visiting the dentist even if they didn't like going to the dentist they agreed that the advancements they have seen in their lifetime have made it more comfortable to go and have been less painful than before.

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Limitations The biggest limitation of this research project was the method of data collection, which relied heavily on self-reported data. Meaning that participants could have felt pressured to appear a certain way in front of others and could have possibly lied or have not been completely honest during the focus groups. Self-reported data could have also affected results in background questionnaire when answering if they had dental insurance or not. Another limitation of the study was the analysis conducted. Analysis was done using solely excel and no other specialized statistic programs, so the power of the data interpretation was limited to excel.

Conclusion Future Research More additional large-scale research needs to be at the community level and at the national level.

Qualitative research involving focus groups starch the surface and are great for beginning to explore a research topic and could act as a foundation for future research that can be done. Future research could use data from smaller-scale qualitative data like this one to create questionnaires that target a greater population.

Recommendations Based on this research study and the data analysis, this research study makes the recommendation to do a large-scale survey research study for the purpose of gathering more data concerning Nevada. In conjunction, it would be beneficial to do more focused research perhaps concerning health, insurance, and or attitudes separately. In addition, it is recommended that dental organizations in the area to continue involved in their own research efforts or begin their own.

Lastly, from this study, it is recommended for dentist to get involved with their community, as with this study indicates that elders would like to see community involvement.

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the McNair Scholars Program for providing me this opportunity of guidance, research experience and preparation for my future. I would like to thank my mentors, Dr. Judith Sugar and Dr. Susan Harris, for the time dedicated in guiding me along this research process.

I would like to thank the Office of Undergraduate and Interdisciplinary Research for funding this research project with the General Undergraduate Research Award (GURA). I would also like to thank the scribes that participated with data collection.

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References: Elders Count Report (2013). Retrieved PDF from http://dhs.unr.edu/aging/resources-andpublications.

Muirhead, V., Marcenes, W., & Wright, D. (2013). Do Health provider-patient relationship matter?

Exploring dentist-patient relationship and oral health-related quality of life in older people.

Age and Aging, 43, 399-405. doi:10.1093/ageing/aft183 Nevada Medicaid and Nevada Check Up. Retrived dhcfp.state.nv.us/pdf%20forms/Info/medicaid%20Guide%20_English_.pdf.

PDF

from

Nevada State Demographer(2014). Age, sex, race and Hispanic origin estimates and projections October 2014. Retrieved March 2015 from nvdemography.org/data-and-publications/agesex-race-and-hispanic-origin-estimates-and-projections.

Tirth, A., Kumar, S., & Tandon, V. (2012). Oral People Need Dental Care Too. Indian Journal of Gerontology, 26(4), 441-450. Retrieved April 5, 2015, from AgeLine.

World Oral Health Report (2003). Retrieved PDF from www. who.int/oral_ health /publications/ report03/en/.

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JONATHAN CARRAL

Evaluating the Strength of Faith-based Organizations in Developing Positive Identity in Street Children of Developing Countries

Jonathan Carral Major: International Affairs Mentor: Dr. Carina Black Graduated: 2014 Master’s Degree: International Affairs, Columbia University Graduated: 2016

This literature review explores the role of Christian faith-based organizations in aiding orphans and vulnerable youth around the world. Christian organizations have a large presence in providing humanitarian services and are strategically positioned to impact the adverse conditions of orphans and other vulnerable youth. Therefore, the primary question being addressing in this research is what are the advantages of Christian faith-based organizations in aiding orphans and vulnerable youth? In answering this question, this thesis focuses on three distinct advantages: 1) moral standing within the community, 2) stimulation of positive identities, and 3) logistical advantages that include continued operation under budget shortfalls, assimilation to cultural norms, and use of social capital to facilitate projects and distribute services. In addition, this thesis briefly reviews three fundamental weaknesses of Christian faith-based organizations.

Evaluating the advantages of Christian organizations in the rehabilitation of vulnerable children identifies contributions these organizations can make beyond their secular counterparts in providing humanitarian services. Highlighting these qualities illustrates how Christian faith-based organizations along with other organizations and governments alike can work together to better meet the needs of the orphaned and vulnerable youth population.

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JONATHAN CARRAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank Dr. Carina Black for mentoring me throughout this last year and helping me achieve one of the greatest accomplishments of my undergraduate career: finishing a senior thesis. Her patience and thoughtful critiques were fundamental in my success as an undergraduate researcher.

I would also like to thank Dr. Tamara Valentine and Dr. Daniel Villanueva for their advice and for always being available to answer questions. Their standards for excellence pushed me farther than what I thought I could accomplish.

Finally, I want to acknowledge Marsha Dupree and Heather Williams from the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program for teaching me the importance of academic research and instilling in me the confidence to successfully conduct my own research project. This research was also funded in part by the McNair program.

INTRODUCTION This senior thesis will explore the role of Christian faith-based organizations (CFBOs) in aiding orphans and vulnerable youth (OVY) around the world. The primary question being addressing in this research is what are the advantages of Christian faith-based organizations in aiding orphans and vulnerable youth? This thesis will focus on three distinct advantages: 1) moral standing within the community, 2) stimulation of positive identities, and 3) logistical advantages that include continued operation under budget shortfalls, assimilation to cultural norms, and use of social capital to facilitate projects and distribute services. In addition, this thesis will briefly review three fundamental weaknesses that, if addressed in the future, would greatly increase CFBO influence and efficiency in aiding the OVY community. Literature review is the primary research method used for this thesis.

Analyzing Christian organizations and their work with OVY is a relatively new topic of study within the field of international affairs; there is, therefore, a limited number of sources directly addressing the topic. But when it comes to faith-based organizations, orphans and vulnerable youth, Christian ethics and theology, and the available empirical data evaluating CFBO success, a much broader source of information is available. It is the purpose of this research to link together these separate topics and contribute a new analysis Significance of Study Evaluating Christian organizations in aiding orphans and vulnerable youth identifies the contributions CFBOs can make beyond their secular counterparts. By highlighting the advantages

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of CFBOs, this research contributes to the question of how CFBOs along with other secular organizations and governments alike can work together to better meet the needs of orphans and vulnerable youth in countries around the world. With regards to the children themselves, it is important to note that OVY are in a race against time, not only with regards to their adverse circumstances but also their own bodies. As these children develop into adults, more difficulties arise in surviving and maneuvering their vulnerable circumstance. As Lewis Aptekar (1994) notes in his review of the conditions of street children in the developing world: When their body image changes to that of an adult, they are forced into criminal behavior or into the same kinds of work that other poor adults do to survive. The reason for this is that the small children are looked on as being cute and receive alms because of it, but when they get big enough to be perceived as adults they are considered dangerous. (p. 198) This shift in societal perception impedes the provision of money and other resources previously provided, in part, by the community to support the OVY population. As a result, the living conditions of vulnerable children – now turned adults – can become increasingly difficult to overcome. Identifying the advantages of Christian-based organizations in aiding OVY provides one perspective on how to help vulnerable youth before its too late.

Research Framework In addition to this introduction, my analysis has been broken up into two supplementary sections and three primary sections. The first supplementary section will define key terminology used throughout the thesis along with laying a foundation for the reader to understand the spiritual component that characterizes CFBOs and their service to vulnerable youth. The three primary sections will each address a distinct advantage of CFBOs in rehabilitating OVY, as determined by the literature review: moral standing within the community, stimulation of positive identities, and three logistical advantages. The final supplementary section will note some of the weaknesses of Christian organizations in rehabilitating OVY. At the end, the conclusion summarizes my findings.

Challenges of Bias I have come to recognize two potential challenges of bias in addressing Christian-based organizations. The first is reconciling the bias I may have developed in having worked with CFBOs in the past. From September 2008 to September 2009, I worked in China with Forever Love foundation, a Christian organization working with street children from around the country. In December 2010, I worked at Zimpeto Children’s Center in Mozambique, also a Christian

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organization, where I helped facilitate a number of small-scale projects helping vulnerable youth in the area. In December 2011, I had the opportunity to travel to India and work with a local family that led a small church dedicated to helping children living on the streets and in extremely poor households. On the same trip, I was also able to work with Youth With a Mission (YWAM) teaching English at a slum school in New Delhi. These experiences have contributed greatly to my interest in vulnerable youth studies and have provided a first hand perspective into my research.

For any potential bias to affect the conclusion of my research without recognition of the possibility in the first place is not only unprofessional but fraudulent. Therefore, acknowledging that I have had a relatively positive experience working with CFBOs (specifically those caring for OVY) is important information to disclose. I have included a specific chapter dedicated to identifying weaknesses within Christian organizations and their work with OVY in an attempt to balance out my findings and give voice to both sides of the issue.

The second challenge of bias is that of the reader. I have come to recognize a stigma surrounding humanitarian organizations that affiliate themselves with religion and faith, especially Christian organizations. This stigma is associated with the opinion that certain CFBOs are more concerned with promoting their faith than with the actual distribution of services. While I recognize that in some cases these criticisms are merited, a topic to be discussed in tandem with other weaknesses in the proceeding chapters, this stigma has ultimately prevented collaboration between the secular and Christian-based. When collaboration between secular and faith-based is impeded, it directly affects beneficiaries of humanitarian aid, OVY being chief among them. I hope that my experiences and the resulting research might help to balance out the more prevalent opinions within academia against Christianity operating in a non-western context. I encourage the reader to keep an open mind as I attempt to share why, according to my research, CFBOs are legitimate and successful in aiding OVY. An Overview of Faith-based Organizations Before introducing Christian organizations, the historical origin and overall contributions made by faith-based organizations (FBOs) in general will be discussed. FBOs are defined as having “affiliation with a religious body; a mission statement with explicit reference to religious values; financial support from religious sources; and/or a governance structure where selection of board members or staff is based on religious beliefs� (Ferris, 2005, p. 312). They can range from churches/temples, to hospitals, to orphanages and day centers. They encompass a large variety of services and realms of influence. FBOs play a critical role in providing humanitarian services in the

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developing world, particularly areas where services are under-provided by local government (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2012, p. 13).

FBOs are gaining recognition in the eyes of governments, activists, and funding entities as effective agents for change in the developing world (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2012, p. 13) and are recognized as being “uniquely situated to service vulnerable populations such as impoverished families, prisoners in their rehabilitation and reintegration processes, children of prisoners, homeless individuals and high-risk youth” (Ferguson, Dabir, Dortzbach, Dyrness & Spruijt-Metz, 2006, p. 1513). FBOs are also acknowledged by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development as influential players in the international spectrum and have, consequently, become much more prominent in scholarly literature pertaining to development and civil society (Tadros, 2010, p. 1). Ferguson et al. (2006) are the authors of a comparative analysis of faith-based programs serving homeless youth in Los Angeles, Mumbai and Nairobi. They state: From the White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives in the United States to the World Bank's development partnerships with local religious organizations around the world, faith-based organizations are receiving increasing visibility for their role in the provision of diverse health, mental health and social services (p. 1512-1513).

Because FBOs are typically the longest existing provider of services and care within the communities they operate, they are intricately woven into the social fabric and play influential roles in the lives of affiliates (Tadros, 2010, p. 1). From large urban centers to smaller rural villages, FBOs maintain a long-term presence that is interconnected with many of the various components of a given society. Those who work with these religious organizations contribute tens of thousands of volunteer hours through efforts that “address both local contexts as well as the varied needs of far-flung communities” (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2012, p. 17).

However, some of the greatest influences FBOs have in reaching the marginalized lie in their shared ability with other non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Overall, NGOs are delivering more humanitarian aid worldwide than all United Nations programs combined, providing as much as $8.5 billion per year (Ferris, 2005, p. 312). As stated in The Charity of Nations, NGOs are active in more countries than many governments, and they carry more credibility with tax-payers then do government aid agencies. Indeed, some individual NGOs have country programs with larger budgets then the government ministries to which they relate (as cited in Ferris, 2005, p. 311).

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NGOs work to fill the gap between the services provided by government and the most marginalized or vulnerable individuals that lie beyond the reach of government programs (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2012, p. 13), making their work paramount. For example, in Nairobi almost all social services are provided by FBOs or other secular NGOs (Ferguson et al., 2006, p. 1519). Additionally, FBOs make up 50% of health service provision in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 40% in Kenya and Lesotho, and 55% in Uganda (Tadros, 2010, p. 3). Faith-based and secular NGOs are also engaged in providing education, financial assistance, humanitarian relief during times of crises and legal aid (Tadros, 2010, p. 3).

One of the potential advantages that FBOs have over other non-government entities in providing for the marginalized is their historical affiliation with the world’s religions such as Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and Buddhism. The bond between FBOs and the religions they represent extends to before the creation of international law (Ferris, 2005, p. 313) and before the establishment of modern government as well. Through their connection with religion, FBOs develop “stronger community relations” and use faith to “provide a common language for the marginalized to communicate with others around the world” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 34). It is this bond between FBOs and their explicit use of religion that ultimately makes the distribution of services more than just a non-profit endeavor but a way of life rooted in faith and service.

For believers, to be a Jew, or a Muslim, or a Christian implies a duty to respond to the needs of the poor and the marginalized. The expression of this faith takes different forms in different religious traditions but is a powerful motivator for humanitarian action (Ferris, 2005, p. 316).

Long-standing History of Faith-based Organizations FBOs are important to the field of international affairs because of their connection with the world’s religions and the resulting grassroots influence they have within a community. “FBOs are among some of the oldest providers of services and care to their communities” (Tadros, 2010, p.

1). The existence of FBOs extends to before the establishment of key international institutions like the United Nations in 1945.

Historically, there are even accounts of FBO-type groups working during the beginning of the millennium. According to Berger (2003), most secular NGOs have been created over the last 40 years (p. 20). In contrast, many FBOs represent new incarnations of older religious institutions.

Religious orders can become FBOs “by entering into a formal relationship with the UN or by orienting their mission to serve the general public” (Berger, 2003, p. 20). The official Order of Malta (2013) website describes the historical origins of two of the oldest known religious lay

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orders. In the year 1048, the Order of St. John was established. In response to the order, merchants from the ancient Marine Republic of Amalfi built a church, convent, and hospital in Jerusalem. The monastic community, later known as the Hospitallers, provided care for the poor, sick or injured pilgrims en rout to Jerusalem. Although the Hospitallers were supported by the Catholic Church, their mission was not exclusive of other faiths. Services were provided to individuals regardless of race and religion.

With the loss of the Holy Land in 1291, the Hospitallers moved from location to location, eventually finding their home on the Island of Malta. The Knights of Malta were established in 1565, defending the island and transforming it through various construction projects. The Knights of Malta also contributed to the development of ophthalmology and pharmacology. Today, the Order of Malta is one of the oldest institutions of Western civilization with a commitment to reach spiritual perfection and to diligently serve the poor and the sick (Order of Malta, 2013).

According to Dafoe (2010), the Knights of Templar was another ancient order, established towards the end of the 11th century. The mission of the Knights of Templar was to protect pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land to visit sacred shrines. While the knights themselves were forbidden to own property, the Templar Order as a whole accumulated land and wealth as a form of support from noble families. Over time, the Templars became the wealthiest of Crusading Orders. The excess of wealth and land provided for an additional form of service to the community. The Order funded the creation of infrastructure and churches in war-torn areas.

Today, religiously motivated military groups are not typically associated with providing humanitarian services. However the Hospitallers and the Knights of Templar represent the longstanding history of faith related organizations. The Knights of Malta, conversely, represent the shift from religious order to FBO described by Berger. In both cases, the long history of FBOs is evident, providing for significant experience in the distribution of services (Ferris, 2005, p. 313).

Although it is hard to determine when FBOs as we know them today were first created, we do know that they have existed along-side the oldest international organizations in modern history.

The Young Men’s Christian Association, established in 1855, was one of the first international FBOs ever established (Berger, 2003, p. 18). In the west, FBOs have also historically played a leading role in influencing policy. For example, churches were among those who lobbied for the creation of the United Nations and for the inclusion of human rights protection in the United Nations Charter. The Federal Council of Churches, a partnership of 37 Christian faith groups, “was instrumental in actually drafting text for the charter and passing it on to US representatives on the drafting committee” (Ferris, 2005, p. 315).

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Why Christian-based Organizations are Distinct In distinguishing between Ferris’ (2005, p. 312) definition of FBOs, CFBOs are simply defined as those organizations that relate specifically with Christianity, rather than religion in general. A more concise definition of CFBOs will be discussed in the proceeding chapter. This section of the introduction will look beyond the general themes of FBOs and focus specifically on CFBOs and their work with OVY. While caring for the marginalized and underrepresented is a common theme among all major religions, Christian organizations are simply more prevalent. In the available comparative FBO studies and surveys, at least those cited throughout this literature review (Lipsky, 2011, Berger, 2003, Ferris, 2005, Foster, 2004, Ferguson et al. 2006), CFBOs consistently make up the majority of the sample size. It would not be far-fetched to deduce that the Christian-prevalence in the literature is reflective of the larger body of CFBOs worldwide as well, although empirical data and hard numbers are seemingly non-existent. Only those organizations that register with the U.N. or some other funding or organizational body can be accounted for.

Elizabeth Ferris, chair of the International Council of Voluntary Agencies, states in her report about faith-based and secular humanitarian organizations that “while Jewish and Islamic NGOs primarily serve members of their own religious communities, Christian organizations tend to have a more global outreach: to assist those in need regardless of their religious affiliation” (Ferris, 2005, p. 317). Additionally, there are distinctive qualities between faiths that ultimately affect the operation of a given organization.

Hindu practice tends to be personal and individualistic, while Muslim practice tends to be focused on what is mandated by clerics as most “correct.” Conversely, Christian practice tends to be communal with a strong connection to life issues, often with close interaction between the clergy and adherent (Ferguson et al., 2006, p. 1520).

With strong ties to a communal spiritual experience and closer interactions between clergy and members, Christian organizations are well-positioned to help vulnerable children, a group whose very definition was derived from lacking a healthy family unit or a safe, care-giving community.

In Julia Berger’s exploratory analysis of FBOs she states that her research “reveals salient characteristics, which highlight ‘cultural’ differences” (Berger, 2003, p. 34) between different FBOs. She notes that Jewish organizations “make few references to God or religion, focusing instead on the social justice teachings of the Torah as the basis for their advocacy-oriented missions.” With regards to Eastern religions, recognized more as spiritual NGOs rather than faith-

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based, Berger (2003, p. 34) notes that they “are among the most loosely structured, focusing on the inner life of the individual through the application of principles advanced by spiritual leaders.”

CFBOs, on the other hand, are more missions focused with an emphasis on charity and the concepts of faith and God. “It is not an accident that most of the international humanitarian and relief NGOs, such as World Vision and Catholic Relief Services, are Christian” (Berger, 2003, p. 34).

Being more outreach focused greatly contributes to the larger CFBO presence in providing humanitarian service.

Berger voices a few of the possible questions raised by the reader when dealing with the sample group of her research, namely “Why do (CFBOs) account for over 57% of the sample? ...What aspects of Christianity and its followers facilitate the formation of (CFBOs)? What factors hinder other faiths and believers from establishing (organizations)?” (Berger, 2003, p. 34) Her response relates back to this thesis and why distinctions have been made between CFBOs and FBOs in general: The answers are likely a combination of ideological, political, and economic factors. It is possible that involvement with the UN and NGO creation is compatible with Christian culture and ideology, given the involvement of churches in the formative process of the UN (e.g., World Council of Churches), their desire to influence the secular polity, and their access to material resources…It is worthwhile to note the argument that certain religions, in their emphasis on charity, individual initiative, institution building, and autonomy, are more likely to encourage non-profit formation than those in which these dimensions are not emphasized (Berger, 2003, p. 34).

One may note that charity, individual initiative, institution building, and autonomy are characteristics of religions other than Christianity as well. For example, charity to the poor is one of the five pillars of Islam, and individual initiative can be described as a central component of Buddhism, the teachings of which promote the individual pursuit of enlightenment and peace.

However, Berger’s argument addresses the combination of all of these qualities working collectively.

With regards to OVY, Dr. Geoff Foster, a UNICEF correspondent, compiled a report titled Study of the Response of Faith-based Organizations to Orphans and Vulnerable Children in which he determined that CFBOs significantly outnumbered other FBOs in the provision of services to orphans and vulnerable children in Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia, and Swaziland (Foster, 2004, p. 21). In a comparative analysis of Christian, Islamic, and Hindu faith-based programs, Ferguson et al. notes that Christianity “often tends to have people with a vision and desire to provide services for vulnerable youth,” more so than Hinduism or Islam (Ferguson et al., McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL 2006, p. 1520). Therefore, due to the distinct qualities of CFBOs discussed and the prevalence of CFBOs in the available academic research, my literary analysis has focused exclusively on the CFBO community in aiding OVY. The Adverse Conditions of Orphans and Vulnerable Youth The lives of vulnerable children are reflective of a number of different adverse environments. The term “OVY” is representative of those children who are homeless, trafficked, involved in sexual exploitation, used for illegal child labor, and forced into armed combat. It can be argued that OVY are, in fact, the most vulnerable population because of their adverse circumstances coupled with a lack of autonomy as under aged citizens before the law. While United Nations treaties exist recognizing the rights of children, it is expected that adult guardians are to take responsibility over the realization of these rights, in conjunction with the provisions and over-sight of the states themselves. When OVY are without appropriate adult supervision (emphasis added to distinguish from the so-called “adult supervision” by the very adults exploiting the children), they are left without a voice to advocate on their behalf, especially in nations that are underdeveloped or in crisis. The needs of OVY can be easily neglected in the multitude of civil needs.

Vulnerable children are not centralized in one part of the world but represent every continent, every age, and every background. They can be found in HIV/AIDS affected communities, populated urban centers, poor rural communities, and in both developed and developing countries. These children are the victims of abuse, abandonment, and exploitation (Consortium for Street Children, 2009) and, as a result, experience social, emotional and cognitive impairment ultimately affecting their future as adults (Redding, 2003, p. 3). However, what makes the condition of OVY so unique from adult vulnerable populations is that they are still developing as individuals and can, therefore, be spared the long-lasting effects of their adverse conditions if interventions are made.

Secular Care for Orphans and Vulnerable Youth within the United States OVY migrate between rural communities and populated urban centers, they transition in and out of rescue centers and shelters, and are hard to locate over time if residing permanently on the streets. Even when OVY are able to be located within a given community, it can be very difficult to receive accurate information from them: [Children living on the streets] have developed an extraordinary capacity to tell stories.

Lying about their ages, family background, the reasons for being on the streets, and their current circumstances is included in their well-rehearsed scripts. Presenting information about themselves is part of their survival skills, which, like those of other

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nomadic entertainers, rests on their ability to manipulate their audiences (Aptekar, 1994, p.

199).

Despite the difficulty in assessing their conditions, there is evidence to suggest that the needs of children living on the streets and other vulnerable youth have become increasingly apparent to the eyes of the United States government.

In the United States, Public Law 109-95 was created in 2005 for the purpose of creating a, “comprehensive, coordinated, and effective response on the part of the U.S. Government to the world’s most vulnerable children” (Public Law 109-95 Secretariat, 2005, p. 1). This law contributed to the creation of the U.S. Government Action Plan on Children in Adversity, published in December of 2012, creating a framework for international assistance that emphasizes interagency communication and collaboration. The plan is grounded in the understanding that a promising future belongs to those nations that invest in their children, while failure to do so undermines social and economic progress (U.S. Government International Assistance for Children in Adversity, 2013).

The mandate highlights a series of objectives that have been identified as the most important component to OVY rehabilitation (U.S. Government International Assistance for Children in Adversity, 2013). Putting family care first, promoting evidence-based policies and programs, and strengthening child welfare and protection programs are only a few of the objectives. These objectives are then passed on to the expansive government network helping children in adversity, which includes 30 different offices in seven U.S. government departments and agencies working in over 100 countries. U.S. officials then pass down these objectives to the individual schools, orphanages, clinics, and churches working at the grassroots level that are then able to see these objectives implemented in the lives of the OVY that they serve. The creation of this action plan represents a historical milestone in reaching out to the OVY population because never before has a U.S. comprehensive mandate of this kind been created.

Secular Care for Orphans and Vulnerable Youth Internationally Internationally, coordinated policy efforts addressing the rights and protection of children have existed for many years. The U.N. General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, recognizing the inherent dignity and equality of all human persons and employing the first efforts in asserting the universal protection of fundamental human rights (United Nations, 2013). The UDHR consists of 30 articles and is considered the ultimate standard of achievements for all nations. “Since its adoption, the UDHR has been translated into more than 360 languages– the most translated document in the world - and has inspired the constitutions of McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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many newly independent States and many new democracies” (United Nations, 2013). A number of human rights treaties have been ratified since the 1948 declaration, expanding the body of international human rights law. One such treaty is the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted in 1989, which establishes the political, social, economic, political, cultural, and health rights of children around the world (Assembly, 1989).

Article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states that States parties shall “undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present Convention” (Assembly, 1989). It clearly falls upon States parties to adopt appropriate measures to protect the rights and interests of OVY of the practices prohibited under the Convention at all stages of the criminal justice process, starting with recognizing the vulnerability of child victims. Article 9.2 states that, “all interested parties shall be given an opportunity to participate in the proceedings and make their views known” (Assembly, 1989).

States parties must promote awareness in the public at large, including the affected OVY, through education and training about the preventative measures and harmful effects of the offences referred to throughout the treaty. Legal enforcement of the Convention on the Rights of the Child is under the responsibility of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, which monitors the implementation of the Convention by State parties (United Nations Human Rights, 2012).

The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) was created by the U.N. General Assembly in 1946 to provide food, clothing and health care to European children plagued by widespread disease and famine in the wake of World War II (UNICEF, 2013). The creation of UNICEF actually predates the ratification of the UDHR as one of the first humanitarian endeavors on the part of the United Nations. Today, UNICEF is now working in more than 190 countries and territories to save and improve children's lives (UNICEF, 2013). According to the UNICEF (2013) website, “UNICEF upholds the Convention on the Rights of the Child” and “is the driving force that helps build a world where the rights of every child are realized.” Additionally, UNICEF is recognized as “the global authority to influence decision-makers, and the variety of partners at grassroots level to turn the most innovative ideas into reality”, making UNICEF unique among world organizations and those working with children (UNICEF, 2013).

Difficulties in Aiding Vulnerable Youth and the Role of Christian Organizations Despite all of these efforts, both internationally and within the U.S., there are still many difficulties in aiding the OVY community. As one of the most marginalized and most difficult to track populations, there are few reliable sources that can fully testify to the lives of OVY. With regards to homeless OVY, it is nearly impossible to document the actual number of children living

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on the streets, a reality that has stifled the creation of government policy to address the issue (Consortium for Street Children, 2009, p. 2). The Consortium for Street Children, a network of organizations in the United Kingdom, recently released a statistical assessment of homeless OVY word-wide. They report that while UNICEF estimated as many as 100 million street children worldwide in 1989, Consortium for Street Children can now only ensure the existence of at least tens of millions (Consortium for Street Children, 2009, p. 2) due to the lack of information and credible data retrieval methods. Without a consistent place of residence, researchers have trouble locating specific OVY over time, preventing long-term analysis and observation. Experts working on the ground who interact with vulnerable children directly insist that the actual number of OVY living on the streets is much higher than tens of millions, but without the means to collect statistically significant empirical data, government organizations like UNICEF are forced to underestimate (Consortium for Street Children, 2009, p. 2).

The difficulties in aiding OVY point to the need and importance of other forms of response. While the U.S. and the larger international community are working to meet the needs of OVY, CFBOs have still been able to identify niches and loopholes from which to also provide aid. CFBOs have also been involved in OVY care for a much longer period of time as well. For example, according to a report about FBO care for children affected by HIV in Tanzania, “During the first two decades of the AIDS pandemic, governments and international donor agencies largely neglected the plight of orphans and similarly vulnerable children” (Mmbando, Hartwig, Hofgren, DiSorbo, Smith, & Hartwig, 2009, p. 13), while those working with the children affected by the pandemic, CFBOs included, had been sounding the alarm for years.

In Los Angeles, Mumbai, and Nairobi, OVY noted having an improved sense of self-worth, sense of belonging, hope, and direction for the future after their involvement with CFBOs (Ferguson et al., 2006, p. 1523). In Zimbabwe, 80% of new orphanages built between 1996 and 2006, were initiated by FBOs with 90% of the funding provided by Christian organizations (Williamson & Greenberg, 2010, p. 9). In HIV/AIDS regions of southern Africa, Christian organizations and other FBOs are situated to mobilize resources and provide support for the millions of AIDS orphans because of their position within society (Tadros, 2010, p. 6).

This sizable investment in OVY care is rooted in the Christian principles to which these organizations adhere. Defending the orphan is consistently addressed throughout the Christian Bible. According to James 1:27a “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans.” As a result, CFBOs are not only on the ground working with OVY but are also deeply invested to the cause through a sense of commitment rooted in faith. CFBOs provide McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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essential services and hold influential positions within local communities and within the larger international spectrum.

DEFINITIONS The relationship between CFBOs and OVY is a relatively new topic of study within the field of international affairs. This thesis takes the various theories, interpretations, and studies relevant to OVY and CFBOs and contributes new analysis that would otherwise be neglected. Defining those key components of the analysis provides the theoretical framework for understanding this research. What follows is a discussion of the main topics addressed in this thesis coupled with more concise definitions. This chapter defines the four basic questions of who, what, why, and where in order to clearly communicate the premise of this study.

Who: Understanding Orphans and Vulnerable Youth For this thesis, “OVY” is used to define the world’s most vulnerable children. A child, according to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, is “every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier” (United Nations Human Rights, 2012). The life circumstances of OVY include suffering from HIV/AIDS, homelessness, forced labor, trafficking, sexual exploitation, or begging on the streets; conditions representative of the worst forms of adversity. In many cases, OVY suffer from more than one of the above forms of hardship.

The process of adequately defining the children represented in this study was difficult. The varying literature regarding vulnerable children has created many different terms with unique definitions. These definitions are generally a combination of the words homeless, street, vulnerable, poverty, orphaned. While there is a general sense of continuity expressed through these words, the specific terms “orphans and vulnerable children” (OVC) and the more colloquial “street child” are the most popular terms used to describe these individuals within the literature used. However, according to publications from government and non-government organizations (PEPFAR, UNICEF, Save the Children, and Children’s Defense Fund) the term “OVC” is typically used to describe children living in HIV/AIDS infected areas. While children that are affected directly or indirectly by HIV/AIDS would be considered OVY, this is not a characteristic reflective of all those children referred to in this thesis, i.e. those that are not affected by HIV/AIDS. Similarly, “street child” connotes homelessness and while it is a more general term adopted by the various service providers working with OVY, its ambiguity limits its use, especially within an academic setting. For example, it is wrong to assume that all street children are homeless.

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According to Aptekar (1994), OVY may, in fact, have a home, but whether by force or choice, spend a majority of their time on the streets whereupon they make their livelihood (p. 197).

Additionally, street children are not all orphans, another common assumption associated with the term. In fact, some of these children live on the streets with their families.

To use either “OVC” or “street child” would be to exclude children whose life circumstances would otherwise identify them as relevant subjects of this research. Therefore, this thesis uses the specific term “OVY” to define vulnerable children, negating the implications that go along with using any of the above-mentioned terms. Using the term “OVY” prevents the assumption that the vulnerable children addressed are only representative of one specific form of adversity. Therefore, orphans and vulnerable youth (OVY) will be used as the primary defining term when addressing vulnerable children. It is meant to be a comprehensive definition of youth in the worst forms of adversity while not excluding certain individuals not necessarily represented by other existing terminologies. Note, however, that terms such as “OVC”, “street children” and “MVC” (most vulnerable children) are used by other sources cited in this thesis. In those situations, OVY is intended to be interchangeable.

What: Distinguishing between Christian Faith-based Organizations In addition to the differences between CFBOs and FBOs as described in the introduction, there are also varying forms within CFBO themselves. There are many different denominations within Christianity and understanding how these theological differences affect CFBO operations must be addressed. Christianity can be a blanket term for many different groups who believe in Jesus Christ and the teachings of the Bible. In a UNICEF sponsored study about FBO response to orphans and vulnerable children, Christianity is the only religion under which additional categories of definition and distinction are made: Catholic, Anglican, Pentecostal, Seventh Day Adventist, and Interdenominational (Foster, 2004, p. 21). In addition, the study identifies a significant number of organizations as “Other Christian”, making up nearly half of the Christian organizations surveyed and more than a quarter of all religious organizations surveyed (Foster, 2004, p. 21).

Beyond denominational differences, Benedetti (2006) distinguishes between two types of CFBOs on the basis of religious pervasiveness: secular CFBOs and militant CFBOs. Secular CFBOs are likely to have mission statements indistinguishable from secular NGOs while militant CFBOS seek to actively spread the religious message of Christ (Benedetti, 2006, p. 853). As a result, secular CFBOs are more likely to register with the United Nations and other similar international

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institutions as well as take part in academic studies. Militant CFBOs, on the other hand, are more intent on the provision of services with a strong Christian resonance and can be harder to identify by governments and international institutions for analysis. The religious pervasiveness of a given CFBO can ultimately affect the way in which organizational processes are expressed. However, there is not a clear-cut divide between secular CFBOs and militant CFBOs. Instead, each represents an extreme on a continuum along which organizations can be placed (Benedetti, 2006, p. 853).

Benedetti’s definitions have been included in order to give voice to the various differences across the CFBO spectrum. Many of the sources cited throughout this literature review are reflective of the more secular CFBOs. The organizations I have worked with and that have undoubtedly shaped my understanding of CFBO work are more militant. In light of Christian doctrine and religious motivation I assert that the similarities between secular and militant CFBOs offset the relative differences in light of this analysis. This thesis is a general overview of CFBOs and their work with OVY. Distinguishing beyond the label of CFBO, in a general sense, is simply not within the scope of this research.

While a Catholic organization working with OVY in India may operate systematically different than a high-prevalence Pentecostal organization working with OVY in Greece, there are still theological principals that are consistent between both the organizations. These spiritual and deeply foundational principals, as defined using the Christian Bible, are consistent among Christian organizations working with the OVY population. And while the interpretation and outworking of the religious text may be varied between denominations, there still remains a generally accepted recognition of the importance of helping those less fortunate, OVY being chief among them. This fact will ultimately be what defines those CFBOs addressed in this study.

As far as terminology, “CFBO” is used in tandem with other popular terms like religious nongovernmental organization (RNGO) and FBO during the course of this paper. While not all FBOs are Christian, all CFBOs are a type of FBO. All of the sources that I have included discussing FBO work have included CFBOs as part of the sample group. In most cases, CFBOs make up the majority of the sample. Therefore, FBOs will in some cases be used as a substitute term for CFBO. In addition, Christian churches are considered to be a type of CFBO. On a fundamental level, while churches are indeed a type of organization, they can be regarded as having a unique identity compared to other NGOs, FBOs, and non-profit organizations. While I try to distinguish between “churches and affiliated organizations,” it is should be noted that certain sources cited in this

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paper use the two terms interchangeably and a distinction is not always clear. For the purpose of this research, the term “CFBO” is all encompassing and related to all of the various terminologies associated with Christian organizations providing humanitarian work.

Why: Spiritual Foundations for Aiding Vulnerable Children What follows is an assortment of scriptures taken from the Christian Bible, a spiritual and historical account of the Christian faith that is recognized as the source of Christian doctrine and theology throughout the thousands of different denominations. Many of the scriptures referenced here are from the Old Testament, written before the birth and life of Jesus of Nazareth. As a result, Old Testament scriptures pertained first to the Jewish people before ever being used within a Christian context. It must be prefaced, therefore, that although scriptures mandating the care of orphans would have been specifically referencing the Jewish community and likely promoting the support of Jewish children, these scriptures are still relevant to Christian organizations today. With the spread of Christianity and the recognition of the Bible as the primary Christian text, the laws and mandates of the original Jewish people have been culturally adapted as part of the Christian life. With that said, by understanding the connection between the operations of a CFBO and the spiritual mandate to care for orphaned children, we can understand why these organizations are involved in aiding the OVY population.

According to the Bible, there is a mandate to care for orphans. In the book of Isaiah (1:17, New American Standard Bible), “doing good” in the eyes of God specifically addresses the need to defend the orphan. In the book of Deuteronomy (24:21, New American Standard Bible), a collection of laws and mandates for the people of God, the Bible references taking a portion of the crops harvested and dedicating them to aiding orphans. Elsewhere, a mandate is given to the people of Israel to “not mistreat or do violence to the stranger, the orphan, or the widow” (Jeremiah 22:3b, New American Standard Bible). In the New Testament, it states that religion accepted as pure and faultless before God is “to look after orphans…in their distress” (James 1:27, New International Version).

There is also considerable scriptural reference to God’s protection of orphans. The Bible states that God will protect the lives of orphans (Jeremiah 49:11a, New International Version) and that He will not abandon them (John 14:18, New International Version). God is identified as the helper of the orphan (Psalm 10:14b, New American Standard Bible) and that, in Him, orphans finds mercy (Hosea 14:3c, New American Standard Bible). The Christians that operate CFBOs believe that fighting on behalf of orphans is of considerable importance to God, and therefore should be a primary objective of the organization itself.

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For those who mistreat or abuse orphans, God executes justice upon them (Deuteronomy 10:18a, New American Standard Bible) and promises to be “a swift witness against…those who oppress…the widow and the orphan” (Malachi 3:5a, New American Standard Bible). In the Psalms (10:17b-18, New American Standard Bible), the author states, “You (God) will incline Your ear to vindicate the orphan and the oppressed, so that man who is of the earth will no longer cause terror”. In the book of Exodus (22:22-23, New International Version) God warns, “Do not take advantage of…an orphan. If you do and they cry out to me, I will certainly hear their cry” and later, “woe to those who…plunder the orphans” (Isaiah 10:1a-2b, New American Standard Bible).

Finally, the Bible also emphasizes the blessings to be bestowed upon those who are obedient in caring for orphans. In Deuteronomy (24:19, New American Standard Bible) the Lord promises to bless those who work to provide for orphans. Job, a righteous man before God, attributes the blessings in his life to helping orphans. “For when the ear heard, it called me blessed, and when the eye saw, it gave witness of me, because I delivered the poor who cried for help, and the orphan who had no helper. The blessing…came upon me, and I made the widow’s heart sing for joy (Job 29:11-13, New American Standard Bible).

These scriptures establish the theoretical framework from which CFBOs operate. For Christians, providing for orphans and other vulnerable children is not just a matter of charity but rather a mandate derived from the Bible. Providing for the needs of the OVY population out of religious responsibility acts as a strong motivator and contributes to the advantages of CFBOs (Ferris, 2005, p. 316).

Where: Assessing Christian Organizations and Vulnerable Youth from a Global Perspective A final component of this chapter is to discuss the geographical scope of the research. This literature review is a general overview of the relationship between CFBOs and OVY. As a result, sources were consulted analyzing CFBOs and OVY from a number of different regions around the world. As stated by Ferris (2005, p. 325), CFBOs are “rooted in their local communities and yet have global reach.” The advantages of CFBOs observed through the course of this research are not meant to represent only a small group but rather a multitude. Although different cultures can affect the appearance and operations of organizations, there exist consistent characteristics within CFBOs around the world. Thus cultural relativity does not negate those advantages identified and discussed in this thesis.

Rather than the conclusion of this thesis being country specific, research suggests that the characteristics of CFBOs are consistent beyond the country of origin, affiliation, or operation. As

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JONATHAN CARRAL has been discussed earlier, CFBOs represent thousands of different denominations. But there are consistent principles that these organizations abide by in serving OVY regardless of geographical location. One might question the wide scope of this research but there is in fact a specific purpose in maintain a global perspective. The plight of OVY is not a country specific problem and therefore this research contributes an analysis that is consistent with the fact.

MORAL STANDING WITHIN THE COMMUNITY The first advantage CFBOs have over other secular organizations is the moral obligation through faith that compels their service and the resulting influence and standing within society. CFBOs promote values of compassion and care, in addition to maintaining moral authority within the community (Steinitz, 2006, p. 97).

While other secular organizations are likely to operate under a similar sense or moral rightness, it is ultimately this sense of duty rooted in religious obligation that renders more commitment to the cause, especially in the face of financial or organizational shortcomings. “In contrast with the rights-based approach of many secular NGOs, the starting point for (CFBOs) is the duty-oriented language of religion characterized by obligations toward the divine and others, by a belief in transformative capacities, and a concern for justice and reconciliation” (Berger, 2003, p.19). As a result, FBOs may be more prone than secular NGOs to speak out on behalf of the marginalized because of their long-term investment and commitment to individual communities (Lipsky, 2011, p. 30).

With regard to the often-faulted missionary tradition within the western religious community and its complicity in colonialism, there also resulted church involvement in social services, particularly in education and health (Ferris, 2005, p. 316), all of which is derived out of a deep seeded sense of religious obligation to the transformation of those nations and communities. In any case, it is generally agreed that when FBOs are “both credible and influential, and when workers are committed through faith, their influence…can be invaluable” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 30).

In a comparative analysis titled Evaluating the Strength of Faith author Alyson Lipsky looks at the potential advantages of faith-based organizations in sub-Saharan Africa in providing health services. Her analysis uses the term “FBO” to define the organizations surveyed, however all of the organizations mentioned throughout the analysis are specifically Christian-based (African Christian Health Associations Platform, Christian Medical Commission, World Relief, Christian Medical Missions, Inc., Christian Heath Association). Lipsky (2011) concludes that, “the greatest comparative advantage that FBOs may have is their moral and ethical standing within the community” (p. 29).

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JONATHAN CARRAL Being committed to the cause of OVY aid through a sense of moral obligation ensures long-term CFBO investment and provides a powerful resource in motivating the community. For CFBOs “to ground their work in religion enhances their influence with targeted communities, as it enables them to call on people’s moral duty” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 29). This influence, congruent with the fact that CFBOs “are repertoires of spiritual sustenance and social networks” (Tadros, 2010, p. 1), makes CFBOs especially situated to impact the conditions of OVY. The moral standing of CFBOs is used to directly affect the community in two distinct ways. The first is positively influencing CFBO beneficiaries to change risky behavior. With regards to OVY, we know that they are “most at risk of poverty, alcoholism and transactional-sex” (Steinitz, 2006, p.

100). These behaviors can be addressed by CFBOs given their moral authority and standing within the community. The second form of influence is the ability for CFBOs to mobilize a community to serve those less fortunate. By appealing to the moral sentiments of its constituents, CFBOs can rally people behind a cause and really make a difference.

Positively Influencing Risky Behaviors The moral influence of CFBOs within vulnerable populations can help deter individuals from partaking in certain risky behaviors associated with their vulnerable status. Lipsky (2011) agrees that when “wielded correctly, this kind of influence can be very important to encouraging desired behavioral changes among beneficiary populations” (p. 30). In a comparative analysis of faithbased organizations, authors Ferguson et al. identify a positive correlation between vulnerable youth activity in the U.S. and participation in religious activities, stating: “religious practices can serve as a key protective factor that shields individuals, especially youth, from high-risk behavior and harmful outcomes” (Ferguson et al., 2006, p. 1513). The authors also recognize there exists a correlation between religious involvement and improved literacy and school involvement: Considerable evidence…reveals that religious commitment can enhance favorable outcomes in youth, including increased academic achievement and permanence in the educational system… Church attendance by youth is also positively associated with academic achievement from childhood through late adolescence and can serve as a protective factor for at-risk youth against dropping out of school (Ferguson et al., 2006, p.

1513-1514).

And, as noted in a faith-based model of care in Tanzania: “Continued school attendance by (OVY) has been shown to be a key determinant to longer-term quality of life as it often predicts or strongly influences children’s opportunities for employment as youths and young adults” (Mmbando et al., 2009, p. 14).

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JONATHAN CARRAL Findings by Steinman and Zimmerman (2004, p. 151) suggest that African American high-school youths' attendance at church limits the development of certain types of risk behaviors, including alcohol use, early sexual intercourse, cigarette smoking, and marijuana use. Johnson, Jang, Larson, and Li (2001, p. 479) also discovered that church attendance by African American youth had a buffering effect on serious crime involvement, concluding that, “the constraining effects of church attendance on crime among black youth received empirical support, and the effects remain significant even after controlling for nonreligious social bonding and social learning variables” (Johnson et al, 2001, p. 492). Likewise, Jang and Johnson (2001, p.116) found that church attendance by adolescents minimizes illicit drug use. Jang and Johnson distinguish between religious youth and those not engaged in religious activities, stating that: The theoretical premise is that religious adolescents are bonded to and socialized by an institution that nonreligious adolescents are not, namely, religious institutions such as the church. Thus, the behavioral patterns of religious adolescents are guided by sanctions derived from religion, whereas those of nonreligious adolescents are not subject to such sanctions (Jang & Johnson, 2001, p. 109).

There is certainly a difference between adolescents in the United States (individuals that seemingly have easier access to education, food, and shelter) and OVY living on the streets of New Delhi. However, there is a point to be expressed through the vulnerable youth/CFBO relationship consistent in both scenarios: CFBOs are able to use their moral authority to positively influence the behavior of at-risk youth.

Lipsky states that CFBOs are more effective than secular NGOs at discouraging unprotected sex in those countries plagued by the AIDs pandemic (Lipsky, 2011, p. 28). Avoiding unprotected sex out of a sense of moral obligation to God, for example, may be more effective then convincing a community to do so through public health programs (Steinitz, 2006, p. 97). Agadjanian and Sen (2007), in their critique of faith-based AIDS care in Mozambique, also agree that it has been to the success of some faith-based organizations to provide a “barrier to HIV/AIDS by promoting, and even enforcing, less risky behaviors” (p. 362).

All of these examples point back to the intrinsic sense of moral obligation within the CFBO community and the ability to leverage this moral commitment to effect community behavior, especially in those OVY that receive sizable support from CFBOs. Mobilizing a Community through Faith to Serve In addition to positively influencing risky behaviors in OVY, CFBOs are also able to leverage

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JONATHAN CARRAL their moral standing within the community to mobilize individuals to serve, whether through volunteer work or financial contributions. There exists a “grassroots connectedness with communities who follow the same faith” (Tadros, 2010, p. 6) and this characteristic of Christian organizations is central to the very organization of the church body. “Churches possess a reservoir of committed members, existing groups and youth activities on which local efforts can build for community-based volunteers” (Steinitz, 2006, p. 98).

This strength is no more evident than in observing the primary work force that backs most CFBO efforts: volunteers. “To the extent that churches are involved at the grassroots level, most of the credit, and much of the day-to-day work, belongs to the congregational volunteers, who are mostly women, mostly middle-aged, and invariably motivated by their faith and desire to help their neighbor in need” (Steinitz, 2006, p. 101). The fact of the matter is that CFBOs are not only able to compel people to serve on moral grounds, but are also directly dependent, for the most part, on the “repertoires of social and human capital that characterizes their work” (Tadros, 2010, p. 6).

Berger, in her exploratory analysis of religious non-governmental organizations also concluded that CFBOs are structurally organized to appeal to morality and use this influence to affect change. She states: These horizontally and vertically organized networks constitute highly effective channels of communication as well as human and financial resources, attesting to the wealth of RNGOs’ social capital. Unlike secular NGOs, which must build their networks from the ground up, RNGOs often attach to existing infrastructures from which to recruit human and financial resources, appealing to people on the level of moral duty rather than pure rationality (Berger, 2003, p. 35).

Berger recognizes that secular NGOs providing humanitarian services also appeal to morality to mobilize public opinion. However, she makes a distinction, stating that, “religious NGOs are more directly able to raise moral issues and tap into religious discourse, thereby fuelling a sense of moral duty, indignation, or outrage, which makes change possible” (Berger, 2003, p.35). This influence is due the role that religion and faith hold in the lives of people.

POSITIVE IDENTITIES Developing positive identities in OVY is the second advantage CFBOs have over other secular NGOs. Globalization has greatly increased the effectiveness in which humanitarian services are being distributed around the world and as a result, many of the more essential human needs such as food, housing, and health care are being addressed in vulnerable populations with more

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JONATHAN CARRAL efficiency and success than ever before. Positive identity development is now an element of rehabilitation that otherwise would not have been emphasized given the sheer multitude of needs in the OVY population. Tsang, Hui and Law (2012) discuss five components of positive identity, which they correlate with self-esteem: “(1) security, the feeling of strong assuredness; (2) selfhood, the feeling of self-worth and accurate identity; (3) affiliation, the feeling of belonging and social acceptance; (4) mission, the feeling of purpose; and (5) competence, the feeling of selfempowerment and efficacy” (p. 5).

CFBOs have an established method of promoting positive identities due to the emphasis that Christianity puts on “charity and mercy…[which are] rooted in the belief in the absolute value of the human person” (Ferris, 2005, p. 313). Having a sense of value is related to each of the five components of positive identity but more directly addresses security and selfhood. CFBOs, as extensions of the larger Christian church body, are founded upon principals of community and positive group affiliation. Core to Christian belief is that each person is also created for a purpose or mission (Jeremiah 1:5a,, Jeremiah 29:11, New International Version), which is synonymous with the inherent value of each person. And finally, competence is stimulated through the actual services and skills training provided by CFBOs. The extensive history that CFBOs have in distributing humanitarian services with an emphasis on positive identity has created a common theme within Christian rehabilitation models. Due to the extensive investment associated with identity development (i.e. raising a child), it must be prefaced that only those vulnerable children who live with or are in frequent contact with CFBOs are likely to be the beneficiaries of positive identity. Identity development is naturally stimulated through the relationships that make up the family (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. 20) so only those CFBOs that make up the primary community or family unit within a child’s life are likely to effectively influence identity.

A CFBO that provides food to a slum community with vulnerable children on a weekly or monthly basis may not have developed the intimate and trusting relations necessary to effect identity perception within the child. On the other hand, a CFBO that operates a halfway house for homeless children is likely to have much more contact with OVY. This increased contact can be used to share religious teachings addressing self-worth, provide skills training that bolsters selfempowerment, and build relationships and legitimate group association giving a sense of affiliation and belonging. Collectively, these experiences also point to a more promising and purposeful future.

The actual time of contact required before this trust can be fostered is not consistent from child to McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL child. Therefore, it is difficult to determine at what degree of contact with CFBOs a vulnerable child’s sense of identity begins to improve. It can only be assumed that the frequency and conditions of contact between OVY and CFBOs extends beyond casual interactions and brief encounters. For the sake of this study, those OVY who have come from the streets and/or are now primarily supported through the services of an CFBO, (i.e. orphanages, schools, training centers, etc) are the primary group of OVY referred to during the course of this specific chapter.

Origins of the Study of Identity Within the field of psychology, studying the nature and development of identity began with Sigmund Freud (Tsang, Hui & Law, 2012, p. 1), an Austrian neurologist and psychotherapist who lived during the late 19th and early 20th century. Freud’s theory (Lerner, 2013) emphasizes that human development consists of a number of different stages. Each stage of the identity formation process is classified by specific developmental traits and tasks. Achieving success over a task (i.e., children feeling taken care of during vulnerable and adverse circumstances) provides the foundation for successful achievement of one’s self-identity. Freud’s early writings were later expanded upon and made popular by Erik Erikson’s theoretical expositions (Tsang, Hui & Law, 2012, p.1), which also concur that personal identity develops during the course of a series of life stages.

Erikson (1994) is now considered the most prominent theorist to draw attention to the concept of identity. His contribution consists of the identification of eight specific stages in which individuals engage with the identity formation process: infancy, early childhood, childhood, puberty, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Unlike Freud, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experiences throughout the course of a person’s lifespan rather than ending with adolescence.

During each stage, the individual must face what is identified as a psychosocial crisis that involves confronting a fundamental question about one’s being and existence (Erikson, 1994). For OVY working through the adolescence stage, an identity crisis occurs when questions are raised about their views of themselves, how others view them, and their sense of purpose and reason for existence. Positive identity development occurs when a crisis is resolved in favor of a healthy resolution to the questions (Erikson, 1994).

Defining Identity Since Erikson and Freud, many different studies and additional research has been conducted (Tsang, Hui & Law, 2012, p. 1). Today, the different definitions of identity are as varied

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JONATHAN CARRAL as the amount of ideas and impressions brought to one’s mind at the mention of the term.

Identity has become much more broad in its definition, taking on different qualities within different academic and scientific circles. “Psychologists most commonly use the term ‘identity’ to describe ‘personal identity’ or the idiosyncratic things that make a person unique” (Tsang, Hui & Law, 2012, p. 1-2). S. Sharma and M. Sharma (2010) describe identity as “an umbrella term used throughout the social sciences to describe an individual’s comprehension of him or herself as a discrete, separate entity” (p. 119). Dr. Grotevant, professor of psychology at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, defines identity as the “distinctive combination of personality characteristics and social style by which one defines oneself and by which one is recognized by others” (as cited in Tsang, Hui & Law, 2012, p. 1-2). Tsang, Hui, and Law (2012) distinguish between definitions, noting that, “Cognitive psychologists tend to focus on the awareness of self and the capacity for self-regulation, while sociologists examine social identity and role behavior” (p. 1-2).

The reality is that identity must be defined within the context of its use, especially when making an analysis. Therefore, based on my research and the lives of the OVY to which the term refers in this case, I have resolved to define identity as the way one sees themself and the social role to which one adheres within a given social context as a result of this self-perception.

Identity or Identities?

Early Childhood in Focus, a series of publications produced by the Child and Youth Studies Group at The Open University in the U.K. analyses the concept of identity in a document titled Developing Positive Identities. Editors Liz Brooker and Martin Woodhead emphasize the importance of positive identity development in their introductory letter to the reader: “Developing a positive identity is fundamental to realizing every child’s rights. It is at the heart of early childhood policies and practices as well as being a core topic for social research” (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. ix).

Throughout Developing Positive Identities, there is an echoed sentiment regarding identity as multi-faceted and inclusive of many different processes. As mentioned earlier, there are different definitions of identity, but Brooker and Woodhead (2008) make another distinction by saying that the standard of defining one’s identity can then be reapplied within the distinct social environments that make up an individual’s life (p. 10). Identity can have many different expressions depending on the environment and conditions: personal identity, cultural identity, and familial identity. Erikson (1994) also notes that identity can be examined at the ego, personal, and social levels. According to Tsang, Law, and Hui (2012), “the enhancement of positive identity McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL development in young people can be achieved at both the individual and the social levels” (p. 5).

Identity itself is multi-faceted and unique to each person’s experiences. Therefore the positive stimulation of such identity must be broken down to the fulfillment of two core human needs: the need to feel valued and the need to be unique (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. 6). These two ideals are central to the ideology of CFBOs. The absolute value that Christianity places on the human person (Ferris, 2005, p. 313) stems from seeing God as the creator of all human beings and that God has created each person for a specific purpose: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart” (Jeremiah 1:5a, New International Version). “‘For I know the plans I have for you,’ declares the Lord, ‘plans to prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you hope and a future’” (Jeremiah 29:11, New International Version). For OVY to identify with the idea that God has created and individually fashioned them stimulates a sense of value and of being unique. This influences negative patterns of thinking, including how OVY see themselves, and promotes the development of positive identities. According to Tsang, Hui and Law (2012), self-perception is key to the stimulation of a positive identity: (The) evaluation of oneself, often called self-esteem, can influence identity formation and the emotions and performance related to it. Positive self-evaluation typically energizes a person while negative self-evaluation, especially when it is prolonged and hinges upon attributes that cannot be easily changed or acquired, can disturb person’s emotions and performance (p. 5).

The Vulnerable Child Complex: Negative Self-Identities The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child states that a child’s standard of living should be, “adequate for the child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development” (Assembly, 1989) and it is ultimately the accumulation of all these developmental processes that make up a child’s personal identity (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. 4). When these needs are not met, like in the case of children who live on the streets, a negative self-identity is developed, wherein OVY interpret their circumstances as reflecting their worth and capabilities (Redding, 2003, p. 3). As a result, OVY are less able to meet the challenges of growing up in an adverse environment (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. 48), no doubt operating out of the self-perceived negative identity.

OVY experience abuse, abandonment, and exploitation and are forced into circumstances that dwarf their social, emotional and cognitive development (Redding, 2003, p. 3).

These adverse childhood experiences can then affect the child’s self-esteem. Self-esteem, or “the evaluation of one’s worth, contributes to the orientation to explore by freeing the person to take

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JONATHAN CARRAL risks and consider options” (Grotevant, 1987, p. 206). This exploration of options is central to the development of a child’s identity as stated by William Penuel and Tim Davey (1999). They argue that: Identity formation, from a sociocultural perspective, involves people choosing from among the variety of historical and cultural resources available to them for living their values, making a commitment to a particular life course, and grounding their hope in the future (p. 222).

When children are prevented from engaging in this decision making process and are instead forced into a life of begging on street corners, their identity development is stifled along with their self-esteem and self-perception; thus creating what can be identified as a negative sense of identity. The problem for OVY is that the very conditions that qualify them as “vulnerable” are also the conditions that produce negative self-identities.

One study interprets this negative identity as a matter of self-efficacy. “Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people’s beliefs about their capability to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives” (Bandura, 1994, p. 71). When OVY are forced to encounter adverse childhood experiences that threaten their ability to exercise control over their life circumstances, they miss out on a central component of social and cognitive development, which not only affects the way they perceive situations but also affects themselves (Bandura, 1994, p. 71). In other words, the life circumstances typical among OVY correlates with developing a negative self-identity: When children live in a family, community or society characterized by inequalities and/or conflicts, they may experience exclusion or discrimination, and these experiences will shape children's growing identity, their sense of who they are, where they belong, and how far they feel valued and respected (Brooker & Woodhead, 2008, p. 4).

Negative self-identity, while still a new topic of study as it pertains to international humanitarian work, is certainly a relevant issue to address.

Holistic Development Developing positive identities is a central theme found in Christian theology. One could make a comparison between positive identity and the idea of becoming a new creation upon conversion.

In the Christian Bible, there is a popular scripture used to describe the transition from nonbeliever to believer: “Therefore if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creature; the old things passed away; behold, new things have come (2 Corinthians 5:17, New American Standard Bible). This is used to describe the new identity that accompanies salvation, namely that one is no longer under the burden of sin but rather defined by a new identity that, by all accounts, is comparatively McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL positive. However, one might question whether or not CFBOs can influence a vulnerable population that refuses to be converted to the Christian faith. The overemphasis on proselytizing is discussed in the chapter regarding CFBO weaknesses; but it can be noted that the positive identity/new creation idea is central to the notion of holistic development, a key focus of CFBOs working with any population or community.

There is a distinct difference from secular NGOs in that CFBOs “look at the holistic development of an individual” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 31), rather than just changing the outward behavior. In addition to education, health care, food, shelter and skills training, CFBOs also provide for religious teachings that emphasize self-improvement, psychological support, and healthy coping methods. As will be expanded upon in the next chapter, CFBOs maintain moral authority within the communities they operate and are thus able to affect people beyond their actions by appealing more to their moral duty. It is rather a matter of the heart, a focus that is much deeper. Again, this is an extension of the fact that CFBOs are concerned with the holistic development of the individual, and not just the beneficiary’s actions or way of life.

Tadros affirms this fact in her report. She states that; “FBOs are repertoires of spiritual sustenance and social networks” and they “have a comparative advantage over their secular counterparts in that they adopt a more holistic approach that addresses both the spiritual and material aspects” (Tadros, 2010, p. 1). Being holistically minded in the rehabilitation of OVY is necessary, especially for those OVY who have been living on the streets for a considerable amount of time. A complete shift is what OVY of this nature require, a shift that will ultimately be undermined if rehabilitation measure only appeal to one side of the issue, i.e. outward behavior. Being more indigenous and grassroots, another unique quality of CFBOs (Tadros, 2010, p. 1), provides the environment for relationships and trust to flourish, conditions that are required in order for CFBOs to address the holistic needs of OVY. This is especially true for children that are neglected by the very adults who are expected to be trustworthy as their parents, caregivers or state sanctioned guardians.

LOGISTICAL ADVANTAGES A final component in assessing the advantages of Christian organizations is addressing those logistical and organizational components that are not inherently spiritual or moral in practice, but still unique to CFBOs. The logistical advantages that will be addressed include the use of social capital to facilitate projects and distribute services, continued operation under budget shortfalls, and assimilation to cultural norms. These specific logistical advantages have been highlighted in the variety of academic sources used in this literature review, distinguishing them from other potential logistical advantages. These advantages legitimize the work of CFBOs and help to

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JONATHAN CARRAL distinguish their unique characteristics as compared to secular organizations. As stated by Lipsky (2011), “Anecdotal evidence suggests FBOs may provide higher quality services than their NGO and government counterparts” (p. 31). Coupled with the previously mentioned advantages, the analysis that follows addresses the specific qualities of CFBOs that contribute to the “higher quality of service.”

Use of Social Capital CFBOs are institutionally structured to support the needs of the poor. Churches are fundamentally constructed on the assimilation of people, creating the congregational unit that supports the practices and events of the church and other CFBOs. “Their large constituencies give faith-based organizations the potential to play a powerful role in advocacy and public awareness” (Ferris, 2005, p. 325). Tadros (2010, p. 6), in her critique of FBOs, even notes that the increasing academic literature regarding FBOs continues to point to the collection of social and human capital that characterizes their work. “The grassroots connectedness with communities who follow the same faith is also attributed to FBOs.” Being a moral institution certainly helps to attract a broader and more consistent constituency (Lipsky, 2011, p. 29). Seeing as faith provides a common ground for people of different walks of life to meet (Lipsky, 2011, p. 34), it allows them to connect and unite in pursuit of common goals founded upon pious principals, like helping the poor. In short, CFBOs are “repertoires of spiritual sustenance and social networks” (Tadros, 2010, p. 1) and this ultimately distinguishes them from secular NGOs and gives credibility to their services. This is especially the case when working in extremely poor areas, especially during crisis situations.

“Churches are found everywhere, in every village and neighborhood of the country” (Steinitze, 2006, p. 98), making them uniquely positioned to facilitate humanitarian service efforts and distribute resources to the most marginalized.

In a publication by the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (2012), it states that “FBOs are well positioned to leverage the investments of local, national, and international donors due to their respected and trusted status in local communities, established networks, and access to rural and hard-to-reach populations” (p. 13). It is recognized that the characteristics of CFBOs make them flexible in working with difficult to reach populations, OVY being chief among them, in part due to their ability to mobilize energy and resources (Lipsky, 2010, p. 34). Again, this ability is largely due to the existence of large social capital backing CFBO efforts, resulting in more efficient and faster means of response.

In fact, “churches can often respond faster and more effectively than government institutions, especially to local conditions” (Steinitze, 2006, p. 98). Seeing as OVY, especially children who are McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL homeless, are difficult to track due to their constant migration patterns, CFBOs are better positioned to act when immediate needs or emergencies come up. Ferris (2005) agrees, stating that, “Local faith communities are among the first to respond to the immediate humanitarian needs of affected people — long before international organizations are able to move relief assistance in” (p. 325). The position that CFBOs have within society coupled with the abundant social capital that supports their cause provides an advantage over other organizations working to help OVY. Continued Operation Under Budget Shortfalls CFBOs have greater maneuverability and thus, greater influence within the communities they work because they “are not compromised by reliance on traditional funding streams such as international donor agencies and governments” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 30). Instead, operational budgets are a combination of volunteer labor, local donations, and overseas funding (Steinitz, 2003, p. 49).

On the other hand, Benedetti (2006) notes that “a quarter of the $2.5bn U.S. government funding for relief and development in 2000 went to four NGOs of which two were Catholic Relief Services and World Vision, both religious in nature” (p. 852). This, however, relates to religious pervasiveness, as described in Benedetti’s analysis of FBOs, as a determinant of federal or governmental financial support and is not representative of the entire CFBO spectrum. A large number of CFBOs depend upon local or foreign church bodies to maintain operational budgets. In these cases, the existence of extensive social capital in the form of church congregations can ultimately make the different between working on small-scale local projects and facilitating large scale, multi-national relief programs. The reality is that some CFBOs have extensive budgets for operations. These budgets can even be larger than the government ministries to which they relate (as cited in Ferris, 2005, p. 311) making them influential in addressing the needs of the OVY population.

When finances are sparse, CFBOs are still influential due to their continued operation under budget shortfalls. “Local faith communities have often demonstrated that they have great capacity to mobilize limited resources and funding to benefit especially vulnerable children” (Williamson & Greenberg, 2010, p. 14). CFBOs are perceived as the moral authorities within communities, rooted in their commitment to service though faith. This moral commitment is a primary advantage in CFBO operations. However, when this commitment is juxtaposed with having to operate under minimal financial resources, we can see that CFBOs are able to see beyond the limitations and make due, often at the willing expense of those volunteering. Lipsky (2011) states that FBOs are more likely to continue providing services during budget shortfalls because “their commitment to the cause is rooted in faith” (p. 31).

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JONATHAN CARRAL The commitment to the cause is ultimately a stronger motivator than adhering to service limitations imposed by limited budgets. In short, “Churches are there for the long haul, even if program funding is irregular or drops off” (Steinitz, 2003, p. 50). Considering the conditions of OVY can worsen as they transition into adulthood (Aptekar, 1994, p. 198), CFBOs are in a position to intervene and provide the resources necessary to transition them into lives of dignity and productivity. Being committed to the rehabilitation of vulnerable children, even with irregular or insufficient funding, is what distinguishes CFBOs from their secular counterparts.

Assimilating to Cultural Norms A final component to this chapter is the fact that CFBOs consistently assimilate to the cultural norms of the country of operation. It should be prefaced, however, that cultural assimilation is only to the extent that it does not infringe upon the abiding principals of the faith. But with regards to language, food, attire, and the “understanding of local context” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 29), CFBOs are commended for their cultural assimilation.

The spiritual foundation for this characteristic can be rooted back to the biblical principal of being “all things to all people” (1 Corinthians 9: 19-22, New International Version). Paul, the author and a key figure in the early Christian church, emphasized the importance of Christians not only understanding, but also becoming like those they wish to serve. It is this mantra that has motivated many church participants to help others. This scripture also references proselytization, a practice to be discussed in the following chapter, but the foundational premise behind cultural assimilation is evident. And it is this characteristic that has added much success to the endeavors of CFBOs. On a more practical level, Lipsky (2011) expresses that “FBOs have a better understanding of the local context” (p. 30) for a few different reasons. She expresses that in many cases, they are often “the only presence, especially in remote communities” and that “they have been there the longest; or they are able to wield the most influence” (Lipsky, 2011, p. 30). She continues with the importance of cultural assimilation, using health care services as an example: Understanding of the local context is critical to organization effectiveness. In the health context, FBOs may have a unique understanding of the societal context in which a disease spreads. They may have long-standing relationships with the most marginalized members of a community that allow them to access additional information and advocate or implement programs with cultural sensitivity and greater effectiveness (Lipsky, 2011, p.

30).

Beyond the provision of services, CFBOs and their assimilation to local cultures can also be seen in McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL how Christian teachings are shared with beneficiaries. For example, “In many recently founded independent African churches, as well as in older mainline churches, Africans are adapting Christian theology to their own context, and synthesizing Christian teachings with African values and culture” (Steinitze, 2006, p. 95). This enculturation of Christian teachings, as described by Steinitz, connects cultural contexts with the faith component used to address the physiological and emotional needs of people.

Steinitz expands by again referencing CFBO humanitarian efforts in Africa: “Modern religious leaders in Africa must link Christian values and principles to their own African culture, traditions and experience in order to give meaning to the challenges presented by HIV and AIDS, and other contemporary ills” (Steinitz, 2006, p. 96).

With regards to OVY, cultural assimilation is also of significant importance, especially when confronting those children associated with popular labels like “AIDS orphan” or “street child.” The unique identity of OVY can be lost in the label of their condition and it is, therefor, highly important for workers of any organization to be assimilated into the culture of those children being helped. As stated by Roger Magazine (2003), author of Action, personhood and the gift economy among socalled street children in Mexico City, “There is no universal ‘street child’” and the lives of these children must ”must be understood in their cultural contexts” (p. 316).

In addition, cultural understanding helps workers know how to work with OVY who have developed certain survival mechanisms during the course of their vulnerable circumstances.

Especially with regards to those children living on the streets without adult supervision, there is a tendency to distort information or manipulate the emotions of workers in order to maintain an element of control in the relationship (Aptekar, 1994, p. 200). The distortion of information can impede efforts to provide help. However, CFBOs are less likely to succumb to this distortion due to their close interaction with local culture and the desire to understand OVY not just according to their outwardly vulnerable circumstances, but also with empathy for the struggle and the cultural boundaries within which these children operate. For example, rehabilitating OVY that occupy the slum streets of Calcutta is most effective when workers are able to understand the cultural implications of the situation, i.e. the caste system or effects of rapid development and economic growth. As organizations prone to cultural assimilation, CFBOs are well positioned to address such a situation.

WEAKNESSES A final component of this thesis is to discuss the weaknesses of CFBOs. These weaknesses include lack of professional training for volunteers, ineffective methods of analyzing results of services

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JONATHAN CARRAL and overemphasis on proselytizing. According to Lipsky (2011, p. 30) in her analysis of FBOs and health care in sub-Saharan Africa, the work of CFBOs can be invaluable, but only when they are credible and influential. Improving the infrastructure of churches and related CFBOs in collaboration with the development of hospitals and schools can strengthen the social well-being of OVY (Mmbando et al., 2009, p. 19). Steinitz (2006, p. 100) also states that developing a more sustainable response to the care of OVY is essential for preventing the increase in OVY numbers.

What follows are four distinct weaknesses identified by the academic community that, if addressed, can improve the overall success of CFBOs around the world, especially in helping the OVY community.

Lacking Professionally Trained Staff Chief among those areas of improvement identified by Steinitz, senior technical officer for faithbased programs with Family Health International in Namibia, is the inexperience of volunteer staff. She advises that volunteers and other staff should be properly trained for their work with CFBOs: Volunteers must be adequately trained and their tasks clearly defined in order to avoid poor quality work, frustration, over dependency and burnout. Volunteers need support by way of ongoing encouragement. They also need monitoring and supervision to ensure effective implementation, accountability, problem solving, and the provision of new skills (Steinitz, 2006, p. 101).

In many CFBOs, there exists a team of motivated, caring, and well-meaning staff members. But many of them lack technical training and the skills necessary to properly engage with the OVY community. While specialized training may not be necessary for the distribution of food, for example, training is certainly needed when addressing the more personal and sensitive issues surrounding OVY rehabilitation, namely counseling and psychological support.

Clement Silungwe, correspondent for the Network of Organizations for Vulnerable and Orphaned Children in Malawi compiled a report titled Strengthening CBOs/FBOs Capacities for OVC Care and Support. This report seeks to improve the capacity of CFBOs and other service providers in order to improve OVY access to aid, support, and protection (Silungwe, 2010, p. 6). Chief among those improvements are what Silungwe identifies as limited technical skills. The document reports that across 15 districts, 90% of workers never received training and there were individuals who oversaw centers for vulnerable children without the proper knowledge and experience (Silungwe, 2010, p. 20). Additionally, volunteers lacked managerial skills and “were only trained in three organization capacity areas, though some of them don’t remember the areas in which they were trained” (Silungwe, 2010, p. 33).

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JONATHAN CARRAL Rick James, a consultant for the International NGO Training and Research Centre in the U.K. specializes in the area of faith as a component of development. He has over 20 years of experience in NGO management, primarily in the areas of Latin America, Africa, and Europe, and expresses a similar sentiment to both Silungwe and Steinitz. He recognizes that many CFBOs lack skilled personnel, especially in areas of poverty and low literacy levels (James, 2011, p. 5). He suggests that the lack of skilled personnel is because recruitment for the organization was based on loyalty to the faith rather than capability and experience. As a result, “professional staff find the low salary levels of churches unattractive and often move on” (James, 2011, p. 5). James’ observation goes beyond the work of just volunteers, but the fact remains that CFBOs are recognized as lacking proper training techniques and skills development for workers.

OVY rehabilitation requires that volunteers and staff are properly trained and have the skills to maneuver the delicate conditions that characterize the life of a vulnerable child. Too often, OVY are the victims of abuse, abandonment and exploitation at the hands of their very own legal guardians (Consortium for Street Children, 2009, p. 2). For CFBOs, and really any organization taking an active role in aiding OVY, it is essential that staff and volunteers be trained less the children fall victim to the shortcomings of yet more adults. OVY should not be restricted from the best available care due to the untrained worker.

Ineffective Methods for Analysis The second weakness is the lack of empirical analysis to support the effectiveness of CFBOs in providing services. There is a “lack of existing data on operationalizing the ‘faith’ component in faith-based services as well as valid outcome measures for assessing the impact of services provided” (Fergusan et al., 2006, p. 1513). Silungwe (2010, p. 20), recognized an operational gap in her review of CFBO care for OVY in Malawi. She notes that “volunteers do not conduct home visits to the homes of the (OVY), to check issues of psychosocial, education and general (OVY) health”. Ensuring that CFBOs are able to effectively influence and serve the OVY population requires the aid of empirically relevant data and monitoring systems that follow up with aidrecipients. But it is not just a question of having the ability to do so, but also conceptualizing how one can constructively analyze faith and other topics of a spiritual nature.

James recognizes the lack of effective methods for analyzing the work of CFBOs. He states that few CFBOs have monitoring and evaluation systems, which prevent both the organizations themselves and monitoring bodies from evaluating the effectiveness of the organizations over time (James, 2011, p.5). James does not neglect the potential advantages of CFBOs, “however, relatively little systematic and unbiased evidence exists to show how this potential has been

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JONATHAN CARRAL realized in practice” (Agadjanian & Sen, 2007, p. 362), especially over a long period of time.

Ferguson et al. (2006) also recognize that, while many studies conclude that CFBOs are effective in providing services to OVY, there are few studies aimed at identifying “the specific faith components related to successful outcomes” (p. 1514). The authors highlight the fact that “most studies tend to utilize a single item (i.e., church attendance) to measure youths' religiosity” and that “given the lack of alternative conceptualizations of faith and religion employed by both clients and the agencies that serve them, it continues to be a challenge to understand the myriad ways in which (CFBOs) use faith to intervene in clients' lives” (Ferguson et al., 2006, p. 1514).

Simply having the means to analyze the effects of CFBOs in aiding OVY is only one part of the issue. There are components of faith that simply cannot be quantified or analyzed. Some CFBOs even resist evaluations from independent monitors for fear of being discredited by evaluation methods rooted in efficiency principles that do not line up with religious aims (Berger, 2003, p.36).

Children are by very virtue of their limited experiences better characterized as human becomings rather than human beings. The work of CFBOs in aiding OVY in the transformational journey to adulthood can be dwarfed by ineffective methods of analysis. Rehabilitating OVY is not simply a product of a 5-step program but rather the result of many hours of investment. Analyzing the faith component of CFBO work will likely continue to be difficult to assess in the immediate future. In the meantime, implementing the means to analyze the operational and organizational components of CFBOs in analytically and empirically relevant ways should be implemented, especially if CFBO care is being considered comparable to large scale, government funded programs (U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2012, p. 13).

Overemphasis on Proselytizing The final weakness is the overemphasis on proselytizing. This weakness is not as directly related with OVY, although CFBOs can hinder the quality of care provided to children by emphasizing proselytization over the provision of physical, psychological, and emotional care. Overemphasizing proselytization can also prevent the collaboration between CFBOs and other organizations (whether directly or as a reaction by those organizations to the hyper religious aims of CFBOs), thus limiting the potential aid of a given OVY community.

While proselytizing is a fundamental component of many CFBOs, especially those with high religious pervasiveness (Benedetti, 2006, p. 853), there arises a problem when this motive takes precedence over the distribution of services and support. CFBOs have also been known to use aid to attract members in order to bolster numbers rather than providing services solely on the basis McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JONATHAN CARRAL of need (James, 2011, p. 5). Tadros (2010), in her work on FBOs and gender roles notes that, “ethnographic studies suggest that, in some instances, services are used overtly or more subtly as a means of seeking to inculcate religious values and ideologies” (p. iii). During the tsunami in Indonesia in 2005, reports surfaced that CFBOs were trying to proselytize as well as provide relief to Muslims, which led to criticisms of the work of all Christians (Ferris, 2005, p. 323). Some CFBOs “make promises of help contingent upon conversion and have questionable practices such as forceful baptisms” (Benedetti, 2006, p. 853). Again, while proselytizing can be foundational in abiding by the CFBO label, it can also become a means of manipulation and abuse, reaffirming the very conditions that characterize OVY adversity.

Emanuel de Kadt, professor for the Department of Cultural Anthropology at Utrecht University in the Netherlands discusses the role of CFBOs in developing nations in his paper titled, Should God Play a Role in Development? According to De Kadt (2009), “Taking religion seriously is one matter, but it becomes seriously problematic when it is promoted as the only identity that counts, disregarding the many other components of identity that should be salient in different situations, thereby truncating a broader sense of self” (p. 784). Overemphasis on proselytizing and conversion is attributed to having negative side-effects on the development of poorer countries, especially when beliefs are rigid, inflexible and self-assured because it limits freedom by setting “parameters for social and cultural interaction notably around such development-related questions as gender, patriarchy and the maintenance of original cultures” (De Kadt, 2009, p. 784).

Christian missionaries, despite providing essential services to vulnerable populations such as OVY, operate under the religious conviction that their beliefs are the ultimate truth. Missionaries promote and discourage behaviors under the premise that “God has told us so”, which, according to De Kadt (2009), “places clear limits on what is regarded as acceptable ‘development’” (p. 784).

CFBOs that operate under this same conviction, especially without collaborating with other service providers, can also impede developmental measures in lieu of promoting religion.

Beyond relationships outside of the organizations and churches themselves, the notion of proselytizing is also controversial with regards to collaboration between individual CFBOs. Agadjanian and Sen (2007) in their review of faith-based activities in Mozambique note that church leader involvement with non-church members, specifically in HIV/AIDS assistance can be perceived as an attempt to recruit new members. “These perceptions, and the resulting tensions among church leaders and members, hinder interfaith congregational cooperation initiatives” (p.

366).

While more problems can be linked to the overemphasis of proselytizing, the main point of contention is that it prevents collaboration, both within and outside the CFBO community. Again,

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JONATHAN CARRAL as some of the most vulnerable citizens within the international community, OVY are in need of as much aid as possible in order to transcend their adverse circumstances and become contributing and productive member of society. Working together towards that goal should be the aim of CFBOs and other organizations alike. Aiding OVY requires that communication and collaboration between CFBOs other service providers remains unhindered by the existence of walls such as hyper-religious pervasiveness. The emphasis should always be the children themselves and not the promotion of religious ideology.

CONCLUSION I have conducted a literature review to discover the advantages of CFBOs in aiding OVY around the world. In summation, my research has identified three advantages: 1) moral obligation to the cause, 2) development of positive identities, and 3) logistical advantages including continued operation under budget shortfalls, assimilation to cultural norms, and use of social capital to facilitate projects and distribute services. These advantages are distinct from other organizations and distinguish CFBOs as being uniquely positioned to address the needs of the OVY population.

In addition, there are three weaknesses that, if addressed, would increase CFBO influence and effectiveness in aiding the OVY community. These weaknesses include lack of professional training for volunteers, ineffective methods of analyzing results of services and overemphasis on proselytizing.

CFBOs are continuing to gain recognition in the eyes of funding agencies and governments as legitimate providers of aid to the world’s most marginalized populations. Highlighting the advantages of CFBOs in light of this increasing influence can promote more efficient means of helping OVY and other vulnerable populations. I plan to continue researching this topic and explore the possible implications of my conclusion and how it can affect the way international humanitarian work is carried out in the future, especially as a joint effort from both the faithbased and secular communities. According to Ferguson et al. (2006), “It is through inter-agency and inter-religious collaborations that real international progress will be made in caring for the children and youth on the streets of cities around the world” (p. 1526-1527).

REFERENCES Agadjanian, V., & Sen, S. (2007). Promises and challenges of faith-based AIDS care and support in Mozambique.

American Journal of Public Health, 97(2), 362-366. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.085662 Aptekar, L. (1994). Street children in the developing world: A review of their condition.

Cultural Research, 28(3), 195-224. doi:10.1177/106939719402800301

Cross-

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JONATHAN CARRAL Assembly, U. G. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. United Nations, Treaty Series, 1577(3).

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 4, 71-81.

Benedetti, C. (2006). Islamic and Christian inspired relief NGOs: between tactical collaboration and strategic diffidence?. Journal of International Development, 18(6), 849-859.

Berger, J. (2003). Religious nongovernmental organizations: An exploratory analysis.

International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 14(1), 15-39. doi:10.1023/A:1022988804887

Voluntas:

Brooker, L., & Woodhead, M. (2008). Developing positive identities: Diversity and young children (No. 3). Open University.

Consortium for Street Children (2009). Street children statistics. Retrieved from http://www.streetchildren.org.uk/_uploads/resources/Street_Children Stats_FINAL.pdf Dafoe, S. (2010). Who were the knights Templar? TemplarHistory.com. Retrieved from http://blog.templarhistory.com/2010/03/who-were-the-knights-templar-2/ De Kadt, E. (2009). Should God play a role in development? Journal of International Development, 21(6), 781-786. doi:10.1002/jid.1617 Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis (No. 7). WW Norton.

Ferguson, K. M., Dabir, N., Dortzbach, K., Dyrness, G., & Spruijt-Metz, D. (2006). Comparative analysis of faith-based programs serving homeless and street-living youth in Los Angeles, Mumbai and Nairobi. 28(12), 1512-1527. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.03.005 Ferris, E. (2005). Faith-based and secular humanitarian organizations. International Review – Red Cross, 87(858), 311-325. doi:10.1017/S1816383100181366 Foster, Geoff (2004). Study of the response of faith-based organizations to orphaned and vulnerable children: Preliminary summary report. World Conference of Religions for Peace & United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF).

Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FBO_OVC_study_summary.pdf Grotevant, H. D. (1987). Toward a process model of identity formation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2(3), 203-222. doi:10.1177/074355488723003

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JONATHAN CARRAL James, R. (2011). Handle with care: engaging with faith-based organisations in development.

Development in Practice, 21(1), 109-117. doi:10.1080/09614524.2011.530231 Jang, S. J., & Johnson, B. R. (2001). Neighborhood disorder, individual religiosity, and adolescent use of illicit drugs: A test of multilevel hypotheses. Criminology, 39(1), 109-144. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00918.x Johnson, B. R., Jang, S. J., Larson, D. B., & Li, S. (2001). Does adolescent religious commitment matter? A reexamination of the effects of religiosity on delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(1), 22-44. doi:10.1177/0022427801038001002 Lerner, R. M. (2013). Concepts and theories of human development. Psychology Press.

Lipsky, A. B. (2011). Evaluating the strength of faith: Potential comparative advantages of faith‐based organizations providing health services in sub‐Saharan Africa. Public Administration and Development, 31(1), 25-36. doi:10.1002/pad.586 Magazine, R. (2003). Action, personhood and the gift economy among so‐called street children in Mexico City. Social Anthropology, 11(3), 303-318. doi:10.1111/j.1469-676.2003.tb00080.x Mmbando, P., Hartwig, K. A., Hofgren, B., DiSorbo, P., Smith, S., & Hartwig, K. N. (2009). Care for the most vulnerable children in Tanzania: a faith-based model of care and support for children affected by HIV. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20(4A), 1321. doi:10.1353/hpu.0.0195 Order of Malta: Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta (2013). Home. Retrieved from http://www.orderofmalta.int/?lang=en Penuel, W. R., & Davey, T. L. (1999). “I don't like to live nowhere but here”: The shelter as mediator of US homeless youth's identity formation. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 6(3), 222236. doi:10.1080/10749039909524727 Public Law 109-95 Secretariat (2005). U.S. Government Assistance to Highly Vulnerable Children.

Retrieved from http://www.childreninadversity.org/docs/defaultsource/defaultdocument-library/apca.pdf?sfvrsn=2 Redding, C.A. (2003). A free research publication dealing with the effects of adverse childhood experiences on adult health and well-being. Retrieved from http://acestudy.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/ARVINI.127150541.pdf

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JONATHAN CARRAL Sharma, S., & Sharma, M. (2010). Self, social identity and psychological well-being.

Psychological Studies, 55(2), 118-136. doi: 10.1007/s12646-010-0011-8 Silungwe, C. P. (2010). Social Mapping Report for Strengthening CBOs/FBOs Capacities for OVC Care and Support. Network of Organizations for Vulnerable and Orphaned Children. 1-38.

Retrieved from http://www.novocmalawi.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/02/4302010_social_mapping_report.pdf Steinitz, L. Y. (2006). Meeting the Challenge with God on our Side. International Review of Mission, 95(376�377), 92-103. doi:10.1111/j.1758-6631.2006.tb00542.x Steinitz, L. Y. (2003). When spider webs unite: the work of volunteers in providing home-based care in Namibia. Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services, 2(1), 45- 62. doi:10.1300/J187v02n01_04 Steinman, K. J., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Religious activity and risk behavior among African American adolescents: Concurrent and developmental effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(3-4), 151-161. doi:10.1023/B:AJCP.0000027002.93526.bb Tadros, M. (2010). Faith-based organizations and service delivery: Some gender conundrums.

Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

Tsang, S. K., Hui, E. K., & Law, B. (2012). Positive identity as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual review.

The Scientific World Journal, doi:10.1100/2012/529691

2012.

UNICEF (2013). Home. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/index.php United Nations (2013). Human Rights. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/rights/ United Nations Human Rights: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012).

Home.

Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/ CRCIndex.aspx U.S. Government International Assistance for Children in Adversity (2013). Home. Retrieved from http://www.childreninadversity.org U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (2012). A firm foundation: The PEPFAR consultation on the role of faith-based organizations in sustaining community and country leadership in the response to HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from http://www.pepfar.gov/documents/organization/195614.pdf

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JONATHAN CARRAL Williamson, J., & Greenberg, A. (2010). Families, not orphanages. Better Care Network, New York.

Retrieved from https://communities.usaidallnet.gov/st/sites/st/file/Will iamson%20Greenberg%20Families+Not+Orphanages+Feb%207%20draft.doc WORKS REFERENCED Bagni, B. N. (1979). Discrimination in the name of the Lord: a critical evaluation of discrimination by religious organizations. Colum L. Rev., 79, 1514.

Belshaw, D. (2006). Enhancing the Development Capabilities of Civil Society Organisations.

Transformation- Exeter then Carlisle-, 23(3), 157.

Connell, H. E. (Director) (2009). Small voices [Documentary]. United States: Cinema Libre Studio.

Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevoelkerung, Christian Connections for International Health & Muhammadiyah (2012). Creating an Interfaith Initiative to Advocate for Increased Funding for Reproductive Health and Family Planning. Retrieved from http://www.dswonline.org/fileadmin/user_upload_en/PDF/FBO/Feasibility Study_Faith2Action4FP_DSW_CCIH_Muhammadiyah_Jul2012.pdf Gaskill, N. J. (1997). Rethinking Protestantism and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America*. Sociology of Religion, 58(1), 69-91.

Griffith, D. M., Pichon, L. C., Campbell, B., & Allen, J. O. (2010). Your blessed health: a faithbased CBPR approach to addressing HIV/AIDS among African Americans. AIDS Education and Prevention, 22(3), 203-217.

Nussbaum, S. (2005). The Contribution of Christian Congregations to the Battle with HIV/AIDS at the Community Level. Colorado Springs: Global Mapping International, June, 98, 55-60.

Public Law 109-95 Secretariat (2012). A United States Government Interagency Approach to Assisting the World’s Most Vulnerable Children: Fifth Annual Report to Congress on Public Law 109-95, The Assistance for Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children in Developing Countries Act of 2005. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_ docs/PDACU307.pdf United Nations Children Fund (2012). Children in an urban world. Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/sowc/files/SOWC_2012Main_Report_EN_21Dec_2011

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY

Spin Polarization of Rubidium in a Para-Hydrogen Matrix

Timothy Christy Major: Physics Mentor: Dr. Jonathan Weinstein Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: Master’s Program, Mechanical Engineering, New York University

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Matrix isolation experiments have proven an effective means in which to study unstable atoms in a stable environment. In these matrix isolation experiments, we have implanted rubidium atoms into a para-hydrogen matrix with the intent of inducing a spin polarization in the rubidium atoms. Potential outcomes of these experiments can lead to improvement of modern day magnetometers and may have other potential applications in quantum computing; however, these applications are contingent upon the ability to manipulate the spin polarizations of atoms [1]. To start, parahydrogen/rubidium crystals are slowly grown at 4 K. Thin film interference is used to monitor the crystals thickness and laser spectroscopy is used to confirm the presence of rubidium atoms. White light spectroscopy is used to monitor the overall optical characteristics of the crystal during its growth and also during the optical pumping experiments performed.

With the crystal grown, polarization is induced with a laser (optical pump) and detection of this polarization is done via laser spectroscopy. Initial data appeared to suggest the presence of a small polarization while several experiments afterward have suggested that a longer polarization time has occurred than anticipated. The T1 relaxation time appears to be longer than prior matrix isolation experiments performed with alternative host atoms, although further experiments are required to conclusively measure the lifetime of polarization observed.

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY Introduction Matrix isolation experiments have been performed in the past as a method of providing a stable environment for an otherwise unstable element. This is because the matrix is typically chosen to be a relatively inert element or molecule and does not react chemically with the atoms placed inside. In this manner, a matrix provides a platform in which to capture atoms and observe their characteristics as though one were observing the characteristics of free atoms alone. Of course, there is some interaction between the matrix and the elements placed inside, however such interactions can be worked with. Within the parahydrogen matrix, a stable environment is provided in which we can experiment with rubidium atoms, particularly in attempting to induce a spin polarization. Spin polarization, in this paper, refers to a manipulation of the innate spin characteristics of the single valence electron on the rubidium atom. To better illustrate polarization, it can be said that the rubidium atoms have been 100% polarized when all of the rubidium atoms in the matrix have all valence electrons in the same spin state. This is an ideal scenario and in these experiments an attempt is made to polarize the rubidium as much as possible.

Due to laws of thermodynamics, the spin states of the rubidium atoms are initially distributed amongst the population of rubidium atoms in the matrix almost equally. Because there are only two spin states of an electron, up or down, approximately half of the valence electrons of the entire population of rubidium atoms are in the spin up state, while the approximate other half are in the spin down state. Optical pumping is the mechanism by which we can polarize the rubidium atoms (see methods). Once a polarization is induced via optical pumping, measurement of the duration of the polarization is taken. This measurement of time is known as the T1 spin relaxation time.

The experiments described here are preliminary experiments for the measurement of a T2 spin coherence time. The T2 time is a necessary measurement for applications of this work in the improvement of the current state-of-the-art magnetometers available. Today, the most sensitive magnetometers use gas phase atoms whose sensitivity is dictated by the equation [2]:

δB =

2 nVT2 tγ2

where n is the atomic density, V is the volume of the sample, T2 is the spin coherence time, t is the measurement time and  is the atom’s gyromagnetic ratio. In order to maintain a greater sensitivity, δB must be as small as possible. Although gas-phase atoms provide a better T2 McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY time, these types of magnetometers are limited in sensitivity due to the atomic density that can be achieved with atoms in a gas-phase. This is where the advantage of the matrix isolation experiments can be exploited because much higher densities of atoms can be captured in a solid matrix. Using the lowest estimate for a T2 time, rubidium in an argon matrix can achieve densities where nT2≈1x1011cm-3s [2]. The highest limit for this figure in the gas-phase atoms of non-SERF vapor magnetometers has been measured to be approximately 1 x 109 cm-3s [2].

Literature In 1968, Stuart L. Kupferman and F.M. Pipkin were able to demonstrate that it was possible to achieve measurements of polarization of rubidium atoms in an argon matrix with use of circularly polarized light [3]. In this experiment, they were able to detect polarization of the rubidium by measuring the ratio of right-hand circularly polarized light (RHC) over left-hand-circularly polarized light (LHC). This is a method we have adopted for our own measurements. Kupferman and Pipkin also suggested that there were two types of trapping sites in their argon matrix that were discernable from their observed spectra. The suggestion of these trapping sites may be of some significance for the parahydrogen matrix.

In 1994, M. Ardnt et al, were able to successfully measure spin relaxation times on the order of seconds for cesium atoms implanted in a solid helium matrix [4]. The technique in which they grew their crystal, however, significantly limited the population of cesium atoms that they were able to implant. A laser-sputtering technique was employed, which ablated some of the helium atoms and allowed the cesium atoms to flow in to populate the matrix. Populations on the order of 109 cm-3 were observed. A decrease in the cesium population over time was also observed because the atoms would find a way to cluster together through the softer helium matrix.

S.Lang et al, studied optical pumping of cesium atoms in a helium matrix and were able to demonstrate that repopulation pumping can be used to polarize the cesium atoms in both crystalline phases of helium (bcc and hcp) [5]. In this work they showed that repopulation pumping was a viable means to polarize cesium atoms in a helium matrix.

In 2012, Momose et al, observed the bleaching phenomenon in a rubidium/argon thin film to investigate optical properties of solid state matrices [6]. This paper referenced a bleaching phenomenon where it was suggested that there may be a population transfer within the matrix due to a “hole-burning� phenomenon.

Rubidium implanted into an argon matrix was then experimented on again by Kanagin et al in 2013 in which optical polarization of the rubidium atoms was observed [2]. However, a bleaching phenomenon was observed in which the absorption spectrum of the crystal would become

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY modified over time during polarization attempts. It appeared the the applied laser light caused decreases in the absorption spectrum in certain ranges, while increasing in other areas. Some of the absorption peaks shifted completely, no longer interacting with the frequency of narrow-band laser light it was previously interacting with. The change in the overall spectrum was attributed to rubidium atoms transferring from one trapping site to another inside the argon matrix. The spectrum was able to be restored with the application of white light.

In 2014, three parahydrogen/rubidium crystals were grown in our lab, the details of which are documented in Chase Hartzell’s senior thesis [1]. These preliminary experiments set up the ground work upon which all experiments listed in this paper are based. Here it was shown that it was possible to trap rubidium atoms in a parahydrogen matrix. The bleaching phenomenon was again observed in this matrix when white light and narrow-band laser light was applied to the crystal. They noted that white light had more of a bleaching effect than did the narrow-band laser.

From these experiments it was recommended that annealing experiments be performed in which the crystal is heated to a slightly higher temperature to allow the atoms to “re-adjust” themselves within the crystal. This annealing was hoped to reverse the bleaching phenomenon.

Methods In our cryostat, a chamber containing a small sapphire window 1-inch in diameter is fixed over a 0.5-inch hole [1]. The chamber is simultaneously cooled and evacuated to 1 x 10-5 torr (which is the lowest our sensors can read). Hydrogen molecules begin to flow through a catalyst converter that converts the hydrogen into parahydrogen. Afterward, the parahydrogen is let out through a nozzle aimed at the sapphire plate and the crystal begins to grow. Once the parahydrogen crystal has covered the sapphire plate adequately enough, rubidium is flown in through another nozzle attached to a rubidium oven. The rubidium oven heats solid rubidium by use of a resistor attached to the oven until it reaches its gas phase. Over time these gas phase rubidium atoms come out the nozzle and begin to deposit themselves within the crystal. There is a simultaneous mixing of the parahydrogen molecules and rubidium gas-phase atoms that grow together on the crystal from here on out. By controlling the temperature of the rubidium oven, we can control the flow rate of rubidium onto the crystal.

In this process, rubidium atoms do come in at a higher temperature than the parahydrogen matrix is initially at, however the ratio of parahydrogen molecules to rubidium molecules is on the order of 100,000 to 1. Some parahydrogen molecules are evaporated by the incoming rubidium atoms, but the rubidium atoms are quickly cooled and lodged into a trapping site provided by the parahydrogen matrix. A common visualization of this is done by picturing the rubidium atoms as fruit lodged into a fruit cake. The “rubidium fruit” is held into place by the “parahydrogen cake” if you will.

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY The cryostat is a cylinder with an outer diameter of 12 inches and an inner diameter of 10 inches.

It has four windows on the shaft of the cylinder that are placed 90 degrees apart, one facing north, one east, one south and one west. From these windows the crystal is visible. The western window is used to send optical pump and probe beams in for experimentation with the crystal.

On the eastern window there are several optics in place along with two photo detectors to detect changes in the probe beam. There is also a halogen white light lamp on the eastern side of the cryostat that enables observation of the optical spectrum of the crystal. This is done by means of a fiber optic cable located on the western side that receives the white light transmitted through the crystal. The fiber optic cable receives the transmitted light and sends it to a grating spectrometer. The grating splits apart the various frequencies of light present and sends this data to a computer for processing. In this way, it is possible observe the overall spectrum of the crystal and understand which particular frequencies of light the crystal interacts with by noting the frequencies absent in the transmitted light.

A camera is located on the southern side of the cryostat and is used to monitor crystal growth.

This is done by zooming in on the crystal and measuring the crystal on a monitor. The measurement is done by accounting for the change in scale on the monitor, however thin film interferometry is the primary means for this measurement. Thin film measurement is done by sending a beam from the southern window, through the crystal, and out the northern window into a photo detector and monitoring the beam interference pattern. Thin-film interference is then used to calculate the thickness of the crystal via the equation: 2đ?‘›2 đ?‘‘ cos đ?œƒ = đ?‘šđ?œ† where n2 is the index of refraction for para-hydrogen (1.13), d is the thickness of the crystal in microns, ď ą is the incident angle of the light which is taken to be zero, m is the number of interference fringes, and đ?œ† is the wavelength in nm. Solving for d with đ?œƒ and n2 values taken into consideration yields: đ?‘‘=

đ?‘šđ?œ† 2(1.13)

This equation enables the calculation of crystal thickness. Measuring a time frame between interference fringes allows for the calculation of a growth rate.

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Figure 1: East window. Halogen lamp (excess light blocked with tin foil) shone onto crystal from mirror.

Figure 2: South window. Camera used to monitor crystal growth and mirror for thin-film. interference beam.

Figure 3: Western window. Blue cable is the fiber optic cable and mirrors shown are used to shine probe/pump laser through crystal.

Once the crystal is grown, it is annealed via a resistor attached to a copper plate onto which the sapphire window is mounted. The crystal is raised to approximately 4 K for approximately 10 minutes and then brought back down to base temperature. After this procedure polarization experiments with the rubidium are ready.

Monitoring the degree of polarization of the rubidium is done by making use of a probe beam which is composed of linearly polarized light. To better illustrate the concept at hand, let’s consider the ideal scenario: our probe beam is composed of perfectly linearly polarized light.

Perfectly linearly polarized light is made of exactly half right-hand-circular light (RHC) and exactly half left-hand-circular light (LHC). This linear light is passed through the crystal and into a set of optics that breaks apart the linearly polarized light into its RHC and LHC components. After this happens the RHC and LHC light leave at different angles and we are able to isolate each beam into two separate photo detectors. Photo detector 1 gets only RHC light and photo detector 2 gets only LHC light. The light received by each photo detector is converted into a voltage. Initially, when taking a ratio of the voltages from the photo detectors, our ratio comes out to 1 because there is exactly the same amount of voltage being created from the RHC light as there is from the LHC light. The probe beam we use for this is much weaker than the pump beam that we use to polarize the rubidium atoms. Any polarization that may occur from the probe is negligible.

The optical pump polarizes the rubidium atoms by sending in only right hand circular light (still McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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considering the ideal case here). This light will change the spin state of any rubidium atom that can absorb this light, which again, should be approximately half of the rubidium atoms. The half of the population that is unable to absorb this light is already in the desired spin state and therefore is unable to absorb RHC light from the optical pump. If the rubidium atoms become 100% polarized from the pump, they will be unable to absorb the RHC light sent in from the probe and we should see an increase in the voltage on photo detector 1 (the RHC photo detector). In this manner, we can measure the polarization of the rubidium in the crystal.

Of course with the ideal scenario, there are many issues that have been omitted. It is very difficult to get perfectly linearly polarized light and have it split perfectly 50/50 into respective photo detectors on the other side. Likewise, it is difficult to get even close to 100% polarization. Our detectors do not have an initial voltage ratio of 1 and normalization is needed during data processing to make them so. Still, the experiment was performed along the general concept illustrated by the ideal.

T1 times were measured by use of two perpendicularly oriented magnetic fields during polarization experiments with the rubidium. One field was the Earth’s magnetic field flowing from south to north and the other was a set of Helmholtz coils on the outside of the cryostat that created a magnetic field on the east-west axis. Pump and probe experiments were performed at various levels of the applied east-west magnetic field and compared to polarization data of the rubidium with the south-north magnetic field. A small polarization level is observed when optically pumping with the south-north magnetic field. This small polarization is used as a reference for which to observe the polarization level when pumping with the east-west magnetic field. When the east-west magnetic field is applied, we are able to observe a difference in the voltage ratio of our photo detectors and compare this data to the south-north field to measure the degree of polarization and for how long this polarization lasted (T1 time).

Throughout the polarization experiments, the overall spectrum of the crystal is monitored for changes via the white light spectroscopy described above. This is done after each series of polarization experiments to observe if the experiment changed any aspect of the optical density of the crystal (or the manner in which the crystal interacts with specific frequencies of light).

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TIMOTHY CHRISTY Results

Figure 4: A measurement of the polarization of rubidium in the parahydrogen matrix. As shown, the y-axis represents the ratio of our two photo detectors and the x-axis is time. The blue graph represents the east-west magnetic field and the black south-north.

As seen in figure 4 there is an obvious difference between the comparison of the ratio when the magnetic field is applied east-west as to when it is applied south to north, but the manner in which they appear to oscillate with time makes it difficult to discern when the polarization of rubidium is back to equilibrium. This oscillation is attributed to noise picked up by the detectors during the experiments. This particular set of experiments (it is the average of 6 experiments performed under the same parameters) was performed with a pump duration of 600ms with an applied east-west magnetic field of 3 gauss. The halogen lamp was supplied continuously on the crystal with a filter that lowered the intensity of the lamp by a factor of 10. There were many experiments performed in this manner, but with alternating parameters in which polarization was observed. Noise made it difficult to discern an exact T1 time, although the T1 time does appear to be on the order of at least one second.

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Further, monitoring of the crystal revealed a change in sensitivity of the spectrum after the experiments were performed (see figure 5). The observed change in spectrum, however is not attributed to bleaching because the relative peaks on the optical density still interact around the same wavelength. It has been speculated that the cause of this increase is due to the crystals opaqueness which may cause more reflection of the halogen light and therefore cause a higher optical density. This effect, however, can be reversed by warming the crystal up again and allowing it to anneal. In this manner, the original optical density of the crystal appears to be restored.

Figure 5: Optical density of crystal versus wavelength of light. The light blue, dark blue, and green lines represent the optical density before the pump/probe experiment while the red line represents the optical density afterward.

As seen in the figure, the red line represents the optical density after a pump/probe experiment.

The OD has risen up approximately 0.1 from before the experiment was performed.

Conclusion Although a T1 time has not yet been precisely measured, it is evident that polarization is

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occurring. Averages can be taken over all sets of data, however the sources of error on this measurement would be difficult to discern. Future experiments will include methods to reduce the noise on the photo detectors to achieve a better T1 measurement. Once a T1 measurement is done, the pump duration for which to obtain a T2 time can be obtained.

Despite the lack of T2 measurement, these experiments have provided insight on manipulation of the optical density of the crystal. The discovery that annealing the crystal can restore its OD with this particular parahydrogen/rubidium crystal has provided a means with which to continue many rubidium polarization experiments with a single crystal.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Jonathan Weinstein, Sunil Upadhyay, Andrew Kanagin, Chase Hartzell, and the McNair Scholars program for their support and guidance throughout these experiments.

Thank you all for the opportunity to gain research experience and to improve myself as a researcher.

Sources [1] Chase Hartzell. Matrix Isolation of Rubidium in a Solid Parahydrogen Substrate. www.physics.unr.edu/xap/pubs/Hartzell2014Thesis.pdf [2] Andrew N. Kanagin, Sameer K. Regmi, Pawan Pathak, and Jonathan D. Weinstein.

Optical Pumping of rubidium atoms frozen in solid argon. Phys Rev. A 88, 063404 Dec (2013) [3] Stuart L. Kupferman and F.M. Pipkin. Properties of rubidium trapped in a solid argon matrix.

Phys Rev. Lett 166, 207 Feb (1968) [4] M. Arndt, S.I. Karnorsky, A Weis, and T.W. Hansch. Long electronic spin relaxation times of Cs atoms in solid 4He. Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 1359-1362 Feb (1995).

[5] S. Lang, S. Kanorsky, T. Eichler, R. Muller-Siebert, T.W. Hansch, and A. Weis. Optical pumping of Cs atoms in solid 4He. Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 3867-3876 May (1999).

[6] Ilja Gerhardt, Kyungseob Sin, and Takamasa Momose. Excitation and emission spectra of rubidium in rare-gas thin-films. The Journal of Chemical Physics (AIP) 137, July (2012) McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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IYANA ESTERS

Heroin Overdose: The Knowledge and Reactions to Administering Naloxone Among People Who Inject Drugs

Iyana Esters Major: Community Health Science & Public Health Mentor: Dr. Karla Wagner Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: Master’s Program, Public Health, Indiana University

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Opioid overdoses have increased among the United States population. Heroin use is common among men, and the rate of women using heroin is increasing. Heroin usage is especially common among the homeless population. In the past three decades, opioid overdoses have become the leading cause of injury death in the United States (Davis et al., 2014). Forms of opioids include heroin, methadone, and buprenorphine (used in medication-assisted treatment), and prescription painkillers. This is significant to public health because people who inject drugs (PWIDs) are at elevated risk for dying of drug-related overdoses. Naloxone, also known by the brand name Narcan, is a medication that reverses opioid overdoses.

Naloxone can be administered into the body intramuscularly or intranasally. Providing training through overdose prevention programs (OPPs) is useful to educate and train drug users to recognize and respond to overdose using naloxone. In this study, a secondary analysis of qualitative data was conducted using a subsample of data from a study that included transcripts from six people who were a subset of thirty trained people who participated in an OPP in Los Angeles. Many of the participants experienced reactions relating to fear or heroism after responding to overdoses. The participants in the study felt it was necessary to attend an OPP because of past experiences of not being able to assist a victim in an opioid overdose. People in the community utilize the participants in the OPP for opioid overdose assistance, and the participants felt knowledgeable when they administered naloxone to victims.

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IYANA ESTERS The Knowledge and Reactions to Administering Naloxone Among People Who Inject Drugs Natural opioids derive from Chinese poppy seeds and are considered non-synthetic. Opioids that are genetically modified are classified in two forms: synthetic and semi-synthetic (Voelker, 2013).

Synthetic opioids such as heroin, methadone, prescription killers, and buprenorphine are being misused. In 2010, the age-adjusted rate for opioid overdoses in the US ranged from 3.4 to 28.9 per 100,000 population (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). That is more than triple the amount of opioid overdoses in the past three decades. Opioid overdoses have been problematic in the city of Los Angeles – similar to trends across the US, prescription drug-related overdoses are the third-leading cause of injury death (Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, 2013). Overdose deaths in the city of Los Angeles, California are increasing (Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, 2013). The National Survey on Drug Use and Health reported that the numbers of individuals 12 years old or older who are abusing heroin doubled between 2007 and 2012 (Baird, 2014). Prescription opioids have also been a problem in injury deaths in the United States (Baird, 2014). A study conducted by Cicero, Ellis, and Surratt surveyed 2,566 people entering treatment programs across the US who reported a prescription opioid as their primary drug over 3 years. Of those participants who reported using OxyContin (in both the newer abusedeterrent formulation and the older non-deterrent formulation), 66% of the participants reported switching to heroin from prescription opioids (Cicero, Ellis, & Surratt, 2012).

The increase in heroin use in recent years has raised awareness for communities to implement programs for PWIDs. Naloxone, also known by the brand name Narcan, is a medication that reverses opioid overdoses. Naloxone is an opioid antagonist and it prevents the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and respiratory system from decreasing the breathing of a person who has taken an overdose of opioids (Niesters et al., 2012). Naloxone can be administered into the body by two methods: intramuscular or intranasal. The intramuscular method administers naloxone like a vaccine, using a vial and a syringe. The intranasal form of Naloxone is sprayed in each nostril once, (Berling et al., 2012). Naloxone is a powerful drug, yet side effects are rare.

Common side effects after taking Naloxone may include headache, shivering, excessive sweating, nausea, etc. (Buajordet et al., 2004). However, none of the side effects are severe to the victim who is recovering from the overdose.

In response to the growing epidemic of overdose deaths, local communities have started providing Overdose Prevention Programs (OPPs) that train at risk people or other lay people about overdose and how to recognize and respond appropriately to opioid overdoses. The purpose of OPPs can be compared to CPR trainings because they teach prevention on opioid overdoes and emergency procedures. The emergency procedures consist of calling 911 or the paramedics, rescue breathing, and administering naloxone.

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IYANA ESTERS Literature Review Demographics of People Who Inject Drugs Today, heroin is prominent among many drug users in the United States and the number of deaths has increased rapidly (Kuehn, 2014). Heroin was once a male-dominant drug, and the rate of heroin use has remained high in males. However, the boundary has changed across genders and men are not the overriding consumers of heroin anymore. Women are turning to heroin, and they have doubled their use between 2011-2013 (Jones et al., 2015). Women are now becoming reliant upon opioid drugs faster than men (Jones et al., 2015). Heroin today is a drug that is used among an increased range of Whites, but heroin is still used among other racial groups (Jones et al., 2015).

Heroin was once a drug that was used amongst uneducated people, but the drug continues to shift in a new direction. Jones et al. states that heroin usage is associated with all types of social economic statuses: high-income, middle-income, and low-income (2015). However, low-income social economic status individuals living in urban areas with no health insurance tend to have a higher occurrence of heroin use. The low-incomes range from $20,000 and below (Jones el et, 2015). Heroin is cheaper compared to other forms of opioids or other drugs, and people with low incomes can afford its inexpensive price (Kuehn, 2014). Opioids such as heroin are also easier to access because they are inexpensive (Kuehn, 2014). The cost difference disproportionally affects low-income individuals, as the lower cost of opioids allows for easier access (Jones et al., 2015).

There is a possibility that socioeconomic statuses correlate to opioid overdoses. According to Wright, Oldham, and Jones the homeless population is more susceptible to using opioids and globally drug-related deaths are both common and increasing (2005). This study took place in the United Kingdom; however, the results that were obtained reflected other countries, including the United States. The study concludes that in both the United Kingdom and the United States high injection usage is present among people who live in hostels/hotels and where homeless people use their friend’s living space (Wright, Oldham, and Jones, 2005). Some people who inject drugs are not employed; therefore, they cannot financially support themselves to have a home.

Opioid Prevention Programs Opioid prevention programs train people who inject drugs (PWIDs) and other lay people how to respond to an overdose and administer naloxone. Naloxone is an opioid antidote used to reverse opioid overdoses. The FDA approved naloxone in 1971. Other lay people are referred to as a person or a bystander. OPPs are similar to cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training because the training teaches other lay people how to react and respond to a cardiac arrest. When a victim goes into cardiac arrest, emergency medical technicians (EMT) do not arrive instantly after they are notified. Therefore CPR trainings give other lay people the opportunity to perform CPR on a

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IYANA ESTERS victim going into cardiac arrest before the EMT arrives. OPPs operate similarly to CPR trainings because PWIDs and other lay people call 911 for the paramedics, proceed to conduct rescue breathing, and administer naloxone to a victim that went into an overdose before the EMTs arrive at the scene (Clark et al., 2016). In some cases, including this study, OPPs are implemented through needle exchange programs (NEPs). PWIDs should use sterile needles every time they inject drugs to prevent infections or transmissions of diseases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010).

NEPs are programs that exchange used syringes and provide free sterile needles for PWIDs (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). NEPs and OPPs work together to prevent transmission of diseases and opioid overdoses. In this study the OPP trainings were offered by NEPs in Los Angeles.

PWIDs benefit when they are educated about naloxone. Diffusion of information about naloxone is effective in addressing overdose and educating others how to use naloxone (Sherman et al., 2008).

A study in Baltimore, Maryland was conducted from June 2004 to August 2005 with 25 participants. Staying Alive training was implemented to increase awareness about overdose. This study resulted in more than half of its participants referring others to the training (Sherman et al., 2008). According to Sherman et al. the participants talked to family and other lay people in the community about administering naloxone. The second outcome that was determined was participants teaching PWIDs how to administer naloxone in case of an overdose. Many participants made this their “house rules� (Sherman et al., 2009). Participants referring others to OPP trainings benefits everyone when an overdose occurs. If other people are trained and aware about opioid overdoses, then opioid overdoses will decline.

The Prevent Overdose in Toronto (POINT) program operates through a needle exchange program (The Works). Through the POINT program, 209 clients were trained during an eight-month program. The reports from the POINT program concluded that there were 17 naloxone administrations after the program (Leece et al., 2013). The OPPs resulted in participants utilizing what they learned and implementing it when an overdose occurs. Overdose victims benefited from participants being trained through an OPP because the participants are able to recognize when an overdose is occurring and respond effectively. In the United States, between July 2005 and December 2008 in Pittsburgh and Allegheny County, Pennsylvania an OPP was implemented through a needle exchange program (NEP). 141 of the 426 participants returned to the needle exchange clinic after the training. Of the 141 participants, 89 reported administering naloxone in 249 separate overdose occasions and 96% of the cases were successful (Bennett, Bell, Tomedi, Hulsey, Kral, 2011). This suggests that the trainings of the OPPs can be effective in many locations.

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IYANA ESTERS The increase of successful opioid overdose recuses are efficient, and the decrease in overdoses will decline because of the success of OPPs training PWIDs and other lay people.

Naloxone Knowledge and Responding to Naloxone Through the OPPs, participants are given the opportunity to gain knowledge and proper training to respond efficiently to opioid overdoses. When responding to an opioid overdose, it is important to respond appropriately to the person’s best ability. This can be done if what was taught and obtained through the OPP is effectual. A study in Rhode Island was conducted to analyze data from a project to assess pharmacy based naloxone intervention to decrease opioid overdose rates among PWIDs (Zaller et al., 2013) There were 42 participants in the study and 21 were PWIDs. According to the author, “street knowledge” about reversing an overdose is incorrect and delays medical treatment. The street knowledge demonstrated from the participants in the Rhode Island study included injecting cocaine or salt water, immersing the victim in water, etc. (Zaller et at., 2013). Those who do not attend OPP training are often uneducated about proper procedures to apply when a victim is going into an overdose. Another uneducated bystander’s methodology to reverse an overdose is to administer more drugs to the victim as they believe the victim’s body will catch a new high and it can bring them out of an overdose (Zaller et at., 2013).. However, if more drugs are administered in the overdose victim it can cause harmful effects to the person. Another common reaction when uneducated bystanders respond to an overdose is to throw ice-cold water on a victim. The uneducated bystanders believe that throwing ice-cold water on the victim will put the overdose victim into shock and reverse the overdose (Zaller et at., 2013). Knowledge that is gained from OPPs can make a difference when a trained PWID or other lay person responds to an overdose. The chance of a trained PWID or other layperson responding to an opioid overdose increases the likelihood of the victim living.

The over-arching research question explored through this secondary analysis of qualitative data was: following participation in an OPP, what knowledge did the participant gain through the program and what was the participant’s reaction to both the program itself and to administering Naloxone?

Methods Research Design This secondary analysis used data that was collected during an earlier study to evaluate two OPPs in Los Angeles, California between December 2008 and March 2010. The participants who completed the OPP training received a bag containing two or three 1cc doses of naloxone and

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IYANA ESTERS syringes for intramuscular injection (Wagner et al., 2013). Findings from that study showed that the participants reported both positive and negative effects when taking on the responsibility of becoming an overdose responder (Wagner et al., 2013).

Participants In the primary study, there were a total of 106 participants. Out of the 106 participants 76 were untrained and 30 were trained through overdose preventions programs (Lankenau et al., 2013).

The trained participants were 18 or older and reported drug use in the last 30 days. The participants were recruited by an interviewer in a waiting area of two needle exchange programs (NEP). There was a concise screening survey to validate if the participants were eligible for the study (Wagner et al 2013). For this secondary analysis a sub-sample of 6 out of the 30 trained participants was used. Six transcripts were chosen due to the timeframe to complete the study.

Procedure/Data Collection The interviews contained closed and open-ended questions. One question asked participants to describe the most recent overdose that they had witnessed. The follow-up questions included questions about the effect of responding to that overdose on the participant’s wellbeing and their knowledge of how they are perceived in their community (Wagner et al 2013). Survey questions were asked at the end of the interview about sexual risk behaviors, including sexually transmitted infection (STI) status and testing behavior. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for qualitative analysis.

Materials/Analysis In this study, transcripts from the prior study were analyzed. After analyzing six transcripts, similarities of the responses from the participants were noted. Themes were identified, and codes were applied to the transcripts to compare similarities and differences in the transcripts. The selected text was grouped by the following codes: overdose/usage, emotion/reaction, 911/cops, and opioid overdose knowledge.

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IYANA ESTERS Results TABLE 1. Demographics of the 6 participants interviewed in Los Angeles, CA in 2010

Age (years) Mean Median Standard deviation

38.7 41.0 3.3

Gender Male Female

1 (16.7) 5 (83.3)

Race White Black Other Multiracial

3 (50.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 2 (33.3)

Ethnicity Hispanic Non-Hispanic

4 (66.7) 2 (33.3)

Education Less than high school High school diploma Some college College degree

3 (50.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7) 1 (16.7)

Employed Yes No

0 (0.0) 6 (100.0)

Homeless Yes No

3 (50.0) 3 (50.0)

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Veteran Yes No

1 (16.7) 5 (83.3)

Jail in 6 Months Yes No Number of overdoses witnessed in 12 months Mean 3.5 Median Standard deviation

6 (100.0) 0 (0.0)

3.5 1.5

Overdose and Usage Participants discussed their drug consumption and their experiences with overdosing on heroin.

These overdose experiences made the majority of the participants realize the harm heroin does to their, and others, lives. This realization made many of the participants want to change their heroin use: “ It gets old after a while. I mean using and just seeing people go out and it’s like, man, that can be me and, you know, nobody’s gonna be there to help me.”(22 year-old female Hispanic heroin injector) This 22-year-old female had a child that she had to care for on her own. This participant described becoming unconscious because she went into an overdose. She remembered waking up drenched in water. A bystander friend had tried to help her by throwing ice water on the participant to revive her with no success. The participant woke up on her own hours after the ice water was thrown on her. Experiencing her own overdose and other close friends’ encouraged her to start detox to eventually quit using heroin and to create a better lifestyle for her daughter.

Emotion There were times that the participants experienced emotions such as heroism and pride after they McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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were able to save a victim’s life. The participants felt accomplished and very concerned about the victims. Some participants felt that they obtained redemption from others in the community who may have previously seen them only as a “heroin-addict.” This participant felt courageous for helping a victim: “Yeah, you know how a superhero come and save the day? So you feel like you did something, you did something righteous and unselfish, you know? ... You know I would’ve done it for a stranger too but it’s just, like I said, it was like a superhero.”(36 year-old Black male heroin injector) The participant witnessed three overdoses within the past twelve months. The most recent witnessed overdose encounter by the participant was with a female friend, and she thanked him for saving her life. During this encounter, a crowd observed the actions of the participant administering the naloxone to the victim. The participant felt as if he was a superhero because he helped out his friend and the participant stated the people in the crowd previously identified him as a PWID, but he felt they later viewed him as a hero. There were also times where the participants faced pressure, fear, regret, and panicked feelings during a victim’s overdose. This participant experienced regret prior to her OPP training. The event she experienced motivated her seek training: “I saw that kid on San Pedro and he was so far gone and he was all alone and I just happen to step over him…if I had that Narcan, I could just hit him.” (46 year-old female White and Latina heroin injector) Through out this participant’s interview, numerous times, she brought up the young man she saw on San Pedro prior to her OPP training. Whenever she encounters an overdose she thinks about the young man who was overdosing. At the time of the event, the participant could not do anything to save the young man so he died. This now motivates the participant to carry her naloxone more often. This participant felt a lot of regret, but with her last encounter with a victim she felt redeemed when she saved their life. She allows the regret concerning the young man to influence her to save victims’ lives.

Calling for help Calling 911 during an overdose was not easy for most of the participants because they feared arrest. According to the participants, other bystanders who are PWIDs would have let the victim pass away because they did not want to be blamed by the police for the responsibility of the

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victim’s overdose. The police in Los Angeles are prevalent in highly concentrated areas of heroin usage: “We were scared about the police cause every day is different. Sometimes police presence is really heavy and sometimes it’s not.” (46 year-old female White and Latina heroin injector) This participant would frequent areas of Los Angeles where many heroin users would come together. Policemen had harassed her before. There was a time that a policeman saw the participant walking and told her to empty her backpack because he assumed she had heroin. At the time, the participant did not have any paraphilia on her. Although most participants had bad experiences with the Los Angeles police, there were some instances where the participants would risk their own freedom in order to save someone’s life: “I’ll go to jail for somebody if it’s gonna make ‘em live…but I was scared, of course.” (31 yearold female Hispanic heroin injector) Many of the participants discussed having a conscience and that they could not let an overdose victim die while they were present, so they decided to intervene. Some of the participants felt that if they were to go to jail, it would be worthwhile for saving someone and giving them another chance at life.

Opioid Overdose Prevention Program Participants agreed that the OPPs were beneficial; still, the experience of an actual overdose was something that the participants were not always emotionally prepared for. This particular participant was appreciative for OPPs and naloxone: “Because not always can you bring somebody out of that with your knowledge, with whatever you got, sometimes they did too much. It’s beyond your control… And you need that medicine to get ‘em out of it. I think it’s a great idea you guys give that stuff out.“(50year-old female White heroin injector) This 50-year-old White female thinks that the OPPs are a good way of getting PWIDs involved with training to administer naloxone. The participant indicates that many of her friends are seeking training so they are able to obtain naloxone to help a victim when they go into an overdose. These OPPs enlighten many of the participants on how to respond and react to overdoses. The OPPs have even taught them self-awareness: “…It’s more made me more aware of drug use and, and you know, just more aware, I think, McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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drug use that’s going on around me and stuff like that.” (47 year-old White and Latina heroin injector) Throughout the study, all participants responded positively to the opioid overdose prevention programs. The participants felt as if they were more knowledgeable and many bystanders depend on the trained participants to save them. Many participants searched for OPPs to be trained, so if they encountered an opioid overdose they could assist. These OPPs also motivated the majority of the participants to be aware of opioid overdoses, possibly detox, and aware of sexual health. The participants found out about the OPPs through a NEP in Los Angeles. NEPs educated heroin users on sexual health and awareness.

Discussion This qualitative study described the knowledge and reactions of the participants after OPP training and administering naloxone to victims. After experiencing opioid overdoses following the OPP programs, the participants became more knowledgeable about opioid overdoses and how to react. . The participants would show the naloxone kits from the trainings to bystanders to make sure they are aware about opioid overdose procedures in case of emergency. Bystanders who are PWIDs utilized trained participants to assist with opioid overdoses within their area.

Our findings are similar to what was found in the Promoting Stay Alive program. The participants’ responses in the Promoting Staying Alive Program reflected pride and enthusiasm in having learned such useful information and their ability to help others (Sherman et al., 2008). Our results indicate that the participants experienced the feeling of heroism in having the ability to save a victim’s life. Many of the participants were elated to acquire valuable knowledge on naloxone and share it with others. In the naloxone distribution intervention study, the PWIDs mentioned their experiences and perceptions of overdose events and naloxone (Zaller et al., 2013). People who participate in OPPs have successful experiences and good remarks after the training.

Although participants experience other feelings relating to fear and pressure – they overcome those emotions to help a victim in need. Few of the participants in the study relayed information from the trainings/programs. Although, participants expressed a willingness to risk their freedom by going to jail to save someone’s life, a couple of participants communicated the fear of jail and they could not call police. Some participants were inspired by the trainings to productively change their drug usage, detoxing from heroin, and awareness regarding opioid overdoses. Participants who were unwilling to stop using heroin were cautious about the dosage of heroin that is administered. This demonstrates trained participants using heroin more safely in an attempt to

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prevent an opioid overdose. The participants who were unwilling to quit were also likely to share the information with their friends or a bystander to administer naloxone in case of an emergency.

Even if participants were not willing to implement abstinence for their drug use, they all made efforts to maintain a smarter lifestyle when using heroin.

The majority of the participants started to use drugs in their teens. It often starts with inhalants such as marijuana and progresses into other forms of drugs such as opioids after some years.

People who inject drugs frequently use other substances including heroin such as, marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, and opioid pain relievers (Jones el at., 2015). The poly-substance use puts users at a higher risk to have an overdose. There is a relation between opioids and other substances. A few of the participants in the study described trying other substances and using multiple substances at the same time. All of the participants were either not close to their family members or after they started to use drugs they became distant from their families. According to some of the participants in the study, it is common for families to abandon a relative who injects drugs excessively. It affects the family and becomes a burden. Incarceration in jail was prominent for all participants in this study, and all have been to jail at least once in their life. Some of the participants’ arrests are related to heroin use. The majority of the participants was unemployed and would panhandle to earn money to attempt to make a living. Many of these participants were homeless or lived in hotels. Very few had their own home. The lack of housing accommodation increases the risk associated with people who inject drugs (Wright, Oldham, Jones, 2005).

Conclusion The increase of opioid overdoses in the US is rising steeply. OPPs have gained recognition and are starting to become established in communities. The next precaution that should be implemented to help decrease the rates of opioid overdose is encouraging more PWIDs to participate in OPP trainings. Participants from the OPPs can inspire and convey information to PWIDs in the community about the program. This can potentially be more successful because PWIDs relate to the participants better than they relate to other lay people, health educators, or medical professionals. Training participants to spread the word to their counterparts will be an achievement. Encouraging PWIDs to attend OPPs will increase the number of trained first responders for naloxone. The PWIDs can learn and obtain the knowledge of procedures from the OPPs so they can respond to an opioid overdose. Spreading the word about opioid prevention and awareness for primary prevention will be beneficial. Advertising and promoting may bring curiosity to the PWIDs and they may seek further information regarding OPPs. Health educators should utilize outreach skills among the prevalent heroin communities and interact with PWIDs including

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IYANA ESTERS trained participants. If OPPs are a feasible asset to get PWIDs and other lay people in the community involved, this can influence them to take a lead in the opioid overdose epidemic and decrease the opioid overdoses.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank their Ronald E. McNair mentor Karla Wagner who conducted the primary study and the NIH Grant: R21DA026789, as well as the University of Nevada, Reno Ronald E. McNair Scholars program.

References Baird, C. (2014). Prescription drugs or heroin the overdoses continue. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 25(2), 63-65. doi:10.1097/JAN.0000000000000030 Bennett, A. S., Bell, A., Tomedi, L., Hulsey, E. G., & Kral, A. H. (2011). Characteristics of an overdose prevention, response, and naloxone distribution program in Pittsburgh and Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Journal of Urban Health, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-96007, epub ahead of print Berling, I., Whyte, I., & Isbister, G. (2013, January). Oxycodone overdose causes naloxone responsive coma. Q J Med, 35-41.

Buajordet, I., Naess, A., Jacobsen, D., & Brørs, O. (2004). Adverse events after naloxone treatment of episodes of suspected acute opioid overdose. European Journal of Emergency Medicine : Official Journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine, 11(1), 19-23.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Syringe Exchange Programs, United States, 2008. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 59(45), 1488-1491.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Death rates for drug poisoning, by state of residence, United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 61(48), 995.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Increases in Heroin Overdose Deaths — 28 States, 2010 to 2012. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63(39), 849-854.

Cicero, T. J., Ellis, M. S., & Surratt, H. L. (2012). Effect of abuse-deterrent formulation of OxyContin.

New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 187-189.

Clark, A., Winstanley, E. L., Martsolf, D. S., & Rosen, M. (2016). Implementation of an inpatient opioid overdose prevention program. Addictive Behaviors, 53, 141-145. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.10.006

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IYANA ESTERS Davis, C. S., Ruiz, S., Glynn, P., Picariello, G., & Walley, A. Y. (2014). Expanded access to naloxone among firefighters, police officers, and emergency medical technicians in Massachusetts.

American Journal of Public Health, 104(8), e7-9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302062 Doyon, S., Aks, S. E., & Schaeffer, S. (2014). Expanding access to naloxone in the united states.

Journal of Medical Toxicology, 10(4), 431-434. doi:10.1007/s13181-014-0432-1 Jones, C. M., Logan, J., Gladden, R. M., & Bohm, M. K. (2015). Vital signs: Demographic and substance use trends among heroin users - united states, 2002-2013. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(26), 719.

Kuehn, B. M. (2014). Driven by prescription drug abuse, heroin use increases among suburban and rural whites. Journal of the American Medical Association, 312(2), 118–119.

Kim, D., Irwin, K. S., & Khoshnood, K. (2009). Expanded access to naloxone: Options for critical response to the epidemic of opioid overdose mortality. American Journal of Public Health [H.W.Wilson - SSA], 99(3), 402.

Lankenau, S. E., Wagner, K. D., Silva, K., Kecojevic, A., Iverson, E., McNeely, M., & Kral, A. H. (2013).

Injection drug users trained by overdose prevention programs: responses to witnessed overdoses. Journal of Community Health, 38(1), 133-141. doi:10.1007/s10900-012-9591-7 Leece, P. N., Hopkins, S., Marshall, C., Orkin, A., Gassanov, M. A., & Shahin, R. M. (2013).

Development and implementation of an opioid overdose prevention and response program in toronto, ontario.Canadian Journal of Public Health = Revue Canadienne De SantĂŠ Publique, 104(3), e200.

Lenoir, M., Cantin, L., Vanhille, N., Serre, F., & Ahmed, S. H. (2013). Extended heroin access increases heroin choices over a potent nondrug alternative.Neuropsychopharmacology : Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 38(7), 1209-1220. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.17 Los Angeles County Department of Public Health (2013). Prescription Drug Abuse in Los Angeles County. Retrieved from http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/docs/HealthNews/PrescriptionDrug-12-13.pdf The Network for Public Health Law. (n.d.). Legal Interventions to Reduce Overdose Mortality: Naloxone Access and Overdose Good Samaritan Laws. Retrieved from website: https://www.networkforphl.org/_asset/qz5pvn/legal-interventions-to-reduce-overdose.pdf

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Niesters, M., Overdyk, F., Smith, T., Aarts, L., & Dahan, A. (2012, December). Opioid-induced respiratory depression in paediatrics: a. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 175-182.

Sherman, S. G., Gann, D., Scott, G., Carlberg, S., Bigg, D., & Heimer, R. (2008). A qualitative study of overdose responses among Chicago IDUs. Harm Reduction Journal, 5(1), 2.

Sherman, S. G., Gann, D. S., Tobin, K. E., Latkin, C. A., Welsh, C., & Bielenson, P. (2009). “The life they save may be mine”: Diffusion of overdose prevention information from a city sponsored programme.International Journal of Drug Policy,20(2), 137-142. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.02.004 Voelker, R. (2013). Vigilance for new synthetic opioid. Jama, 310(7), 684-684. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.135469 Wagner, K., Davidson, P., Iverson, E., Washburn, R., Burke, E., Kral, A., McNeeley, M., Jackson, J., Lankenau, S. (2013, July) “I felt like a superhero”: The experience of responding to drug overdose among individuals trained in overdose prevention. International Journal of Drug Policy, 25, 157-165.

Walley, A. Y., Xuan, Z., Hackman, H. H., Quinn, E., Doe-Simkins, M., Sorensen-Alawad, A.. . Ozonoff, A. (2013). Opioid overdose rates and implementation of overdose education and nasal naloxone distribution in massachusetts: Interrupted time series analysis. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 346(7894), f174.

Wright, N., Oldham, N., & Jones, L. (2005). Exploring the relationship between homelessness and risk factors for heroin-related death-a qualitative study. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24(3), 245251. doi:10.1080/09595230500170308 Zaller, N. D., Yokell, M. A., Green, T. C., Gaggin, J., & Case, P. (2013). The feasibility of pharmacybased naloxone distribution interventions: A qualitative study with injection drug users and pharmacy staff in rhode island. Substance use & Misuse, 48(8), 590-599. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.793355

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Feasibility of an Economical Laser Induced Fluorescence Imaging System at the Nevada Terawatt Facility

Allister Frazier Major: Physics Mentor: Dr. Timothy Darling Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: PhD Program, Materials Science, University of Colorado, Boulder

Of all the loads used on the Zebra 1MA/100 ns pulsed power generator at the Nevada Terawatt Facility (NTF) the one that presents the most logistical challenges is the gas puff. Repeatability, timing, and unknown initial conditions are just a few of the troubles that arise when using gas puffs, but their success in neutron production and other experiments warrants their continued use. Laser induced fluorescence (LIF) is the primary technique used at the NTF to characterize these gas puff targets. LIF works by mixing a fluorescent tracer gas in with the gas puff and exciting it with a UV laser pulse.

The fluorescence is captured with a fast CCD camera, and, assuming repeatability of the nozzle and azimuthal symmetry of the gas of interest, a spatial and density profile can be constructed through analysis of these images. In this experiment we test the moderately priced (~$700) Sony XC-HR50 camera for LIF use at the NTF. Photoluminescent excitation of acetone is traced in time by the XCHR50 camera and acetone densities necessary to produce enough light for the camera to detect are estimated.

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ALLISTER FRAZIER Introduction Nuclear fusion reactions occur when light nuclei (positive charges) collide and form a heavier nucleus, which releases an extraordinary amount of energy. This process is widely studied because of the potential application it has to create a powerful, sustainable energy source. Fusion reactions can be studied here on earth by heating a deuterium load fast enough that it completely ionizes and still has enough energy to fuse some of its nuclei. The completely ionized matter is known as plasma, and scientists have been studying the fusion energy output of plasmas for decades. Over the last fifty years energy production in fusion experiments has increased by a factor of over a million (Liberman, 1999). When harnessing the power of plasma via the nuclear fusion process is perfected we would have a virtually limitless supply of energy that could last millions of years (Lee, 2011). However, we are likely still decades away from an economical thermonuclear fusion reactor and lots of work still needs to be done. At the NTF plasma is created and studied using the Zebra 1MA/100ns pulsed-power generator, which shoots a large, short electric current through a target, typically a wire array or a gas puff. This heats the material into plasma and also induces a strong magnetic field which attracts the plasma inward along the line of the current. Physicists arbitrarily denote this line to be the z-axis and thus call this sort of plasma “z-pinch plasma”. Currently at the NTF, experiments are being performed measuring the neutron production of z-pinch plasmas using deuterided gas puffs as the load. In each deuterium-deuterium fusion reactions a 3He nucleus is formed. In about half of the reactions a neutron is ejected (the other half a proton is ejected) so the number of fusion reactions in the plasma can be calculated by measuring the energy and number density of the neutrons emitted from the source.

Unfortunately, these z-pinch plasmas are often very unstable due to small disturbances in the plasma combined with their reaction to the large electromagnetic field produced. This disrupts the symmetry of the plasma, and without symmetry no steady-state equilibrium can be achieved. The amount of kinetic energy that is converted into internal energy in unstable z-pinch plasmas is greatly reduced (Liberman, 1999). Less energy in the plasma means less nuclear fusion reactions which results in less powerful and less practically useful experiments. Thus much of the research in facilities like the NTF is directed towards limiting the instabilities in z-pinch plasma experiments in order to produce the hot, dense, energetic plasma necessary for a thermonuclear fusion reactor. The first step towards creating more stable z-pinch plasmas is starting with a target, or a “load”, with a high degree of symmetry, which minimizes the small disruptions in the symmetry of the plasma. The most common loads used in z-pinch experiments are wire arrays and gas puffs (Liberman, 1999). The problem with gas puffs, however, is that it is difficult to know the exact shape of the gas flow at a given time.

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Over the last 20 years LIF has become the standard technique for imaging gaseous flows. LIF uses a small amount of tracer gas that is mixed in with the gas of interest. When hit with a UV laser pulse, the tracer gas absorbs the energy of the UV light and then emits that energy as light in the visible spectrum. This process is called “fluorescence�. Images of the fluorescence are then recorded by a CCD camera positioned normal to the UV laser beam. A strong case has been made for acetone as a tracer gas for the LIF process using pulsed UV lasers. It has been shown through experimental evidence that acetone is an effective tracer gas in addition to being an effective practical choice due to its availability and relatively non-toxic characteristics (Lozano, 1992).

At the NTF LIF experiments are performed to characterize the nozzles that are used to eject the gas puff loads. The Andor iStar intensified CCD camera has been used in the past to image the gas puffs. The properties of this camera make it very useful, so it unfortunately is often in use for other purposes at the NTF and unavailable to be used in LIF experiments. It is also very expensive (~$60,000) and therefore it would not be practical to purchase another ICCD camera solely for the purpose of LIF. It would be an advantage if the facility were in possession of another piece of equipment that could be used instead. The office of Undergraduate and Interdisciplinary Research at the University of Nevada, Reno funded the purchase of a Sony XC-HR50 black and white CCD camera and accessories. A proposal was written for a grant through their General Undergraduate Research Award (GURA) to test whether or not this camera could serve as a permanent LIF imaging diagnostic at the Nevada Terawatt Facility.

Literature Review In the 50s and 60s thermonuclear fusion research programs focused their efforts deuterium zpinches. However, once it became apparent that the instabilities in the plasma could not be eliminated from with the technology of the time z-pinch experiments became highly uninteresting (Liberman, 1999). Research on z-pinch plasmas went cold for about two decades, but was revitalized with the development of high-voltage, fast-pulsed-power systems such as the Zebra pulsed-power current generator at the NTF. These modern fast pinch systems, along with the development of cylindrically symmetric loads, allow for the plasma to reach much higher temperatures and energy densities, as well as improving the stability of the plasma. The scientific community has changed its view on z-pinch plasmas - specifically those related to the creation of a thermonuclear fusion powered reactor (Liberman, 1999). Some experiments have been performed again with modern machines, included z-pinch experiments using frozen deuterium fibers as the load (Sethian, 1987). In fact, Zebra was built specifically to pinch frozen deuterium loads.

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ALLISTER FRAZIER Previously, a technique called laser interferometry was used to estimate the density profiles of gas puffs for z-pinch plasma experiments. However, LIF is much less complicated and bypasses the mathematical approximations required in the former process in favor of raw images of fluorescence. Acceptable agreement between the two processes was found, and LIF has now become the standard process for z-pinch gas puff experiments (Failor, 2003). Images recorded using LIF are processed using computer software. Interactive Data Language (IDL) is an imaging software commonly used for scientific programming and image analysis. Using IDL raw images of gas puff fluorescence can be compared to “calibration images� of the fluorescence of static pressures of acetone to calculate the density profile of the gas puff (Evans, 2012). More standard, readily available software such as imageJ can also be used.

The focus of this paper, however, is on the feasibility of using a Sony XC-HR50 black and white CCD camera for imaging z-pinch gas puffs using LIF at the NTF. The XC-HR50 has a spectral range of 400nm-700nm with a peak at 500nm (see Fig. 1 on next page).

Fig. 1) Relative spectral sensitivity of the Sony XC-HR50 camera It is capable of exposure times as short as 10us with the use of an external trigger. The jitter for the camera is listed as less than 20ns. The gain can be controlled manually and can be set anywhere from 0-18dB. The physical specifications of the camera are compatible with LIF using acetone as the tracer gas. LIF imaging has used gases like I2, NO, and NO2 in the past, but these are very inconvenient to use because they are highly corrosive or toxic or both.

Acetone has been shown to be an effective fluorescent source for the use of LIF as a diagnostic, and this has lead to LIF being more readily available and widely used for a variety of research areas (Lozano, 1992). The photo-physics of acetone work well within the parameters of this experiment.

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Fig. 2) Jablonski diagram of acetone vapor given by Hartwig (2010) Acetone has an absorption spectrum from 225-320 nm with a maximum at 275 nm. The emission spectrum of acetone is from 350-600 nm with peaks at 445 nm and 480 nm (Lozano, 1992). The short fluorescent lifespan of acetone (less than 4ns) is what makes it great for the imaging of zpinch gas puffs, but also introduces limitations regarding the camera that can be used to capture the fluorescence. Acetone molecules in the ground state are excited to the first excited state and fluoresce with nearly 100% efficiency (Lozano, 1992). Some acetone molecules photolyze into acetyl, which can combine to form biacetyl which has a similar absorption wavelength and is responsible for some green phosphorescence, but biacetyl formation will decrease when using wavelengths less than 300nm and biacetyl emission can be neglected (Lozano, 1992). Acetone also has a relatively long-lived phosphorescent phase (~200us) following the fluorescent phase (Lozano, 1992). Molecules that are excited to the first excited triplet state decay to the ground state over a much longer time scale (Lozano, 1992).

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Fig. 3) Spectral absorption of acetone with 266nm wavelength excitation indicated The entire Z-pinch process lasts only a few hundred nanoseconds, so the images recorded with LIF must be on the same timeframe in order to create a gas profile that will accurately represent the shape and density of the load at the time it is converted to plasma. The gas in sent in in a single jet, not a continuous flow, and nozzles used to inject the gas puffs send the load into the target chamber at supersonic speeds (up to 500 m/s) so the dynamic nature of the load requires a very short “snapshot� to be taken in order to accurately represent the shape of the load at the time of the pinch.

Research Methods Equipment Details Planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF) is currently the accepted standard for measuring concentrations of gases flows (Hanson, 2000). PLIF utilizes a cylindrical lens to focus the beam into a plane-like sheet, and when it interacts with the acetone causing photoluminescence a full 2-D image can be achieved (see Fig. 4 on next page).

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Fig. 4) PLIF by Lozano, et al. (1992)

However, the strength of the UV laser available at the NTF limits the diagnostics there to a singlepoint method. We use a lens to focus the beam to a point so that the intensity is high enough to cause enough photoluminescence to detect. By maneuvering the laser up and down between images a complete picture to be constructed.

Fig. 5) LIF images superimposed to create a complete gas puff image by McKee and the author

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The feasibility study of the Sony XC-HR50 camera will also use the pencil beam method for that reason. We use the fourth harmonic of the Ekspla Nd:YAG laser at 266 nm. The laser is directed toward the chamber with UV optics and focused down to a point in the center of the chamber by a 1m focal length lens. The camera is positioned outside the chamber pointing towards the center through a window in the chamber.

The Sony XC-HR50 camera is controlled with the Sony DC-700 power supply. The camera and the power supply are connected via a commercially provided 12 pin cable that transmits all necessary information to and from the camera. A Euresys Domino Melody PCI frame grabber is used to capture the images and store them electronically. The PCI board is operated with the Euresys Grablink software. The PCI board input is 15-pin VGA, so a cable was made splicing 3 rg-174 coaxial cables off of a 15-pin VGA connector. These 3 cables are furnished with BNC-type ends and each connected to the DC-700 power supply. One cable carries the video signal, the others carry information regarding when the software needs to be active and ready to receive a video signal (write enable pulse or WEN) and the vertical display of the image (VD), respectively.

The camera can be operated with an external trigger pulse or a software trigger depending on the trigger mode it is set to. For a software trigger the camera must be set at “normal” trigger operation and only need be connected to the frame grabber via the video input. The exposure time in this mode can be set from 1/125 s all the way down to 1/30,000 s. LIF experiments require an external trigger to be used so the camera exposure can be timed with the laser pulse. For an external trigger the camera must be set to “trigger mode 2” and connected to the frame grabber via all 3 BNC-type cables described above. The exposure time in this mode is dictated by the width of the trigger input pulse. A TTL normal pulse is used to trigger the camera, which serves as a gating signal to the CCD array. Recording by the CCD array begins when the rising edge of the trigger pulse reaches the camera and ends 6us after the falling edge of the trigger pulse. The pulse amplitude must be between 2-5V and between 2us and 250ms in duration. We use the manual setting for the gain, and set it to max (18dB).

The Andor iStar ICCD camera currently used at the NTF has an image intensifier that serves as the image amplifier as well as the gating device. The image amplifier consists of a photocathode, gain module, and phosphor image plate. Photons knock electrons off of the photocathode which are

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accelerated through the gain module and luminesce on the phosphor image plate. A positive voltage applied to the photocathode keeps the electrons from entering the gain module. This is how the image intensifier can be used to control the exposure time of the camera. Gating periods as short as 2 ns are easily achieved with the Andor ICCD camera. The challenge of this experiment is to show the Sony XC-HR50 camera can be a sufficient substitute for the Andor by electronically gating the video output of the camera and achieving exposure times as small as 10 us.

Current NTF LIF Imaging System

Fig. 6) Schematic of LIF setup at NTF from the camera’s point of view The LIF imaging system at the NTF consists of the Andor iStar ICCD camera, the Ekspla Nd:YAG 266 nm UV laser system including several UV mirrors, the fast acting nozzle valve system, a five kiloamp pulser, a vacuum chamber, a gas mixing chamber, and the breakdown pin. The vacuum chamber has windows on three sides, two for the laser to pass into and out of the chamber and one positioned normal to the beam path so the camera can see into the chamber. There is a large flange on the top of the chamber where the nozzle valve is fixed on to. Acetone and the gas load of interest are mixed in the gas mixing chamber before staging at the nozzle-vacuum chamber interface. The five kiloamp pulser is used to trigger the nozzle valve system. The large current from McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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the discharge of the pulser induces a current in the valve. The JxB force causes the valve to contract and allows a small amount of gas to flow into the vacuum chamber. The breakdown pin detects gas flowing through the nozzle and sends a signal which shows exactly when and for how long gas was flowing through the nozzle.

The timing of the system is delicate because the laser pulse must be in the chamber at the same time as the gas puff in order to obtain any results. Furthermore, the exact timing of the actual gas puff is important because the density profile obtained here must accurately represent the profile of the gas puff at the time of peak current from Zebra during the actual z-pinch experiments. While these LIF measurements are taken independently from the z-pinch experiments on Zebra, it is necessary to time the arrival of the laser with the breakdown pin signal, allowing a sufficient amount of time for the gas puff to enter the chamber but not so long that the shape no longer accurately represents the shape of the gas puff before it is ionized and pinched by the pulse from Zebra.

Once the system has been timed properly, the camera is armed and images of the fluorescence are captured. As mentioned before, the output of the Ekspla laser limits the system to a “pencil beamâ€? rather than a planar beam. After each image is captured, the beam must be realigned higher or lower for the next image, so a complete image can be formed by combining the images associated with each laser alignment. Assuming repeatability of the nozzle and azimuthal symmetry of the gas puffs this provides a spatial profile of the gas puff after the images are normalized with a background image. Density profiles are obtained by comparing these images with fluorescent images of known acetone pressure. For these calibration images, acetone is pumped directly into the chamber rather than ejected in by the nozzle. Density of the gas puff at each point in space can be calculated with the intensity of these images by using the formula đ?‘–đ?‘šđ?‘Žđ?‘”đ?‘’ − đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘”đ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘˘đ?‘›đ?‘‘ đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘™đ?‘–đ?‘?đ?‘&#x;đ?‘Žđ?‘Ąđ?‘–đ?‘œđ?‘› − đ?‘?đ?‘Žđ?‘?đ?‘˜đ?‘”đ?‘&#x;đ?‘œđ?‘˘đ?‘›đ?‘‘ Sony XC-HR50 Feasibility Study The Sony XC-HR50 camera must be able to capture the short lived acetone fluorescence in order to be a useful diagnostic for LIF at the NTF. For simplicity, all images taken with the Sony XC-HR50 camera for this experiment will be analogous to the calibration images for gas puff LIF measurements. It is the goal of this experiment to determine whether or not the Sony camera is suitable for gas puff LIF imaging. This requires that the camera’s exposure time can be limited to a

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small enough time that the fluorescence is recorded but not the phosphorescence, and that the camera is sensitive enough to record an image of the fluorescence. As mentioned above, the camera specifications say that the exposure time can go as low as 10 us, while the fluorescent lifetime of acetone is 4 ns compared to the 200 us phosphorescent period that comes after. The camera shutter is held open for a “long” time before the laser pulse arrives and is closed immediately after the fluorescent stage, before the phosphorescent stage. The goal is for the camera to not be exposed to any light other than the fluorescence from the laser pulse, so even though the exposure time is much longer than the fluorescent period we are interested in, that fluorescence will be solely responsible for the light that is recorded by the camera during the exposure time.

Initially, to align all of the parts of the system together in time, a trigger pulse is sent to the laser and a photodiode is used to determine how much time passed between the trigger pulse and the arrival of the laser in the chamber. An SRS DG-535 pulse generator is used to operate the system.

The trigger pulse for the camera is then set to be sent sufficiently after the trigger to the laser such that the camera will be recording data when the laser pulse is in the chamber reacting with the acetone. The camera is ~15 cm from the center of the chamber, equipped with a lens to focus the light from that distance onto the silicon chip. Acetone is placed in the chamber in a small dish and allowed to evaporate and fill the chamber. At 20 degrees Celsius the vapor pressure of acetone is ~180 torr (Lozano).

Results and Conclusions Photoluminescent excitation results With a 10 us exposure, we are able to “walk” the exposure time into the period of photonic interaction between the laser and acetone gas, with acetone filling the chamber at its STP vapor pressure of 180 torr. Our data indicates that the phosphorescence of acetone has a “rise time” of about 150ns, from the point in time where emitted light is detected by the camera to the point when the intensity of that light is no longer growing (see fig. 8 on next page). We were unable to isolate the short lived fluorescent phase because the jitter of the camera (<20ns) is greater than the lifetime of the fluorescent state (Lozano, 1992). However, it is safe to assume that the fluorescence is included in the light detected by the camera considering that the camera is collecting data for 9 us or longer before any photo-physical reaction takes place in the frame of the camera.

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Fig. 7) photoluminescence captured with Sony XCHR50 at 10 us exposure time We estimate that the gas puffs used in experiments at the NTF are moving no faster than 500 m/s, which means that they will travel no further than 75 um in 150 ns. This is an acceptable margin of error, so although we were not able to discern fluorescence from phosphorescence, we have still shown that the Sony XC-HR50 camera is suitable for LIF at the NTF. The timing of LIF experiments using the Sony camera will become more involved, but a similar measurement can be made with a camera that is 100 times cheaper than the camera previously used for the same purpose.

ImageJ was used to analyze the images recorded by the Sony XC-HR50 camera. Pixel intensity was used to determine how much light was emitted by the acetone at each point in time. Each intensity curve consists of the pixel intensity minus the intensity of the background, including t=0 ns which served as the background intensity (see Fig. 8 on next page).

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Fig. 8) Relative intensity of fluorescence and phosphorescence detected by Sony SC-HR50 over the first 175 ns of photoluminescence Acetone density limitation calculations i) calibration density limitations The Sony XC-HR50 cameraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sensitivity is given as 1 lux. Lux is a unit of intensity that is weighted to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye. The Sony camera is meant to record light in the visible spectrum, so its spectral sensitivity is similar to that of a human eye (400-700 nm with a peak at 500nm, see Fig. 1).

1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; 10â&#x2C6;&#x2019;4 đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; 1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;Ľ = = đ?&#x2018;&#x161;2 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;2 The photo-emission from acetone is approximately blue (peaks at 445 and 480 nm) and for blue light 1015 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; 1010 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; 1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; = = đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018; 10đ?&#x153;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018; McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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ALLISTER FRAZIER So the sensitivity of the camera for blue light is approximately 106 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; 1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;Ľ = 10đ?&#x153;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;2 In a 10 Îźs exposure 106 photons are needed for the camera to detect light.

The fourth harmonic of the Ekspla ND:Yag laser at 266 nm used in this experiment has an energy of approximately 20 millijoules per pulse. The energy of a photon at 266 nm is given as đ??¸=

â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;? = 7.5 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 10â&#x2C6;&#x2019;19 đ??˝đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x153;&#x2020;

Where h is plankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s constant, Îť is the wavelength of the light, and c is the speed of light. The number of photons per pulse can then be calculated to be 20đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ??˝ = 2.67 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1017 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; 7.5 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 10â&#x2C6;&#x2019;19 đ??˝đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x; đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; According to Beerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Law the photo-absorption of a gas is given by the equation đ??´ = 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2021; = 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x153;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;) Where T is the transmission, A is the absorption, n is the density of the gas, Ď&#x192; is the reaction cross section, and l is the distance the light travels through the gas. At 266 nm Ď&#x192;=4*10-20 cm2 for acetone (see fig. 1). The density n can be calculated from the ideal gas law. đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;=

đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;&#x192; = = 5.9 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1018 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;â&#x2C6;&#x2019;3 đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;(đ??ž)

Where P = 180 torr (the vapor pressure of acetone at STP), R is the universal gas constant, and T(K)= 293 kelvin (room temperature).

The beam travels 40 cm through the chamber before entering the field of view of the camera. Thus we can calculate how many photons are transmitted through the gas into the field of view of the camera.

2.67 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1017 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x153;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;) = 2.1 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1012 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;

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The field of view of the camera is about 6 cm wide, so now with l = 6 cm we can calculate the number of photons absorbed by acetone molecules in the field of view of the camera. đ??´ = 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x153;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;) = 0.75 So we have 2.1 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1012 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; .75 = 1.6 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1012 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018; Assuming photons are emitted at 100% efficiency we can calculate the number of photons that reach the camera by multiplying the number of photons absorbed within the field of view by the solid angle of the camera lens with respect to the field of view. The camera lens is about 1 cm in diameter and is located about 15 cm from the path of the laser. The solid angle is then đ?&#x153;&#x2039; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; (.5đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;)2 đ?&#x203A;ş= = 5.6 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 10 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 4 4 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; (15đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;)2 Finally, the number of photons that reach the camera is 1.6 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1012 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 5.6 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 10â&#x2C6;&#x2019;4 = 8.9 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 108 đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018; Which is well above our limit of 106 photons to illuminate the image given by the camera. The camera is not capable of calibration shots with n more than 1.0*1019 cm-3 due to attenuation of the beam before it reaches the field of view of the camera. The camera is not capable of calibration shots with n less than 3*1011 cm-3 because at that low density there is simply not enough acetone to emit enough light to the camera. The optimal calculated density for calibration shots is 6*1017cm-3 (see Fig. 9 on next page). ii) Gas puff imaging density limitations When imaging the gas puff targets for Zebra there is no attenuation of the beam before it reaches the field of view of the camera. We can solve for the minimum density needed to emit the necessary 106 photons such that the camera can see the light đ?&#x203A;ž = đ?&#x203A;şđ??ż(1 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; đ?&#x153;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;)) McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Where Îł is 106 photons, Ί is the same solid angle as before, L=2.67*1017 is the number of photons in the laser pulse, Ď&#x192; is the reaction cross section, and l is 2 cm, the approximate width of the lasergas puff cross section. Solving for n and using log(1+x) â&#x2030;&#x2C6; x for small x we find đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; =

đ?&#x203A;ž = 8.4 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1010 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;â&#x2C6;&#x2019;3 đ?&#x203A;şđ?&#x153;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ??ż

The optimal pinching density for zebra is 4Îźg*cm-3. In LIF measurements the gas is doped with acetone to about 5% by mass, so the density of acetone used in gas puffs for LIF is 4đ?&#x153;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;&#x201D; đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; 6.022 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1023 . 05 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; ( 3 )( )( ) = 8.3 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 1015 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161;â&#x2C6;&#x2019;3 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161; 58.08đ?&#x2018;&#x201D; đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; Using 58.08 as the molar mass of acetone and Avogadroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s number. The density is far greater than the minimum density required to illuminate the camera. In conclusion, the Sony XC-HR50 camera is a suitable piece of equipment for LIF measurements on gas puff targets at the NTF. It has been shown that the exposure time can be set to the minimum (10Îźs) and manipulated in such a way as to record approximately 100-150 ns of fluorescence and phosphorescence. It has also been estimated the acetone density requirements for the measurements are well within the detectable parameters of the camera.

Fig. 9) Calculated number of photons that reach the camera during calibration shots with respect to the density of acetone in the chamber. Only densities that result in a detectable number of photons (>10^6) are plotted.

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ALLISTER FRAZIER Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank Ph.D. student Erik McKee for his help on this project. Erik is responsible for assembling the current LIF system at the NTF described in this paper. The timing system, fast nozzle-valve system, and vacuum system are all his design. He also helped a great deal in recording the LIF gas puff images for this paper, and some of his previous data is included as well. I would also like to thank my mentor Dr. Timothy Darling for his guidance in finding and purchasing the equipment as well as sorting through the details of the technical equipment and helping me get the camera functioning. Last, I’d like to thank my McNair mentors for their continued support.

Works Cited Evans, Matthew Thomas. M.S. Thesis. Cornell University (2012) Failor, B. H., S. Chantrenne, P. L. Coleman, J. S. Levine, Y. Song, H. M. Sze. “Proof-of-principle laserinduced fluorescence measurements of gas distributions from supersonic nozzles” Review of Scientific Instruments Volume 74 Issue 2, pg 1070 (2003) American Institute of Physics Hanson, R., D. Baer, C. Morris, M. Thurber, E. Furlong, S. Wehe. “Recent Advances in Laser-based Diagnostics for Gaseous Flows” Journal of Visualization Volume 2 Issue 3, 309-319 (2000) The Visualization Society of Japan and Ohmsha, Ltd. Hartwig, Jason William. M.S. Thesis. Case Western University (2010) Lee, Sing, Sor Heoh Saw. “Nuclear Fusion Energy - Mankind’s Giant Step Forward” Journal of Fusion Energy October 2011, Volume 30, Issue 5, 398-403 (2011) Springer US Liberman, Michael A., John S. De Groot, Arthur Toor, Rick B. Spielman. 1999 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc Lozano, A., B. Yip, R. K. Hanson. “Acetone: a tracer for concentration measurements in gaseous flows by planar laser-induced fluorescence” Experiments in Fluids 13, 369-376 (1992) Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Sethian, J. D., A. E. Robson, K. A. Gerber, and A. W. DeSilva. “Enhanced stability and neutron production in a dense Z-pinch plasma formed from a frozen deuterium fiber” Physical Review Letters Volume: 59 Issue: 8 Page: 892-895. (1987) American Institute of Physics

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GABREELLA FRIDAY

Women’s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa: Alleviating HIV/AIDS through Women’s Rights

Gabreella Friday Major: Political Science & International Affairs Mentor: Dr. Robert Ostergard Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: PhD Program, Sociology, Binghamton University

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This paper will examine the correlation between women’s rights and HIV/AIDs to determine whether or not women’s rights relates to HIV/AIDs prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. Utilizing data from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDs and the CIRI Human Rights Data Project to measure women’s rights from 2001-2011, this paper will analyze how women’s rights, or the lack there of, has exacerbated the pandemic in the sub-Saharan region. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDs (UNAIDS) was created with the explicit intent of reducing, preventing, and providing aid to those affected by HIV/AIDs. The data from their website will be utilized for a quantitative analysis of the proportion of individuals that are affected

by HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan African states (UNAIDS). The CIRI Human Rights Data Project was created by Dr. David Cingranelli and Dr. David L. Richards in an attempt to highlight human rights across the world in fifteen categories. This research will be using three of the categories illustrated by CIRI: (1) women’s economic rights, (2) women’s political rights, and (3) women’s social rights. Individual states are ranked in these four subcategories between 0-3, with 0 meaning women have no rights in said category and there might be laws in place to enforce and 3 representing women having guaranteed rights by law that are enforced. Their scores in these three categories are then averaged, giving each state their overall score which will then be tested for a correlation with HIV/AIDs prevalence. Applying the data gathered from both the CIRI Human Rights Data Project and UNAIDS, this paper will graph and analyze the correlation to determine whether women’s rights has a statistical correlation to the prevalence of HIV/AIDs in sub-Saharan Africa.

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GABREELLA FRIDAY Introduction To fully understand the importance of the data potentially linking women’s rights and HIV/AIDs, this paper will explore what HIV/AIDS is and its link to sub-Saharan Africa. Then it will take a look at how women in sub-Saharan Africa are at an even higher risk than their male counterparts to contract HIV/AIDs. Then it will explore what UNAIDS and the CIRI Human Rights Data Project are and how they will be used in the quantitative portion of this research. Lastly this paper will analyze and discuss the data collected and then offer potential steps for further research.

HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa The Facts & Epidemiology Human immunodeficiency virus infection (HIV) is a disease that gradually destroys the immune systems of their host, thus making them more susceptible to infections and tumors and eventually resulting in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Believed to have originated in sub-Saharan Africa, HIV/AIDS has ravaged the region with two main strains. HIV-1 is thought to have originated in central Africa and entered the human population via cross species transmission of relation to chimpanzee retroviruses. HIV-2 is thought to have originated in western Africa and entered the human population via cross-species transmission of relation to sooty mangabey retroviruses. “The greatest impact of the epidemic has been in sub-Saharan Africa… nine countries in southern Africa account for less than 2% of the world’s population, but now they represent about one third of the global HIV infections,” (De Cock 2012). 69% of those afflicted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic reside in sub-Saharan Africa and it is predominantly transmitted through heterosexual intercourse (Ramjee 2013; Sovran 2013).

Women and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa As stated above, HIV/AIDS has greatly affected the populous in the sub-Saharan region, but women in particular are at a heightened risk. Statistically, women account for 58% of new HIV infections and sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 80% of women and 90% of children living with the disease (UNAIDS 2013; DeCock 2012). Women in sub-Saharan Africa typically have a lower socioeconomic status and are considered subservient compared to their male counterparts (Ramjee 2013). Additionally, “forces ranging from early childhood training to state laws governing marriage, divorce and property rights, prepare women to defer to their male partners, not to instruct or oppose them…especially in the context of marriage,” (Ulin 1992). Furthermore, Women in sub-Saharan Africa are typically predisposed to factors, such as, poverty, malnutrition, uncontrolled fertility, and complications in of childbirth, which increases their risk and vulnerability to varying diseases (Ulin 1992). To make matters worse, 57% of women living with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa are not receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is used to prevent the spread of the virus within the body (UNAIDS 2013). Women in sub-Saharan Africa are McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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GABREELLA FRIDAY evidently at a heightened risk to contract various diseases. Below explores such risks as genetic predisposition, poverty, patriarchal norms, and the lack of sexual education.

Women at Risk The genetic makeup of the female anatomy leaves them at a heightened risk to contract sexually transmitted infections (STIs). “Women have a greater mucosal surface area exposed to pathogens and infectious fluid for longer periods during sexual intercourse and are likely to face increased tissue injury,” (Ramjee 2013). With women being genetically more susceptible to STIs, this can arguably explain why 58% of new HIV infections are women. Women who are pregnant or already have an STI are at an even higher risk to contract HIV due to the already compromised immune system and the changes through pregnancy (Ramjee 2013).

Sex for Subsistence It is imperative to understand that, “HIV/AIDs, first and foremost, is a disease of poverty.”

(Ostergard 2015). Those who find themselves below the poverty line, specifically women, are more likely to sell their body for compensation and less likely to be able to afford or have access to proper diagnosis and treatments. Often times women in sub-Saharan Africa are faced with the unimaginable choice of providing for themselves and their family or succumbing to disease and starvation. The desperation of said situation is a gateway using one’s body for compensation. In sub-Saharan Africa single and widowed women often engage in sexual favors for subsistence, though not full prostitution. In other cases, women do engage in prostitution in order to make ends meet, thus increasing their risk for infections (Ulin 1992). This risk is even further exacerbated by the negative stigma, lack of knowledge and association with condoms. “Reports from several African sub-Saharan countries document women’s fears of family conflict, economic loss, and lowered self-esteem if they advocate condom use,” (Ulin 1992). Poverty leads women to sexual favors or prostitution and the negatives stigma associated with condoms leaves them more vulnerable to contract STIs, such as HIV/AIDS. Patriarchal Norms Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by highly patriarchal societies, leaving women to be viewed as subservient. Stereotypes have caused women to either be blamed or not recognized as patients of the disease. This feeds into the negative stigma associated with condoms, as when women ask for condoms they are viewed as already having a disease (Bruyn 1992). Additionally, due to their low social status, women typically do not have the ability to negotiate safe sex measures (Ostergard 2015). Being that there is a patriarchal norm, men often have more than one sexual partner, even when married. Often times men from rural areas go into urbanized areas for work and find sexual partners, then bringing the disease back home to their spouse and family. “A

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GABREELLA FRIDAY man’s need for sex and the right to more than one sex partner has been condoned and widely accepted in many societies further facilitating the spread of HIV/AIDS,” (Ostergard 2015). The notion of male dominance within a society has created a social climate making women more susceptible to STIs. Women and Education In sub-Saharan Africa women are rarely fully informed of the dangers of HIV/AIDs and have virtually no access to sexual education. Additionally, sex is something that is rarely spoken about as a cultural norm. Due to the already low education levels and literacy rates for women in subSaharan Africa, anti-HIV/AIDS campaigns and propaganda are less likely to reach them (Bruyn 1992). Radio and television are two of the main pathways of information in sub-Saharan Africa, but women have far less access to said informational apparatuses that relay HIV/AIDS related information. Due to the lack of access to HIV/AIDS propaganda, often times information is relayed via word of mouth, thus giving way to risk of miscommunication. As illustrated in the preceding sections, women are at a heightened risk to contract STIs genetically, economically, and socially.

With the lack of proper sexual education further increasing said risk, “Insufficient knowledge concerning HIV transmission naturally means that perceptions of risk and knowledge of prevention methods will also be low and inadequate,” (Bruyn 1992).

Data & Analysis Utilizing data from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and the CIRI Human Rights Project to measure women’s rights this paper analyzed how women’s rights relates to the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the sub-Saharan region. Data was provided from 44 sub-Saharan states between the years 2001 and 2011. Due to the number of states and time period, data will be broken down into four regional subsections for closer analysis: West sub-Saharan Africa, East subSaharan Africa, Central sub-Saharan Africa and South sub-Saharan Africa. Somalia was excluded from this study as they were ranked at -77 by the CIRI Human Rights Project due to their interim government during the time span. Additionally, since South Sudan became a state in 2011, there is only 1 year of data provided from this region.

Methodology Since January 1996, UNAIDS has been responsible for aiding states in the battle against HIV/AIDS. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) was created with the explicit intent of reducing, preventing, and providing aid to those affected by HIV/AIDS. The data gathered from their website provides what percent of the population is afflicted by HIV/AIDS. For the purpose of this study, these percentages were converted into decimal form to allow for better graphing and analysis of the correlation.

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GABREELLA FRIDAY The three categories of the CIRI Human Rights Data Project this study will use are women’s economic rights, women’s political rights, and women’s social rights. Women’s economic rights is measured by multiple factors, some being equal pay for equal work, the right to be free from sexual harassment in the workplace, the right to work in the military or police force. Women’s political rights are measured by such factors as, the right to vote, the right to run for office, the right to join a political party, and freedom from female genital mutilation without consent. Lastly, women’s social rights are measured by such factors as the right to initiate a divorce, the right to enter a marriage on the basis of equality with men, and the right to an education (Cignarelli 2014). The scores that each state receives from these three categories will be averaged and plotted against data provided by UNAIDS and then tested for statistical significance. There will also be a two-tailed correlation test ran on each of the regional data sets.

Overview Figure 1: Women’s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa Women's Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in subSaharan Africa

HIV/AIDS Prevalence (UNAIDS)

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

0.5

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1.5

2

2.5

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Women's Rights (CIRI)

The data illustrated above in Figure 1, represents the correlation between women’s rights and HIV/AIDs prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. Over six-thousand points were plotted from the tenyear period. After plotting and testing all of the data from 2001 – 2011 in 44 sub-Saharan states, the data revealed no significant correlation. The two tailed test returned a significance of .063, which is greater than .05 indicating significance. Potentially, this means there is simply no statistical correlations between the two, but the large amount of data might skew this. Below are regional graphs to allow for a narrower and more focused analysis.

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GABREELLA FRIDAY West sub-Saharan Africa Figure 2: Women’s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in West sub-Saharan Africa West sub-Saharan Africa: Women's Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence

HIV/AIDS Prevalience (UNAIDS)

0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

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Women's Rights (CIRI)

West sub-Saharan Africa is comprised of the following countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, and Togo. The results from West sub-Saharan Africa when tested and graphed showed no statistically significant correlation between women’s rights and HIV/AIDS prevalence.

East sub-Saharan Africa Figure 3: Women’s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in East sub-Saharan Africa East sub-Saharan Africa: Women's Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence

HIV/AIDS Prevalence (UNAIDS)

0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0

0.5

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GABREELLA FRIDAY East sub-Saharan Africa is comprised of the following countries: Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Both the line of best fit and the two tail test revealed no statistically significant correlation between womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights and HIV/AIDs prevalence in the region. The two tail test revealed a .098 significance, which is higher than the .05 or lower required to be statistically significant.

HIV/AIDS Prevalence (UNAIDS)

Central sub-Saharan Africa Figure 4: Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in Central sub-Saharan Africa Central sub-Saharan Africa: Women's Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence

0.1 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0

0.5

1 1.5 Women's Rights (CIRI)

2

2.5

Central sub-Saharan Africa is comprised of the following countries: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Niger, and Nigeria. Similarly, to the preceding regions central sub-Saharan Africa shows no statistically significant correlation between the two. With a significance of .061, central subSaharan Africa exceeds the necessary significance of .05.

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GABREELLA FRIDAY South sub-Saharan Africa Figure 4: Women’s Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence in South sub-Saharan Africa South sub-Saharan Africa: Women's Rights and HIV/AIDS Prevalence

HIV/AIDS Prevalence (UNAIDS)

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

0.5

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1.5 Women's Rights (CIRI)

2

2.5

3

South sub-Saharan Africa is comprised of the following countries: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. South sub-Saharan Africa has a moderately low significance between women’s rights and HIV/AIDs prevalence. The two tail test showed a significance of -.256, meaning there is a negative trend between the two. The more women’s rights that was prevalent in the region correlated to a lesser prevalence HIV/AIDs. Discussion and Conclusion It is evident women in sub-Saharan Africa have a heightened chance of contracting HIV/AIDs. In the overview and regional analyses done there was no statistical correlation found between the two, except for in south sub-Saharan Africa. South sub-Saharan Africa is also the region most afflicted from the disease by far, with some countries having HIV/AIDs prevalence higher than 20% or one-fifth of the population. Though only exhibiting a low moderate correlation, the findings from south sub-Saharan Africa show a potential need for further research.

Though there is no statistically significant correlation between women’s rights and HIV/AIDS prevalence in the other regions, does not mean advancing women’s rights won’t help alleviate the pandemic. Women are evidently at a higher risk to contract HIV/AIDs due to genetics, poverty, patriarchal norms, and lack of education. Genetics is not something that can be changed, but McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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GABREELLA FRIDAY addressing issues of poverty, male dominance and lack of education is something that can be.

Through the advancement of women, the ever quickly spreading death sentence known as HIV/AIDs can be prevented and hopefully, one day, cured.

Acknowledgements The completion of this research wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have been possible without the backing of the Ronald E. McNair Post Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The McNair Program aids in the pursuit of post baccalaureate studies and gives opportunities to underrepresented students, whom otherwise would not have been provided such an opportunity. Thank you to Perry Fritter and Heather Williams, who guided the 2015 McNair Cohort. A special thank you to my McNair Faculty Mentor, Dr. Robert Ostergard who has watched over me throughout The McNair Program and aided in the completion of this research.

References Ackermann, L., & Klerk, G. (2002). Social Factors That Make South African Women Vulnerable to Hiv Infection. Health Care for Women International, 23, 163-172.

Bruyn, M. (1992). Women and aids in developing countries. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 34(3), 249-262.

Buseh, A., Glass, L., & Mcelmurry, B. (2002). Cultural and Gender Issues Related to Hiv/Aids Prevention in Rural Swaziland: A Focus Group Analysis. UHCW Health Care for Women International Health. Care for Women Int., 23, 173-184.

Campbell, C. (1995). Male gender roles and sexuality: Implications for women's AIDS risk and prevention. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 41(2), 197-210.

Cingranelli, D., & L. Richards, D. (2014). CIRI Human Rights Data Project: Data & Documentation.

Retrieved July 9, 2015, from http://www.humanrightsdata.com/p/data-ocumentation.html Cock, K., Jaffe, H., & Curran, J. (2012). The evolving epidemiology of HIV/AIDS. AIDS, 26, 12051213.

Decock, K., Mboringacha, D., & Marum, E. (2002). Shadow On the Continent: Public Health and HIV/AIDS in Africa In The 21st Century. The Lancet, 360, 67-72.

Drimie, S. (2003). HIV/Aids and land: Case studies from Kenya, Lesotho and South Africa.

Development Southern Africa, 20(5), 647-658.

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Gupta, G. (2002). How men's power over women fuels the HIV epidemic. BMJ, 324, 183-184.

Heise, L., & Elias, C. (1995). Transforming AIDS prevention to meet women's needs: A focus on developing countries. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 40(7), 931-943.

Mehta, S. (2006). The AIDS pandemic: A catalyst for women's rights. International Journal of Gynecology &amp; Obstetrics, 94, 317-324.

Orubuloye, I., Caldwell, J., & Caldwell, P. (1993). African women's control over their sexuality in an era of AIDS. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 37(7), 859-872.

Ostergard, R., Sweeney, S., & Welborne, B. (2015). The Impact of Women's Rights on HIV/AIDs Prevalence, 1990-2005: A Global Analysis.

Ramjee, G., & Daniels, B. (2013). Women and HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS Research and Therapy, 1-9.

Seidel, G. (1993). The Competing Discourses of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: Discourses of Rights and Empowerment Vs Discourses of Control And Exclusion. Social Science & Medicine, 36(3), 175-194.

Sovran, S. (n.d.). Understanding culture and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. SAHARA-J: Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS: An Open Access Journal, 10(1), 32-41.

TĂźrmen, T. (2003). Gender and HIV/AIDS. International Journal of Gynecology &amp; Obstetrics, 82, 411-418.

UNAIDS Data. (2013). Retrieved July 29, 2015, from http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis Ulin, P. (1992). African women and AIDS: Negotiating behavioral change. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 34(1), 63-73.

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III

Annotation and Expression Profiling of circRNAs in the Aging Honeybee

Vicente Gapuz Major: Molecular Microbiology & Immunology Mentor: Dr. Pedro Miura Graduating: 2017

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Apis mellifera, more commonly known as honeybees, are arising as a model organism for aging research due to their flexible yet strict lifespans that are interlinked with their specific roles in the hive.

These changes in lifespan that are not due to genetic alterations likely involve regulation of gene expression. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have recently been found in many organisms. Recent studies have shown that the accumulation of circRNAs is age-dependent (Westholm et al, 2014). Although circRNAs have been annotated in Drosophila melanogaster (Salzman et al. 2013; Ashwal-Fluss et al. 2015; Westholm et al. 2014), Caenorhabditis elegans (Memczack et al.

2013; Ivanov et al. 2015), humans (Salzman et al. 2012; Memczack et al. 2013; Conn et al. 2015) and mice (Memczak et al. 2013; RybakWolf et al. 2015), they have not yet been studied in A. mellifera. Here, we searched for genes in A. mellifera that express circRNAs and tested whether accumulation of circRNAs is age-dependent as previously observed in D. melanogaster. We searched for protein homology between circularized exons in D. melanogaster and orthologous genes in the A. mellifera genome. Using bioinformatics approaches, we designed oligonucleotide primers to detect putative circRNAs in the heads of A. mellifera by RT-PCR. Several circRNAs were confirmed through analysis of published RNA-seq data and by sequencing of circularized PCR products, including circRNAs from foxo and muscleblind genes. Accumulation of these circRNAs in the heads of newly emerged bees and foragers were measured by qRT-PCR. In future studies, we will profile circRNAs in brain regions of bees from different life stages at genome-wide using total RNA-seq.

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III INTRODUCTION Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a newly appreciated class of noncoding RNA that are produced by back splicing of protein encoding exons (Hansen et al., 2013; Memczack et al., 2013).

Circularization of RNAs has been quantified in many species which includes Drosophila melanogaster (Salzman et al. 2013; Ashwal-Fluss et al. 2015; Westholm et al. 2014), Caenorhabditis elegans (Memczack et al. 2013; Ivanov et al. 2015), humans (Salzman et al. 2012; Memczack et al. 2013; Conn et al. 2015) and mice (Memczak et al. 2013; Rybak-Wolf et al. 2015).

The mechanisms in which circles are generated is believe to be due to back splicing, where a 5’ splice donor joins an upstream 3’ splice acceptor (Westholm et al., 2014). Due to back splicing, circRNAs lack the free ends which ultimately makes them resistant to degradation (Conn et al., 2015; Salzman et al., 2013; Westholm et al., 2014).

It is still uncertain if circRNAs are byproducts of accidental splicing or if it is important for specific cellular functions. Expression of some circRNAs are cell-specific (Salzman et al., 2013), suggesting that they might have function. Although thousands of circRNAs have been discovered throughout many species, only two functions of circRNAs have been documented. These include CDR1as and Sry, which act as miRNA sponges (Hansen et al., 2014). It is still unknown if the accumulation of circRNA is detrimental.

Apis mellifera is emerging as a model organism for aging research due to their different life spans which are not chronologically fixed, but are strictly interlinked with the task they perform in the hive (Aamodt, 2008). The different worker bees and the queen all derive from the same diploid cell; however, the queen’s life span is about 3-5 years and workers only span a few months (Aurori, 2013). Like humans, A. mellifera are social organisms (Aurori et al., 2013). Social interactions are believed to greatly affect gene expression which may promote or shorten life expectancy (Aamodt, 2008; Munch and Amdam, 2010), making A. mellifera a good model organism for aging research.

We are interested in observing the differences in circRNA abundance in the different life stages which are subject to different social interactions and stress factors due to their roles in the hive. To our knowledge, circRNAs have never been studied in A. mellifera.

LITERATURE REVIEW Apis Mellifera Caste System Apis mellifera are gaining prominence in aging research as a model organism due to the plasticity of their life spans and their age-dependent social behaviors. Their lifespans are not chronologically fixed, but they are strictly interlinked with their respective roles in the colony (Aamodt, 2008). The colonies are organized through a division of labor structure between worker bees that are sisters (Munch and Amdam, 2010). The different workers and queens derive from the same genomes McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III which means that they all have the same gene potentials (Aamodt, 2008; Aurori, 2013). However, the queen’s life span is about 10 times longer at 3-5 years while workers typically span only a couple months (Aurori, 2013). These variations in age makes studying bees a unique organism to study in age research.

Apis mellifera typically spend their first few weeks within the hive. The roles of hive bees include brood rearing, food storage, defense, debris removal, and maintenance (Munch and Amdam, 2010). Worker bees that engage in brood rearing and maintenance activities in the hive are known as nurses (Aamodt, 2008; Behura, 2010; Munch and Amdam, 2010). After two to three weeks nurses leave the hive and engage in more risky activities in the field (Aamodt, 2008). The bees are subject to more stress factors when collecting pollen or nectar (Behura, 2010). Foragers’ lifespans are greatly reduced and typically survive only one to three weeks (Aamodt, 2008). The mechanism in which nurses convert to foragers is still unknown. This opens the questions of whether or not social roles and stress affects lifespans.

Physiological Adaptations Physiological adaptations are linked to the worker bees’ roles. For example, nurses have adaptations such as protein and lipid stores in abdominal fat body and hypertrophied hypopharyngeal head glands that produce jalopy for the brood they take care of (Munch and Amdam, 2010). Munch and Amdam (2010) also found that dilutinus develop excess body fat. The different proteins adaptations between the different classes of worker bees suggests regulation of gene expression might play a role in these adaptations.

Gene Regulation Behura (2010) has shown that behavioral changes are correlated with changes in transcription in A. mellifera and furthermore, behavior in bees can be predicted from the pattern of gene expression in the brain. miRNA have regulatory factors in gene expression by binding to 3’UTR regions in mRNA. Behura (2010) observed that some miRNA transcripts such as miRNA-276 is down regulated with age. The changes in miRNA expression suggests possible roles in age-dependent behavioral changes in bees. In addition, it has been reported that miRNA play a major role in age- and division-of-labor-dependent mechanisms in honeybees (Behura, 2010). The expression patterns of miRNA between young nurse and adult forager bees represent the first possible role of noncoding RNA sequences in regulating honey bee behavior.

Circular RNA It has been long assumed pre-mRNA transcribed from protein coding regions are canonically spliced to form linear mRNA. However, recent studies show that pre-mRNA can be noncanonically

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III spliced to form circular RNA (circRNA). circRNA are almost exclusively derived from exons. The biogenesis of these noncoding species of RNA is unclear. However, it is believed that circularization of exons is achieved through an alternative splicing mechanism known as back splicing. Oppose to backsplicing, canonical splicing proceeds with exons being spliced in order in a linear fashion. In backsplicing a 5’ splice donor site is covalently joined with a 3’ splice acceptor to form circular RNA (Barret et al. 2015). Due to back splicing, circRNAs lack the free 3’ end and binding sites which ultimately makes them resistant to degradation by exonucleases (Conn et al., 2015; Salzman et al., 2013; Westholm et al., 2014).

Through genome-wide methods thousands of circRNA has been identified in a diverse group of organism which include Caenorhabditis elegans, mice, Drosophila, and humans. Growing evidence suggest they have regulatory roles. Interestingly, some circRNAs is more abundant than their associated mRNA transcripts (Salzman et al. 2012), this suggest that some genes may be generating circular RNAs for a specific function. Neural-specific accumulation is also observed for some circRNA species such as those generated from the muscleblind and ank2 genes in Drosophila melanogaster (Westholm et al. 2014).

It is still uncertain if circRNAs are by-products of accidental splicing or if they have function. Two circRNAs, CDR1as/ciRS-t andSry, have been found to function as decoys in which they act as miRNA sponges (Hansen et al., 2013; Memczack et al., 2013). CDR1as contain >70 miRNA binding sites (Memczack et al., 2013), however, most circRNAs contain few microRNA-binding sites (Westholm et al. 2014). Therefore, it can be speculated that they may have other functions.

RESULTS circRNA Confirmed Through RNA-seq Data Exons from genes such as muscleblind, ank2, and plexin A are shown to circularize and express age-dependent accumulation in Drosophila melanogaster (Westholm et al, 2013). Thus, orthologous exons were identified in Apis mellifera. Using published RNA-seq data, a transcript model for the bee genome was created.

Conventional bioinformatics prevents the alignment of RNA-seq data; therefore, a new reference genome was generated by mapping the exons “out-of-order” to include circularized junction of circRNAs (Figure 1).

Published RNA-seq reads (PolyA) were found to align to McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III

the reference genome for muscleblind. RNA-seq reads were not found to align for foxo, ank2, and plexin A. CircRNA Confirmed Through Endpoint RT-PCR and Sanger Sequencing Having shown that exon-coding genes circularize in Apis mellifera through bioinformatics approaches, putative circRNAs were confirmed experimentally.

Diverging oligonucleotide primers were designed to amplify products that includes putative circRNA junctions (Figure 1A). Endpoint ReverseTranscription polymerase chain reaction (Endpoint RT-PCR) was used to confirm predicted band sizes (Figure 1B). Gel-electrophoresis revealed expected product sizes for muscleblind and foxo circRNAs. Sanger Sequencing verified products contained circRNA junctions.

Quantification of circRNA Expression

circRNA expression of foxo and muscleblind were compared between newly emerged bees and

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III foragers. The control, alpha-glucosidase was shown to be upregulated ~23 fold in foragers. Both foxo and muscleblind are upregulated in hypopharyngeal glands, while muscleblind is downregulated in the brain (Figure 3).

DISCUSSION Eusocial insect species, including Apis mellifera, are emerging as models to observe gene regulation because of their unique displays of gene expression plasticity due to age, morphology, and social context (Yan et al. 2014). Here, we examined the circularization of RNA in Apis mellifera.

Recent studies have identified thousands of exon-coding genes that generate circRNAs in a wide array of organisms. The function of these circular isoforms is poorly understood. However, tissuespecific expression patterns suggest they play a regulatory role (Salzman et al. 2013; Westholm et al. 2014). In this study, we searched for circularized exons in the brains and hypopharyngeal glands of newly emerged bees and foragers.

We looked at protein homology to determine orthologous genes of Apis mellifera that are known to circularize and accumulate with age in Drosophila melanogaster. Through bioinformatics approaches we were able to confirm circRNAs. Putative circRNAs were later confirmed through Endpoint RT-PCR and verified by Sanger Sequencing. Poly(A) RNA-seq reads were aligned to a reference bee genome to detect circRNAs. Circularized exons are expected to lack poly(A) tails; therefore, the use of poly(A) RNA-seq reads may have contributed to insufficient alignment of reads.

New ribo-depleted RNA-seq libraries and high-throughput sequencing will provide a more comprehensive view of circularized exons in Apis mellifera. In this study, we show differential expression of circRNAs for the muscleblind and foxo gene in the HPGs and brains of newly emerged bees and foragers. Genome-wide analysis will further provide us with deeper understanding of expression patterns of circRNAs in the different tissues and castes of the honeybee. Long-flanking introns are shown to be highly associated with circRNA biogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster (Westholm et al. 2014). Preliminary analysis suggest this trend is conserved in circularized exons of Apis mellifera. Future studies will be aimed at profiling circular RNAs in more controlled environments to control for age and the effects of different stress factors in circRNA formations and to see the difference in expression patterns of these samples compared to samples from the wild.

METHODS AND MATERIALS Brain and hypopharyngeal gland were isolated from newly emerged bees and foragers and RNA McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III was extracted using the TRIzol® Extraction protocol. Purity of samples were analyzed at the Nevada Genomic Center through Agilent bioanalyzer. RNA reverse transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA). Purity of sample Oligonucleotide primers designed using Primer3 and Integrative Genome Browser. Endpoint RTPCR and gel electrophoresis amplified putative circRNA junctions. Bands were extracted using QAIquick® Extraction Kit. Samples prepared using QAIquick® Miniprep Kit. Products were cloned into TOPO-TA cloning vectors. Samples sent for Sanger Sequencing at the Nevada Genomic Center.

Gene expression was quantified through quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). RNA-seq libraries of brain and HPG tissue from newly emerged bees and foragers were prepared using Illumina ® total RNA Tru-seq kit.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to the Miura Lab for the support and feedback. Thank you to Dr. Pedro Miura for all the advice and guidance throughout this project. Thank you to the McNair Scholars Program. This research was supported by the General Undergraduate Research Award (GURA), which is cofunded by the Office of the Vice President for Research and ASUN. The research is also supported by the Nevada EPSCoR Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program, which is funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. IIA-1301726. The research is funded by the Integrative Neuroscience COBRE P20 GM103650 pilot project 2.

REFERENCES Aamodt R. The caste- and age-specific expression signature of honeybee heat shock genes shows an alternative splicing-dependent regulation of Hsp90. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 2008;129(11):632-637. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2008.07.002.

Amdam GV, Simões ZL, Hagen A, et al. Hormonal control of the yolk precursor vitellogenin r regulates immune function and longev- ity in honeybees. Exp Gerontol. 2004;39:767–773. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2004.02.010.

Ashwal-Fluss R, Meyer M, Pamudurti N Ivanov A, Bartok O, Hanan M, Evantal N, Memczak S, Rajewsky N, Kadener S. circRNA biogenesis competes with pre-mRNA splicing. Molecular Cell. 2014;56(1):55-66. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2014.08.019.

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III Aurori C, Buttstedt A, Dezmirean D, M rghita L, Moritz R, Erler S. What is the main driver of ageing in long-lived winter honeybees: Antioxidant enzymes, innate immunity, or vitellogenin? The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 2013; 69(6):633639. doi:10.1093/gerona/glt134.

Barrett SP, Wang PL, Salzman J. 2015. Circular RNA biogenesis can proceed through an exoncontaining lariat precursor. eLife 4: e07540 Behura S, Whitfield C. Correlated expression patterns of microRNA genes with age-dependent behavioural changes in honeybee. Insect Molecular Biology. 2010:no-no. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2583.2010.01010.x.

Busch A, Hertel KJ. Evolution of SR protein and hnRNP splicing regulatory factors. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2012. 3(1): 1–12. doi: 10.1002/wrna.100.

Chen LL, Yang L. Regulation of circRNA biogenesis. RNA Biol. 2015; 12(4): 381–388 Conn S, Pillman K, Toubia J et al. The RNA Binding Protein Quaking Regulates Formation of circRNAs. Cell. 2015; 160(6):1125-1134. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.014.

Elsik C, Worley K, Bennett A et al. Finding the missing honey bee genes: lessons learned from a genome upgrade. BMC Genomics. 2014;15(1):86. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-86.

Hansen T, Jensen T, Clausen B et al. Natural RNA circles function as efficient microRNA sponges.

Nature. 2013; 495(7441):384-388. doi:10.1038/nature11993.

Ivanov A, Memczak S, Wyler E, Torti F, Porath HT, Orejuela MR, Piechotta M, Levanon EY, Landthaler M, Dieterich C, et al. 2015. Analysis of intron sequences reveals hallmarks of circular RNA biogenesis in animals. Cell Rep 10: 170–177 Jeck WR, Sorrentino JA, Wang K, Slevin MK, Burd CE, Liu J, Marzluff WF, Sharpless NECircular RNAs are abundant, conserved, and associated with ALU repeats. RNA. 2013; 19:141–157 Kramer, M.C., Liang, D., Tatomer, D.C., Gold, B., Cherry, S., and Wilusz, J.E. Combinatorial control of Drosophila circular RNA expression by intronic repeats, hnRNPs, and SR proteins. Genes Dev. 2015; 29:2168-2182 Liang D, Wilusz JE. 2014. Short intronic repeat sequences facilitate circular RNA production. Genes Dev 28: 2233–2247

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VICENTE M. GAPUZ III Memczak S, Jens M, Elefsinioti A, Torti F, Krueger J, Rybak A, Maier L, Mackowiak S, Gergersen L, Munschauer M, Loewer A, Ziebold U, Landthaler M, Kocks C, Noble F, Rajewsky N. Circular RNAs are a large class of animal RNAs with regulatory potency. Nature. 2013; 495(7441):333-338. doi:10.1038/nature11928.

Münch D, Amdam G. The curious case of aging plasticity in honey bees. FEBS Letters. 2010; 584(12):2496-2503. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2010.04.007.

Rybak-Wolf A, Stottmeister C, Glazar P, Jens M, Pino N, Giusti S, Hanan M, Behm M, Bartok O, Ashwal-Fluss R, et al. 2015. Circular RNAs in the mammalian brain are highly abundant, conserved, and dynamically expressed. Mol Cell 58: 870–885.

Salzman J, Gawad C, Wang PL, Lacayo N, Brown PO. 2012. Circular RNAs are the predominant transcript isoform from hundreds of human genes in diverse cell types. PLoS One7:e30733.

Salzman J, Chen RE, Olsen MN,Wang PL, Brown PO. 2013. Cell type specific features of circular RNA expression. PLoS Genet 9: e1003777.

Seehuus SC, Norberg K, Gimsa U, Krekling T, Amdam GV. Reproductive protein protects functionally sterile honey bee workers from oxidative stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006; 103:962– 967. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502681103 Smith CW, Valcaercel J. 2000. Alternative pre-mRNA splicing: the logic of combinatorial control.

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Westholm J, Miura P, Olson S, Shenker S, Joseph B, Sanfilippo P, Celniker S, Graveley B, Lai E. Genome-wide analysis of drosophila circular RNAs reveals their structural and sequence properties and age-dependent neural accumulation. Cell Reports. 2014; 9(5):1966-1980. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2014.10.062.

Yan H, Simola D, Bonasio R, Liebig J, Berger S., Reinberg D. Eusocial insects as emerging models for behavioural epigenetics. Nature Reviews Genetecs. 2014; 15: 677-688. doi:10.1038/nrg3787

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Skeletons in the Closet

Luis Garcia Hernandez Major: Psychology & Spanish Mentor: Dr. Nickles Graduated: 2012 Master’s Degree: Philosophy, University of Nevada, Reno Graduated: 2016

The following paper attempts to address a philosophical problem that concerns the value of mentalistic explanations of behavior as being rather circular and superfluous as proposed by a philosophy of behaviorism developed by B.F. Skinner. This paper builds on what the philosopher Gilbert Ryle called a category mistake to challenge Skinner’s behaviorism when discounting the explanatory value of mental conduct concepts like ‘anger,’ ‘sad,’ and so on as valid explanations of behavior. The challenge I propose comes in the form of not assuming a commitment to philosophical dualism inherent in the use of mental conduct concepts, as Skinner does not make clear whether the objectionable features of dualism belong to either substance or property dualism. Much of the second part of the paper is devoted to showing how mental conduct concepts (anger, for example) can be distinguished according to two distinct types of dispositional explanations: single-track and multi-track dispositions.

Finally, the last part of this paper attempts to challenge what Skinner sees as a deep flaw when psychology borrows common sense language into its technical vocabulary by pointing out that we need not consider a diametrical opposition between common sense explanations and scientific explanations when attempting to explain behavior.

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ Introduction: Though the title of this essay is rather macabre, there is something curiously amiss with the philosophy of B.F. Skinner’s radical behaviorism that requires of us to bring to light such skeletons.

The most notable is the use of the circular argument objection as a means of dismissing the use of mentalistic terms (e.g., ‘motivation,’ ‘anger’ and ‘empathy’) as nothing more than pseudoexplanations that have as much explanatory value as stating water to be a liquid substance. For example, explaining someone’s anger by their behavior and then explaining the behavior by the anger (mental event); there is no clear explanation of the event at all. Skinner’s line of argument treats the uses of mental conduct concepts as referring to a separation of mind and body as two different substances, and the cause of behavior as the mental event that prefaces it; both routes are disastrous. However, we need not be persuaded by the appearance of intractability in the problem in which we have but two lines of thought open to us. On the one hand, mentalistic terms have a use in everyday folk communication, but, according to Skinner, they have the status of pseudo-explanations because they are mentalistic. For Skinner, the correct view is an environmental analysis of behavior that simply dispenses with such colorful but useless language.

Skinner’s analysis sets forth a challenge to the mentalist position in the form a destructive dilemma. Either mental terms refer to dualistic mental episodes (mental causes of behavior), in which case they provide pseudo-explanations, or else the meaning of mentalistic language can be unpacked fully in terms of the relation of behavior to environmental causes, in which case mental language is superfluous. This paper shall counter Skinner’s criticisms by arguing that skinner commits what Gilbert Ryle (1949) termed a category mistake. Skinner simply fails to understand the logic of mentalistic language. Since Ryle’s own position, which in my view is the correct one, is broadly behaviorist, we have Ryle’s philosophical behaviorism combating Skinner’s radical, psychological behaviorism.

What the philosophy of radical behaviorism has attempted to do is rid itself of a dualistic conceptualization that permeates the subject matter of psychology. In attempting such a feat, such a philosophy proposes an alternative analysis of behavior that is not grounded in the mind-body distinction. Of particular interest will be to examine the philosophy of radical behaviorism as B.F. Skinner presented it in his book About Behaviorism (1974). In light of bringing out of the closet the skeleton of the circular argument objection, we shall see that the use of such an argument is conceptually confused as to what exactly is objectionable in the use of mentalistic terms as an explanation of behavior. The argument, rather than actually dismissing such explanations, exacerbates the use of such terms to the point of creating a pseudo-problem for mentalistic explanations and proceeding to provide a pseudo-solution. Ironically, the use of such an argument by the behaviorist commits the very mistake it claims to overcome, the mistake Gilbert Ryle

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highlighted in his attack on the doctrine of the Ghost in the Machine. What we shall in fact see is that the force of such an argument hinges on what Ryle termed a category mistake. We can therefore begin to see our way out of the logical quagmire that the radical behavioral philosophy construes as the circular explanatory power of such terms, terms which correspond to a different category altogether.

One of the major concerns in any sort of conceptual analysis of a philosophical work is to determine what exactly is being argued and whether any of the arguments are cogent. Ryle (1954) puts it best when he says, “There often arise quarrels between theories, or, more generally, between lines of thought, which are not rival solutions or would be solutions of the same problem, but rather solutions or would-be solutions of different problems” (p.1).

I claim that behaviorist’s circular argument objection is not directly competing with the dualistic or mentalistic line of thought. Ryle (1954) goes on to say, “A thinker who adopts one [side in the argument] seems to be logically committed to rejecting the other, despite the fact that the inquiries from which the theories issued had, from the beginning, widely divergent goals” (p. 1).

Such is the case, I claim, with radical behaviorism. Such a position commits itself inexorably to rejecting a mind-body distinction, even when its goals had a different purpose in mind: to explain behavior by not having to appeal to nonphysical entities, e.g., the mind or mental episodes.

Definitions: Skinner characterized mentalism as explanations of the ghostly sort. Moore (1990) provides the following definition for mentalism, a definition that will make clear what it is that Skinner’s use of such a term encompasses within the present work being analyzed: An orientation to the study of behavior, which holds that a unique, necessary, and the primary contribution to the causal explanation of behavior consists in proposing various internal acts, states, mechanisms or processes, presumed to be operating in neural, conceptual, or psychic dimensions. (p. 20) Such a definition clarifies the boundaries of what Skinner’s philosophy is criticizing when it takes a stance against the use of mentalistic terms in the explanation of behavior, namely that the resulting explanation of behavior by mentalistic terms is rather circular. Here also we should be careful and try to represent faithfully what is the target of the circular argument objection. Moore (1990) also sets the boundaries for circularity by explaining that language should not be primarily thought of as linguistic—and thereby logical activity— but as a behavioral activity. To argue circularity on the notion that language is inherently logical tacitly supports the mentalistic explanation itself. Rather, the manner in which circularity should be understood is in the McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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structuring of the language of the sentences themselves. Both will become relevant as further clarification is brought to the concept of mentalism and circularity.

Though Moore makes an important distinction that is necessary for understanding how ‘mentalism’ and ‘circularity’ are being employed, it is also crucial to note that the definition is an umbrella term that partly covers what is understood by mentalism and dualism. In his book Psychological explanation (1968), Jerry Fodor characterizes dualism as a philosophy that embraces two types of substances with predicates that designate different properties. His version of mentalism is not a dualism of this “Cartesian” sort. On the contrary, he maintains that there is just one type of substance, though there is a logical independence between mental and behavioral predicates. This means that mental and physical descriptions are only contingently related, not conceptually related. Thus, there is no question of defining mental properties in terms of physical properties. Fodor’s definitions are by no means definitive, but they do provide a basis from which we can be acquainted with the other side of the argument. For we can now see that the radical behaviorist’s objection to mentalistic terms conflates mentalism and dualism in assuming that all mentalists are dualists (and vice versa). This confusion is one of the sources for the mistargeted circularity objection.

Relevant to the discussion of the dilemma into which radical behaviorism has cornered itself because of the terms of ‘mentalism’ and ‘circularity’ is the category mistake. Ryle (1949) describes the category mistake as follows, “It represents the facts of mental life as if they belonged to one logical type or category (or range of types or categories), when they actually belong to another” (p.

16). The category mistake underlies the false dilemma that radical behaviorism commits itself to by trying to dismiss the use of mental conduct concepts in the explanation of behavior.

Background: As has already been argued by O’Donohue and Szymanski (1996), Skinner presents a position in which cognitions are not directly manipulated, and any causal role attributed to them cannot be part of the science of behavior. Before presenting Skinner’s own views on the subject, it is best to remember that part of the circular argument objection hinges on the causal role attributed to cognition. ‘Mentalism’, as presented in Moore’s definition, claims that cognitions do have a causal role, while the radical behavioral stance hinges on cognitions having no causal role. The criticism is best put in Skinner’s own words, “If we are asked why we have spoken sharply to a friend, we may reply, “Because I felt angry.” And so we take anger to be the cause of our remark” (p. 11). For Skinner what is wrong with such explanations is that such puzzling issues plague it: for example, the nonphysical event causing a physical one or a physical event causing the nonphysical one. The

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reciprocity of such a relationship is precisely what mentalism purportedly offers as a solution but ultimately fails to provide because it is not clear exactly how such a relationship is even possible.

As Moore (1981) also explains, that it is not the terms but rather the uses of such terms in explanations that is objectionable. Skinner (1974) goes on to add, “Ignorance of that role led in the first place to mental fictions, and it has been perpetuated by the explanatory practices to which they gave rise” (p. 20). By ignorance Skinner refers to appealing only to ‘mentalistic’ explanations, e.g., ‘I felt angry with him that is why I punched him’, as not being any sort of explanation because it ignores the environment that led to the person punching the other one.

In keeping with the spirit of an environmental analysis of behavior, Skinner (1974) adds, “In its search for internal explanation, supported by the false sense of cause associated with feelings and introspective observations, mentalism has obscured the environmental antecedents which would have led to a much more effective analysis” (182). For Skinner, the types of mentalistic explanations of behavior are of the wrong sort to explain anything. The proper analysis of behavior is not grounded in the mind-body distinction but in the environment, especially the antecedents to the occurrence of any behavior. However, this emphasis on the environment and the antecedents for the occurrence of particular behaviors has led to controversy regarding what stance such a philosophy holds as regard to cognition. As O’Donohue and Szymanski (1996) have already shown, much of the controversy is in fact a misinterpretation that amounts to dismissing cognitions as nonexistent or of little relevance to an analysis of behavior. Skinner’s (1974) own words provide the answer to such an objection, “The objection to the inner workings of the mind is not that they are not open to inspection but that they have stood in the way of inspection of more important things” (182). Thus, the controversy and objection from the opposition to radical behaviorism is reliant upon misunderstanding of the work itself.

Skinner regards mental explanations as appeals to ghostly fictions that do not serve any purpose other than to conceal the environmental roles that lead to the sorts of situations in which we might act out by punching someone. Mentalistic explanations allegedly trade in false constructs.

As noted above, the chief arguments against mentalism is the circular nature of such explanations.

For example, we explain someone’s behavior by saying that they were angry and then explain what it is to be angry by reference to that sort of behavior. The explanation is vacuous.

However, there is something amiss here: the circularity objection is aimed at a position that a mentalist need not hold. Skinner supposes that mental explanations such as the anger explanation posit mental events as causes of external behavior, much as one billiard ball causes another to move. Ryle dubs such a view ‘the paramechanical legend’ since it supposes that there is an arena McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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of mental causation running in parallel to mechanical causation in the physical world. So, ironically, the circularity objection that is supposed to counter mentalism is itself a fallacious form of thinking.

Category Mistake and Dispositions: With a better background understanding as to what is the controversy that surrounds radical behaviorism and its objection to mentalistic explanations, we can now direct our attention to understanding what exactly is flawed in its objection to the mentalism that it considers so destructive to an analysis of behavior. Part of the task now is to demonstrate that the conceptual confusion in the behaviorist line of thought results in a category mistake. It may not be obvious how the circular argument objection is a category mistake. For Skinner, the circularity objection is meant to dismiss the fictional causal episode or the incorrect construction of sentences in which mental concepts occur. In the first case, mentalistic explanations have a causal role in the explanation of behavior; in the second case, the sentence construction leads to confused language of mental concepts. Both instances have misconstrued mental conduct concepts as paramechanical explanation of behavior; the proper use of the mental conduct concepts in question is that the terms are themselves dispositional. To construct an argument against mentalistic terms on the grounds of circularity is to completely ignore the dispositional quality of mental conduct concepts, giving rise to the category mistake inherent in such an argument. An episode has been created to stand for the disposition itself, so that there is direct causality between it and the overt doings. Ryle (1949) explains part of the problem with construing dispositional terms as if they actually stood for episodes in the following way, “It [a skill] is a disposition, or complex of dispositions, and a disposition is a factor of the wrong logical type to be seen or unseen, recorded or unrecorded” (33). For Ryle, what is witnessed is the exercise of a skill with particular competence, and not some other fictional entity known as ‘skill’; there is no such entity.

Insofar as the circular argument objection has any force against mentalism, such force is dependent on misconstruing the dispositional quality of such terms and creating entities that have never actually been in question because they are nonexistent. Ryle further adds with respect to the proper character of dispositions, “To possess a dispositional property is not to be in a particular state, or to undergo a particular change; it is to be bound or liable to be in particular state, or to undergo a particular change, when a particular condition is realised” (43). The character of dispositions is such that they are not episodes or doings separate from the episodes in which they are actualized, but rather they are actualizations that are achieved when certain conditions are met. We can now begin to see that the argument of circularity has misconstrued the dispositional quality of the supposedly dubious terms that are employed in explanations of

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behavior.

The questionable manner in which radical behaviorism has tried to expunge mentalistic explanations of behavior has now been shown to be inherently faulty. The causal explanation that is supposed to underlie such explanations is also faulty, given that dispositions are of the proper type to explain behavior. Ryle (1949) describes the dispositional explanation in the following manner: When we describe a glass as brittle, or sugar as soluble, we are using dispositional concepts, the logical force of which is this. The brittleness of glass does not consist in the fact that it is at a given moment actually being shivered. It may be brittle without ever being shivered. To say that it is brittle is to say that if it ever is, or ever had been, struck or strained, it would fly, or have flown, into fragments. (p. 43) The dispositional explanation refers to conditions which when they are met are likely to result in the actualization of the disposition. Thus, the imputed causality of mentalistic explanations either as ghostly episodes or as part of the syntax of the sentence is not a satisfactory objection as an explanation of behavior.

The Circular Argument and Counterexamples: Having now achieved an understanding of what is amiss with the radical behavioral argument; let us turn our attention to examples of the circularity objection that purport to reject mentalistic explanations of behavior. However, of importance to the forthcoming examples are the distinctions between dispositions. Ryle (1949) gives an account of two types of dispositions: single-track dispositions are those that have rather uniform actualizations, while higher-level dispositions have no uniform actualization because the exercises of such dispositions are heterogeneous. The distinction between the dispositions will be shown to have great importance in order to bring out the force of the category mistake inherent in the circular argument objection.

Let us consider the following case: Skinner describes the case in which person â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responds that he spoke sharply to a friend because he felt angry. Appealing to feelings becomes the cause of behavior. Let us first look at the circularity objection on the grounds of it being a ghostly episode.

Looking at the example carefully we can see that there were no appeals to ghostly episodes. The ghostly episode is a nonexistent entity in the behaviorist objection. Feelings as causes of behavior are a legitimate explanation because of the shared similarity with glass breaking because it was brittle. Feelings are an explanation in the dispositional sense, so that an explanation of speaking sharply to a friend is an actualization of the manner in which someone that is feeling angry would act and react.

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The dispositional explanation inherent in mental conduct concepts themselves dissolves the conflation surrounding mentalistic explanations. The other manner in which the circularity objections holds some footing is in the structure of the sentence itself. Let us once more look at Skinner’s own example. If the explanation of behavior appeals to feelings and the feelings are in turn explained by the behavior, no circularity has actually taken place within the sentence. Once again, a causal property has been misconstrued within the sentence itself. Appealing to feelings as an explanation within the sentence is dispositional and therefore not circular.

Both instances that are thought to give rise to mentalistic explanations are actually instances of the category mistake. Dispositional terms, especially mental conduct concepts, were misconstrued as improper explanations because they were thought to refer to ghostly (fictional) constructs. Such billiard ball like causality has misrepresented dispositions as standing for particular episodes rather than thinking of them as standing for the actualizations of the dispositions through particular episodes. Explaining an episode in which the disposition is actualized by appealing to the disposition itself is not an erroneous explanation. The false sense of strength in the circular argument objection amounts to nothing more than a straw man fallacy. A fictitious problem was created that purported that such types of explanation were circular, when in fact that has never been part of the problem with mentalistic explanations.

Before turning our attention away from the circular argument objection, we should now consider counterexamples to such an objection. Let us first examine the single-track disposition of alcoholism. Normally, what we understand by such a disposition is someone who is prone to imbibing alcohol excessively. ‘Joshua is an alcoholic’: such a sentence expresses that such a person is prone towards excessive drink. However, it is clear that the type of explanation towards which Skinner is disposed to favor is one in which such an explanation is circular. The sentence becomes circular in the sense that alcoholism is explained by the behavior and the behavior is in turn explained by alcoholism. The disposition of alcoholism explains the excessive drinking behavior in the same manner in which a brittle glass explains why it shattered into pieces when it was struck.

The higher-level disposition will also demonstrate why it has been improper to call into question the dispositional quality of such terms. For example, ’empathy’, for the purposes of this argument, is a determinable disposition, meaning that there is a wide variety of ways in which it can be actualized.. Suppose a friend comes crying to you because they have just gone through a terrible break up with their significant other. You listen carefully, engage your friend by offering comforting words and even offer to have them spend the night. If any of these examples were used to explain the disposition of empathy, no one would object and say that you have provided a

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ pseudo-explanation. Offering comforting words to your friend because you were empathetic is not explaining behavior by a mental event and in turn explaining the mental event by the behavior. A dispositional explanation does not allow for a strictly causal analysis that radical behaviorism favors, in which the mental event is the cause of the behavior. The complexity of the disposition demands a proper explanation of its actualizations that does treat dispositions as para-mechanical explanations.

The Abstract Nature of Dispositions: Part of the problem that has led to the category mistake in the radical behavioral account of mentalistic explanations is largely based on the abstract nature of dispositions. As we have already seen Ryle mention, a disposition is not of the right type to be in any way witnessed because they are not episodes and cannot therefore be included among the episodes in which the disposition is actualized. Ryle (1949) says the following with respect to the use of abstract terms, “Every moderately educated person knows how to make intelligent use of a good many abstract terms and how to follow their use by others” (307). Thus, what we can see is that the terms have their proper use; however, there is still the matter of addressing how such terms come to be mismanaged and treated as if they belonged to another logical type. Ryle (1949) says, “They [abstract terms] read as if they contained mentions of individual things, persons and matches, when in fact they refer, in different ways, to ranges of individually unmentioned things, persons, and matches” (307). What is misleading about the deployment of such terms is that they behave in many ways like non-abstract terms such as ‘pencil’ and ‘soccer ball’; they seem to refer in many ways to specific objects, when in actuality they refer more generally to ‘ranges of individually unmentioned things’.

We can see that dispositions are more properly within the category of abstract terms. Part of what is suspect in the radical behavioral account is the manner in which the circular argument objection depends on abstract terms reading like other regular terms. What radical behaviorism correctly noticed in the circular argument objection against mentalistic explanations is that these terms were in some way different from regular terms, but where they erred was in affixing the logical behavior of such terms incorrectly. The ensuing confusion shows that we sometimes have difficulty in using terms, especially if they are of the abstract type. For example, the terms ‘motivation’, ‘expectation’ and ‘anger’ can be examined grammatically as nouns; nevertheless, such a simple classification should not be a reason to be misled about the proper use of such terms. Moreover, this is exactly what has happened within the radical behavioral objection. The terms were thought to behave similarly to terms like ‘knife’ or ‘doorknob,’ which failed to take into consideration that terms such as ‘motivation,’ while they are nouns, are not nouns of the same type as ‘doorknobs’ and are actually dispositional.

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ Language Games: The terms employed in mentalistic explanations do not suggest a reason to disregard using such terms nor does it mean that they have no place in psychological explanations. However, to the extent that such terms are used as explanations of behavior, caution must be exercised in borrowing such terms and simply adding them to psychological explanation— to concede if only a little of the small point radical behaviorism makes when trying to work with the logical behavior of mental conduct concepts. Ryle describes how the logical behavior of concepts is affixed with the following example: The question what the Queen of Hearts can and cannot do cannot be answered at all unless we know the game in which it is being employed, and specific information about what she can and cannot do in a certain state of the game requires some specific knowledge about what has been going on since the last deal. (86) Ryle’s example serves to underscore the point that radical behaviorism ignores when dismissing mentalistic explanations. To the extent that psychology were to adopt such terms as ‘motivation’, ‘expectation’ or ‘purpose’, that would not be a cause for alarm, but only a reason to want to specify the game in which the term is being employed. However, such ease is never part of term itself. Ryle (1954) adds, “We have no such manuals in which to look up the codes which fix the roles of the concepts of science, or the concepts of untechnical life” (90). The use of the term, once employed, has become circumscribed, but that does not necessarily mean that such use is immutable. When we understand the game under which the term is employed, it will make it easier to understand what we mean by them and whether if any contention in the use of the term is in fact warranted. One other reason to be skeptical of the circular argument objection is that there is the implicit assumption that all such terms are in some way being played in the same game, when it is often the case that their use belongs to quite different games, giving the illusion of contention.

In connection with the idea about specifying the game in which a term is employed, is the other part of the problem with the radical behavioral objection to mentalism. The kind of use that radical behaviorism has affixed to such terms is generally one that supposes a billiard ball cause effect relation that is in no way useful to an account of behavior. In part, the problem can be seen as one of not understanding the lack of ‘baggage’ that such terms actually carry. Ryle (1954) describes the uses between technical and untechnical terms in the following way: Precisely how much more theoretical luggage is carried by such a term as ‘light-wave’ than is carried by such a term as ‘pink’ or ‘blue’? But at least one can discern very often that that there is this important difference between one term and another, namely that one of them carries some of the luggage of a specific theory, while the other carries none from that theory (91).

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ Ryle’s description makes it clear that there are specific uses associated with the technical and untechnical terms, which is a large part the problem with Skinner’s dismissal of such terms, given that they are not necessarily committed to dualistic or mentalistic accounts of behavior. Such an assumption has been the greatest source of confusion within such a philosophy and psychology, when in fact such terms have never carried such baggage except when their use has been affixed to dualistic or mentalistic language games.

False Dilemma and Language Games: We can best begin the last part of the argument by considering the following description given by Ryle (1954) of the false dilemma that can arise between two supposedly rival lines of thought, specifically as it relates to the uses of terms: So at least in some important respects the terms peculiar to Bridge will be mismanaged if construed as being on equal footing with terms which are not Bridge-laden. They cannot be treated as fellow occupants of one bench, or as rivals for occupancy in one bench. (p. 91) In the Skinnerian case, the circular argument objection has in fact proceeded by creating a rivalry between terms (behavioral and mentalistic) where there was no rivalry to begin with, meaning that the fictitious rivalry is the source of the dilemma for dismissing explanations of behavior that are ‘mentalistic’.

Let us suppose that ‘motivation’ was being played in a dualistic language game. Taking our point of departure based on the definition provided by Fodor, we could immediately conclude that such a term must apply to two substances of different types. There is the mental episode of motivation and, presumably, the overt expression of it in terms of behavior, meaning that there is some interaction, though highly questionable, between both substances. What the circular argument objection correctly latches onto based on this language game is the cause-effect relation between the two substances. Such an interaction is highly suspect for the behaviorist, given that it is merely a way of confusing the explanandum and the explanans. However, that is only one part of the language game in the dualistic account. There is still the matter of attending to the troubling notion of such an interaction. If the interaction is understood as not being possible, then we are left with the problem that the circular argument objection becomes rather vacuous in raising any real objections to the uses of such terms. If no interaction is possible, then the circular argument need never arise in the dualistic language game because no explanation is needed.

There is also a further question that if the circularity objection, as expressed by Moore and Skinner, does not object to dualism then it must refer in some way to the language game that was specified by Fodor’s definition. However, such a criticism also falls short of being an objection to mentalism. For the contingent identity between mental and behavioral predicates in no way is a McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ reference to para-mechanical transactions in conceptual or psychic dimensions. If we understand such terms not to apply to two different types of substances, then the circular objection is not entirely applicable to the notion of contingent identity between mental and behavioral predicates.

One could concede the possibility that what could be construed as circularity in such a case would be to posit para-mechanical acts that are identified at the neurological level. Even such an objection is without merit because, as Fodor (1968) has already painstakingly demonstrated, such an identification is not part of the language game of his mentalism. The identity between the mental and the neurological is one that confuses the notions of functions and parts (as with the billiard balls, scoring a point, a function, would then become another billiard ball itself, a part), treating them as fictional rivals in a nonexistent match. Thus, the circular argument fails to be an objection to mentalism itself.

In consideration of the vacuity of the circularity objection, we can see that it is not applicable to either dualism or mentalism. The objection that radical behaviorism offers is one in which a poorly constructed game blurs the line between ‘dualism’ and ‘mentalism’, creating a para-mechanical causality between the mental episode and its behavioral expression. Only in such a game is it proper to consider out of bounds the notion of attributing to terms (‘motivation’, ‘empathy’, ‘anger’) any causal explanation, and their use is simply a superfluous non-explanation. Such an objection does not get at the root of the problem but only scratches the surface of a nonexistent one. The flawed radical behavioral stance on mentalism only gives the appearance of a strong argument. The false dilemma and its constituent components based on the notions of language games demonstrate why the circular argument objection against “mentalism” does not correctly delineate the uses of such terms as explanations of behavior.

Conclusion: The argument (or rather petty squabble) between mentalism and the circularity objection arose as a direct consequence of a false dilemma. We can now move on and say a few concluding remarks about the argument that arbitrates between the uses of such terms that were mismanaged.

One of the major concerns with the uses of mentalistic terms dealt with the causal nature of such explanations. Use of the circular argument was meant to show that there is no behavioral explanation when such terms are employed. However, such an argument gets lost in a maze of its own pretentious attempts to manage—or I should say mismanage— the logical behavior of such terms. The consequence of such a dilemma left us with the impractical rules of a game where terms deemed mentalistic have no use in explanations of behavior; and must therefore be eliminated in favor of an analysis of behavior of the kind that Skinner argues for when considering the importance of the environment in such explanations.

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ Objections and Types of Description: So far, very little in favor of the radical behavioral account has been said that supports the falsely assumed circularity objection inherent in mentalistic explanations. Nevertheless, it is important to meet the objection that such explanations are obstructions of more important environmental considerations in an explanation of behavior. Let us consider the example of an athlete playing out in the soccer field who exhibits great ‘motivation’. Surely, having shown uses of such terms are not non-explanations, can we even therefore dismiss mentalistic language as mere obfuscations in the explanation of behavior. The ‘motivation’ out in the field does not suggest some hidden intangible cause that would get in the way of explaining a person’s behavior. The actualization of the disposition would be shown silently in the form of self-encouragements or would occur in the form of excellent playing (e.g., stealing the ball from the opponents or scoring goals individually or helping other teammates score goals). What exactly has the mentalistic explanation obscured or in some way made mysterious? Nothing mysterious occurs that obscures an explanation of the behavior out in the soccer field. There is perhaps the matter in which psychological explanation has to provide an account of behavior without recurring to lay explanations that pervade nonscientific accounts of behavior.

While mentalistic explanations may get in the way of an analysis of behavior, it can be true in one sense in which such a philosophy and psychology must have its proper terminology and not just necessarily amass or incorporate explanatory lay descriptions of behavior. However, such a recommendation seems naïve to suggest that the only way in which to account for people’s behavior is to describe them in environmental and behavioral terms that are not mentalistic. Ryle (1954) provides the following remarks: For we are still able to be influenced by the argument that as descriptions of the table given by a physicist mentions and can mention nothing of what enters into the joiner’s description, therefore the joiner’s descriptions must be abandoned. In letting this argument influence us, we are supposing that there is just one rather short bench for everything we can call ‘descriptions.’ (85) Upon Ryle’s own argument, we can understand why when entering into discourse about descriptions it is rather easy to favor one description to the exclusion of the other. The manner in which events are described need not mean that there is one correct way of describing the things in question; it only implies different levels of description. However, it seems appropriate to make the following cautionary remark: the description of the behaviorist is not in competition with that of lay discourse but with other forms of explanation employed by other schools of thought within psychology and philosophy (e.g., cognitive psychology). Radical behaviorism, favoring mentalistic discourse as a vacuous explanation of behavior, should serve as a reminder about being cautious with the uses of terms.

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ The definitions provided for ‘mentalism’, ‘dualism’, and ‘the circular argument objection’ provided one of the key components in understanding the inadequacy of the radical behavioral objection.

When outlining the behaviorist argument what becomes apparent is a sleight of hand that reveals itself in the subtle implication threads of the behaviorist dilemma. Use of mental conduct concepts as circumscribed by the definitions given above by Skinner and Moore delineate the destructive form of the dilemma; and its subsequent dissolution is in fact based on a category mistake.

Though the category mistake helps explain the behaviorist dilemma, the mentalistic terms in question could not be constructed grammatically as ghostly episodes of the “mind” but were more properly analyzable as dispositions. The logical behavior of dispositional concepts works at a more abstract level: not being able to observe dispositions or manipulate them was not evidence of a mental cause-effect relation. Moreover, the complexity of the disposition itself was misconstrued; single-track and higher-level dispositions were ignored in favor of a simplistic view of such terms.

Dispositional explanations were of the type that explain habitual smoking by the term ‘smoker’.

However, the circularity objection would mock such explanations as circular.

Much like describing a person as heavy set is not at odds with describing them as weighing 350 pound, so too mentalistic and behavioristic descriptions are not at odds with each other. Upon the behaviorist insistence, we found ourselves confronting the troubling idea that terms like ‘heavyset’ refer to unobservable episodes of the mind that have some vague and mysterious connection to their corresponding behavioral expression. However, such a view ignores entirely that there are different levels of description for behavior; and that uses of mentalistic terms need not necessarily be committed to para-mechanical acts when they are used as explanations of behavior— that is one possible use for such terms but not, however, the correct one. Such terms are no more a part of the Ghost in the Machine than terms like ‘heavyset’.

The definitions provided by Moore that were part of the overall work of Skinner can best be thought of a as a precarious Jenga tower ready to topple over at any second. Consider the definitions provided Moore and Skinner as a poor design for the tower, and the circular argument objection and the blurring of mentalism and dualism a no win scenario. The game is a selfundermining effort with an appearance of structural integrity. The use of mentalistic terms (each a block in the tower) do not fail as explanations of behaviors; rather their failure as an explanation is due to the unsoundness of the behaviorist argument, and not something inherently unsound with their use.

When putting all of the pieces together we get an upside-down picture. Rather than be at our wit’s end we should simply put it right side up. The whole of this paper has attempted to put the picture

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LUIS GARCIA HERNANDEZ in order. We have looked at the constituent componentsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; the category mistake, the dispositional explanation, and the language games with the definitionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;of the argument and determined their target to be a poorly structured problem. However, we need not fall into such a trap because the way out of the dilemma is clear. Mentalistic terms are not wedded to the ghost in the machine and are of the proper type to be dispositional explanations of behavior. Like a much-needed springcleaning, the skeleton in the closet need no longer haunt or take up unnecessary room in our conceptual closet because we have cleared away part of the conceptual clutter.

References Fodor, Jerry A. (1968). Psychological Explanation. New York: Random House, Inc. Moore, J. (1981). On mentalism, methodological behaviorism, and radical behaviorism.

Behaviorism, 9(1), 55-77.

Moore, J. (1990). On mentalism, privacy, and behaviorism. Journal Of Mind And Behavior, 11(1), 19-36.

O'Donohue, W., & Szymanski, J. (1996). Skinner on cognition. Journal Of Behavioral Education, 6(1), 35-48.

Ryle, Gilbert. (1954). Dilemmas. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Ryle, Gilbert. (1949). The Concept of Mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Vintage.

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SARAH GEBREZGHI

Mechanistic Investigation of the Reversible Photohydration of Steroidal Contaminants Found in Ecological Systems

Sarah Gebrezghi Major: Biology Mentor: Dr. Christopher Jeffrey Graduated: 2015

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In this project, the reversible photohydration of trenbolone acetate, a steroidal triene, is investigated. Trenbolone acetate is used as a growth hormone for cattle and is found as a contaminant in rivers in various ecological systems. It was widely believed that this compound was not harmful to the environment due to its fast rate of degradation. But further studies have proved that trenbolone acetate undergoes a mechanism in which it is degraded with exposure to sunlight to a new form, but then is quickly regenerated at night. The exact mechanism and structure of this is not known. This unexpected behavior not only increases the presence of anabolic contaminates in ecological systems but also has implications in human health as well due to its consideration in androgenic pharmaceuticals. Experimental methods we be performed to discover how this compound is able to transform and what it looks like structurally. This will be done by conducting hydration reactions using various solvents and conditions.

After the major photoproducts are isolated and identified, synthetic studies will be conducted by comparing the product to similar, already known steroidal compounds. This will be used to help us provide access to milligram samples of the major and minor transformation products. Our results found on this steroidal containment can provide the framework for engineers and regulators to effectively protect vulnerable aquatic ecosystems by improving the assessment of this containment.

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Introduction Endocrine-disrupting chemicals, such as androgenic steroid trenbolone acetate (TBA) can have disastrous consequences to the environment. Trenbolone is often times introduced into the environment from cattle run-offs. It is administrated to animals subcutaneously as a growth promoter to increase meat production (Segner, 2014). Metabolites of this compound, 17αtrenbolone and 17β-trenbolone are excreted by the animals and then in-turn reaches its surrounding areas. After it is released, trenbolone is hydrolyzed to its active form trenbolone-17β, and reduced to 17α-trenbolone (Schiffer, 2001) (figure 1). This steroid results in such substantial weight gain from cattle, it is known to be more then 8-10 times more powerful than testosterone.

It is estimated that 97% of cattle are administered this compound implying huge ecological effects.

After having this steroid in environmental systems, it can produce complications in wildlife. In

Figure 1. Trenbolone acetate and it is metabolites. For the purpose of this study focus will be around 17 β-trenbolone. zebrafish populations, exposure to steroidal compounds resulted in feminization. Evidence supports that direct contact of 17β-trenbolone to zebrafish had strong irreversible influences on sexual developments, effecting population growth for the species (Segner, 2014). Another study reported significant fertility reduction in fat head minnows again reducing reproduction and inturn population size (Ankley, 2003).

Virtually no information is known about trenbolone acetate. Until recently, most evidence suggested that TBA metabolites were highly reactive and did not accumulate on surface waters, ultimately causing no harm to the environment. Previous reports indicate the possibility of direct photoreactions occurring in TBA, although mechanisms and photoproducts are not completely known (Qu, 2012). These structures were not confirmed with NMR, but are indications that phototransformation leads to the formation of structure analogs of TBA metabolites, the bioactivity of these products are not known (Kolodziej, 2013). The purpose of this study is to better McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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understand the mechanism and discover the photoproducts trenbolone produces. Exposing the compound during different conditions, PH levels, solvents, and light we provide for an improved knowledge of the compound.

Figure 2. Possible photoreactive pathway of trenbolone.

Objectives.

Common organic chemistry methodology will be used to discover how this compound is able to transform and its structure. Photochemical reactions will be induced by using UV rays to mimic the sunlight exposure the steroids normally experience. HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) a technique used to separate and identify components in a mixture, will be used for initial screening studies for the photoproducts found (steroidal products that have been exposed to varying degrees of light, similar to steroids exposed to sunlight in nature). 1D and 2D NMR analysis will be used exclusively to predict structures for the major transformation products.

Major research questions include what are the photoproducts of 17β-trenbolone? How does this molecule transform and are these products bioactive?

Methods Methanol and Hydrochloric Acid To induce a hydration reaction, trenbolone, methanol, and HCL was measured into a roundbottom flask. Methanol reacts with hydrogen chloride to form methyl chloride and water. In a flask .0061g

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of 17β-trenbolone, .0846µL methanol, and .0282 µL 6M HCL were added. After an hour a thin layer chromatography was taken with 2:1 hexane/ethanol acetate to track the progress of the reaction.

After 5 hours the reaction was worked up with one wash of 10mL ethyl acetate and one wash of distilled water. The aqueous layer was removed while the organic layer was kept and rotovapped down for 30 minutes. An NMR was taken after (figure 6).

The same reaction was ran again the next day, but with 4.5mg of trenbolone, .08µL methanol, and 0.03µL of HCL. The reaction was ran for approximately 23hours. An NMR was taken after the reaction.

Sodium Methoxide and D-Methanol In a roundbottom flask .0054g of trenbolone, .0049g of sodium methoxide, and .0739mL of deuterated methanol were added. Another equivalent of methanol was added to further provoke a hydration mechanism. To keep the reaction from reacting with oxygen and/or water in the air, the reaction was put under nitrogen. It was stirred for about 22 hours. The reaction was worked up with one wash of 10mL ethyl acetate and one wash of distilled water. The aqueous layer was removed while the organic layer was kept and rotovapped for 30 minutes. An NMR was taken after (figure 4).

The same reaction was ran again the next day but with .0206g of trenbolone, .0174g of sodium methoxide, and .2958mL of deuterated methanol. The reaction was worked up with two extractions of 10mL ethyl acetate and 10ml of distilled water.

Reaction above was ran once more but with .0186g trenbolone, .0188g sodium methoxide, and .3mL of deuterated methanol. It was ran for 20 hours and was under heat, below the boiling point of methanol, around 63℃. An NMR was not taken due the fact the reaction burned over night and salvageable material was not left over.

Para-Toluenesulfonic acid Monohydrate and Deuterated Methanol .0205g of trenbolone, .5mL of methanol, and p-toluenesulfonic acid were added to roundbottom flask. The reaction was ran for 20 hours and worked up with two washes of 10mL ethyl acetate and 10ml of distilled water. An NMR was taken of the completion reaction (figure 5).

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SARAH GEBREZGHI Results

Figure 3. Proton NMR of 17β-trenbolone in chloroform.

Figure 4. Proton NMR of 17βtrenbolone and sodium methoxide.

All major peaks are still there, with no addition of alcohol group.

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Multiple hydration reactions were ran with varying solvents and compounds 10M HCL, sodium methoxide, and para-toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate in order to mimic and create potential forms trenbolone metabolities. To analyze whether or not the reaction was successful, NMR were taken and compared to original NMR of trenbolone (figure 3). In all the NMRs taken inconclusive results were infered. The NMR of trenbolone and sodium methoxide, along with all NMRs taken, did not show any results of a hydration reaction occurring, signified by the addition of an alcohol or OH group typically around 1-5ppm commenting on trenboloneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resistance. During the study to produce better results more milligram samples of trenbolone was used stronger acids were used, along with longer reaction times and the application of heat. There are number of reasons why this may of occurred, possibly the reaction was not ran long enough, the solvents were not strong enough, or possibly the reactions were not under the right conditions. In order to induce this mechanism, future tests can be ran below the boiling point of methanol, using different solvents, and possibly under light. This reaction was ran under the boiling point as mentioned earlier but the reaction was burned and did not produce and material that could be used for NMR samples.

Although the products that were sought after were not created this work provides preliminary data on molecule that virtually nothing is known about.

Figure 5. Proton NMR of trenbolone and ptoluenesulfonic acid in cholorform.

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Figure 6. Proton NMR of trenobone and 10M HCL in choloroform.

Conclusion It is incredibly important to understand trenbolone and its effects as a steroidal containment. This preliminary study can lead to future studies and ultimately systems designed to protect water quality. Also the reevaluation of trenbolone as a growth hormone in agriculture can become more closely regulated to protect vulnerable aquatic ecosystems. Not only that, these studies have huge implications in human health as well. Today many people take trenbolone as body mass gainer, unforeseen circumstances may occur due to the very little knowledge known about this compound. Understanding the fate of TBA metabolites in environmental systems can dramatically limit their impacts.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Marsha Dupree and Heather Williams for making this program available to me. A very special thanks to my mentor Dr. Christopher Jeffrey for allowing me to work in his lab and giving me the opportunity to work on such great projects. I would also like to thank all the graduate students in this lab for allowing me to constantly bug them with questions, especially Tracy Nguyen and Dev Anmuandla. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s truly been a pleasure.

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References Ankley, G.T., Jensen, K.M., Makynen, E.A., Kahl, M.D., Korte, J.J., Hornung, M.W., &… Gray, L.E. (2003). Effects of the Androgenic Growth Promoter 17-β-trenbolone on Fecundity and Reproductive Endocrinology of the Fathead Minnow. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, 22(6), 1350-1360 Falconer, I. R.; Chapman, H. F.; Moore, M. R.; Ranmuthugala, G. (2006).Endocrine-disrupting compounds: A review of their challenge to sustainable and safe water supply and water reuse. Environmental Toxicology. 21(2), 181-91.

Kolodziej, E.P., Qu, S., Forsgren, K., Long, S.A., Gloer, J.B., Jones, G.D., Schlenk, D., Baltrusiatis, J., Cwiertny, D.M. (2013). Identification and Environmental Implications of Phototransformation Products of Trenbolone Acetate Metabolites. Environment Science & Technology. 47(10), 5031-5041 Schiffer, B., Daxenberger, A., Meyer, K., & Meyer, H. H. (2001). The Fate of Trenbolone Acetate and Melengestrol Acetate after Application as Growth Promoters in Cattle: Environmental Studies. Environmental Health Perspectives. 109(11), 1145.

Segner, H., Bauamann, L., Rehberger, K., Knorr, S., Keiter, S., Nagel, T., & … Holbech, H. (2014).

Persistence of Endocrine Disrucption in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) After Discontinued exposure to the Androgen 17β-trenbolone. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, 33(11), 2488-2496.

Qu, S., Kolodziej, E.P., & Cwiertny, D.M. (2012). Phototransforamtion Rates and Mechansims for SYnthetic Hormone Growth Promoters Used in Animal and Agriculture. Environment Science & Technology, 46(24), 13202-13211.

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HEATHER GILMORE

Examination of Neighborhood Level Crime Hot Spots

Heather Gilmore Major: Criminal Justice Mentor: Dr. Emmanuel Barthe Graduating: 2017

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Crime hot spots have been central to the study of crime and place.

Hot spot studies examine if there are specific areas that may be more problematic for law enforcement and where these might be. Hot spots indicate that a particular region has an above average level of crime in comparison to surrounding areas. Studies often show that hot spots correlate with heavily populated areas. Focusing on areas with an increased crime level, or certain types of crimes, allows for more effective law enforcement. The purpose of this study is to not only look at areas with a higher frequency of crimes, but to establish a ratio per population. For this study, service calls and population were analyzed for the city of Reno, Nevada. This was done by taking calls for service and mapping them according to crime type and by census tract. (From there, differences in the population based maps and the non-population based maps were seen.) The top three census tracts for each crime type were then made into a density map, revealing a neighborhood-level distribution of crime. Satellite images of the problem areas were then used to show what specific structures might be the cause of the calls. From there, a better approach can be used for the relevant crime problem.

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HEATHER GILMORE Introduction Problem The question that is often posed in the Criminal Justice system is how effective it is in deterring and preventing crime from happening. One way of preventing further crime is by taking calls for service and data on crime incidents and creating a crime map. These maps illustrate what areas have the highest frequency of criminal activity. The term given for such criminogenic areas is called a crime “hot spot”. This allows for the focus of preventive measures, such as patrol or increased security, to be altered to fit the problem of each hot spot.

“Crime in Nevada”, a report produced annually by the Nevada Department of Public Safety provides the rates and frequencies of criminal activities such as violent crimes, assaults, and lesser crimes, as well as drug offenses. However, it does not provide any information on whether or not the violent crimes or assaults are connected to a specific area or not. Most of the crime information is recorded for the sole purpose of knowing how many crimes have been reported and how many have been responded to. It is often a simple collection of statistical numbers, rather than an understanding of the crime trends themselves.

Another problem comes from the most common definition of “hot spots”. The term hot spot usually refers to a specific area with a significant crime concentration. This is usually areas like the downtown area, tourist areas, or places with a high population. It is already known that these areas tend to have more crime (Butler, 2014). However, this does not account for higher rates of crime per population. Although some areas might have a higher number of crimes, they may have a smaller crime level if is divided by its population, creating a “rate”. A smaller population can have less people involved in or affected by criminal activity than a larger population, but still be ignored as a hot spot due to it having a smaller overall amount of crime – despite a higher rate per individual.

A third problem is defining hot spots as being areas with an overall higher crime level. This does not take into account if one area might be more likely to have one crime than another. One area might be called a hotspot, rather than another, and only be taking into account smaller, more common crimes. On the other hand, an area with less frequent criminal activities might still have a problem with a more serious, yet less common crime.

The problem is in understanding the true nature of crime hot spots at the neighborhood level. It must be known which areas are more likely to be have a high number of crime in terms of its population. From there, we can examine what types of crimes are occurring in these areas.

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HEATHER GILMORE Research Question. 1. What are the neighborhood level crime hot spots in terms of crime per population? 2. What types of crimes are the most common in these hot spots?

Purpose. By answering these questions, we can show if the hot spots as they are currently defined by “more crime-dense areas” should be reconsidered. While this current use of the term “hot spot” allows for law enforcement to know which areas to monitor more closely, this study shows which areas are more likely to have a higher crime rate per individual. This will then show where a person is more likely to be affected by crime, rather than knowing what regions have a lot of crime.

This could be seen as a more useful method of looking at crime hot spots, as even high levels of crime are likely to be spread out over a larger population and therefore make a person less likely to be affected by crime.

If the findings show areas with smaller overall numbers of crime, but with a higher frequency of crime for its population, than the definition of hot spots can be altered. It can be further changed by seeing what areas have a higher frequency of a specific crime per population amount, rather than what areas have a higher crime amount regardless of population size. This would be looking at crime activity amounts per population, rather than what area has the most crime. This can then not only change how hot spots are determined, but what problematic crimes can be better watched for in a specific area, neighborhood, or even street.

Literature Review The study of hot spots of criminal activity is not a new concept. Ideas of crime hot spots can be seen in David Weisburd and Lorraine G. Mazerolle’s (2000) study “Crime and Disorder in Drug Hot Spots: Implications for Theory and Practice in Policing”. They examined hot spots at the street level, in this case, Jersey City, New Jersey. Their findings showed a link between these hot spots and disorder and crime (Weisburd & Mazerolle, 2000). This shows an example of hot spots defined as a large amount of crime in a geographical location.

In “Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place”, a research study conducted by Lawrence W. Sherman, Patrick R. Gartin, and Michael E. Buerger (1989) the “hot spots” are evaluated on how calls for service and predatory crimes might be linked to them and if spatial data supports a previous theory that criminal activities are the result of offenders, targets, and a lack of guardians coming together (Sherman, Gartin, & Buerger, 1989). They found that most of the calls to police were not due to hot spots. The reasoning for this was that crime itself is rare and appears at random (Sherman, Gartin, & Buerger, 1989). This addresses the issue of defining hot spots as an overall amount of crimes per area, rather than looking also at the crime type reported. It appears that severe crimes actually have a low-report rate for hot spots.

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Research studies have also looked at crime patterns by age. David L. Weisburd, Elizabeth Groff, and Nancy Morris’ (1992) study “Hot Spots of Juvenile Crime: Findings from Seattle” focuses on the location of crime clusters. The authors take a specific form of crime – juvenile – and show why areas have higher levels of a specific type of crime. The study used a trajectory map to show where these crimes are located in order to better analyze patterns. The study also divided up different regions in Seattle into groups with higher crime rates, and those with lower crime rates. In the groups with a higher crime rate, only about 5.2% of places were actually in private dwellings (Weisburg, Groff, & Morris, 1992). However, 29.8-47.3% of crimes in the low crime rate group were reported to be in a private dwelling, significantly higher than that of the high crime rate group.

Overall, they found that a “great proportion of juvenile crime incidents are found in only a few street segments” (Weisburg, Groff, & Morris, 1992, p. 8). This gives a background as to why crimes hot spots might develop, rather than just stating what areas they are in. The authors’ research allows for the nature of the crime occurring as well as by whom and why it is to be seen – substantially more important that an umbrella term of “hot spots”.

Since crime hot spots are defined in terms of geographical locations, many studies evaluate the types of structures, facilities, and resources available in high crime areas. In their study “Bars, Blocks, and Crimes Revisited: Linking the Theory of Routine Activities to the Empiricism of “Hot Spots””, Dennis W. Roncek and Pamela A. Maier (1991) show how certain facilities, such as places that sell liquor, bars, taverns, etc. affect crime in the Cleveland area (Roncek & Maier, 1991).They discovered that the presence of such establishments has an effect on crime hot spots. These facilities not only increase the amount of crime in the area, especially when combined with poor surveillance and autonomy (Roncek & Maier, 1991). Not only do specific types of people, as shown

by Weisburd, Groff, and Morris’ study, bring crimes to specific areas, but specific area characteristics attract crimes as well. Katie Filbert’s study, “Targeting Crime in Hot Spots and Hot Places” examines the idea of why one area might be more crime prone than others. These theories used to explain this include routine activity theory, social disorganization theory, broken windows theory, and crime opportunity theories (Filbert, 2003). Each theory, ranging from neighborhoods causing crime, to the likelihood of someone committing crimes based on where they live, tries to explain why one area has more crimes. She also evaluates density maps and statistical tests in order to establish where these hot spots are. Filbert concludes that these maps and hot spot information can only be useful if hot spots could be identified and if police efforts use this information. Hiring crime analysts (Filbert 2003) could help police learn hot spot patterns and understand why they occur, such as how David L. Weisburd, Elizabeth Groff, and Nancy Morris (2003) did in their study.

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Anthony A. Braga’s “The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime” shows some effective measures In a series of five randomized experiments, Braga was able to find that, crime and disorder hot spots could be helped with focused police efforts (Braga 2001). He also dismisses the idea that this would cause crime displacement (Braga 2001). This is an important finding as, while it seems that increased patrol will help the situation, it can cause for crime to simply move. If this is the cause, these efforts do not solve the crime problem. However, Braga shows how certain crime prevention programs are able to both deter crime and prevent it from moving elsewhere.

Christopher S. Koper (1995)’s study “Just Enough Police Presence: Reducing Crime and Disorderly Behavior by Optimizing Patrol in Crime Hot Spots” also looks at the effects of policing on hot spots.

His study details how a patrol stop or police presence might lengthen the time between their initial presence and the next criminal activity. He found that after a typical stop, about 16% of crimes usually occurred less than 30 minutes after the stop was made (Koper, 1995). Stops lasting various lengths of time were also tested (Koper, 1995). He discovered that crime reoccurrence lowered to 4% for stops lasting 10-15 minutes, reaching its lowest point for stops lasting 14-15 minutes (Koper, 1995). This reduction of time did not continue past 15 minutes (Koper, 1995). This shows that patrol is effective in hot spots, though it is only effective within a certain amount of time before it no longer has an effect.

In a similar study, Lawrence W. Sherman and David Weisburd observed the effects of increased patrol in high crime areas (Sherman & Weisburd, 1995). They studied 5 of 110 crime hot spots over 7,542 hours. Sherman and Weisburd showed that there was 6-13% drop in crime calls in areas with increased patrol. This contrasts the “Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment” conducted by the Kansas City Police Department back in the 1970s. This study concluded that, when testing if crime was reduced in areas of increased patrol, there was no change in the amount of crime reported (Sherman & Weisburd, 1995). However, this study might not completely conflict with Sherman’s, as they suggest that policing needs to be based on crime needs, rather than preventative patrol and imply that less police officers may be needed (Sherman & Weisburd, 1995).

While it seems that, in order to reduce crime, specific levels of patrol should be assigned to problem areas, it might not be that simple for different agencies. As H. Beretycki and J.P. Nadal (2010) address in “Self Organized Critical Hot Spots of Criminal Activity”, law enforcement agencies have several constraints on what they can and cannot do. One reason is that some agencies might not be able to increase or change their methods due to resources (Beretycki & Nadal, 2010). This is a common reason for why research studies might be dismissed or otherwise ignored. Law enforcement might acknowledge these findings to be true, however, they might not have the

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money, staff, or time, and they are powerless to use new methods. This can pose a problem with changing policies and methods suggested by research.

Methods The study was focused on understanding what the trends were for criminal hot spots relative to population, rather than high crime frequencies in a given area. The data used for this research was quantitative in nature. All calls for service (whenever there is a direct call for assistance) received by the police department and all of the incident (when there is not a direct request) reports completed by officers for the last 5 years were analyzed, recoded, and manipulated for this project.

Once all of the calls and crime incidents were recorded and cleaned, these were mapped and further analyses determined what specific crimes, such as robbery, assault, or car theft, are more likely to occur in one area, rather than another.

The term “hot spot” was defined for this study as “an area with an increased rate of crime”.

In order to map crime hot spots, the data was imported into both ArcGIS and SPSS. Microsoft Excel was later used to create tables of the top census tracts for each type of crime. The data included calls for service during for Reno, Nevada for the years 2005-2010. This will provide about 100,000 calls for service, per year. While this is a large amount of data, it is necessary to accurately map the types of calls for service in this area. This data was official data and listed the crime location and nature of the crime. The police files were then merged with census data files to allow us to count how many people lived in each census tract.

After uploading the data into ArcMap, the types of calls for service provided by the data files needed to be condensed. The purpose of this was to reduce the existing thirty-six types of crimes down to a list of seven, making it easier to map the separate categories. The seven recoded categories of calls for service were: Car Crimes, Disorder, Domestic Violence, Narcotics, Property Crimes, Violence, and Weapons. Once these crime types were defined, the area of Reno and the census tracts to be used were cropped out in ArcGIS to create out area of analysis (See Figures 1 and 2).

Each of the numbered, bolded black sections show a different census tract. (See Figure 2) Once all the crimes were recoded into the seven categories, crime maps were made in ArcGIS. The process involves geocoding the data. The geocoding procedure takes an address field to each crime incident and places it on a geographic map based on the address. Geocoding allows a flat database file to be represented spatially based on the address field. Using the previously defined call types,

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each call typeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s data were selected and put individually onto a map. This process was repeated for each of the seven value labels for the calls for service. The resulting maps displayed each of the calls for service separately. This can be seen in Figure 3 and Figure 4, displaying the calls for service for disorder and property crimes. Figure 3 and Figure 4 both display one of the key problems that this study focused on. When trying to label areas as hot spots, it would be difficult to determine them by the types of maps shown here. The high rate of calls causes dense dots across the map.

The densest portion of the map, circled in Figure 4, offers an idea of where the highest crime might be. This area is the downtown Reno corridor. This is an already well-known area for crime and does not offer much in terms of readjusting focus. However, when the crimes are dispersed across the areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s high population rate, the distribution of crime per individual is reduced. This is where the second type of maps came in.

By taking the Excel file data (See Figure 5) with each census tract name, its total population, and total calls for service per call for service type, a crime ration was calculated.

The formula established to create these ratios was: đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x201C; đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;Ś đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122; đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018; =

# of Crime Types Ă&#x2014; 100 Total Crime Types

So, for the call for service type circled in Figure 5, Car Crimes, the formula worked as follows for row 2: đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x201C; đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;Ś đ?&#x2018;&#x2021;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122; đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018; =

1523 (Car Crimes) 46942 (Total Crimes)

Ă&#x2014; 100

The rate that was established here is 3.2, as listed under â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rate Car Crimes by Total Callsâ&#x20AC;?. (See Figure 5) The purpose of this formula is to see the crime rate in these census tracts. So for every 100 people in Census Tract 1.01, there are 3.2 cases of car crime. Using this ratio, it is then possible to identify what census tracts have a higher ratio of a given crime type based on the total calls for service. Therefore, while a census tract may have a high number of calls for service, the ratio indicates what specific crime type presents a problem for that particular census tract. This approach allows police to fine-tune their approach to crime problems, by focusing on specific crime types within specific census tracts.

Another approach undertaken by this research was to look at the ratio of calls for service based on the population. Normally, crime mapping involves simply plotting all of the crimes based on their numerical totals. Therefore, if area A has 10 crimes, and area B has 20 crimes, then area B would

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be shaded darker than area A based on the total number of crimes. But what happens when the population in an area B is 10 times the population of area A? Technically, given the population, there is less of a crime problem in terms of ratios in area B, then in area A. This research looks at this specific issue. Thematic maps were created, first by simply plotting the total number of calls for service for specific crime type across all census tracts, and the second set of thematic maps were made using a ratio based on the population within each of those census tracts.

Figure 6 shows how the non-population based data, a thematic mapping of Figure 4, are represented. Figure 7 shows how, when taking population into consideration, the data are mapped.

The differences in the two maps can be clearly seen. In Figure 6, a clear cluster in the center of the map is apparent with another cluster south of that one. This is expected, as the downtown corridor probably yields a high number of car crimes. However, when one looks at figure 7, and the total number of car crimes is based on the population of each census tract, the downtown area becomes less important and census tract 9800 becomes the predominant census tract when it comes to car crimes based on the population. This indicates that there is a higher proportion of car crimes in that census tract, and hence a different version of the hot spot is presented. Thematic maps showing the total number of crimes by census tracts and their population ratios were created for each of the individual crime types. The third analysis involved calculating population/crime ratios using data found in figure 5. For each crime type, the total number of crimes was divided by the population, creating a rate. All of the census tracts were then sorted in descending order and the top three census tracts with the highest ratios were selected to make another kind of hotspot map.

The third analysis involved calculating population/crime ratios using data found in figure 5. For each crime type, the total number of crimes was divided by the population, creating a rate. All of the census tracts were then sorted in descending order and the top three census tracts with the highest ratios were selected to make another kind of hotspot map.

This was done to show which areas had the highest amount of each type of call for service. These areas were then used to establish density maps for each of the top three census tracts. Density maps were created by first plotting all of the calls for service for that crime type (See Figure 8), and then using ArcGIS, a density map function shades the area based on the number of dots in a given area. The density map can be seen in Figure 9.

With the density map showing the areas in the census tract most prone to the type of call, a better analysis of the area can be made. In order to understand what is going on in each area, a satellite McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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image was then located for the hot spot area (See Figure 10).

Using the density map in Figure 9, the areas shown to have the densest car crime calls for service were the areas where there are several casinos and parking garages. This would be an appropriate place to expect such calls. This process can be repeated for each of the seven types of calls for service as well as for each census tract. With this information, a better tailored policing approach can be made.

Results When comparing the thematic maps established for both population and non-population based data, some notable differences became apparent.

Originally, Census Tract 9800 (the white portion of the map to the right of Census Tracts 21.07 and 22.11) was included in the analysis. However, this census tract became a hot spot with each population-based map that was made. When looking at a satellite image of Census Tract 9800, this is where the Reno-Tahoe Airport is located. Obviously, the population is relatively low for this area, as very few people actually live there. However, it had generated a highly disproportionate amount of calls for service. This is due to the fact that many people live their cars unattended for long periods of time (Car Crimes) and weapons are taken from luggage (Weapons). The other types of calls for service occurring at the airport would automatically be divided by a low amount of people actually living in the surrounding areas. This caused for Census Tract 9800 to be an outlier in each type of call for service. Since airport in Census Tract 9800 showed up in each type of call for service as a hot spot, some of the other areas did not show up as well. By removing this census tract, these other census tracts became denser.

Figures 6 and 7 show car crime calls for service. Figure 6 shows Census Tracts 1.01, 1.02 7, 9, 15.02, and 22.04 as the densest call spots. The surrounding census tracts also show up as dense.

However, with the population considered in Figure 7, many of these areas are no longer as dark.

Census Tracts 7, 9, and 22.04 now are less concentrated. However, Census Tracts 2.02 and 21.07 now become hot spots. Census Tract 2.02 includes a park and several residential houses, but no other large buildings. Figure 21.07 contains the Grand Sierra Hotel and Casino, which could add to the call crime calls. This area also includes Earl Wooster High School.

Figures 11 and 12 show the disorder calls. Figure 11 shows that the Downtown Reno area (Census Tracts 1.01 and 1.02) has the greatest amount of disorder in comparison to other census tracts.

Several census tracts north of downtown (Census Tracts 26.17, 27.04, 27.05, and 27.07) as well as Census Tracts 2.02, 7, 9, and 15.02, also show up with a lot of disorder calls. However, when the

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calls are divided amongst each census tractâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population (Figure 12), Census Tracts 1.01 and 1.02 remain hot spots. Despite having a large population, there are enough crimes there to make calls dense per individual. The previous hot spots north of downtown drop off, while Census Tract 2.02 stays and 21.07 and 23.02 are now hot spots. Again, Census Tract 2.02 has a park and several residential houses. 21.07 has a large hotel and casino (The Grand Sierra Resort) and a high school.

As for Census Tract 23.02, it includes the city of Verdi, where there is a low population, making the crimes that do occur highly concentrated to the low population. It contains a hotel and casino as well.

Domestic Violence calls can be seen in Figures 13 and 14. In Figure 13, several areas show up with high numbers of domestic violence calls. These areas include the downtown Reno and surrounding areas (Census Tracts 1.01, 1.02, 2.02, 7, 9, 10.08, 12.02, 15.02, and 17.01). There are also a few census tracts north of downtown that show as hot spots. When population is considered (Figure 14), some of this changes. The Downtown Reno and surrounding areas are again represented, most likely due to there being few people actually living in this area, but with a high traffic of tourists and visitors. There is one census tract that does stand out, Census Tract 27.03. This area includes Truckee Meadows Community College, Reno Cascade Mobile Home Community, Lois Allen Elementary School, and a few residential streets. The high concentration of domestic violence calls can be attributed to any one of these features. For the two schools listed in this area, especially the community college, a large amount of space is taken up, reducing the amount of people that actually live there. Any call made at the college or reported from the school would also be recorded as being in this area. Several other census tracts around the downtown area become hot spots as well (2.01, 3, 7, 9, 10.08, 21.07, 22.11, and 22.12). Census Tracts 26.17 and 26.18 become less dense.

Figure 15 and Figure 16 show the calls for narcotics. In Figure 15, there is a moderate and even spread of narcotic calls, with the exception of the Downtown Reno census tracts (Census Tracts 1.01 and 1.02). In Figure 16, the population-based map, these hot spots spread out even more and become even less dense. The same Downtown Reno census tracts appear in Figure 16. This can also be due to the low population and the high amount of tourists and commuters. The availability of casinos and other night life activities can make this preferable for narcotics to be used as well.

The area also features several areas of low surveillance, such as parking garages, making it a popular choice. Census Tracts 2.02 (featuring a park and residential areas) again shows up in the population-based map. Census Tracts 15.02 and 17.01 remain hot spots. Census Tract 15.02 contains the University of Nevada, Reno, Taylor Memorial Park, the Evelyn Mount Community Center, and residential areas. Any of these could be a preferable place for narcotic use and sales.

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Census Tract 17.01 includes an apartment complex and several residential areas.

The property crime calls are seen in Figures 17 and 18. Figure 17 shows a large amount of property crime calls for several areas, the densest region being Downtown Reno, followed by several census tracts running south of the downtown area (Census Tracts 2.01, 2.02, 3, 3, 7, 9, 10.05, 10.08, 21.07, 22.04, and 22.11). Several census tracts to the north of the downtown area have a notable amount of property crime calls as well. In Figure 18 with the population-based map, the Downtown Reno Census Tracts (Census Tracts 1.01, 1.02, 2.02, 18.02, and 21.07) are still dense. Census Tract 15.02 become less dense, as well as several of the northern census tracts and those south of downtown.

Census Tract 17.01 remains, which again has an apartment complex and residential areas.

Figures 19 and 20 show violent crime calls. The hot spots in Figure 19 are the Downtown Reno census tracts (1.01, 1.02, and 2.02). Several census tracts in the north are considerable hot spots, especially Census Tract 26.17. However, most areas show up far lighter in Figure 20â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s populationbased maps, with the exception of the downtown census tracts and Census Tract 2.02.

The weapons calls in Figure 21 and Figure 22 show a vastly different distribution of hot spots than the previous six types of crime calls. Several census tracts in Figure 21 show up as having a large amount of weapons calls, especially Census Tract 26.18, 26.19, 27.04, 27.05, 17.01, 17.02, and the downtown census tracts (Census Tracts 1.01, 1.02, and 15.02). Figure 22 has just as much hot spots, such as Census Tract 26.03, 26.18, 26.19, and 27.05. Census Tract 26.18 shows up as a high concentration for weapons calls in both Figure 21 and Figure 22. This census tract does have several residential streets, so the low population is not what causes the high concentration. This area is at the bottom of a large, hill-covered area and is popular for target practice. Those living in the residential areas hear the gunfire and report it, causing a high call concentration. This is also the case for Census Tracts 26.03 (Red Rock, Nevada), 26.18 (Lemon-Golden Valley), and 27.05 (Sun Valley). Each of these areas have a moderate amount of residential areas, but are also located in or near a large, hill-covered area that is popular for shooting and target practice.

As described in the methods section above, satellite images of the hotspots in the populationbased density maps reveal what structures in the area may cause these crimes. For example, in Figure 10, it can be seen that the high amount of parking structures and casinos create easy access for cars to be stolen, broken into, etc. Each of the results for the seven different crime types use a similar method to see what physical or geographical features in these areas might cause for an usual concentration for crime, such as the airports, medical center, hills, parking garages, casinos, and more. The importance of acknowledging these features is that they show that adopting the same crime prevention strategies in the different areas might not necessarily work as each hotspot

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has unique characteristics. For example, higher levels of patrol or surveillance might be appropriate in the Downtown Reno census tracts, where casinos and parking garages might be increasing in crime. However, the areas where the hospital and airport are located, increased patrol might have little or no effect. The crimes are not actually taking place at the hospital, and therefore increased measures of policing would not be necessary. Similarly, the airport might need a different type of surveillance or safety measures than the parking garages or casinos.

These results show that it is necessary to look at hot spots differently. One area might appear to have a large amount of crime, but not a large amount when its population is considered. An area with a low population might have a high amount of crime. Physical and geographical features might also alter how the calls are distributed amongst a population. All of these things need to be taken into consideration in order to develop a proper course of action.

Conclusion In order to have an impact on crime, how it is targeted needs to be evaluated. This study was designed to show how different hotspots can be presented based on total calls, or a ratio of calls.

By only taking the areas with high calls for service, areas that have a higher concentration of crime population may be ignored. With the focus on areas such as the downtown Reno area, areas outside of this area might be ignored, despite the residents in these areas disproportionately experiencing crimes.

After comparing the non-population based thematic map to the population based thematic map, the differences in the crime levels showed these concerns. While in some cases, the previous hot spots in the non-population ratio maps stayed highlighted in the population based maps, this was not always the case. Some census tracts were no longer shown as hot spots, while other census tracts not previously shown now had a high concentration of crime per population.

Based on some of our findings, we then took the hot spots and looked at them on a neighborhood level. This was done with the density maps and satellite images. These also showed irregularities in the hot spots being shown. It is important to not conclude that these new targets need increased law enforcement, as this might not be appropriate for each area. In the examples discussed in the results section, hospitals, airports, casinos, and parking garages might be revealed with the satellite images. The purpose of going beyond just the population based thematic maps is to reveal the differences of circumstances on the neighborhood level. These findings might alter the approach that is needed.

This research study allows for these differences of circumstances â&#x20AC;&#x201C; whether they be compared on a McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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non-population and population based analysis or based on the types of surroundings that may cause these crimes â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to create different approaches to crime. Some approaches might be reasonable in one area, but not in another. This emphasizes the importance of proper policing.

With this study, better solutions can be made.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank my mentor, Dr. Emmanuel Barthe of the Criminal Justice program at the University of Nevada, Reno for his support and dedication to this research project. I would also like to thank the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Program for this opportunity and their guidance through this process.

References Berestycki, H; Nadal, JP. (2010). Self-Organised Critical Hot Spots of Criminal Activity. European Journal of Applied Mathematics, 21, 371-399.

Braga, A. (2001). The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 578, 104-125.

Filbert, K. (2008). Targeting Crime in Hot Spots and Hot Places, Geography & Public Safety, 1(1), 4-7 Hodgkinson, Sarah, and Nick Tilley. (2007). Travel to Victim: Homing in on the Victim.

International Review of Victimology, 14, 281-98. A B Academic Publishers. Web. <https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/criminology/people/sf101/TraveltoCrimepdf>.

Kelling, George L., Tony Pate, Duane Dieckman, and Charles E. Brown. (1974). The Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment. NCJRS.gov. Police Foundation. <https://ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/42537NCJRS.pdf>.

Koper, C. (1995). Just Enough Police Presence: Reducing Crime and Disorderly Behavior by Optimizing Patrol Time in Crime Hot Spots. Justice Quarterly, 12(4), 649-672.

Roncek, D., & Maier, P. (1991). Bars, Blocks and Crimes Revisited: Linking the Theory of Routine Activities to the Empiricism of â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Hot Spots. Criminology, 29(4), 725-754.

Sherman, L., & Weisburd, D. (1995). General Deterrent Effects of Police Patrol in Crime "Hot Spots": A Randomized Controlled Trial. Justice Quarterly, 12, 626 648.

Sherman, L., Gartin, P., & Buerger, M. (1989). Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place. Criminology, 27(1), 27 56.

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Weisburd, D., & Green (Mazerolle), L. (2000). Crime and Disorder in Drug Hot Spots: Implications for Theory and Practice in Policing. Police Quarterly, 3(2), 152-170.

Weisburd, D., Maher, L., & Sherman, L. (1992). Contrasting Crime General and Crime Specific Theory: The Case of Hot Spots of Crime. Advances in Criminological Theory, 4, 45-70.

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Figure 1 Census tracts of Washoe County

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Figure 2 Reno census tracts selected and cropped for Washoe County 2005-2010 McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 3 Map of calls for service: Disorder

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Figure 4 Maps of calls for service: Car Crimes

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Figure 5 Excel file data used to establish the “rate of crime type by total calls”

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Figure 6 Thematic map of total car crimes (2005-2010) McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 7 Thematic map of total car crime calls by population (2005-2010)

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Figure 8 Census Tract 1.01 Density Map: Car Crimes

Figure 9 Census Tract 1.01 Density Map: Car Crimes

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Figure 10 Satellite image of Census Tract 1.01. Image from Google Maps.

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Figure 11 Thematic map of total car crime calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 12 Thematic map of total car crime calls by population

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Figure 13 Thematic map of total domestic violence calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 14 Thematic map of total domestic violence calls by population

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Figure 15 Thematic map of total narcotics calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 16 Thematic map of total narcotics calls by population

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Figure 17 Thematic map of total property crime calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 18 Thematic map of total property crime calls by population

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Figure 19 Thematic map of total violent crime calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 20 Thematic map of total violent crime calls by population

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Figure 21 Thematic map of total weapons calls McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Figure 22 Thematic map of total weapons calls by population

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STEVEN HAMMONDS

Minority College Students’ Response to a Mindfulness-Based First Year Seminar (FYS): Acceptability and Perceived Usefulness

Steven Hammonds Major: Psychology Mentor: Dr. Jacqueline Pistorello Graduated: 2013 Enrolled: Master’s Program, Clinical Psychology, Mississippi State University

College students suffer because of various stressors that affect psychological wellbeing. Given that counseling is not always pursued, especially by minority students, it is important to investigate ways to reach college students outside of therapeutic environments. This study examined data from freshmen students who took a First Year Seminar (FYS) delivering psychological content. Specifically, we investigated the acceptability and perceived usefulness of a mindfulness-based FYS (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy or ACT) versus a more typical FYS (Psychodidactic) in terms of students’ ethnic or racial minority status. We used the Student Evaluation of Educational Quality Questionnaire (SEEQ, Marsh, 1986) to receive feedback from the students about the effectiveness and acceptability of the course. We used the Perceived Usefulness Scale, a locally developed measure, consisting of five Likert-like questions to evaluate how helpful the students perceived the class to be in terms of dealing effectively with mental health issues during college. We focused on the impact of students’ ethnicity, race, and primary racial identification on class satisfaction and perceived usefulness. This study showed that an ACT FYS was as acceptable to ethnic and racial minorities as it was to Caucasian students, and that an ACT-based FYS was as acceptable to minorities as a more main-stream adjustment to college class. Findings are discussed in terms of applied implications and future directions.

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STEVEN HAMMONDS Introduction College Students Are Suffering Although college seems like a happy-go-lucky period of time, some college students in fact suffer a lot. Suffering is contextual in nature because each student goes through a different experience, with stressors varying over a wide spectrum of factors. Adjusting to college comes with pressures such as learning to individuate from parents and other adult protectors, earning good grades, getting along with roommates, exploring sexuality, fitting in, fulfilling extracurricular demands, meeting parental expectations, surviving financial challenges, and even negotiating the increasingly present racial and cultural differences on campuses (Kadison & DiGeronimo, 2004). Considering the many stressors that students deal with, there will likely be emotional pain for a significant segment of the student population. Students strive to gain and develop meaning in life by going to school. They further their education in a specific field to try to fit into the world and make a difference in society. However, amidst these goal-driven tasks, there may be lingering doubts, anxieties, and self-judgments in the minds of these students that can sometimes be quite painful, if students donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t learn ways to successfully cope with them.

Psychological Issues Most Affecting College Students Suicide is a leading cause of death among college students (Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2004). The Big-10 Student Suicide Study conducted from 1980 to 1990 reported an annual overall suicide rate for college students of 7.5 suicides per 100,000 (Silverman, Meyer, Sloane, Raffel, & Pratt, 1997). Although suicide rates tend to be lower among college students, particularly male students, compared to those in the same age group not in college (Schwartz, 2006), more recent studies argue that the protective factor of being in college is due to the higher socioeconomic status of college students (Wasserman & Stack, 2011). Regardless of whether rates are the same or different, a suicide on a college campus has dire consequences for the individual, those close to him, and the whole community (Lamis & Lester, 2011). The most common predetermining factor for suicide is depression (Engin, Gurkan, Dulgerler & Arabaci,2009). Many students experience some level of depression throughout their time in college. In a study that surveyed 962 students from three institutions about their experiences with depression and suicide, they found that a majority (81%) of the students experienced what they would label depression (Westefeld & Furr, 1987). The most common reasons for depression were grade problems, relationship problems with significant other, loneliness, and financial struggles. These problems are consistent with the struggles that college students face today.

An annual survey of college students nationwide showed that in the last twelve months, one third of the students report experiencing depression severe enough that makes it difficult to

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STEVEN HAMMONDS function, approximately half report feeling overwhelming anxiety, 7% report experiencing severe suicidality, and 1.2% report actually having attempted suicide (American College Health Association (ACHA), 2012). Approximately 15% of college students have engaged in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI; skin cutting or other forms of intentional self-injury without conscious suicidal intent) in their lifetime and 6.8% in the past-year alone (Whitlock, Muehlenkamp, Purington, Eckenrode, Barreira, Baral Abrams, 2011). College students are more likely to engage in binge drinking and to drink and drive than those of the same age not in college (Toomey, & Wagenaar, 2002; Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011).

A similar story is told by directors at college counseling centers (CCCs). An annual national survey of directors, which represents services to millions of college students, attempts to stay atop CCC trends. It also addresses current concerns, discussing possible programs that could be effective in solving ethical and clinical issues experienced by the college population. Among Minority Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Response 5 the directors of a recent survey (Gallagher, 2011), 90% reported that there is a noteworthy rise in the number of students who have severe psychological problems such as: crises requiring immediate response, psychiatric medication issues, learning disabilities, illicit drug use, selfinjury issues (e.g. cutting to relieve anxiety), alcohol abuse problems related to earlier sexual abuse, career planning issues, eating disorders, and sexual assault concerns. It was reported that of the 87 student suicides in the sample, 80% of the students were depressed.

Many of them had relationship and academic problems and a significant number used psychiatric medication and had been to a psychiatric hospital at some point in their lives.

Treatment is Not Often Sought Out Most higher education institutions have CCCs to help students with their problems. However, we know that treatment, even when available, is not always sought out by students (Eisenberg, Golberstein, & Gollust, 2007). It is important to understand what causes students to look for or not look for help at mental health services. In the population in general, most adults with mental disorders in the United States do not receive treatment. Given that campus communities are different than normal communities, it may be useful to look at the use of mental health services on campus.

In a study by Eisenberg et al. (2007), a random sample of 2,785 students, which was demographically representative of the national student population, took a web-based survey investigating help-seeking among college students. The aim was to quantify mental service utilization and to determine different factors that relate to seeking help. Factors that helped predict which students with depressive and anxiety disorders will not seek services are: lack of perceived need, being unaware of services, low insurance coverage, skepticism about treatment McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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STEVEN HAMMONDS effectiveness, perceived stigma towards those seeking help, low socioeconomic (SES) Minority Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Response 6 background, and being Asian or Pacific Islander. Some believe that one way to combat the issue of students avoiding seeking treatment may be through psychoeducation (Eisenberg et al., 2007; Eisenberg, Downs, Golberstein, & Zivin, 2009). If the students are educated about affordability, what treatment can do for them, and where they can find help, services might be utilized more.

Minority Students May Struggle More and Seek Less Help Ethnic and racial minority students comprise 32% of all undergraduate college students (US Department of Education, 2009). There are several studies that introduce specific factors that indicate a difference in the overall academic experience of minority students (Eimers, 2001).

There is also research that suggests that minority students are less likely to seek and to stay in psychotherapy for their struggles (cf. Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Loya, Reddy, & Hinshaw, 2010).

The intersection of these two notions indicates that although there is pronounced suffering among minority college students, they may be less willing to receive traditional mental health services. Studies have shown a link between minority status and other demographics like socioeconomic status and first generation status, suggesting that minorities may at times not seek services because of financial obstacles (Eisenberg et al., 2007). Additionally, only 5-10% of African American college students will use on-campus counseling services due to perceived stigma and fear that parents/professors will find out (Safeguarding, 2002; Loya, Reddy, & Hinshaw, 2010).

The call for diversity research is increasing and this indicates that we should purposefully employ strategies to accommodate for diversity in college courses and curricula (Lee, Williams, Kilaberia, 2012). Everyone goes through life experiencing different things. When in college, a student also goes through myriad experiences. While there are a number of campuses that have a growing network of faculty that are reaching out to students about mental health and help seeking (Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010), more efforts need to be made to educate these students about interventions that prove to be effective across cultures, races, and in the context of being a student.

In summary, despite significant suffering, college students in general, and some minorities in particular, are not likely to seek psychotherapeutic services. Yet, in this time of great intellectual, emotional, and social growth, it is important that these emerging adults receive proper assistance, as struggles that take root early in college may be likely to persist (Zivin, K., Eisenberg, Gollust, & Golberstein, 2009). Many have suggested that perhaps a route to both

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STEVEN HAMMONDS intervention and prevention might be through freshman experience classes (Padgett & Keup, 2011).

Adjustment to College Seminars Might Be a Great Venue to Teach Psychological Skills to College Students First Year Experience Seminars (FYS) might be one way to help students, including minority students, with psychological issues. The delivery of psychological content via classes may make it more accessible, less stigmatizing (it’s not therapy), less costly, and easily disseminable. Most universities offer FYSs to freshmen students (Padgett & Keup, 2011). The purpose of these classes is to teach various aspects of college life in order to help freshmen college students adjust more effectively to college.

There are many different types of FYSs, some of which date back to the early 1900’s (Padgett & Keup, 2011). However, a popular form of FYS is that of an “extended orientation” consisting of an introduction to campus resources, time management, academic and career planning, learning strategies, and an introduction to student development issues (Padgett & Keup, 2011).

Participation in FYSs is associated with persistence into the second year in college, improved academic performance, and other positive changes (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). FYSs seem well-suited to deliver interventions designed to both prevent and assuage mental health problems among college students.

An Approach that is Empirically-Validated and Transdiagnostic Might be Most Efficient If we are going to teach psychological skills to college students in order to prevent and ameliorate psychological suffering, the question remains: Which psychological treatment would be most appropriate for delivery in a classroom format for college freshmen to prevent a number of different problems? Although typically the idea of addressing the specific content of the problem (e.g., substance abuse, depression) may be appealing, as we have shown above, college students are encountering a number of different issues. Some specific programs have been designed for college students in order to treat/prevent specific content such as substance abuse (Rimsza & Moses, 2005) or eating disorders (Phillips & Pratt, 2005). However, when it comes to prevention, it would not be feasible to conduct a program for each possible problem.

Thus, we would need an approach that is adaptable to a range of problems. Similarly, given our wish to reach minority students, we would need an approach that would take into account different contextual factors, such as race, SES, and so on.

Not all FYSs address mental health issues, and fewer still actually teach coping skills. Therefore, McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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STEVEN HAMMONDS devising an FYS specifically to engage students, including minority students, and provide psychotherapeutic interventions through the class would be ideal.

Acceptance and mindfulness interventions have been tested empirically and appear to be effective for a variety of mental health problems across settings and populations (Harris, 2006).

One such approach that has been used with college students is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012).

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): A Brief Description Everyone experiences difficulties, and according to the ACT theory, these difficulties are prompted by language (Hayes et al., 2012). When problems arise outside of the human body, they can oftentimes be easily solved by finding a solution. The solution usually consists of removing or avoiding the problem (e.g., if you feel cold, you put on a sweater). Sometimes problems arise within the human mind—the home of feelings, memories, thoughts, and desires.

With these psychological problems, it is not as simple to remove painful thoughts (e.g., try to tell yourself not to feel anxious when someone is holding a gun to your head!). It will not be as easy to avoid anxiety, because trying not to be anxious will only go on to create more anxiety; in fact some serious conditions, such as panic disorder with agoraphobia, are known as “the fear of fear” (Barlow, 1988).

Depression and anxiety are not directly caused by stressors; rather, it is a state that results from an individual’s perception and reaction to those stressors (Beck & Clark, 1997). If one is constantly reflecting and attempting to get rid of these unwanted feelings, the more psychological difficulty they may experience. Laboratory studies in thought suppression have shown this over and over; the more we attempt to suppress a thought, or even an urge, the more the thought or urge resurfaces later (Najmi & Wegner, 2008). Students are faced with many stressors that are out of their control (Kadison & DiGeronimo, 2004). Attempts to avoid the inevitable pain in life (e.g., relationship breakup, failing a test) may result in adding unnecessary suffering.

ACT interventions teach individuals to develop acceptance of unwanted private experiences that are out of personal control and commitment and action towards living a valued life (Harris, 2006). If they have this new acceptance, the undesired wants and feelings are reduced in impact.

This is practiced through a variety of techniques, including one called mindfulness, and the overall goal is to increase an individual’s psychological flexibility (PF; Harris, 2006). Once individuals have an accepting attitude towards the thoughts and feelings that they were allowing to slow them down, they may shift their focus toward living a life that is meaningful to them.

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STEVEN HAMMONDS Among college students, if they allow for the possibility that a series of uncomfortable thoughts (“I’m stupid”) or feelings (rejection, sadness) will show up during their college lives, AND commit to going to school as the pursuit of a valued goal (e.g., helping the world, becoming financially stable, challenging oneself), it can allow them to live a more vital life. In the presence of anxiety, for example, a psychologically flexible student can engage in other actions besides simply avoiding the trigger for anxiety (e.g., skipping class); the student may call a friend and discuss her fears or go to class “with” her stomach butterflies.

Mindfulness-Based Interventions Are Appropriate for Minority Students as Well Mindfulness and acceptance based therapies may be helpful with underserved populations specifically (Sobczak & West, 2013). This is because those who live in hostile circumstances may not fully understand that they are able to modify their relationship with their emotions as a way of combating social inequalities (Sobczak & West, 2013). For example, if someone is in a challenging social context, being able to see a thought such as “I’ll never succeed” as a thought rather than a fact can help the individual pursue valued actions to foster increased success in that community. A challenge for these individuals can be trying to “accept” acceptance, mindfulness, and pursuing their values while experiencing, and having experienced, adversity. A way for the therapist to address this obstacle is by making an effort to learn what it is like to be that person. While a counselor is the expert in mental health, the underserved individual is the expert on his own life and his own experiences, so they can each learn from each other. This type of psychotherapeutic stance that minimizes power differentials while promoting experiential, highly individualized, learning is typical of an ACT stance (Hayes et al., 2012).

Ethnic and minority populations are not always exposed to hostile environments, but may be more likely to live in poor urban contexts and confront many stressors that range from finances to health problems to personal-safety concerns. This context may give these individuals exposure to stressors that can be extreme. These stressors are not limited to finance and health problems; they also often witness truancy and gang violence, which can lead one to be significantly more worried about one’s personal safety than those who do not live in the same context (cf. Hinton, Nickerson, & Bryant, 2011).

One study with a diverse population (Cook & Hayes, 2006) investigated coping and psychological adjustment of Asian American and Caucasian students. As they expected, there were large differences found with regard to acculturation. Asian Americans scored significantly lower than Caucasian Americans on psychological acceptance, higher on resignation, and had higher levels of thought suppression and fear of sadness.

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STEVEN HAMMONDS Hayes, Muto, & Masuda (2011) examined a number of studies that aspired towards cultural competence. In many of the studies noted, the researchers have indicated that psychological flexibility and ACT methods are helpful for Asians, but it seems that cultural modifications could be helpful if more focus was applied to contextual theory rather than topography. This seems to be a consistent theme across several cultures. Acculturation is natural; therefore, it is important to alter psychotherapeutic approaches in a way that it will be easy to understand and apply for individuals who are adapting to the psychological and cultural changes that follow the intersection of two cultures.

ACT in particular, however, has been shown to be effective with a diverse sample of college students in bibliotherapy format (Muto, Hayes, & Jeffcoat, 2011). In a study examining the psychological distress of international students, 70 Japanese students at the University of Nevada, Reno were split into two groups. One group received an ACT self-help book and the other group did not. The group that received the book had significantly better general mental health as well as greater psychological flexibility. In college, the distress suffered by international students is higher because of reasons that other minorities also suffer, such as language barriers and cultural differences. If an ACT self-help book could easily be purchased for an affordable price, it could be an effective way to help diminish mental health problems with college students, including minorities.

“A comprehensive review of published ACT outcome research revealed that ACT is being implemented and researched across a number of countries around the world, with a presumably diverse population” (Woidneck, Pratt, Gundy, Nelson, Twohig, 2011). A review of nine studies that utilized minority populations showed that there is often insufficient demographic information within ACT outcome research. Only half of the studies reported ethnic/racial information at all (Woidneck et al., 2011). This review shows that ACT researchers should improve the way they address cultural information. There has not been any specific investigation about the demographic make-up of ethnic or racial information. It has been hypothesized that ACT is effective in diverse groups, but the data are indeed still limited. Even before understanding outcome per se, it is necessary to make sure that psychotherapeutic approaches are acceptable to minority individuals. This historically has been a problem, and remains an issue with the new mindfulness and acceptance approaches, such as ACT. In summary, although ACT and other mindfulness-based approaches seem to be promising, little is known about how “acceptable” these approaches are to individuals in general and to minority populations in particular. The current study, a randomized control trial (RCT), funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), where 732 college freshmen were randomly

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STEVEN HAMMONDS assigned to either an ACT FYS or a psychodidactic FYS, is a perfect venue for understanding if there are any differences in acceptability and perceived usefulness of an ACTbased class between college students identifying themselves as ethnic or racial minority versus those identifying themselves only as Caucasians. This McNair thesis examined a subsection of the dataset from this larger study.

Method Participants The sample was composed of 732 college freshmen, ages 17-20, enrolled at a medium-sized public university in Western USA, University of Nevada, Reno. Table 1 below lists the demographic information for the total sample, as well as per condition, and the University population. The mean, median, and mode of the participants are all 18 years old. In terms of ethnicity, 13.3% are Latino/Hispanic, 1.5% chose not to answer. In terms of race, 67% are Caucasian and not of Latino descent, 9.2% are multi-racial, 7.5% are Asian, 3.0% are African American, 1.7% are American Indian or Alaskan Native, 1.3% are Pacific Islanders, and 6.7% chose not to answer race-related questions. There were no differences in demographic characteristics across both conditions, or relative to the overall student statistics at the University of Nevada, Reno.

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STEVEN HAMMONDS Procedure Between 2008 and 2010, all enrolled freshmen were sent an e-mail invitation to participate in a study seeking to evaluate a class designed to help college freshmen adjust to college and to life in general (N=5,907). All students who completed the screening were entered into a drawing for either an iPod or a $300 gift card (odds of winning 1 in 300). The response rate for the initial screening email was approximately 39%. There were four recruitment phases: fall 2008, (2) spring 2009, (3) fall 2009, and (4) fall 2010.

Screening Given the prominence of psychological flexibility (PF) in ACT, students who participated in the screening completed a measure of PF, the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire—II (AAQ-II, Bond, Hayes, Baer, Carpenter, Guenole, Orcutt, Waltz & Zettle, 2011). PF, and the AAQ-II, are known to correlate with general well-being and to predict better adjustment to difficult life events (Boulanger, Hayes, & Pistorello, 2010). Due to gender related differences in AAQ-II scores, a median split was completed for males (M = 57) and females (M = 55). Participants who scored below the mean of the sample (higher scores indicate more psychological flexibility) were invited to participate first, in order to compensate for any avoidance tendencies. Students in the upper medium split (higher PF) were allowed to sign up later, given available openings. The investigators assumed that if they relied on a “first come first served” method, most of the students signing up would be higher in PF and therefore not as likely to need, or even benefit, from the ACT class. In fact, the mean AAQ score obtained in this study matched almost exactly those obtained from other studies relying on a general college student sample.

First Year Seminars (FYSs) Students who agreed to participate selected a time for the class that fit their schedules.

Students completed a battery of questionnaires before taking the class (pre) and then again a week after taking the class (post). Classes lasted 8 weeks, for a total of approximately two hours a week (16 hours total). Students were randomly assigned to an acceptance and mindfulnessbased intervention (henceforth called the ACT FYS) or to a didactic course on adjustment to the challenges of college life (henceforth called the Psychodidactic FYS). Usually, FYSs are based on delivering information (e.g., time/finance management, information on substance abuse, etc).

We wanted to see if instead of this more typical type of FYS (Psychodidactic), we could teach students general life skills based on acceptance and mindfulness (ACT). Would exposure to ACT, delivered via a class, make a difference in the short and long term to the students in terms of their mental health and grades?

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STEVEN HAMMONDS The ACT Class The ACT intervention in this study was structured around Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life (Hayes & Smith, 2005), which is the first popular book on ACT designed for general use by the public. This book has been empirically validated in three ways. First, it is based on an ACT protocol that has been used in a number of ACT studies (e.g., Hayes et al., 2004). Second, it has been used as a part of ACT interventions in successful studies (e.g. Lillis, 2006) which have found that frequency of use of the text correlated with better outcomes. Finally, this book was tested in an RCT against a wait list control in a health and wellness program available to teachers and staff in a large K-12 school system (Jeffcoat & Hayes, 2012).

The Psychodidactic Class The control condition for the study relied on a book specifically created for this study, entitled The cornerstone and keys to successful learning: Adjustment to college and life (Prentice Hall, 2008), offered as part of Prentice Hall Student Success Series. Prentice Hall allows consumers to put together a book for FYSs that is composed of specific modules. For the purposes of this study, we selected modules (that appeared as chapters in the book) that were related to psychological issues: 1) change, 2) persist, 3) critical, creative, and practical thinking, 4) prioritize, 5) personal wellness, 6) relating to others, and 7) managing money and career.

Measures Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011). The AAQ-II is a seven-item measure of psychological flexibility. The items focus on the person’s relationship with private events such as sensations, thoughts, memories and emotions and each item is rated on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (“never true”) to 7 (“always true”). Example items include, “Emotions cause problems in my life” and “I’m afraid of my feelings.” The AAQ-II has been found to have adequate internal consistency and construct validity (Bond et al., 2011) with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients in the range of .76 to .87.

Student Evaluation of Educational Quality Questionnaire (SEEQ, Marsh, 1986) is a uniform tool that is used to evaluate college courses. This evaluation tool allows students to give feedback about the effectiveness of the instruction and the class itself. The SEEQ includes 32 standardized questions grouped into the following nine dimensions of teaching: Learning, Enthusiasm, Organization, Group Interaction, Rapport, Breadth, Examinations, Assignments, and Overall. The first 8 dimensions are measured using a five-point scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree). The 9th dimension, “Overall”, is also measured using a five-point scale, but with different options (very poor, poor, average, good, and very good). Furthermore,

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STEVEN HAMMONDS the SEEQ includes a “Comments/Feedback” section where students can submit additional qualitative information that could be helpful for the assessment.

The SEEQ is recommended often as one of the most widely used and thoroughly developed class evaluation tools in the United States. It has also been recommended by teachers in the UK and China to obtain student feedback on their teaching, in preference to ‘home made’ student feedback questionnaires. Reliability and validity are important, especially where a single score is useful as an indicator of educational quality for collective purposes (Coffey & Gibbs, 2001). It was originally created by Marsh in 1986. Since then, many studies that used the SEEQ claim it has high reliability (e.g., Qi, 2010). For this study, the subscales of Breadth and Examinations were not included, as they did not fit the type of class being evaluated.

The Perceived Usefulness Scale consisted of five Likert-like questions, designed specifically for this study, enquiring into the perceived usefulness of the class in terms of dealing effectively with: 1) overall challenges in life, 2) mental health issues, 3) physical health challenges, 4) relationship difficulties, and 5) drug and alcohol issues. A total was computed across all five items.

Current McNair Thesis: Focus and Research Questions The larger study evaluated the impact of the class through a number of questionnaires on psychological functioning. For the purposes of this McNair thesis, however, we focused only on class satisfaction and perceived usefulness, as it pertained to differences between ethnic/racial minority and non-minority students. Both class satisfaction and perceived usefulness were measured immediately after the 8-week class.

Research Question # 1: Does ethnicity impact acceptability and perceived usefulness ratings by students who took an ACT vs. Psychodidactic FYS? We evaluated this question by testing for an interaction between student membership in an ethnic minority group (Latinos/Hispanic vs. Not) and type of class (ACT vs. psychodidactic) in terms of students’ feedback on the SEEQ (7 subscales and an Overall Score) and the Perceived Usefulness (of the class) Scale.

Research Question # 2: Does race (Racial minority status vs. Not) impact acceptability and perceived usefulness ratings by students who took an ACT vs. Psychodidactic FYE class?

We again evaluated this question by testing for an interaction between student membership in a racial minority (African American, Asian, Pacific Islander, Native American, or Multi-racial) group McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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STEVEN HAMMONDS (Racial minority vs. Not) and type of class (ACT vs. psychodidactic) in terms of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feedback on the SEEQ (7 subscales and an Overall Score) and the Perceived Usefulness (of the class) Scale.

Research Question # 3: Does primary identification with either an ethnic minority (Latino/Hispanic) or a racial minority (African American, Asian, Pacific Islander, Native American, or Multi-Racial) impact acceptability and perceived usefulness ratings by students who took an ACT vs. Psychodidactic FYE class?

We again evaluated this question by testing for an interaction between student self-reported primary identification with an ethnic or racial minority group (Ethnic/Racial minority vs.

Caucasian) and type of class (ACT vs. psychodidactic) in terms of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feedback on the SEEQ (7 subscales and an Overall Score) and the Perceived Usefulness (of the class) Scale.

This research project examined the acceptability and perceived usefulness of ACT vs. a psychodidactic adjustment to college class to ethnic or racial minority college students, relative to the rest of the sample. These analyses will provide a better understanding of the acceptability of an FYS based on ACT with minority students.

Results Data screening procedures were used to test the normality of the dependent variables, and where appropriate, transformations were conducted to correct for skewness and kurtosis. Prior to exploring the primary research questions, we perused satisfaction and perceived usefulness ratings for both classes. Satisfaction ratings (SEEQ items) could range from 1-5, and classes from both conditions received high marks (almost all in the 4-5 range on average) indicating high satisfaction. Ratings on the perceived usefulness of the class immediately post-class were just below 4 (on a 1-5 scale, with higher scores indicating higher predicted usefulness).

The primary research questions in terms of the relationship between baseline demographics (ethnicity, race, and self-reported primary identification with an ethnic/racial minority group or not), class condition (ACT vs. Psychodidactic), and post-class satisfaction and perceived usefulness (7 SEEQ subscales, the overall SEEQ score, and total on Predictions scale) were evaluated in this study using hierarchical multiple regression. In total, 27 regressions were conducted: 9 for each of the three ways to measure ethnicity and race (ethnicity alone, race alone, and primary identification with an ethnic or racial group) and nine dependent variables (7 SEEQ subscales, the total SEEQ score, and the total for the Perceived Usefulness Scale). On step one in each regression entered the condition variable as a predictor; step two then entered demographic variable of interest; and the final step entered an interaction term between the

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STEVEN HAMMONDS Two variables from the previous steps to explore the possibility that participant demographics and class condition might interact. Tables 2-28 below show the results for each of these regression equations. An asterisk (*) indicates a statistically significant effect. A symbol of â&#x20AC; indicates analyses that approached significance (p < .10). We present tables and summarize the findings below per research question.

Research Question # 1â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Differences Based on Ethnicity (Latino vs. Not).

Tables 2-10 below summarize the findings. In each of the 9 regressions the interaction term did not yield a significant predictive value at the p < .05 threshold, suggesting that there were no differences between ethnic minority (Latino) and non-ethnic minority students in their satisfaction with the classes or their perceived usefulness of the classes based on the type of class (ACT vs. Psychodidactic). However, there were some main effects: Latino students predicted that the classes (in both conditions) would be significantly more helpful to them than did non-Latino students. Similarly, there were non-significant trends suggesting that Latinos rated the SEEQ subscale of Learning (Table 3) and Assignments (Table 8) higher than non-Latinos.

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Research Question # 2â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Differences Based on Race (Racial Minorities vs. Not).

Tables 11-19 below summarize the findings. In each of the 9 regressions the interaction term did not yield a significant predictive value at the p < .05 threshold, suggesting that there were no differences between racial minorities (African Americans, Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, or Multi-Racial) and non-racial minority students (Caucasians) in their satisfaction with the classes or their perceived usefulness of the classes based on the type of class (ACT vs.

Psychodidactic). However, there was one main effect: Racial minority students rated the SEEQ subscale of Learning (Table 12) higher than Caucasians.

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Research Question # 3â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Differences Based on Self-Reported Primary Identification (Ethnic or Racial Minority vs. Not).

Tables 20-28 below summarize the findings. In each of the 9 regressions the interaction term did not yield a significant predictive value at the p < .05 threshold, suggesting that there were no differences between those primarily self-identified as an ethnic or racial minority (Latinos, African Americans, Asians, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, and Multi-Racial) and those primarily selfidentified as Caucasians in their satisfaction with the classes or their perceived usefulness of the classes based on the type of class (ACT vs. Psychodidactic). However, similar to findings above, there were main effects: Self-Identified ethnic and racial minority students predicted that the classes (in both conditions) would be significantly more helpful to them than did those primarily identified as Caucasian students (Table 28). Similarly, self-identified minority students rated the SEEQ subscale of Learning (Table 21) significantly higher than those self-identified as Caucasians, and showed a nonsignificant trend towards higher ratings in the SEEQ Assignments subscale (Table 26) than those primarily self-identified as Caucasian.

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Discussion Relevant to the psychotherapy field, this is the first study to show that ACT, at least as adapted to a class, is as acceptable to ethnic/racial minorities as other more main-stream interventions, even when utilized in a universal prevention setting with non-clinical populations. It also showed that ACT was at least as acceptable to minorities as it was to Caucasian individuals. These are important findings for the mindfulness and acceptance based literature in general. There are a couple of ACT studies that relied primarily on minority samples (cf. Woidneck et al., 2011); however, there is no data on acceptability and perceived usefulness of ACT to ethnic and racial minority populations, relative to majority populations. This study fills this gap in the ACT literature. Minorities are often stigmatized because they have a different upbringing or culture. Cultural competence is a topic receiving more and more attention, especially in the field of psychology, and acceptability of an approach is an important first step prior to widely disseminating it.

Relevant to college campuses across the nation, this study showed that minority college freshmen students found an ACT-based first year seminar at least as acceptable and as useful as their Caucasian counterparts. This suggests that, should this type of class be found to yield positive findings in terms of outcome, it could be disseminated across campuses without too many concerns about its cultural sensitivity across both ethnic and racial minorities. With the many stressors that college students undergo, combined with being a minority, it is important to know that there are avenues for reaching all students, including ethnic/racial minority ones, outside of more traditional therapeutic environments, that they find acceptable and useful.

In recent years, American colleges and universities have seen greater diversity among their undergraduate students and greater civic interest and action among these students (Bowman 2010). It helps to build a student body to have the ability to work with different types of people.

This is an extremely important attribute to attain throughout college years to fit into the globalized and fast moving society. ACT, infused into a multicultural diversity class, has been shown to be effective at increasing studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; positive behavioral intentions to engage in prodiversity activities at post and 1-week follow-up (Lillis & Hayes, 2007). Findings from the present study show that perhaps these same ACT interventions that might impact prejudice can be acceptable to a diverse body of college students when implemented through FYSs. Initially, we had considered the possibility that we would see some differences in the way minority students would assess the courses with regard to acceptability and perceived usefulness across both conditions (ACT vs. Psychodidactic). Given that some students learn better in different ways, we expected to see some variance among different types of students. We know that minority McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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students have often lived very different lives than those hailing from more mainstream backgrounds. The accumulation of the students’ previous experiences may play a role in the way that each individual student absorbs information in a classroom environment. For example, in the realm of psychotherapy, there is some indication that a psychodidactic approach may be particularly beneficial to racial minority clients (Sue & Sue, 2012), and one study showed that Asian Americans used less acceptance-oriented coping and more control-oriented coping compared to their Caucasian counterparts (Cook & Hayes, 2006). Thus, we entertained the possibility that the psychodidactic FYS might be more acceptable to minorities than to majority students. However, there were no interactions between ethnic/racial minority membership and type of class. Both classes received high marks and were, for the most part, perceived as equally useful by students regardless of minority status. Given that there were no major differences between the student groups, FYSs based on mindfulness-based therapeutic approaches, such as ACT, could be implemented at colleges to help students across different ethnicities and races.

Interestingly, although there were no interactions between ethnic/racial minority status and class type, there was some indication that ethnic and racial minorities college students found the FYSs implemented here, regardless of condition, even more acceptable and useful than their Caucasian counterparts, particular in terms of how much they learned (Learning subscale of the SEEQ), how worthwhile the assignments were (Assignment subscale of the SEEQ), and how useful they predicted the classes would be (Perceived Usefulness Scale). This suggests that FYSs directed at psychological concerns, regardless of whether or not they are mindfulness-based, may be particularly useful to minority students. This may in part be due to what some have called the “cultural discontinuities” between home and school cultures (Martins-Shannon, 2013) among some minority students, relative to the mainstream culture. This suggests that some of the material taught in psychologically-oriented FYSs may help bridge the gap between minority students home life and their college campus experience.

Limitations and Future Directions One weakness of this study was that the statistical analyses utilized violated the assumption of independent observations which is required in regression significance testing because students shared classrooms and could interact with each other. Thus, it is possible that the class students were in influenced their assessments of class satisfaction (e.g., teacher, etc). Further investigation should be carried out with more advanced statistical procedures to account for the nested nature of this data (e.g., mixed effects analyses).

Some have pointed out that it may be necessary to tweak ACT or any other therapeutic method for

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cultural competence reasons (Hayes et al., 2011). The ACT class implemented here was adapted to different levels of psychological suffering (did not assume that every student in the class was in psychological pain, as is typically the case in treatment protocols); however, there were no specific adaptations to different cultures and backgrounds. The present findings suggest that perhaps ACT with its focus on the “human condition” may be naturally culturally sensitive. A finding that would support this conclusion is that the relationship of psychological flexibility to outcomes appears to be similar across the world, and across class and culture (Hayes et al., 2011). Other studies, conducted in more traditional therapeutic settings, will need to replicate these findings. In particular, it would be helpful if studies in the future continued to assess for the acceptability of different therapeutic approaches across various ethnic and minority groups.

This study relied strictly on quantitative data, but it would be good to analyze qualitative comments made by students in terms of what they found most useful in the class. An analysis of these open ended questions might give us some ideas of what exactly appealed to minority vs. majority students across both conditions. It is possible that both student groups found classes equally helpful, but possibly for different reasons. This work still has to be done. Finally, the results from this study are limited to acceptability and perceived usefulness. We do not yet know how actually useful the classes will prove to be two or three years down the road, if at all. Those analyses remain to be conducted. However, the present findings do give some reassurance to college campuses across the nation that an ACT FYS can be well received by students of diverse backgrounds.

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English Communication Abilities and Challenges of International Students Studying Abroad

Ashley Izquierdo Major: Speech Pathology & Audiology Mentor: Dr. Abbie Olszewski Graduated: 2016

Enrolled: Master’s Program, Speech, Language, and Learning, Northwestern University

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This study examines two major contributing factors for University of Nevada Reno’s (UNR) international students: language barriers and UNR’s Intensive English Language Center’s (IELC) program. A survey study was conducted and evaluated international students at UNR to comment on their previous English exposure, English language proficiency testing, English proficiency skills, the IELC program, and academic coursework. A total of 12 participants were recruited for this study. Results from this survey showed that international students came to UNR from a total of 9 different countries with different forms of exposure to the English language. After at least one semester at UNR, international students who took IELC showed the same level of comfortableness in their English language ability as students that only took academic classes. This may suggest that IELC allows international students to feel as proficient in English as their peers.

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Many international students come to the United States in pursuit of higher education to obtain undergraduate and graduate degrees. North America is responsible for 21% of all the students that study internationally (Unescap, 2012). In fact, the 2012-2013 academic year saw a record number of international students attending United States colleges (Chappell, 2013). Forty-nine percent of the students came from non-English speaking countries of China, India, and South Korea (Chappell, 2013). Students either attend universities to pursue undergraduate and graduate degrees.

There are many benefits for university students to travel abroad. International students come to the University of Nevada, Reno every year to experience a newfound journey in America. These students are determined to improve their English skills and take on the challenge of being in a new country all on their own. The students are an important aspect to the university as they provide a diverse culture. Not only do these participants get to experience the American culture, but it also allows the American students a chance to explore and learn about other cultures.

With any experience of being in a new country, challenges are sure to follow. One of the many challenges for international students are those related to language. International students are in the process of trying to transition from a language learner to a language speaker. The university and the student have the responsibility of guiding and practicing such goals to allow for a successful and filing international experience.

However, such practices such as the University of Nevada Renoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Intensive English Language Center (IELC) Program might be available to international students to improve their English skills.

However, the question remains if such support will provide the students with the confidence that their English skills have improved. This study examined the impact of the University of Nevada, Renoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s IELC program for international studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills.

Studying in United States International students attend universities in the United States for several reasons. The United States has the infrastructure to offer higher education, whereas, developing countries do not have this support system (Lin, 2012). Attending an international university affords an enriching cultural experience to meet personal and professional goals (Lin, 2012). Furthermore, studying in the United States provides a unique opportunity to better English proficiency skills (Lin, 2012).

United States has been identified as the top English-speaking destinations (16.6%) compared to United Kingdom (13.0%), and Australia (6.6%) (Mak, Brown, & Wadey, 2013).

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impact their academic success while studying abroad. International students experience a host of challenges upon entering a new country, the most impactful set of difficulties are related to language. Specifically, linguistically-based skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing impact both academic/social aspects for these students. There is a linguistic demand continuum for most academic courses (Zhang & Mi, 2010). Depending on the students major, courses can be heavily linguistically based. However, students can also take academic courses that are less linguistically demanding. Academic courses vary in the linguistic demand required for participation in the course. For example, less linguistically demanding courses include pure mathematics and technology. On the other end, linguistically demanding courses include law, linguistics and journalism (Zhang & Mi, 2010). The IELTS Handbook (2007) recommends that students meet specific proficiency levels based on the linguistic demands for the course. For example, IELTS recommends a score of 7.0 for linguistically demanding academic courses (IELTS, 2007).

Although a student may achieve a good score on the IELTS, there are still many languages barrier they face. Kokhan (2013) found that ESL (English as a Second Language) undergraduate international students are 41% likely to be placed in the wrong language capability group based on such standardized test scores. The use of the TOEFL iBT, an internet based standardized test used to measure English capability of international students, is an enrollment requirement to study in an English speaking university (Cho & Bridgeman, 2012). Specifically, none of the admission tests found in this study were show to have no correlation with academic success (Cho & Bridgman, 2012). Additionally, TOEFL scores of the students show no correlation between GPA and academic success (Wait & Gressel, 2009).

A study conducted by Liu (2013) investigated Chinese international students and found that they tried to adapt their language system to their new environmental language. The transition from language learner to language user means making sure to change your conceptual meaning and potential behind the new found language (Liu, 2013). This transition can also assist in the use of trying to figure out the cultural and academic norms that are different from their home country.

However, even with accepting of the language these international students seemed to find that they would have many language barriers and they experienced â&#x20AC;&#x153;academic culture shock.â&#x20AC;? For instance, the Chinese students studied showed a low understand of textbook readings. They reported that they could understand all the words of the sentence, but could not tell you what the sentence was saying. They felt as though they were spending too much time reading and not getting as much out of time speaking as they would like.

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ASHLEY IZQUIERDO Purpose and Research Questions Although the topic of international student perceptions of language performance ability as they study abroad has recently been investigated, no study has yet to examine the impact of a systematic program focusing on the speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills in the language where the study abroad occurs. The purpose of this study is to examine the University of Nevada, Renoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s IELC program for international students. The following research questions were asked: 1. Prior to coming to the United States, what was the most common form of exposure for all international students surveyed? Did it vary by country of origin or by participation in IELC group?

2. Do international students that took IELC courses and academic classes differ in their current self-perceived English communication ability than those that just took academic classes?

3. What IELC course was the easiest and hardest for students that took IELC courses?

4. What was the most common academic challenge (i.e. listening, speaking, writing, reading) for students who took academic courses?

5. What was the most common strategy international students used to help with their English challenges in their academic course work? Did it vary by country of origin or by participation in IELC? Methodology Participant Recruitment This study was conducted under University of Nevada, Renoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Institutional Review Board #759649-2. Inclusion criteria for this study included: 1) age of eighteen or older, 2) attending UNR for at least one semester, and 3) passed the TOEFL or participated in the IELC courses. These participants spoke a variety of languages including: Portuguese, Spanish, Japanese and Chinese.

Participants came to the University of Nevada, Reno from a variety of countries around the world. The majority of the participants will be from Brazil, China, Japan and Spain.

Participants in this research study were recruited through a three-step process. First, permission was granted from Director of IELC to recruit participants through oral presentations in the upperadvanced IELC classes (i.e., Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening). Presentations were made two times over two weeks. Second, permission was granted to post flyers throughout the IELC office and the Office of International Students and Scholars (OISS) location at UNR for three months.

Third, the Director of OISS gave permission to post an announcement in an e-newsletter. See Appendix B for advertisements.

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All consenting individuals were emailed a link from Survey Monkey Platform. In an effort to increase the total number of participants, a keychain incentive was offered. Participants received incentive after completing the survey.

Participants There were a total of 12 participants, 4 males and 8 females, who ranged in age from 19 years old to 43 years old. Participants came from countries within Latin America and Asia. See Figure 1. Participants varied in the amount of English exposure before coming to the United States, the number of months in the United States, and TOEFL scores. See Table 1. For further comparisons, participants were placed into three groups based on participation in IELC. Group 1 consisted of participants who only took IELC courses at UNR. Group 2 consisted of participants who took IELC and academic courses at UNR. Group 3 consisted of participants who took only academic courses at UNR. Data Collection Procedures Data was collected using an online survey system called Survey Monkey. The survey questions were vetted through discussions with the Director of IELC services and were piloted with an international student. Minor adjustments were made for clarification of questions. An electronic version of the questionnaire was selected for this study to increase the number of potential participants and for ease of reading participant open-ended responses. The survey was conducted in English. It consisted of open-ended, closed-ended, and Likert scale questions.

There were a total of six or seven parts to this survey depending on the participantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experiences. The first part was in regards to demographic information such as date of birth, gender, major, and their home country. The second part was in regards to the students length of stay at UNR and the participants age upon arrival to UNR. The third part, if applicable to the participant, was in regards to previous visits to the United States prior to UNR. The fourth part was in regards to the participants English language exposure prior to coming to the United States and their self-perceived English ability before coming to the United States. The fifth part, if applicable to the participant, was in regards to TOEFL testing. . If the participant took the IELC courses, the sixth part was in regards to IELC courses and their self-perceived English ability in the IELC courses. If the participant did not take IELC courses and took UNR academic courses, the seventh part asked for a list of all academic courses taken, the number of credits take at UNR and their current self-perceived English ability in those academic courses. The ninth section was in regards to their biggest academic challenge in English and strategies used to overcome such challenge. See Appendix A for the questionnaire.

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ASHLEY IZQUIERDO Results Our first research question asked international students about their exposure to English before coming to UNR. The most common form of exposure to English for all international students prior to coming to the United States was music (n = 12). See Table 2.

Further analysis was conducted to determine if exposure to English prior to coming to UNR varied based on country of origin. Interestingly, international students from Latin American countries (i.e., Brazil, Costa Rica, and Panama) selected music (n = 5) and movies (n = 5) as their main exposure to English. The international students from India selected all forms of exposure including music (n = 2), movies (n = 2), t.v. (n = 2), internet (n =2), magazines (n = 2), books (n = 2), family (n = 1), friends (n = 1), and classes (n = 2). International students from Korea, China and Japan selected music (n = 5) and classes (n = 4). See Table 3. This means that the form of exposure to English differed based on the international studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s country of origin.

An additional analysis was conducted to determine if exposure to English varied based on participation in the IELC. Group 1 (enrolled in only IELC) selected music (n = 3), movies (n = 3), and the internet (n = 3) as their main exposure to English prior to UNR. Group 2 (IELC and academic courses) selected music (n = 5), magazines (n = 5), family (n = 5), and classes (n = 5).

Group 3 (academic courses only) selected music (n = 4), books (n = 4), and classes (n = 4). See Table 4. This means that the form of exposure to English differed based on the international studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in IELC. Our second research question asked whether international students who took IELC and academic courses (Group 2) differed from those that took only academic courses (Group 3) in selfperceived English communication abilities. Prior to coming to the United States, international students in Group 2 rated themselves as less comfortable in speaking, listening, reading and writing (median = 2) than students in Group 3 (median = 4). After a semester studying abroad, international students in Group 2 felt as comfortable (median = 3) as the international students in Group 3 (median = 4). This means that the IELC program gave students the skills they felt they needed to participate in discussions and complete written assignments in academic courses. See Tables 5 through 7.

Our third research question asked which IELC course was the easiest and which was the hardest for students who took IELC courses. For international students that took only IELC (Group 1), they rated High Advanced Reading and Writing (n = 2) as their easiest IELC courses. For international students that took IELC and academic courses (Group 2), they rated Integrated Skills (n = 2) as their easiest course. International students that took IELC only (Group 1) and IELC and academic courses (Group 2) both rated Low Advanced Reading and Writing (n = 2 , n = 2 respectively) as McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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their hardest IELC course. See Tables 12 and 13. This suggests that international students have different perceptions of the IELC classes based on their English proficiency skills.

Our fourth research question asked what was the most common academic challenge (i.e., listening, speaking, writing, and reading) for students who took only academic courses.

International students who took only academic coursed rated “speaking” (n = 4) as their most common academic challenge. See Table 8. This means that speaking may be the hardest language skill for international students to acquire.

Our fifth research question asked what was the most common strategy international students used to help with their English challenge in their academic course work. International students selecting “asking friends” (n = 10) as a strategy they used to overcome their English challenges in their academic course work. This means that international students ask their friends for help in order to get assistance in their academic course work.. See Table 9.

Further analysis was conducted to investigate if the most common strategy varied by country of origin or by their participation in IELC. Asking friends for assistance was the most common strategy among all international students (n = 10). Interestingly, international students from Latin American countries (i.e., Brazil, Costa Rica, and Panama) all selected “asking friends” (n = 5) for clarification to help in their academic course work. International students from Asian countries, except a student from China, selected the use of a dictionary (n = 5), asking for clarification (n = 5), and asking friends (n = 5) as their most common strategy. International students that took IELC selected the use of the dictionary (n = 3), asking friends (n = 3), and asking for clarification (n = 2) as strategies they used. See Table 10 and 11. This means that strategies international students use is different based on their country of origin and participation in IELC. Discussion This study examined the self-perceived English ability of international students that attended UNR for at least one semester, identified the resources the international students used, and identified international students’ most challenging areas of language (i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening).

English Exposure International students come from a variety of countries and have the potential to be exposed to English in different ways. Research question one examined English exposure prior to coming to the United States. The most common form of English exposure all international students had

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was through music and movies. With the popularity of music today, the increase of music is being spread all over the world. In fact, 25 billion songs are sold through iTunes per year to 119 countries (â&#x20AC;&#x153;iTunes Store Sets New Record,â&#x20AC;? n.d.). Findings from this study revealed that international students who came from Latin countries were exposed to English through music and international students who came from Asian countries were exposed to English through classes. This is as expected because the Latin culture is found to be very musical (Messa, n.d.), Asian countries are more focused on formal learning opportunities such as classes in the English language (Fitzpatrick, 2013). Based on findings from this survey, it can be implied that international students from Latin and Asian countries will differ in their exposure to English prior to coming to UNR. Due to varying types of exposure, it would be expected that these two groups may have different English vocabularies. It is likely that students from Latin countries have more basic interpersonal communication skill vocabulary since this is the type of vocabulary and grammar used in music and students from Asian countries may have more cognitive academic language proficiency since this is the type of vocabulary and grammar used in academic courses.

Self-Perceived English Language Ability The second research question examined international studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; current self-perceived English language ability. Comparisons were made based on their assigned group. Results indicated that international students that took IELC courses and academic courses (Group 2) felt as comfortable as those who just took academic course work (Group 3) in their English language abilities after one semester. This may indicate that international students that took IELC were given the help and guidance needed to feel as comfortable as the students that did not take IELC courses.

Students surveyed did increase their level of perceived ability from their level prior to coming to the United States. The IELC program may have provided enough support in one semester to allow the students to feel prepared in academic course work.

IELC IELC is used to provide assistance to international students in their English language ability.

Research question three examined which IELC course students perceived to be the easiest and the hardest. Based on these results, students selected both High Advanced Reading and Writing and Low Advanced Listening and Speaking as their easiest IELC. It is important to note that both classes selected were of different level and subject. This may imply that international students have different perceived feelings about the difference in level and subject of academic courses in English.

International students selected Low Advanced Reading and Writing as their hardest IELC course.

This analysis may imply that international students surveyed had difficultly with reading and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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writing. However, it is interesting to note that international students rated the lower level reading and writing as harder than the higher advanced class. This can be inferred based on their chosen class of Low Advanced Reading and Writing as their hardest course and the easiest class being High Advanced Reading and Writing. It may be that the professor was more difficult or the reading material and writing prompts may have made the class more difficult.

Academic Challenges Research question four examined the most common academic challenge (i.e. listening, speaking, writing and reading) of international students who took academic courses. Based on the results found, it can be concluded that there is no common academic challenge in the IELC only group (Group 1). This may imply that students in the IELC only group need help in all areas (reading, writing, listening and speaking). For the IELC and Academic group (Group 2), it can be concluded that speaking was the most common academic challenge. This may imply that students in Group 2 have difficulty speaking to others in their class or the professor. For the Academic classes only group (Group 3), it was concluded that speaking was the most common academic challenge. This may imply that speaking with others in the class truly affects their experience in the class.

Speaking requires many different variables. For example, speed of talking and cultural cues can make a difference in their understanding and pronunciation Interestingly enough, there was a common struggle with speaking for all students that took academic courses at UNR. This may imply that students in academic classes need more assistance in their speaking ability. This is likely because speaking requires much practice and leaning the pronunciation of certain words. It is likely that the IELC could provide a more classes and practice for international students that need the help.

Strategies Research question five examined the most common strategy international students used to help with their English challenges. Based on our results, it can be concluded that international students asked their friends for assistance when they experienced challenges with English. They also used the dictionary and ask for clarification. Interestingly enough, none of the students surveyed recorded lectures to assist with their listening abilities. If they recorded the lectures, they could revisit the lecture recording again at their leisure and at a slower pace. This may help increase their understanding of the lecture material. They also would have had repeated exposure to the material. Students from Japan and Costa Rica used the most strategies to overcome their English challenge in their academic course work. They all used a total of 5 strategies to help them in their challenges. An international student from China used the least number of strategies. This student identified that a professional note taker as their only strategy.

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Based on further analysis, it was concluded that students in IELC used more strategies to overcome their English challenge. This could imply that international students that took IELC learned about more strategies available to them.

Clinical Implications IELC can use the results of this survey to understand more about the international students that enter their program. International students were exposed to English through music, therefore, IELC could use music as a starting point to teach English. International students that took IELC and academic courses showed similar comfortable levels in their English language ability. This implies that IELC are successful in helping the international students in their English ability.

However, IELC can encourage students that donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t feel comfortable to take a least one semester of IELC course. By understanding which IELC classes were easiest and hardest for the students, IELC can investigate changes they can make to their program. For example, IELC may be able to adjust their class curriculum based on the students comments and suggestions such as their increased difficulty in reading and writing and the need for more support. Based on the survey, speaking was the most common academic challenge for students. IELC may be able to provide more training and practice for students in their speaking ability. International students surveyed stated that asking their friends was their most common strategy to overcome their English challenges. IELC may be able to incorporate more strategies into the classroom and teach how certain strategies can help them.

Acknowledgements Without the support from my faculty mentor, Dr. Abbie Olszewski, this research project would have not been such a wonderful learning process. She prepared me for challenging and rewarding research experience. I would like to thank the Office of Undergraduate and Interdisciplinary Research for accepting me for the General Undergraduate Research Award Their funds and contributions made a huge impact in my research experience. Likewise, I would like to thank Susie Valencia, Director of IELC, for the support and guidance through this process.

Similarly, thank you to Susan Askew for her help in advertisements and recruitment. Lastly, a special thank you to the McNair Scholars Program for their support. This program helped solidify the importance of undergraduate research.

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ASHLEY IZQUIERDO References Apple. (n.d.). iTunes Store Sets New Record with 25 Billion Songs Sold. (n.d.). Retrieved December 22, 2015, from https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2013/02/06iTunes-StoreSets-New-Record-with-25-Billion-Songs-Sold.html.

Chappell, B. (2013). Record Number Of International Students Attend U.S. colleges : The TwoWay : NPR. Retrieved February 22, 2015, from http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwoway/2013/11/11/244601986/record-number-of-international-students-attend-u-scolleges).

Cho, Y., & Bridgeman, B. (2012). Relationship of TOEFL iBT(R) scores to academic performance: Some evidence from American universities. Language Testing, 29, 421–442. doi:10.1177/0265532211430368 Fitzpatrick, L. (2013, March 6). The 5 Best Countries for Teaching English in Asia. Retrieved December 30, 2015, from http://www.gooverseas.com/blog/best-countries-for-teachingenglish-in-asia.

IELTS Handbook (2007). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Unviersity Press.

Kokhan, K. (2013). An argument against using standardized test scores for placement of international undergraduate students in English as a Second Language (ESL) courses.

Language Testing, 30, 467–489. doi:10.1177/0265532213475782 Lin, M. (2012). Students of different minds: Bridging the gaps of international students studying in the US. US-China Education Review, 3, 333–344.

Liu, C. (2013). From language learners to language users: A Study of Chinese Students in the UK. International Journal of Applied Linguistics (United Kingdom), 23, 123–143. doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.2012.00322.

Mak, a. S., Brown, P. M., & Wadey, D. (2013). Contact and Attitudes Toward International Students in Australia: Intergroup Anxiety and Intercultural Communication Emotions as Mediators. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 491–504. doi:10.1177/0022022113509883.

Messina, G. (n.d.). The influence of Latin music in the US - Music and Entertainment: Popular Hispanics showcases and highlight Hispanic culture through its coverage of the music and entertainment industry. Retrieved December 22, 2015, from http://popularhispanics.com/music-entertainment.php?pid=499

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Unescap. (2012). Education at a Glance 2012 (p. 166). Retrieved from http://www.unescap.org/publications/detail.asp?id=1521.

Wait, I. W., & Gressel, J. W. (2009). Relationship Between TOEFL Score and Academic Success for International Engineering Students. Journal of Engineering Education Washington DC, 98(October), 389–98. doi:10.1002/j.2168-9830.2009.tb01035.

Yanyin Zhang, & Yinan Mi. (2010). Another Look at the Language Difficulties of International Students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14, 371–388. doi:10.1177/1028315309336031.

Appendix A Tables Table 1 Participant Information Age (SD) Total

26 (6.76)

Gender M FM 4 8

Prior Visit to USA Y N 4 8

IELC No Academic

27.33 (6.81)

1 2

2 3

IELC Academic

26.80 (9.12)

1 4

1 4

No IELC Academic

24.00 (4.16)

2 2

1 3

Note. SD = Standard Deviation; M = Male; F = Female; Y = Yes, N = No; IELC = Intensive English Language Center.

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Table 2 Exposure to English for all International Students Exposure

Y

N

Music

12

0

Movies

10

2

Television

5

7

Internet

9

3

Magazines

3

9

Books

7

5

Family

2

10

Friends

6

6

Classes

232

Note: Y=Yes, N=No. 10

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Table 3 Exposure to English Based on Country of Origin

Brazil

Costa Rica

Panama

India

Japan

China

Korea

Music Y N

Movies Y N

TV Y N

Internet Y N

Mag Y N

Book Y N

Family Y N

Friends Y N

Classes Y N

2

2

1

2

1

1

1

2

2

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

0

0

2

2

1

2

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

1

0

2

2

2

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

3

2

1

1

0

2

0

1

3

0

1

2

2

3

1

3

2

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

2

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

Note: TV= Television, Mag=Magazine, Y=Yes, N=No, 0= 0 students, 1= 1 student, 2=2 students, 3= 3 students.

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Table 4 Exposure to English Based on Participation in IELC

IELC Only

Music Y N 3

Movies Y N 3

TV Y N 2

Internet Y N 3

Mag Y N 1

Books Y N 1

Family Y N 1

Friends Y N 2

Classes Y N 1

0

0

1

0

2

2

2

1

2

5

4

1

3

5

2

5

3

5

0

1

4

2

0

5

0

2

0

4

3

2

3

2

4

1

1

4

0

1

2

1

2

0

3

3

0

IELC and AC AC Only

Note: TV= Television, Mag=Magazine, Y=Yes, N=No, IELC only= Students that only took Intensive English Language Courses, IELC and AC= Students that took Intensive English Language Center courses and Academic courses, AC only=Students that took only academic courses.

Table 5 Comparison Median Comfortableness Prior to Studying in USA and After One Semester in USA for IELC No Academic

IELC No Academic

S Prior

S After IELC

L Prior

L After IELC

R Prior

R After IELC

W Prior

W After IELC

3

3

3

3

3

4

3

4

Note. S = Speaking; L = Listening; R = Reading; W = Writing; IELC = Intensive English Language Center.

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Table 6 Comparison Median Comfortableness Prior to Studying in USA and After One Semester in USA for IELC Academic

IELC Academ ic

S Prior

S After IELC

S In AC

L Prior

L After IELC

L in AC

R Prior

R After IELC

R in AC

W Prior

W After IELC/AC

W in AC

2

3

4

2

3

4

3

3

4

2

3

4

Note. S = Speaking; L = Listening; R = Reading; W = Writing; IELC = Intensive English Language Center; AC = Academic Courses.

Table 7 Comparison Median Comfortableness Prior to Studying in USA and After One Semester in USA for No IELC Academic

No IELC Acade mic

S Prior

S In AC

L Prior

L In AC

R Prior

R In AC

W Prior

W In AC

4

3

4

4

4.5

4

4

4

Note. S = Speaking; L = Listening; R = Reading; W = Writing; AC = Academic Courses.

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Table 8 Most Common Academic Challenge based on Participation in IELC

IELC Only IELC and AC

R

W

1 student

1 student

1 student

1 student

3 students

1 student

4 students

AC Only

S

L 1 student

Note: R=Reading, W=Writing, S=Speaking, L=Listening, IELC only= student only took Intensive English Language Center courses, IELC and AC= student took Intensive English Language Center Courses and Academic Courses, AC only=Student took Academic courses only Table 9 Summary of all International Students Strategy to Over English Challenge in Academic Courses Dictionary Friends

Ask

Study

Recorded

Note

Conversational

Other

Y

8

10

7

3

0

1

2

3

N

4

2

5

9

12

11

10

9

Note: Y=Yes, N=No, Ask=Ask for Clarification, Study=Study Groups, Recorded=Recorded Lectures, Note= Professional Note Taker, Conversational= Help from your conversational partner, Other=Help from others

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Table 10 Strategies Used based on Country of Origin

Brazil

Costa Rica

Panam a

India

Japan

China

Korea

Dict Y N

Friend Y N

Ask Y N

Study Y N

Record Y N

Note Y N

Conver Y N

Other Y N

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

2

2

2

0

2

1

1

0

0

1

1

2

0

1

1

2

2

1

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

3

3

3

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

3

3

3

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

Note: Dict=Dictionary, Friend=Ask a friend, Ask=Ask for Clarification, Study=Study Groups, Record= Recorded Lectures, Note= Professional Note Taker, Conver= Help from Conversational Partner, Other= Help from Others, Y=Yes, N=No, 0= 0 students, 1= 1 Student, 2=2 Students, 3=Students.

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Table 11 Strategies based on participation in IELC

IELC Only

IELC and AC AC Only

Dict Y N

Friend Y N

Ask Y N

Study Y N

Record Y N

Note Y N

Conver Y N

3

3

2

1

0

0

1

Oth er Y N 1

0

0

1

2

3

3

2

2

2

4

1

2

0

1

0

0

3

1

4

3

5

4

5

5

3

3

1

0

0

0

1

2

1

1

4

4

4

4

3

2

Note: Dict=Dictionary, Friend=Ask a friend, Ask=Ask for Clarification, Study=Study Groups, Record= Recorded Lectures, Note= Professional Note Taker, Conver= Help from Conversational Partner, Other= Help from Others, IELC only = Intensive English Language Center Only , IELC And AC=Intensive English Language Center and Academic Courses, AC only=Academic Courses only, Y=Yes, N=No, 0= 0 students, 1= 1 Student, 2=2 Students, 3=Students.

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Table 12 Easiest IELC Course Based on All International Students that took IELC LI R/W

HA R/W

LA L/S

2 students

1 student

B L/S

IS

1 student

2 students

IELC only

IELC and AC

1 student

1 student

Note. IELC only= Student only took IELC courses, IELC and AC= student took IELC and academic courses, LI R/W= Low Intermediate Reading and Writing Course, HA R/W= High Advanced Reading and Writing Couse , LA L/S= Low Advanced Listening and Speaking Course , B L/S= Beginning Listen and Speaking Course , IS= Integrated Skills Course

Table 13 Hardest IELC Course Based on All International Students that took IELC LA R/W

IELC only

2 students

IELC and AC

2 students

GRAD R/W

HI L/S

HA L/S

1 student

1 student

1 student

1 student

Note: IELC only=Student who took IELC classes only, IELC and AC= Students who took IELC and academic courses, LA R/W= Low Advanced Reading and Writing Course, GRAD R/W= Grad Reading/Writing Course, HI L/S= High Intermediate Listening and Speaking Course, HA L/S= High Advanced Listening and Speaking Course.

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Appendix B Figures

1

1

2

Brazil

2

3 2

1

Cost Rica Panama India Japan China Korea

Figure 1. Description of international students and their country of origin. Students came from nine different countries.

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ASHLEY IZQUIERDO Appendix C Survey Questionnaire

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ASHLEY IZQUIERDO Appendix D Advertisements

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Newsletter Template: Hello, My name is Ashley Izquierdo and I am currently in the McNair Scholars Program. This program allows me to conduct my own research. I have decided to study the language ability in international students. I am asking for your participation in a short survey. It should only take about 5 minutes and its easy! If you complete the survey you can get a free keychain.

Please email me your email so I can send you a Survey Monkey link to the survey.

If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to email me at: aizquierdo@nevada.unr.edu.

Thank you so much, Ashley

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Speech for Classroom: Hello, My name is Ashley Izquierdo and I am currently in the McNair Scholars Program. This program allows me to conduct my own research. I have decided to study the language ability in international students. I am asking for your participation in a short survey. It should only take about 5 minutes and its easy! If you complete the survey you can get a free keychain.

I would just have you give me your email on a consent form if you are interested! I will send you the survey link through Survey Monkey.

Does anyone have any questions for me?

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Galectin-1 Protein Therapy for the Treatment of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Megan Key Major: Biochemistry Mentor: Dr. Dean Burkin and Pam Van Ry Graduated: 2015

Enrolled: Ph.D. Program, Biological and Biomedical Science, University of North Carolina School of Medicine

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked congenital neuromuscular disease that affects 1 in every 3,500 new born boys.

Patients affected by the disorder have a mutation in the gene for dystrophin which is essential to the strength and stability of muscle cell sarcolemma as it is a key component of the dystrophin glycoprotein complex (DGC). A mutation in any part of the complex will lead to disease pathology characterized by the degradation of skeletal muscles14. There is currently no cure or effective treatment for DMD. Patients affected with the disease have a shortened life expectancy and decreased life quality. Galectin-1 is a protein of the lectin family found to be involved in skeletal muscle differentiation and proliferation. It also interacts with the ι7β1 integrin as well as extracellular laminin5,7. In this study, we explore whether intraperitoneal (IP) treatment of mdx mice with 20 mg/kg recombinant mouse Galectin-1 (rMs Gal-1) will enhance key sarcolemma stabilizing proteins and increase muscle repair/regeneration in the mdx mouse to rescue the disease phenotype. Functional tests show that rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice have improved muscle strength and activity. Histology and Western blot analysis also show muscle fiber improvements with increased concentrations of key ECM and transmembrane proteins in treated mdx mice. Together, this suggests that Galectin-1 could serve as an effective treatment for DMD.

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MEGAN KEY Introduction DMD is the most common inherited muscle disease13. It is characterized by the progressive weakening and degeneration of the skeletal muscles which leads to wheelchair confinement for DMD patients by their teens and early death due to cardiopulmonary failure4. The phenotype of the disease is the result of a frame shift mutation which yields nonfunctional or completely absent dystrophin protein post translation13. Patients with DMD have weakened myofibers and suffer from chronic muscle damage without any effective cure for the disease.

Dystrophin is the largest gene in the human genome and is found on the X chromosome. This explains its prevalence in males with their mothers being the non-systematic carriers of the disorder. Dystrophin is an intracellular protein found near the inner surface of muscle fibers. It functions as a structural protein, connecting the actin cytoskeleton of muscle fibers to the DGC in the cell membrane. The DGC is made up of several sarcoglycans, dystroglycans, and sarcospan which associate with the basal lamina for strength, support, and signaling events14. The lack of functional dystrophin leads to the loss of associated proteins such as the DGC resulting in the instability of muscle cells’ sarcolemma (plasma membrane).

There are two other important transmembrane complexes that work along with DGC to stabilize the sarcolemma: utrophin glycoprotein complex (UGC) and α7β1 integrin. The UGC is made up of the same components as the DGC, only dystrophin is replaced with utrophin. Both dystrophin and utrophin have similar actin binding domains at their N-terminus as well as similar domains at their C-terminus required for them to connect the actin cytoskeleton with sarcolemma protein complexes and laminin in the extracellular matrix (ECM)1. Previous research has shown a natural upregulation of both UGC and α7β1 integrin in mdx mice to compensate for the loss of dystrophin and the DGC. These mice demonstrate a less severe form of DMD11. Enhancement or overexpression of the transmembrane protein complexes α7β1 integrin or members of the UGC have been demonstrated to improve disease pathology in mdx mice15.

The α7β1 integrin is a transmembrane heterodimer found in muscle fibers along with the DGC and is involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, differentiation of maturing myoblasts, and cell signaling14. α7β1 integrin is a laminin receptor that links cytosolic actin filaments in myofibers to the ECM. Like the UGC, α7β1 integrin has been shown to compensate for the loss of the DGC in dystrophic mice by stabilizing the sarcolemma3. Mutations in the α7 integrin cause a milder form of muscular dystrophy called congenital myopathy10. However, the complete loss of α7 integrin in α7 knockout mice produced severe defects in the cerebral vascular smooth development which caused them to be partially embryonic lethal9.

Galectins are a family of small proteins called lectins of about 130 amino acids that recognize and

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bind to carbohydrates, specifically β-galactoside. Galectin-1 (Gal-1) functions as a homodimer with a single carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) for β-galactoside. It is found both intracellular and extracellular. Extracellularly, it can be found bound to glycoproteins in the ECM. In skeletal muscles, internal Gal-1 is released to the extracellular part of the cell to induce terminal myoblast differentiation and fusion to form myotubes during skeletal muscle development. The protein interacts with the β1-subunit of the α7β1 integrin. Gal-1 also inhibits the association of laminin in the ECM to the α7β1 integrin to likely promote cell-cell adhesion, fusion, skeletal muscle regeneration, and the in vitro normalization of fiber size in regenerated muscle. The Gal-1-laminin interaction is dose-dependent5,17. Therefore, its effects on laminin’s association with the α7β1 integrin can be regulated or modified to yield the most desirable results. Altogether, Gal-1 has been found to play a role in the determination, differentiation, and regeneration of skeletal muscle17.

Previous research has focused on the understanding of how Gal-1 functions; however, the protein has not been used to test its therapeutic abilities for muscle regeneration in mdx mice or DMD patients. Previous experiments in the Burkin lab have shown that weekly injections of a low dose of rMs Gal-1 (5 mg/kg) delivered IP systematically for five weeks, resulted in an increase in key extracellular proteins but showed low effect for other histological markers. However, functional assessments such as grip strength, distance traveled, and resting time during activity have not been tested. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that a higher dose of rMs Gal-1(20 mg/kg) delivered systematically weekly for 10 weeks by IP injections will increase important transmembrane and ECM proteins as well as rescue the phenotype for disease in mdx mice.

Objectives This research was conducted to determine the effectiveness of rMs Galectin-1 as a protein therapy for the mdx mouse model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Description of Research Materials and Methods Recombinant mouse Galectin-1 Total mouse muscle RNA was extracted from homogenized cells with Trizol (Invitrogen) and used for PCR with reverse transcriptase (Superscript III, Invitrogen) and Platinum Taq Supermix (Invitrogen) to yield mouse Galectin-1 cDNA. This cDNA product was subcloned into the parent vector pGEM T-Easy, sequenced for comparison with NCBI database sequences, then cloned into the destination vector pet23b vector (EMD Millipore) with a 6x His tag, and finally transfected into McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Rosetta E. coli (EMD Millipore) and expressed with 0.4 mM IPTG (Invitrogen). A disposable column (Invitrogen) with cobalt Talon Metal Affinity Resin beads (Clontech 635502) and imidazole (SigmaAldrich) elution buffer was used to purify the rMs Gal-1. Purified rMs Gal-1 was filtered with 3-1 hour dialysis at 4°C in PBS to be used for mouse treatments.

Mouse Maintenance & Treatments Both wild type (WT) C57/Blk10 mice and dystrophin knockout (mdx) mice were used for testing and tissue samples in this experiment. mdx mice were treated weekly with IP injections of 20mg/kg galectin-1 or a phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution for a control. Each mouse group was put to a series of tests then euthanized by CO2 and dissected to harvest tissue samples. All experiments were performed according to the guidelines set by the Panel on Euthanasia of the American Veterinary Medical Association and the University of Nevada, Reno’s approved Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

Weights, Grip Strength and Activity Assays A grip strength system and a digital force gauge (Chatillion, San Diego Instruments) were used weekly to measure the forelimb grip strength of WT and mdx mice until they reached 10 weeks of age. Three days each week, six consecutive trials per mouse were performed and averaged for each mouse treatment and genotype. The mice were weighed each day. Once a week until 10 weeks of age, the WT and mdx treated and untreated mice were separately placed in a cage attached to motion sensors for 30 minutes to measure their mobility. The periods of rest, movement, and the amount of times the mice stood up was recorded by the sensor and software each minute over the 30 minute trial to test each mouse’s activity.

Histology Tibialis anterior (TA) muscles were embedded in Tissue-Tek Optimum Cutting Temperature (OCT) solution and 10 μm cryosections were cut with a Leica CM1850 cryostat (Leica, Wetzal, Germany) and placed on microscope slides (Surgipath Medical Industries, Richmond, IL). Tissue samples were fixed to slides using 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA). Tissue sections were stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) as previously described15. Centrally located nuclei (CLN) were counted at 200X magnification by bright-field microscopy using a Zeiss Axioskop 2 Plus fluorescent microscope, Zeiss AxioCam HRc digital camera, and Axiovision 4.8 software. The number of central nuclei per muscle from each mouse was determined by counting the total number of myofibers and the number of myofibers with CLN in a minimum of 10 fields of view. The CLN myofibers were expressed as a percentage of the total number of myofibers. A minimum number of muscle fibers per treatment group were counted and at least 3 animals from each treatment group were analyzed.

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MEGAN KEY Immunofluorescence TA muscles were embedded in Tissue-Tek Optimum Cutting Temperature (OCT) solution, fixed, and 10 μm cryosections were cut with a Leica CM1850 cryostat (Leica, Wetzal, Germany) and placed on microscope slides (Surgipath Medical Industries, Richmond, IL). Tissue samples were fixed to slides using 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA). The myofibers from each muscle sample were outlined for CLN counts, total number of myofibers, and minimum Feret’s diameter using Oregon Green-488 labeled wheat germ agglutinin conjugates (WGA, W6748, 1:250, Molecular Probes, Invitrogen detection technologies). Primary antibodies for Galectin-1 (LGALS, Aviva System Biology 1:500), 6XHis tag (Thermo Scientific, 1:25), FITC-α7 integrin (CA5.5, 1:1000, Sierra Biosource), and βdystroglycan H-242 (sc-28535, 1:25) were used to probe the muscle fibers for 1 hour or overnight at 4°C after being blocked in 5% bovine serum albumin (BSA, Fisher Scientific). All primary antibodies were diluted in 1% BSA, except α7 integrin. Secondary antibodies were applied for 1 hour followed by a FITC-conjugated anti-rabbit-IgG (1:5000; Li-Cor Biosciences). Images were captured using an Olympus Fluoview FV1000 Laser scanning biological confocal microscope using the Olypus micro FV10-ASW 3.1 software or a Zeiss Axioskop 2 Plus fluorescent microscope, Zeiss AxioCam HRc digital camera, Axiovision 4.8 software.

Western Blot Analysis The TA muscle of each mouse was homogenized with a mortar and pestle and liquid nitrogen.

Proteins were extracted to make lysates using protease inhibitor in RIPA buffer (50 mM HEPES pH 7.4, 150 mM Na Cl, 1 mM Na3VO4, 10 mM NaF, 0.5% Triton X-100, 0.5% NP50, 10% glycerol, 2 mM PMSF and a 1:200 dilution of Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Set III). The amount of protein in lysates was quantified with a Pierce bicinchoninic acid assay kit (BCA) (Thermo Scientific). Lysate proteins were separated with 4-12% SDS-PAGE gels and transferred to nitrocellulose (GE Healthcare Life Sciences Whatman) using the long transfer method8. Rabbit or goat polyclonal or mouse monoclonal antibodies were used to probe the nitrocellulose membranes overnight at 4°C for specific proteins after they were blocked for 1 hour in a 5% BSA in Tris Base Saline solution with 0.1 % Tween, 2.5% milk, and 0.02 % Sodium Azide solution: α7A Integrin (Song et al., 1993) , α7B Integrin (Song et al., 1993), Galectin-1 (LGALS, Aviva System Biology 1:500), β1D Integrin16, αdystroglycan (IIH6 C4, 1:50, DSHB), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphatae dehydrogenase (GAPDH V-18, sc20357, 1:200) β-dystroglycan H-242 (sc-28535, 1:200), α-sarcoglycan, (IVD3(1) A9 c, DSHB,1:100), β-sarcoglycan H-98 (sc-28279, 1:200), γ-sarcoglycan Z-24 (sc-133984, 1:100), δ-sarcoglycan H-55 (sc-28281, 1:100), ε-sarcoglycan H-67 (sc-28282, 1:100, all sc antibodies are from SantaCruz Biotechnology), sarcospan (gift from Rachelle H. Crosbie-Waston from UCLA, 1:5), dystrophin (MANDRA1,1:50, DSHB), utrophin (MANCHO3, 1:50, DSHB), and α-tubulin (DM1A, ab7291, Abnova, 1:500). These primary antibodies were detected in a 1 hour probe of one of the following secondary antibodies: Alexa Fluor 680 goat anti-rabbit IgG, Alexa Fluor 800 donkey anti-rabbit IgG, McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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MEGAN KEY Alexa Fluor 800 goat anti-mouse-IgG, Alexa Fluor 800 or 680 donkey anti-goat-IgG secondary antibodies (1:5000, Li-Cor Biosciences or Molecular Probes, Invitrogen detection technologies). All primary and secondary antibodies were diluted in a 5% BSA in Tris Base Saline solution with 0.1 % Tween solution. A Li-Cor C-Digit Blot scanner with Image Studio digits software (Version 3, Li-Cor) was used to visualize the bands. ImageJ Software was used to quantify the intensity of each band in comparison to normalizing bands from GAPDH and Îą-tubulin.

Results

Figure 1. Galectin-1 Vector and Gel Analysis The destination vector pet23b (EMD Millipore) containing mouse Galectin-1 with a His tag under the control of the T-7 promoter (A). The purity and quantity of rMs Gal-1 expressed in Rosetta E. coli was detected with Ponceau S staining, Coomassie Blue staining (B) and western blot analysis using the LGALS-1 antibody (C). rMs Gal-1 was purified from E. coli using a pET-23b Vector under a T-7 promoter and a 6X His tag was added to the vector to help with purification. Ponceau S and Coomassie Blue total protein stains (Fig 1B) show the purity of the rMs Gal-1 produced by the presence of a single band next to the 15 kilo-Dalton (kDa) marker. Gal-1 has a molecular weight of about 14 kDa. The purity was reconfirmed using Western Blot analysis (Fig 1C). The recovered rMs Gal-1 was >95% pure.

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Figure 2. rMs Gal-1 increases mobility in mdx treated mice.

Activity assays of both the mdx Gal-1 and PBS treated and the wild type (WT) mice were performed weekly from 3 to 10 weeks. The total distance traveled was detected by the motion sensors for each mouse and averaged for each mice treatment group (A). The total resting time was detected for each mouse and averaged for each mice treatment group (B). The total number of large movements was detected per mouse and averaged for each mice treatment group (C). The total number of times each mouse stood up was detected and averaged for each mice treatment group (D).

Activity assays were performed on PBS and rMS Gal-1 treated mdx mice and WT mice to see the effects of Galectin-1 on mdx mice mobility (Figure 2A-D). mdx mice treated with rMs Gal-1 travel further than both PBS treated and WT mice (Fig. 2A), tended to rest less (Fig 2B), make more large movements (Fig 2C), and more reaches beyond the vertical sensors of the activity box (Fig 2D) as compared to PBS treated dystrophic mice. No significant differences were observed between the mobility of rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice and WT mice.

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Figure 3. mdx rMs Gal-1 treated mice show an increase in body weight closer to WT mice and an increase muscle strength.

Grip Strength measurements were taken 3 times a week with 6 consecutive trials each time per mouse for a total of 10 weeks. The average total force to weight ratio for each mice treatment group was calculated and reported as strength/gram of body weight (E). Each week for 10 weeks, the weight of the mice was measured and reported as a weekly average for each mice treatment group (F).

Change in body weights and the consistency in growth for each mice group can be seen in Fig 3A. Initial body weight in grams increases similarly for all groups. A significant difference in the weight measurements of all groups occurs between 5-6 weeks then the body weights seem to level off in the end. rMs Gal-1 treated mdx and WT mice show similar trends in the rate WT change and consistency. The body weights in Fig 3A were used to produce measurements of grams of force per weight in grams (Fig 3B). Grip strength was measured by analyzing the force each mouse exerts on a metal bar. rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice were shown to exert much more force per gram of their body weight than PBS treated mice. There was no significant difference found between the measurements of grams of force per body weight grams for rMs Gal-1 treated and WT mice.

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Figure 4. rMs Gal-1 mdx mice show reduced histological markers for disease.

Photographs of H&E staining and immunohistochemistry with WGA-488 and Dystrophin (A). The pictures of H&E stained TA tissue samples from each mouse were used to count the CLN and the average percent CLN of total muscle fibers for each treatment group was reported (B). Pictures of WGA-488 probed TA tissue samples (A) for each mouse were used to measure the minimum Feret’s diameter and averaged for each treatment group (C). A comparison of percent CLN to muscle fiber diameter (μm) (D).

The presence of centrally located nuclei (CLN) is an important histological marker for diseased muscular tissue. H&E staining was used to visualize and count CLN in samples of TA tissue from each mouse (Figure 4A). The percent of CLN out of the total myofibers counted was significantly lower in rMs Gal-1 treated mdx and WT mice compared to PBS. WGA immunofluorescence slides were used to measure the minimum Feret’s diameter of over 2300 myofibers (Figure 4A). The average minimum Feret’s diameter was significantly greater in rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice as compared to the control and WT Figure 4C.

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Figure 5. rMs Gal-1 increases the concentration of UGC and α7β1integrin proteins.

Representative images from Western blot analysis of key sarcolemma stabilizing proteins (A) and the quantified data comparison between rMs Gal-1 and PBS treated mdx mice for each protein (BL). GAPDH was used as a loading control.

Quantification of the effect of rMs Gal-1 expression on protein components of the UGC and α7β1 integrin within total skeletal muscle protein lysates from PBS and rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice show significant increases in the latter Figure 5. In Figures 5B-L the housekeeping gene GAPDH was used as a loading control for comparison. All proteins analyzed for upregulation by rMs Gal-1 treatment increased significantly as compared to the control treatment. Both dystroglycans (DG; α& β-DG) as well as the α7 integrins A & B increased on average by 1.5 fold compared to that of the PBS treated mice. The exact fold increase for these proteins respectively are 1.4, 1.7, 1.4, and 1.6 (Figures 5C, G, I, and J). Utrophin, the β1D integrin, and all sarcoglycans (excluding β –SG) showed an average 3-fold increase with treatment. These protein increases were respectively 3.0, 3.1, 2.7, 2.5, and 3.6 fold more in rMs Gal-1 mdx mice compared to PBS treated mice (Figures 10B, D, E, K, and F). The latter group of proteins had increases approximately two fold more than the increases seen with DGs and the α7 integrins with rMs Gal-1 treated mice as compared to PBS treated. β -SG and sarcospan (SSPN) were effected the most with fold increases of 5.4 and 4.4, respectively (Figures 10H & L).

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Figure 6. Compensatory transmembrane proteins are increased in the ECM of rMs Gal-1 treated dystrophic mice and correctly distributed to the sarcolemma.

Immunohistochemical photographs of Utrophin, β-DG, and the α7 integrin location in PBS and rMs Gal-1 treated mice TA muscle.

Photographs of these antibody stains for rMs Gal-1 and PBS treated dystrophic TA tissue show an upregulation of constituents of compensatory transmembrane proteins in rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice (Figure 6). Utrophin, β-DG, and the α7 integrin are all shown to not only be upregulated but are also properly localized and distributed throughout the sarcolemma. This is seen by the greater intensity in fluorescence around the myofibers of TA tissue samples in rMs Gal-1 treated mdx mice as compared to PBS treated dystrophic mice samples.

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MEGAN KEY Conclusion Mutations in the dystrophin gene lead to the complete loss of this sarcolemma stabilizing protein.

Lack of dystrophin also results in the loss of dystrophin associated proteins which is the underlying cause of DMD disease pathology3. DMD patients suffer from progressive muscle weakening which usually leads to wheelchair confinement by their early teens and early death from heart and lung failure2. There are currently no effective treatments or cure for this neuromuscular disease and therapeutic research is much needed for DMD. Galectin-1 is a small protein with a single CRD for β-galactoside. It is found both intercellular and extracellular. Previous research has shown that Galectin-1 interacts with key ECM proteins such as the α7β1 integrin and laminin to influence cell-cell adhesion and fusion during skeletal muscle differentiation5. Due to this important association between galectin-1 and both the α7β1 integrin and laminin, we hypothesized that galectin-1 would be a good candidate for protein therapy to improve disease pathology in the mdx mouse model. To test the possibility of using galectin-1 as a therapy for DMD, we harvested and purified a recombinant form of the protein. Weekly systematic IP injections of 95% pure 20 mg/kg of rMs Gal-1 into mdx mice, starting at 10 days old, resulted in an up-regulation of compensatory transmembrane proteins, proper allocation of these compensatory proteins to the sarcolemma, reduced muscle pathology, and the improvement of muscle growth, strength, and mouse mobility in mdx mice. Therefore, rMs Gal-1 has shown to restore sarcolemma integrity, decrease disease pathology, and promote activity in mdx mice.

DMD's characteristic wasting away of the muscles results in the decreased strength and size of muscle fibers. This causes muscle fiber size variability. rMs Gal-1 was able to decrease muscle size variability in the mdx mouse as well as increase muscle fiber hypertrophy which is related to greater force generation per gram of their body weight and less adipose tissue mass (Peter, A.K., 2009). This skeletal muscle hypertrophic response may be due to the activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways. Previous research has found such pathways to be responsible for skeletal muscle hypertrophy specific to type IIb fibers as well as activated in forms of muscular dystrophy. Over expression of PI3K/Akt has also led to the up-regulation of utrophin and the α7β1 integrin to alleviate symptoms of muscular disease (Peter, A.K., 2009).

PI3K-dependent Akt signaling pathways are regulated by integrin-linked kinase (ILK). ILK binds and interacts with the cytoplasmic side of β1 integrin subunits. Complexed with other cell signaling proteins, ILK is the key effector of cell cycle progression, cell adhesion, cell migration, ECM adhesion, and actin recruitment and rearrangement (Quian, Y., 2005; Gheyara, A.L., 2007). Lack of ILK leads to the displacement of the α7β1 integrin in skeletal muscles which results in muscular dystrophy (Quian, Y., 2005).

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MEGAN KEY Galectin-1's interaction with the β1 subunit of the α7β1 integrin possibly upregulates ILK to specifically target signaling for skeletal muscle regeneration. Upregulated levels of ILK hence increase the activation of PI3K-dependent AKT signaling pathways which leads to less fragile and more hypertrophic muscles due to galectin's overall effect on ILK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.

Galectin-1 is naturally found in humans and therefore should not elicit an immune response. The next step for this therapeutic treatment would be to determine if Galectin-1: (a) is effective after disease onset; (b) can prevent development of cardiomyopathy; and (c) is scalable and effective in the GRMD dog model of DMD. Results from these studies would allow development of recombinant Galectin-1 protein therapy to move toward clinical trials.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Dean Burkin for allowing me to work in his lab to conduct this research project. I would also like to thank Pam VanRy for letting me assist her with this project and for teaching me all the techniques I need to know. A special thanks goes to the McNair Scholars Program and Nevada IDeA Network of Biomedical Research Excellence (INBRE) or funding my summer research, as well as NIH/NIAMS R01AR053697 for funding Dean Burkin and the Galectin-1 research project.

Works Cited [1] Belanto JJ, Mader TL, Eckhoff MD, Strandjord DM, Banks GB, Gardner MK, et al. Microtubule binding distinguishes dystrophin from utrophin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014;111:5723-8.

[2] Burkin DJ, Wallace GQ, Milner DJ, Chaney EJ, Mulligan JA, Kaufman SJ. Transgenic expression of {alpha}7{beta}1 integrin maintains muscle integrity, increases regenerative capacity, promotes hypertrophy, and reduces cardiomyopathy in dystrophic mice. Am J Pathol. 2005;166:253-63.

[3] Burkin D J, Wallace GQ, Nicol KJ, Kaufman D J, Kaufman SJ. Enhanced Expression of the α7β1 Integrin Reduces Muscular Dystrophy and Restores Viability in Dystrophic Mice. JCB 2001; 152 (6): 1207-1218 [4] Burkin DJ, Wuebbles RD. A molecular bandage for diseased muscle. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4:139fs19.

[5] Camby I, Le Mercier M, Lefranc F, Kiss R. Galectin-1: a small protein with major functions.

Glycobiology. 2006;16:137R-57R. [6] Campanelli JT, Roberds SL, Campbell KP, Scheller RH. A role for dystrophin-associated glycoproteins and utrophin in agrin-induced AChR clustering. Cell. 1994;77:663-74.

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MEGAN KEY [8] Doe JA, Wuebbles, RD, Allred ET, Rooney JE, Elorza M, Burkin DJ. Transgenic overexpression of the Îą7 integrin reduces muscle pathology and improves viability in the dyw mouse model of merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A. Journal of Cell Science 2011, 124:22872297 [9] Flintoff-Dye NL, Welser J, Rooney J, Scowen P, Tamowski S, Hatton W, et al. Role for the alpha7beta1 integrin in vascular development and integrity. Dev Dyn. 2005;234:11-21. [] Gheyara AL, Vallejo-Illarramendi A, Zang K, Mei L, St-Arnaud R, Dedhar S, et al. Deletion of integrin-linked kinase from skeletal muscles of mice resembles muscular dystrophy due to alpha 7 beta 1-integrin deficiency. Am J Pathol. 2007;171:1966-77.

[7] Gu M, Wang W, Song WK, Cooper D.N, Kaufman SJ, 1994. Selective modulation of the interaction of alpha 7 beta 1 integrin with fibronectin and laminin by L-14 lectin during skeletal muscle differentiation. J.Cell Sci. 107 ( Pt 1), 175-181.

[10] Hakim CH, Burkin DJ, Duan D. Alpha 7 integrin preserves the function of the extensor digitorum longus muscle in dystrophin-null mice. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2013;115:1388-92.

[11] Marshall JL, Chou E, Oh J, Kwok A, Burkin DJ, Crosbie-Watson RH. Dystrophin and utrophin expression require sarcospan: loss of Îą7 integrin exacerbates a newly discovered muscle phenotype in sarcospan-null mice. Hum Mol Genet. 2012;21:4378-93.

[12] Marshall JL, Holmberg J, Chou E, Ocampo AC, Oh J, Lee J, et al. Sarcospan-dependent Akt activation is required for utrophin expression and muscle regeneration. J Cell Biol. 2012;197:100927.

[13] Matsuo M, Takeshima Y. [Mutation-specific treatments for Duchenne muscular dystrophy].

Brain Nerve. 2009;61:915-22 [] Peter AK, Ko CY, Kim MH, Hsu N, Ouchi N, Rhie S, et al. Myogenic Akt signaling upregulates the utrophin-glycoprotein complex and promotes sarcolemma stability in muscular dystrophy. Hum Mol Genet. 2009;18:318-27. [] Qian Y, Zhong X, Flynn DC, Zheng JZ, Qiao M, Wu C, et al. ILK mediates actin filament rearrangements and cell migration and invasion through PI3K/Akt/Rac1 signaling. Oncogene.

2005;24:3154-65.

[14] Rahimov, Fedik and Kunkel, Louis M. Cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying muscular dystrophy. JCB 2013; 201 (4):499-510 McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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MEGAN KEY 15] Rooney J, Gurpur PB, Burkin DJ. (2009). Laminin-111 protein therapy prevents muscle disease in the mdx mouse model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. University of Nevada, Reno. PNAS, Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/106/19/7991 [16] Rooney JE, Knapp JR, Hodges BL, Wuebbles RD, Burkin DJ. Laminin-111 protein therapy reduces muscle pathology and improves viability of a mouse model of merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy. Am J Pathol. 2012;180:1593-602.

[17] Watt DJ, Jones GE, Goldring K. The involvement of galectin-1 in skeletal muscle determination, differentiation and regeneration. Glycoconj J 2004;19:615-619

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ

Mechanisms of Propaganda In Contemporary Street Art

Jeannette Martinez Major: Art History Mentor: Dr. Brett VanHoesen Graduated: 2015 Enrolled: PhD Program Art History, The Ohio State University

From the slums of Brazil to the skyscrapers of Manhattan, one will find art in the streets. In this research street art will be viewed through the following perspective: art that is created in the streets.

This simple definition allows the research to answer the social question of why art is created in the streets and how creating art in public spaces, is a form of propaganda. The research will elaborate how artwork hosted in a public domain has the power to engage and influence an audience to think differently. Street art and propaganda are seemingly extraneous, but their unconventional relationship will be thoroughly discussed through analysis of style, artist, and social influence and present how pertinent these two topics actually are to one another. Street art has been historicized as an artistic movement that expands many subcategories, but the scholarship of propagandaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role within the street art movement and its varying styles has yet to be fully developed. Interviews with street artists and museum curators in two cities: Reno, Nevada and Los Angeles, California will exemplify the function propaganda has within the spectrum of street art and how its role is directly related to regional culture and adds validity to the observation that mechanisms of propaganda are present in contemporary street art. The connection between how propaganda is used in street art further enforces the idea that street art is able to promote messages that become influential through the artwork itself and can lead to public action within a society.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ

Street Art allows artists, trained or untrained, to create emotionally relatable art for the public to enjoy. A characteristic of this art form that is unique and developed through the physical space in which these artworks are projected, is eliminating the sense of intimidation that many art museums and galleries unfortunately exude. The rare connection that street art has with the public presents how modernity has revived the sense of value in art and aesthetics. This relationship is also an exemplification of the accruing importance the role of contemporary art is evolving into for numerous cultures and societies throughout the globe. The Street Art movement has become noticed, solidified, and important because there is no preconceived notion, it is open to everyone, it is the peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; art. It is a form of solidarity in a world that claims to be more unified than ever, but often lacks understanding and communication and no longer seems to observe its surroundings. Street Art compiles the complexities of aesthetic appreciation in contemporary art in a postmodern society and is also helping to preserve history by creating art in abandoned places that appear to no longer have a functional purpose.

With the popularity of Street Art as an art movement many art museums and galleries have been creating exhibitions for this form of art that is historically meant and designed to be placed within a public space. The 2011 exhibition at the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art (LA MoCA) titled, Art in the Streets is an exemplification of how Street Art is exhibited in an institutionalized, museum context. This exhibition served as a frame for varying styles that have developed since the beginning of the historicization of Street Art as an urban art style in the 1970s and how it has progressed into a global art movement. Yet, what makes Street Art unique is that it is intended to be in a space that has not been institutionalized or designated as an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;art space.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Works of art that are in the streets reframe a public space and transform a passive area as their own gallery. A gallery that does not restrict itself and allows individuals from all walks of life to view it, relish, and emotionally connect to the art. The Street Art movement is emblematic of the contemporary cultures and societies creating it and is emphasizing the importance in forming a sense of identity in a world in which individualization has been lost. Although this particular study of Street Art is not easily apparent, I will prove the patterns of this observation through literature and a field study of Street Art in Reno and Los Angeles.

Defining Street Art Street Art, is a term that is seemingly simple on the exterior, yet internally complex. It is not subjective per se, but certainly has a multitude of components that make it challenging to classify. The fact that Street Art is a present and ongoing art movement also plays into this manifold. Street Art author, Robert Sommer has framed this type of art historical study best

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ through a well a constructed analogy in which he explained that historicizing contemporary art is like trying to catch the wind (1). Researching a contemporary art movement is ephemeral in that it is difficult to contextualize due to the constant motion of interpretation and style that create an obstacle for finding a definition. Street Art has transformed into an artistic movement that prides itself on being an art historical hurdle because of the difficulty there is in classifying the vast amount of styles within Street Art. ‘Art created in the streets’ is an alternative phrase to the title ‘Street Art’ that expands the term and allows the movement to include a larger scope of art media instead of being resisted to one particular medium. These varying art practices convey influential messages to the audience through the propagandistic power that Street Art carries.

Street Art is not just one particular style or medium, although the term ‘Street Art’ does have a strong tie to muralism, this does not mean that only muralism is Street Art. Street Art can be defined as art created in the streets that is attempting to interact with the audience and/or is conveying a social message. This definition does not come without debate, especially on the topic of public art and how to differentiate the two, but this research is not attempting to define public art, but rather is attempting to create a more improved understanding and expertise of Street Art as an art movement and how it has become influential like art genres with similar philosophies.

The definition of Street Art is not one that is easily found in a secondary source textbook such as Webster’s dictionary. A standard definition cannot be found because street art as an art movement is still vibrant with life; it is progressing, and expanding continuously. The term street art can be best understood when visualized as a web with complex and intertwining weavings. All connections of the web are constructed differently and not every silk string is connected to another piece equally, just like Street Art. One of the most prominent and intricately designed components of the street art web is graffiti. This art style within the movement shares some characteristics with Street Art but is focused much more on the outcome and interpretation than creating work that is aesthetically pleasing and socially acceptable.

Graffiti Graffiti is part of the Street Art movement, but the differences from graffiti to Street Art must be emphasized to present how and why these two styles have specific aesthetic and social agendas associated with them. A difference that has been noted within scholarship since the early 1970s when graffiti and Street Art began to emerge (2). There is a consensus in contemporary scholarship ---------------------------------------(1) Somner, ix.

(2) Somner, 1-23.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ that the Street Art movement was conceived and born as an expansion of graffiti culture (3) .

Graffiti possesses a highly typographic style with a stronger affiliation stylistically, aesthetically, and emotionally to the underground, urban characteristics of the Street Art movement. In comparison, other Street Art styles such as representational Street Art murals, a prominent style in contemporary Street Art do not (fig. 1).

The Street Art movment has vastly expanded into diverse artistic realms from the orginal graffiti ‘wild style’ (fig. 2). Graffiti having served as a platform for Street Art answers why the movement as a whole has translated an underground, rebellious attitude throughout the past four decades.

The presence of a rebellious attitude is not only found in grafftiti, but has been seen and historically documented in earlier art movements. This restless attitude is also identified in the 20th century DADA anti-art movement. This historical connection has been noted in media in the recent years especially with artworks and artists, such as Marcel Duchamp and Banksy who is a successor of Duchamp’s anti-art approach. The anti-establishment notion was also exemplified in LA MoCA’s Art in the Streets exhibition (4) (fig. 3 & 4) .

Although alike in characteristics such as rebellion and being underground, components such as audience and motive separate graffiti from other Street Art styles. Graffiti is defined as markings as a whole or as constituting a particular group (5). This ‘marking’ aspect of the definition puts into perspective the cryptic component that keeps graffiti from losing the unruly spirit it carries.

This barrier, creates a shield to protect it from being over popularized by media and popular culture. That is not to say that the street art movement is overplayed, rather it elucidates that other styles of Street Art are more accepting of popularity and mass media while graffiti is not.

This interesting paradox is well represented by popular street artist Ron English and his ‘Popaganda Art’ series in which he embraces mass media exploitation. A concept also historically familiar with Pop Art of the 1960s, especially with Andy Warhol’s, Campbell’s Soups series (fig. 5).

English uses a similar tactic, but through a contemporary perspective with current imagery that American society recognizes and relates to (fig. 6).

Graffiti is art that is created in the public space, but is not meant for everyone to understand (6).

----------------------------------(3) Lewisohn, 63-65.

(4) Ed Fuentes, “From Duchamp to Banksy: Street Art Continues 100-Year Moevement,” accessed November 17,2014 http://www.kcet.org/socal/departures/columns/writing-on-the-wall/fromduchamp-to-banksy-street-art-continues-100-year-movement.html.

(5) Dictionary.com, “Graffiti,” accessed August, 2014. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/graffiti?s=t.

(6) Lewisohn, 63.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ The typographic abstruseness is intentional and conveys the strong, guarded persona that graffiti possesses. The typography of graffiti is meant to be almost illegible for persons who are not involved in or associated with graffiti culture. This is well known within the culture and purposely done. Graffiti is a considered a ‘wild style,’ because it is art with impulsive action that does not have a set rubric before being created and projected (7) (fig. 7). The impulsive, raw approach of graffiti art is discussed heavily in contemporary scholarship of Street Art and graffiti and presents these two characteristics as a form of communication as well as in which graffiti artists keeps true to their identity (8). A graffiti artist is creating and expressing in public spaces to show fellow graffiti artists from other locations his or her regional style.

One cannot deny that there is an aspect of vandalism in art of the streets that is especially associated with graffiti. There is no hiding that with an uninstitutionalized form of art, such as the styles of the Street Art movement, vandalism does occur. But, that does not imply that every time there is art in the streets that it should be consideresed an act of mischief. Sometimes, even when these types of works are considered by definition as ‘vandalism,’ the response from the public and their acceptance of these works in their original space allows this type of art to be understood more as a masterpiece rather than an illegal, vandalistic act. This irony is what complicates the distinction on how to determine what is vandalism and what is not. Freight train graffiti is an example the different sets of variables that allow vandalism to be a permissbale component of the art. New York City subways in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s were filled with graffiti masterpieces (9). These large scale works on these trains were much more detailed and had artistic technique that disitinguished them from ‘writes’ or ‘tagging.’ This progression of graffiti into a larger scale style allowed these works to be appreciated as art than seen as an illegal act. Graffiiti in this example was understood as designed to be in this public space and these trains were the canvases of these artists. The artistic technique in graffiti is envitable and that makes an audience appreciate it more as art, even if it was created in an illegal manner.

Street Art, on the other hand, is geared toward providing a closer version of a ‘fine art aesthetic’ in public spaces. It is created with a larger audience in mind and is focused on developing relatable and influential social references. Street Art intends for the audience to connect and understand the message, there is no strong desire to be cryptic or selective as to who the audience should be. Street artist, Faile, reinforces the distinction of graffiti compared to Street Art -----------------------------------------------(7) Deitch, et al., 43-55.

(8) Gastman, et al., 07.

(9) Gastman, 47-75.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ by explaining that Street Art incorporates and expects audience interaction in a large scale, it acknowledges and accepts that it has a participative role in society. Faile explains that Street Art is socially influential and presents an objective through the art. Scholarship analyzes the distinctions between graffiti art and Street Art, especially when comparing large scale graffiti works and large scale street art murals (10). In this perspective, Street Art is well represented through mural works in Los Angeles, a city that is known for its muralism. Contemporary scholarship and current exhibitions such as Art in the Streets at the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art are contributing in the framing of subgroups within the Street Art movement.

Although the sprouting of Street Art from graffiti is inevitable, it limits other media that have similar aesthetic and social agendas as contermporary street art. In contemporary scholarship, it is difficult to encounter street art that does not involve paint, but there is other media that operates as ‘Street Art,’ such as photography—a medium heavily used by JR, who will be later discussed. It is important to understand the differences within the Street Art movement to grasp how and to what level of effect propaganda is functioning within the art.

The Role of Propaganda The term propaganda and its function have a famous acclaim in the political spectrum, but the prominent role of propaganda in art , although recognized in scholarship, it has not been thoroughly analyzed in realtion to Street Art. In the Street Art movement specifically, propaganda is an underlying tactic that is not brought to light by artists nor by scholars. The role of propagandas is directly related to an artist’s opinion of social and political matters.This form of expression is not a recent phenomenon for it has been used by a multiplex of societies throughout history (11). Propaganda in art as well as in other areas of study, such as poltics, is able to engage and contribute in the creation of communal norms through its power to persuade an audience to think or act differently.

I am not only seeking how is art in the streets is socially influential, but also what extent is art impactful to an audience. Propaganda is the most suitable term for the objectives of this study because it is an accurate descriptor that evokes the persuasive strength of art in the streets.

Whether its power to persuade is positive or negative opens up another debate about propaganda’s function in art and society. This research is primarily focused on how propaganda and the Street Art movement together have the potential to influence societies to think furtherabout their social environment. Reconstructing the typically negative perception of -----------------------------------------------(10) Lewisohn, 15.

(11) Castriota, 1-15.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ propaganda allows the word to be seen through a less biased perspective and loses the adverse connotation that it is commonly associated with it. Propaganda can be positive in contemporary Street Art. Art projects created throughout this past decade convey that Street Art is a benefactor among many societies, especially in the United States and western European countries (12). The term propaganda is the base on which the structure of art in public spaces, such as Street Art, stands. Propaganda understood as a base suggests that it is the reason why art in the streets has such popularity and impact in not only American society but also within a global context. If one of the objective goals of this research is to articulate how Street Art is socially influential to an audience, then why not give it a title such as, Street Art and Its Social Implications; why use a term with great force and power, such as propaganda? Well, for that same reason, because it is powerful.

The thread between art in the streets and propaganda is a prominent area in the Street Art web.

George Orwell has reaffirmed in his novel, All Art is Propaganda, that art is persuasive whether it be a goal of the artist or not (13). This philosophy was also shared by the social realists of the 1920s and 1930s, such as Diego Rivera who claimed that if it was not propagandistic, than it could not be considered art (14). The history of the word propaganda has carried a negative connotation for quite some time. When the subject of propaganda is discussed, it brings upon negative and unacceptable moments in history. WWI and WWII propaganda are an example of the negative connotations associated with the word. Propaganda was an immensely important social and political tool of war for opposing powers in both wars especially through art and speech. How opposing powers were able to effectively persuade civilians can be seen through the propaganda posters that were created during the war. Propagandistic posters during these tumultuous times typically had a political agenda and were meant to show the opposing side in a negative light. This was achieved by endorsing stereotypes of the other group that made them appear immoral to civilians. For example, WW1 poster, Remember Belgium, exemplifies how propaganda artists created images that portrayed the German army as a group of evil men who took advantage of the innocent. The antogonists of these posters were even drawn animalistically to further convey the idea that the enemy was not human (15) (figure 8 & 9). Because of the gloomy history connected with the word propaganda, it is stripped away from the opportunity of being able to be seen through a wider lens. Propaganda to this day is seen through a very narrow ---------------------------------------------------(12) Mark Jenkins, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Positive Propaganda: Committed to Social & Environmental Responsibility,â&#x20AC;? accessed March, 2014. http://www.positive-propaganda.org/index-pp7.html.

(13) Orwell, xxxi-xxxii.

(14) L. Scott, 70-82.

(15) Paret, et al., 24-25.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ perspective, but there has been a push to remerge the power of propaganda in contemporary art which is exemplified especially in the Street Art movement.

JR Case Study From his cryptic name to his eclectic approach to art, French artist and self titled ‘Photograffeur,’ JR, is the ideal artist to exemplify the mechanisms of propaganda present in contemporary Street Art. JR, who is predominantly a photographer, but is also categorized as a graffiti artist, presents the hybridity of the Street Art movement web. He successfully incorporates the vast amount of media accessible to the general public in his art, which helps frame and enlighten a larger, more diverse audience about the contemporary issues in their social environment. His acceptance, or even preference, to include the media in his work draws attention to the importance of using propaganda in art to establish relevancy and influence in a contemporary context. This acceptance of popularity obscures the elements that constitute his work as Street Art and conjures further curiosity to why he considers himself a ‘graffeur,’ or translated to English as, graffiti artist. If he accepts media popularity, does that take away from the authenticity of his work? Although he is known to the public eye, his is still secretive. JR is an alias name, just as other graffiti artists create and promote a name that is not their given. His real name is unknown and there is uncertainty as to what the initials stand for, if they stand for anything. The irony of his propagandistic tactics is actually what identifies JR as street. The fact that he is using social media to attack concerns that are not easily resolved, is similar to the graffiti artist approach in forcing the audience to look and see what is occurring in their surroundings for the art is a response of their actions.

It is not the popularity that JR is in seek of. He is in pursuit of the attention of the masses, and what better way to grasp attention than by accepting popular media? He has achieved success through social media in a manner that other artists have not because he not only uploads artwork in the making, but also seeks opinion from his audience. This is especially noted in his newest projects, Unframed- Ellis Island and the Inside Out Project: The People’s Art Project.

Unframed- Ellis Island, JR’s 2014 project frames the issue of immigration in the United States in a historical context by projecting images and documentation of immigrants from the late 1800s to 1950 who were coming to America through Ellis Island (fig. 10). Even though the project is displaying past immigrant populations of the United States, it also serves as a visual of the contemporary immigration issues in the United States as well as in other countries such as Italy, that are just as relevant as when Ellis Island was open.

Inside Out: The People’s Art Project is identity orientated. This project presents to the audiences throughout the globe the individuality of every participant through art. For this project to

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ function as intended, civilian participation, also known as participative art (16), is vital. The project serves different purposes for each city that chooses to participate and is now active in several cities in every continent (fig. 11). JR in this project is the mastermind, but it is controlled by the people. Each “action group” (17) chooses what kind of message the project will convey.

Cities have chosen a large range of topics from a varying spectrum including laughter, justice, HIV/AIDS, and exploitation of certain ethnic groups (fig. 12). The active role JR holds creates a higher significance in participation from non-artists in art, which makes his work contemporarily relevant and visually rewarding. As a contemporary artist, media plays an extremely important role. It is almost unheard of for an established artist not to have a website page, Facebook page, and Instagram, which moderately a new form of a virtual gallery. JR actively uses social media in an open, but still, secretive fashion which has guided the ‘JR aesthetic’ to branch into other art forms, such as performance art and dance (fig. 13). To understand JR’s work as Street Art, it should be seen through a hybrid lens which creates new artistic norms.

Public action is the intrinsic element that makes the connection between art in the streets and propaganda compelling and relevant. The artwork of world renowned artist JR provides an exemplification of how Street Art and propaganda function together to create Street Art that influences public awareness, a primary goal in each of his projects since he began in the early 2000s. His artwork provides an answer to the question of why artists choose to create art in the streets and how projecting art in public, urban spaces connects the audience to art differently than when art is presented in an institutional manner. JR is able to present these ideas through his art projects titled, Women are Heroes and Wrinkles of the City. JR has created an extensive amount of projects throughout the past decade that represent mechanisms of propaganda in contemporary Street Art. ‘Graffeur’ in French means graffiti artist. The altered spelling of the English word ‘photographer’ changes the definition entirely and specifically represents the artist and social documenter that JR is. In Women are Heroes, JR creates participative art. By people becoming a part of the projection of these large scale works, richer social content is incorporated into the originally design (figure 14). JR, his team, and civilians of the city in which JR is installed this project, all become active participants of what the project stands for, it transforms into a social documentation project by the people, for the people through Street Art. The ultimate goal behind JR’s aesthetic is for the public to acknowledge these projects as frameworks in which the difficult ---------------------------------------------(16) Berrebi, 9.

(17) http://www.insideoutproject.net/en (18) Berrebi, 9-11.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ and obscure topics of society can be proactively acknowledged. Active engagement is especially exemplified in Native American, Houston & Bowery by night, New York, USA (figure 11), because it is expanding the issue of Native American loss of culture to the Mecca of American culture, New York City. His tactics may seem like new interpretations, but they actually present older, reoccurring social and political debates such as women neglect, poverty, and racial division.

JR’s artwork is an example of Street Art and the realms that it is exapanding into. His work is presenting a new idea, or perhaps a revitalized idea, that art has a larger role in society than what is presumed. What is new about the notion that art is important is that contemporary artists, like street artists are highlighting the importance that everyone must know that the significance of art, and how it can be positively utilized in life.

Before his success as a street photographer, his artistic passion was graffiti. JR was a Paris based graffiti artist throughout his teen years and even though the spray can is no longer his primary tool, he still has the ‘graffiti spirit’ of being unauthoritative, free, and focused on the art—this is openly suggested throughout his photographic work. JR presents the complexities of the Street Art movement web, how Street Art is created by a vast of amount of media, and how street artworks are influential by bringing into question the social agendas and conflicts within cities and coutnries throughout the world. Public action is the intrinsic element that makes the connection between art in the streets and propaganda compelling and relevant, JR reinforces this dynamic.

Literature Review Literature of Street Art primarily has been collected from contemporary scholarship dating from the mid 1970s until the present. The currently available scholarship has chiefly provided analysis of the evolution of Street Art and its metamorphosis into the diverse art movement it is today.

Contemporary exhibitions and large scale, global art projects are also among the contributors to the historicization of Street Art and are helping to frame the new multidimensionality that Street Art has developed into. The 2011 exhibition at LA MoCA, Art in the Streets and large scale art projects titled, Women are Heroes and Wrinkles of the City by ‘photograffeur’ JR are exemplifications of how Street Art is historicized and are helping to frame the present and emerging complexities of the street art movement. Literature, exhibitions and art projects also bring into investigation the reasons why some characteristics of Street Art are becoming more popular and socially acceptable, while others are still seen in the shadows of the taboo.

The Art in the Streets exhibition did not receive positive feedback from the Los Angeles critics,

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ but the negative reviews do not take away from the fact that the exhibition had an objective to present what Street Art is through a global perspective. The endeavor of the show exemplifies the new main focuses of study within contemporary Street Art that are analyzing the actualizations that make Street Art a global art phenomenon. This is also the objective of JR’s projects which are projected in multiple countries and are an ideal representation of the current Street Art dynamic of multidimensionality in contemporary Street Art (figure 12). The catalogs for these global art projects support the idea this art movement has expanded into a vast amount of areas throughout the world and is capable of having a substantial effect on its audience.

Scholarship of art genres and disciplines outside of art history such as politics, artistic strategy and propaganda outline the assemblage of Street Art, how its history forms Street Art of today, and also establishes the role of propaganda. Primary and secondary sources of contemporary scholarship specifically addressing the history and/or the current state of Street Art have guided the inquiry of how palpable the rapport of propaganda and Street Art is as well as thoroughly grasping the past of Street Art and how it has come to be seen in present-day. These scholarly studies have provided a consensus throughout my research on the historicization of Street Art, but also on the key distinctions that separate graffiti from other Street Art styles and what pushes it further away from being interrelated to the branches of Street Art. This distinction of styles is important to note in order to comprehend the function of propaganda as being socially influential. It is determined that graffiti is the predecessor of the Street Art movement in its entirety. Literature provides an adequate idea of why the relic of graffiti constitutes deeper distinction with street art and that this separation has been and is an important debate.

Contemporary scholarship also sheds light on the notion that street art as a title for a particular style has a rooted association with muralism and especially with artist that use a trained or ‘fine art’ approach in their work. When historicizing Street Art, I have realized that scholars tend to frequently address the connection to graffiti and determining the role of vandalism, and street art’s role as a form of public art, but through an anti-establishment ideology.

Is Street Art Public Art? This question has no definite answer. What can be determined is that the Street Art movement can at times have ‘public art tendencies,’ but Street Art sets itself a vastly different aesthetic and social agenda. So, is Street Art public art? Yes and no, but mostly no. Public Art, although in the streets and although with political tendencies which makes it similar to Street Art, is not similar to trending contemporary Street Art ideologies. Public art has a conservative, or institutionalized agenda. It is created to characterize an area with an identity they wish to be known for. Public art frequently is administered by an authoritative group, which relates to the idea or public art McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ having a more institutionalized structure. Artists are commissioned to create work with already implemented ideas which frequently revolve around improving or enhancing the exterior aesthetic of publics surroundings. When discussing public art, the most constant medium in sculpture; in contrast, Street Art’s main medium is paint. Size and scale are two other important components of public art that are easier to include through sculpture. Public art emphasizes scale and size to present the town or city in a more grandiose light. Reno, Nevada has increased pubic art in the surrounding tourist areas, highways, and public spaces with ‘heavy traffick’ of residents in hopes that the lively ‘wild west’ culture is present to whomever passes or visits the city.

Public art can be considered as a ‘surface area’ art practice in which an artist has the liberty of design, but is not always the creator of the idea. Public is frequently framed to be socially acceptable, but there are cases in which it has not been accepted by the public. This has occurred with artists Richard Serra with Titled Arc (19) (figure 12) and with Diego Rivera and Rockefeller Center Murals (figure 13). These public works were not accepted because of multiple factors, but it can be said that the artist chose to take a more radical approach of how an idea would be designed and interpreted through his perspective rather than the perspective of the commissioner in contrast to many styles of Street Art such as, graffiti, which are not directed by an authoritative figure. This question is still in need of further research and development, but what can be concluded is that the ideology of the Street Art movement and the tendency to present art in an uninstitutionalized manner are two of the dominant components that delineate Street Art from public art. Street artists such as Banksy, who are considered street artists, have been known to create public artworks such as the Ronald McDonald sculpture includes Ronald McDonald and a shoe shiner miserably shining the corporate clown’s shoe. Works such as these obscure the line between public and Street Art because it is using the style of public art—it is a large sculpture in the public domain, but it has the attitude of the street artist in that it was created by the artist’s personal interest, instead of being commissioned to do it for the better good of the community. Works such as these further solidify that there are observable differences of public art and Street Art. These differences demonstrate how mechanisms of propaganda are implemented and how it creates contrasting responses from the public.

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Finkelpearl, 61.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ Annotated Bibliography 1.

Sommer, Robert. Street Art. New York: Links Books, A Division of Music Sales Corporation, 1975.

Street Art is a history of the street art movement. It provides an analysis of the research conducted by Somner that consisted of travelling throughout the United States and understanding the different elements of the street art movement. This study further develops the idea that the street art movement is complex and has also provided insight on what has changed since Somner’s publication.

2.

Lewisohn, Cedar. Street Art: The Graffiti Revolution. New York: harry n. abrams, inc., 2008

Street artists from all over the world have different styles and this effects how their work is interpreted. Street art is a revolution because it has become an art movement, but it is stubborn when it is attempted to be defined. This text contains important artists and an analysis what makes graffiti different street art.

3.

Ed Fuentes, “From Duchamp to Banksy: Street Art Continues 100-Year Moevement,” http://www.kcet.org/socal/departures/columns/writing-on-the-wall/from-duchamp-tobanksy-street-art-continues-100-year-movement.html, (accessed November 17, 2014).

This online article provides a chronology of how Dada has been able to influence art genres and movements up to the street art movement. It discusses that similar ideas used in street art, and especially in graffiti first emerged in the Dada art movement.

4.

Gastman, Roger, Darwin Rowland, and Ian Sattler. Freight Train Gaffiti. New York: harry n.

Abrams, inc., 2006.

A history of freight train graffiti that provides further analysis of the characteristics of graffiti and what constitutes graffiti culture. Freight Train Graffiti has provided the most thorough insight on the subject of vandalism and how it plays into graffiti culture and when graffiti is vandalism and when it is art.

5.

Dictionary.com,“Graffiti,”(accessedAugust,2014). http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/graffiti?s=t.

This website provided the most descriptive definition of graffiti along with an analysis of the social implications of the term.

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6.

Deitch, Jeffrey, Roger Gastman, Aaron Rose, and Ethel Seno. Art in the Streets. New York: Skira Rizzoli Publications, Inc., 2011.

This exhibition is a primary source that exemplifies the thesis of street art creating public action being a representation of its society. It supports the ideas about street art being connected to propaganda. It also includes work by artists JR whose work will be further discussed in a case study to analyze how he uses propaganda as a mechanism in street art.

7.

Castriota, David. Artistic Strategy and the Rhetoric of Power: Political Uses of Art from Antiquity to the Present. Illinois: Southern Illinois University, 1986.

A chronology of political art and the powerful use of rhetoric that discusses the different forms that art has been used since the beginning of civility. Persuasion through art has been an excellent political tactic throughout human history because of the way art relates to everyone.

The emotional connection that art creates makes it a useful tactic when proposing an idea because a public feel can relate to a proposal that incorporates art.

8.

Mark Jenkins, “Positive Propaganda: Committed to Social & Environmental Responsibility,” (accessed March, 2014), http://www.positive-propaganda.org/index-pp7.html.

This website provides represents the relationship between contemporary street art and propaganda. It is also a representation of the positive effects of propaganda and how there is now a larger understanding of the more in depth framing of the word.

9.

Orwell, George. All Art is Propaganda. New York, New York: First Mariner Books, 2009.

This literature is useful to understand how propaganda functions in all forms of art. Orwell essays on multiple and diverse topics shed light on how art is propagandistic and how it many forms in order for it to be an effective strategy of persuasion.

10. L. Scott, Robert, “Diego River at Rockefeller Center: Fresco Painting and Rhetoric.” Western Journal of Speech Communication, (1977).

Muralist, Diego Rivera was known for his radical approach in art and for heavily expressing his political opinion through his fresco murals. This journal analyzes the controversy the Detroit Murals that were commissioned by Rockefeller, but were not finished because Rivera refused to change altar his work and lessen his political opinion. This journal is relevant not only in style, but also has a similar attitude to contemporary street in how Rivera and other Mexican muralists of the time presented their opinion through their art.

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ 11. Paret, Peter, Beth Irwin Lewis and Paul Paret. Persuasive Images. New Jersey: Princeton, University Press, 1992.

A collection of war posters that epitomize how art is used in propaganda and how effective it is on a society. It discusses the affects these posters had on the civilians witnessing these posters firsthand and they were able a variable of emotions such as fear, patriotism, anger, etc. It also discusses the role of the artist and what it was like to work as a propagandist. This literature was used as a historical exemplification of how art has been able to significantly influence the audience in the past. And that contemporary street art is influenced by this style of propaganda art.

12. Berrebi, Marco. Women are Heroes: A Global Project. English-language ed. New York: Abrams, 2012.

In this catalog of the Women are Heroes: A Global Project Berrebi presents the components of the project and JR’s the objective goals of creating awareness of the lives of women and what the obstacles that are endured because of the large gender divide in many countries. This project presents how JR is able to use propaganda effectively by creating projects that are in the social context in which he is trying to create awareness and is also to create awareness to individuals of other countries.

13. Finkelpearl, Tom. Dialogues in Public Art. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2000.

Dialogues in Public Art consists of interviews and an elaboration issues within public art. It provides an depth understanding of the different elements that constitute public art and presents how this elements are incorporated in the art by interviewing artists that are creating public art.

“Artist JR’s Ellis Island Southside Project,” saveellisisland.org, (accessed December 12, 2014). http://www.saveellisisland.org/artist-jrs-ellis-island-southside-project/ This website provides accurate information about JR’s most recent project. It provides history about Ellis Island and how it functioned as an immigration center up until 1950. JR’s project brings attention to the workers of Ellis Island and also the immigration populations that went through this immigration center and have made this country what it is today. “ Inside Out: The People’s Art Project,” insideoutproject.net, (accessed December 19, 2014). http://www.insideoutproject.net/en This website provides all information about the Inside Out project. Through this website, I have learned how expansive the project has become throughout the past four years in location and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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JEANNETTE MARTINEZ project goals. This project is also becoming a film and has been begun to receive acclaim for the news as well.

Caption List 1.SmugOne, Never Take Worms from Strangers Kiddies!, 2011

2. ZEPHYR, Wild Style, 1983. Photo: Martha Cooper.

3 .Artist: Marcel Duchamp, L.H.O.O.Q., 1919.

4. Banksy, Smile, 2004.

5.Andy Warhol, Campbellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Soup Cans, 1962

6.Ron English, Popaganda Cereal Series, 2011

7.Siner, LTS Crew, 2003

8.H.R. Hoops, Destroy this mad brute, 1917.

9. Ellsworth Young, Remember Belgium, 1918.

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Caption List 10.JR, Action in Kibera Slum, No Train Passage, Kenya, 2009

11 JR, Native American, Houston & Bowery by night, New York, USA, 2011

12.Richard Serra, Title Arc, 1981

13.Diego Rivera, Rockefeller Center Mural, 1934

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Determining Factors that Influence Latino Males' Educational Persistence

Miguel Martinez Major: Psychology & Spanish Mentor: Dr. Gus Hill Graduated: 2013 Master’s Degree: Higher Education and Student Affairs, Virginia Tech University Graduated: 2015

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The complex situations of the language barrier, minimal parent involvement and peer pressure to not “act white” undergone by Latino/a students have a fundamental effect on their academic aspirations, perceptions and persistence. The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate whether or not there are characteristic factors present among Latino/a student’s demonstrating academic persistence. High school is a pivotal time for the retention of students, more specifically for Latino/a students, because this is when the possibility of dropping out increases.

Interviews were conducted with Latino/a high school seniors on track to graduate, Latino/a students enrolled at a community college and Latino/a students enrolled at a university on the West Coast might reveal whether there are commonalities among Latino/a students at various levels of education.

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MIGUEL MARTINEZ Literature Review: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 15% of the total 25+ year old population has not attained a high school diploma, its equivalent or a higher degree. This percentage grows to 20% for the Latino/a population (Ryan, 2012). If we take a random pool of 100 Nevada Latino/a students entering kindergarten, 44 of them will graduate from high school and only 26 of them will enroll at a higher education institution; yet, even more astonishingly, only 7 of those students will graduate with a baccalaureate degree (Yosso, 2006). More than half of Latino/a students are lost before they can proudly wear their cap and gown. Although these numbers are significant, there is also a positive side to the coin: Latino/a high school completion rate have risen from 56.2% in 1972 to 76.8% in 2009 (Chapman, Laird, Ifill & KewalRamani, 2011). There are several articles in the literature that solely focus on the factors affecting Latino/a student’s dropout rates (Alonzo, 2009; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Similarly, the literature contains evidence that there is a rise in Latino/a graduation rates, especially among females. The present qualitative study focuses on the factors that influence Latinos’ academic persistence.

Overall, reports show that Latinos/as have the lowest high school or high school equivalent attainment percentage. “61% had completed high school or higher and 13 percent had completed at least a bachelor’s degree” (Ryan, 2012). These statistics may be influenced by the unique challenges faced by Latino youth, which vary and affect the majority of their life from peer pressure, family stress, self-identification issues and the language barrier (Crisp & Nora, 2010; Fry, 2004; Mena, 2011; Swail, Cabrera, Lee, & Williams, 2005).

Method: 15 participants were interviewed for the research study. The mean age of the participants was 19 with a participants’ range of age from 18 to 23. Eight of the participants were in their last year of high school, six attended the local university, and one participant attended the local community college. All the participants gave verbal consent before starting the interview. They were also instructed to provide a pseudonym, which was used throughout the interview; this detached the participant from the study completely and erased all ties back to them.

The high school participants were recruited through the counseling staff at their school and interviews were conducted at the participant’s school. The designated counselors were given copies of the recruitment flyer. The counselors then provided these to any student who they believed fit the inclusion criteria of being a Latino senior on-track to graduate this 2012 academic year. If the student decided to participate in the study, they contacted the student investigator and scheduled a time to be interviewed. The student investigator conducted the interviews during times that had minimal effect on the student’s academics (i.e. elective courses, lunch McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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MIGUEL MARTINEZ breaks and advisory).

The university and college students were recruited through on-campus flyers and word-of-mouth.

When contacted by potential participants, the student investigator scheduled a meeting at a suitable time. The interviews were conducted on-campus in a discrete location that would allow for maximum privacy and freedom of expression for the participant (i.e. the library or student union).

Instrument: The following questions were asked during the interview: Name (Pseudonym): Age:____________ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Ethnicity:

School:

Why do you continue your education?

Why is school important to you?

When did school become important? (If it always has been, did you ever think it wasn’t?

Why did you return to thinking it was important?)

What classes did/have you take(n) in HS? What grades on average did/do you receive?

What are your expected outcomes for attaining an education?

From what I see, your motivation was greater than your fears, why did this happen?

How often was/is college discussed with you at home?

How close are you with your family?

How familiar are your parents with the education system? Does your family support your educational decisions?

Who do you look up to? Why? What support systems did / do you have? How did / do they help you?

Were your peers important in your decision to pursue an education? Were they encouraging discouraging?

How do you feel about the staff at your school? Were they helpful or not? Why? How was / is your relationship with your counselor? Please explain: How was / is your relationship with your teachers? Please explain: Where do you see yourself in 10 years? Does education affect this vision?

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MIGUEL MARTINEZ Analysis: The data was transcribed and separated by question. After the responses were separated, they were coded according to their core message. After the data was coded and analyzed, the following commonalities appeared for each question.

Why do you continue your education?

The first question provided the most diverse answers varying from success, to make money and give back to the community. One-third of participants answered that they saw education as providing a successful future. Another important topic was financial stability. Participants claimed that they did not want to struggle as their parents did, “To be successful in life. I see my dad struggling all the time and I don’t want to be, I want to be better than my dad even though he is a good guy and provides for us. [Also] to be financially stable.” These answers seem to be similar to other findings (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).

Why is school important to you?

Similarly to the previous question, most students answered that school could provide a better job. Along with a better job, these students also recognized that they would likely not have to struggle as their parents struggled to put food on the table. One participant commented, “I saw higher education as a means of me being able to provide a better life for my family in the future and have a better life for myself, you know.” The participants showed a unique interest in their future and not focusing on the daily struggles of continuing their education.

When did school become important? (If it always was, did you ever think it wasn’t? why did you return to thinking it was important?)

One-third of the persistent Latino students claimed that school had always been an important part of their lives. Contrary to popular beliefs, persistent Latino students did report recognition at an early age that school was important. Although participants stated it was always important most also stated that it really became a priority during their high school years. The following quote summarizes what most of the participants stated about school’s importance.

“I don’t think I can really identify a single moment when school finally became important to me. I’ve just sort of been someone who devoted himself to studying. I made sure I did my homework, and I think that sort of became part of my own way of going about school, so I think that’s sort of helped me, my studying patterns and it helped me maintain my motivation in school.”

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What classes did/have you take(n) in HS? What grades on average did/do you receive?

Half of the participants acknowledged that they were in the top academic tier; stating that on average they received either A’s or B’s. One student even stated, “[I receive] A’s and B’s all the time. I think my average GPA was a 3.7.” This strong GPA was viewed as the participant’s ticket to a more prestigious institution with the proper guidance.

What are your expected outcomes for attaining an education?

More than a third of the participants responded to this question with high hopes of attaining a well paying job, a job they would love doing, and the knowledge to realize what their ideal job is.

Although the participants were not very clear about what they wanted to do for the rest of their lives, they did hope that college would open their eyes to what that job is. “It is my hope that it will lead to an ideal job for me, now what that ideal job is, I don’t know because I don’t have a specific career in mind right now.”

From what I see your motivation was greater than your fears, why did this happen?

The responses to this question are in accordance with literature about the communal closeness of Latinos/as. The struggle seen first-hand by participants seems to be the primal force driving them to continue their education. “I think just seeing my family and just seeing my family really struggle, paycheck to paycheck. Living day to day and not knowing exactly how much money they have in their account.” The stress of living paycheck to paycheck does not seem like something participants want to undergo in the future. Participants also stated that their fears of failing were trumped by overcoming the struggle that they see their parents undergoing.

How often was/is college discussed with you at home?

Surprisingly, most participants stated that they did not discuss their college plans until their senior year of high school. “It really started being discussed in my senior year. They asked me what I wanted to do like if I was going to keep going to school or if I just want to work.” Another participant acknowledged that it was not until his senior year and more importantly that he was graduating from high school that his family began discussing his post-secondary decisions. “Well, right now since I am upon graduation it is discussed pretty often but on the regular it is rarely brought up.”

How close are you with your family?

As already well documented in the literature, Latinos/as are very communal. Not surprisingly, all

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the participants stated that they were very close to their family. When asked about the closeness of his family, one participant stated, “[we are] very close; we are like best friends. Even when something bad happens we are always together.” This community bond has both helped these students and impeded their growth at different points. It has helped these students with creating a strong support group for them to talk about what was going on in their lives and how to confront those situations.

How familiar are your parents with the education system? Do they (your family) support your educational decisions?

As expected of foreign-born parents, their knowledge of the education system was lacking and was noted by more than half of the participants. The following quote illustrates how one father was completely unaware of how drastically the education system changes after high school. New laws, new schedules and a bigger playing field are some attributions rarely associated with this transition. “[My dad might] call me randomly like at 4 in the afternoon one day, and I won’t answer because I’m in class, and I call him back and I tell him that I was in class, and he was like, ‘Well I thought you guys were typically done with school at 2 in the afternoon.’ And I’m like, ‘No it’s not; it isn’t blocks. You pick your own schedule. I have some days off, you know.’”

Despite parents’ knowledge deficiency about the education system, most participants noted that they were still supportive about their decisions. A notable amount of the participants also expressed their and their parent’s financial stress.

“They have supported. They have been very encouraging. For example, when I finally graduated they were very happy just as I was and you know one of the things that was sort of an obstacle I guess was just being able to pay for the education and you know getting the millennium scholarship has sort of really helped them and me feel better about continuing with school.”

Who do you look up to? Why? Although the authors realized how communal Latinos/as are, they could not have imagined that every single participant would answer this question with either mom or dad. The split was about half and half with the following quotes summarizing all answers: “I look up to my mom because she came to the United States at a very early age; she was 15. I just sit and think about a 15 year old, or me at 15, and coming to another country and not knowing how to speak the language, the customs, or traditions, or what it meant to be an American, or to be you know in the United States at 15. [My mom had] 2 jobs. She McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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worked at Circus Circus and the Ramada Inn as a housekeeper. She is what you would call a ‘luchadora’ which is someone who really fights for what they believe in, someone who fights for their own good, I suppose you can say. She never rests until she accomplishes her goals.”

“I look up to my dad because, I mean, he has worked so hard for me and my brothers and my sister and he just wants the best for us and I don’t want to disappoint him because that will hurt more than anything because he is always there to push me and when I ask him for [anything] he always gives it to me. He just wants me to do well in school.”

What support systems did you have? How did they help you?

Similarly, to the answers in previous question, the answers given to this question were on par with communal societies. And once again the following quote shows how limited parents’ knowledge about the education system is. “My dad just told me you can do it, you can do it, you can do it. Even though he didn’t teach me, he told me that I could do it.”

Were your peers important in your decision to pursue an education? Were they encouraging discouraging?

Although peers seem to be pivotal for student encouragement, two-thirds of the participants acknowledged that their parents were not important in the educational decisions. One participant came to terms with the negative effects that his peers were having on him and decided to find a new crowd. “Not really because like at the beginning of high school I had a lot of friends and now I don’t. I figured out that they weren’t real friends. One of my favorite quotes is ‘I’d rather have 4 quarters than 100 pennies.” It seems like these students are able and willing to discard friendships or whatever gets in the way of their academic success.

How do you feel about the staff at your school? Were they helpful or not? Why? This question’s answers were split into the participants’ high school experience compared to their post-secondary experiences. This is what students had to say about their high school staff: “Overall it wasn’t a very good staff because they were going with the motions; and I say that meaning that they could care less if I showed up to class or not... [but] I mean if you’re in this profession, I’m not a teacher, but you should have a goal of 'I want to positively impact this person’s life. And make their life better. I’m not just here to get a paycheck.' Because obviously teachers don’t get paid well anyway and their payoff should be making a positive impact anyway.

But at my high school, it wasn’t that way. There were a certain few, some teachers and football coaches I had, but overall it was vastly negative.”

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Along with these feelings about their high school staff participants also had some negative input about their willingness to help them: “Overall, they were not very helpful with presenting me with higher education opportunities. I had to visit the recruiter from here at another HS. I ventured out and found out all this stuff on my own. If I hadn’t done all my research, which I should have anyways, I wouldn’t have seen the higher opportunities. It sucks when I think about it because I know if I wouldn’t have done that then I wouldn’t be here and what about the other kids who are oblivious to the university education? They are probably going to be lost in the dust, and it sucks because there could be a couple of bright minds that are lost.”

How was your relationship with your counselor? Please explain: The responses to this question were split into two opposing points. One-half of the participants stated that they had an excellent relationship with their counselor, “My relationship with him was excellent. He helped me with everything that I needed. Any scholarships that he knew or any waivers that I could have gotten, he would tell me.

Anything that I could have asked for he was there. He wrote me letters of recommendation, he got me into the right classes and he really helped me achieve my HS diploma.”

The second half of the respondents claimed never having a counselor. Some even said that they had to navigate through the college application process without any support from their school counselor. “To be honest I don’t remember having a high school counselor. If I did then I dropped the ball or he/she did.”

How was your relationship with your teachers? Please explain: Interestingly enough the responses from this question did not seem typical of academically persistent students. Students usually state that they have close ties with their teachers and even that their teachers inspire them to continue their education. The most common response, twelve participants, stated that they had good relationships with their teachers but did not share their personal life with them. “It was always a really good relationship. I mean I always did my work, they knew I was a good student. They had no problems with me I had no problems with them but as far as confiding in them and telling them my issues or my dilemmas or my issues at home I would never tell them that.” Without that personal connection between teacher and student it can be very difficult for an instructor to impact their students’ lives.

Where do you see yourself in 10 years? Does education affect this vision?

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The final and culminating question instructed students to look a decade into their future and decide whether or not education would affect that period of their lives. Even though all participants had high hope and aspiration, some of the students’ goals were more concrete. Five of the participants wanted to have obtained their doctorate degree within ten years while three of them stated they wanted to have a family by that time. With consensus, all participants said the same thing about education’s effect on their future, “Yeah education has a huge effect. I think about it pretty much every time I go to sleep because my future depends on education. I know without education I’ll probably stay here and work at a warehouse.”

Summary The interviews report a few themes already existent in the literature. Some themes contradict or add different aspects into the complexities along the education pipeline for Latino/as. Summary of the important findings include the prospect of increased salary or prospects for a much better future was a strong motivator on students to pursue post-secondary education, these Latinos had strong family bonds and strong support systems to help them along their education endeavor.

Although Latino/as usually do not talk about their educational aspirations until late into their secondary school years (median interviewee reported not talking about this topic until their junior year in high school), the Latinos interviewed expressed how supportive parents became once that discussion has taken place. Another prominent theme is the lack of or perceived lacking support from their high school staff. Many Latinos reported not remembering their high school counselor or feeling that they had not been given as much support as their white peers.

Conclusion It is apparent that these young Latino males, who were subject in this study, are driven to succeed academically. They value education and recognize the barriers that they are likely to face along the path to a baccalaureate degree. As one of the participants brilliantly said, “I feel like young Hispanics have opportunities and they are out there; but, they may not be in our favor but we have to make them work.” These young Latino males are, at an early age, gearing towards self-improvement with a realistic view of potential obstacles.

The nuclear family is there to support them emotionally but the lack of knowledge about the education system and, in addition, scarce funds limits their efforts to emotional support during their child’s. This situation makes support from the school much more important if they are to succeed.

School faculty and staff are not perceived by these young men to be highly supportive of their

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higher educational aspirations. This study should be a â&#x20AC;&#x153;wake-upâ&#x20AC;? call for schools to systematically provide more support to Latino males who show an interest in pursuing educational opportunities beyond high school.

References Alonzo, V. (2009). Predicting Latino males' persistence from high school: A model combining social and academic risk factors. (69), ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Chapman, C., Laird, J., Ifill, N., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education, S. (2011). Trends in High School Dropout and Completion Rates in the United States: 1972-2009.

Compendium Report. NCES 2012-006: National Center for Education Statistics.

Crisp, G., & Nora, A. (2010). Hispanic Student Success: Factors Influencing the Persistence and Transfer Decisions of Latino Community College Students Enrolled in Developmental Education. [Article]. Research in Higher Education (2), 175-194. doi: 10.1007/s11162-0099151-x Fry, R., & Pew Hispanic Center, W. D. C. (2004). Latino Youth Finishing College: The Role of Selective Pathways: Pew Hispanic Center.

Mena, J. A. (2011). Latino Parent Home-based Practices That Bolster Student Academic Persistence. [Article]. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences (4), 490-506. doi: 10.1177/0739986311422897 Ryan, C. (2012). Educational Attainment in the United States: 2009. Population Characteristics, 58. http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education/ Saenz, V. B., & Ponjuan, L. (2009). The Vanishing Latino Male in Higher Education. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 8(1), 54-89.

Swail, W. S., Cabrera, A. F., Lee, C., & Williams, A. (2005). Latino Students and the Educational Pipeline a three part series, part three: Pathways to the bachelor's degree for Latino students: Educational Policy Institute.

Washoe County School District. (2012). WCSD Racial Ethnic Report 1980-1981 to 2011-2012. pg. 2 Retrieved from http://www.washoe.k12.nv.us/community/annual-reportspublications/racial-ethnic-report

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Washoe County School District. (2012). WCSD Racial Ethnic Report 1980-1981 to 2011-2012. pg. 6 Retrieved from http://www.washoe.k12.nv.us/community/annual-reportspublications/racial-ethnic-report Yosso, T. J. (2006). Critical Race Counterstories Along the Chicana/ Chicano Educational Pipeline.

New York: Routledge.

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Acceptance of Rape Myths

Taylor Martinez Major: Psychology & Sociology Mentor: Dr. Jennifer Lowman Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: Master’s Program Psychology, Columbia University

The aim of this study was to determine whether or not four factors (social desirability bias, gender, student-athletic status, and fraternity and sorority membership) contribute to rape myth acceptance among college students. The existence of such myths is harmful to society as a whole, as they perpetuate the acceptance of sexual violence against both men and women. An anonymous survey was used to collect data to investigate how prevalent the acceptance of these rape myths are among undergraduate students, specifically among student athletes, fraternity and sorority members, and students who were not involved in either subgroup. The findings were examined in the context of the United States criminal justice system and how social desirability bias may affect college students’ views of rape and consequently, their level of rape myth acceptance. The study yielded surprising results; although all students—regardless of affiliation—are generally low on rape myth acceptance, fraternity and sorority members are significantly less accepting of these myths than nonaffiliated students and athletes. Social desirability bias seemed to play no role in the way in which students responded to the survey.

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Rape is a social problem that disproportionately affects women in American society. The prevalence of rape is largely impacted by the devaluation of women and women’s rights to their bodies. The acceptance of rape myths are symptomatic of the devaluation of women, which are defined as stereotypes that blame the victim for their assault, absolve perpetrators of any wrongdoing, and completely dismiss the violence associated with rape (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). The belief in these myths dismisses the severity of rape, further devaluing women, and makes rape a crime that occurs far too often and usually resulting in little or no justice for victims.

Rape myths can be systematically debunked; for example, rape myths suggest that rape only occurs between two strangers and that it is a violent event. Research findings have consistently found that rape is likely to have been committed by an acquaintance of the victim and rape is only violent in a small number of cases (Du Mont, Miller, & Myhr, 2003). Despite the overwhelming evidence that can be used to debunk rape myths, they are still widely accepted.

The definition of rape has been narrowed by expectations of what constitutes a real rape, which are ultimately influenced by rape myth acceptance. Rape is often wrongly believed to be easily identifiable, with “real rape” occurring in a dark alley and being committed by a stranger with a weapon (Estrich, 1987). Rape by physical force that results in injuries to the victim is a common expectance—which is an example of a particular type of rape myth known as It Wasn’t Really Rape— ignoring the fact that rape takes on many shapes and forms. If the rape does not fit neatly into this expectation of violent crimes, the victim is often not believed, or arguably even worse, blamed for the incident. Victim blame is also evident in rape myths wherein the victim is viewed as creating a situation that led to his or her rape; for instance, women have been blamed for wearing revealing clothing or drinking too much alcohol. Our criminal justice system has consistently relied on “hard evidence” (i.e. physical evidence) to prove rape cases. Rape is commonly believed to be a violent crime, and violent crimes result in physical injury, which can be used as “hard evidence” to prove that a rape actually occurred. This reliance on hard evidence—namely, physical injury—merely perpetuates the idea that rape is always a violent event and serves to discredit any rape victim who did not sustain any physical injuries from the rape.

This research reported here looks at the acceptance of such myths among undergraduate students and the association of rape myth acceptance with social desirability bias. Over the last few decades, it appears that students have learned the “correct answer” to common measures of rape myth acceptance (Struckman-Johnson & Struckman-Johnson, 1992). As such, it is importantto identify when students are expressing their beliefs and when they are expressing socially acceptable sentiments. Students who appear to respond in a socially desirable way may be promoting social cohesion and acceptance, not their true beliefs. Thus, to evaluate rape myths

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it is important to also evaluate this form of bias. The use of the social desirability scale in this study was to correct for this current limitation.

Significance It is imperative that the acceptance of rape myths be studied on a college campus, as collegeaged students are at a high risk of sexual assault. In order for sexual assault to be combatted, the root of the problem must first be addressed: the acceptance of rape myths. These myths must be exposed for the fallacies that they are through education, which can then expose the true severity of rape and garner support for social change. The purpose of this study is to identify the rape myths that are most widely accepted as well as determine whether or not students base their rejection of rape myths on social desirability bias.

Literature Review Rape is a violent crime that plagues societies across the globe. In a study by Tjaden and Thoennes (1998), 18% of women interviewed reported being victims of rape while 3% of interviewed men reported the same. These statistics can be misleading, as rape is a vastly underreported crime (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987) and it is likely that far more men and women are victims of rape than have actually been reported. In fact, it is estimated that for every rape that is reported, approximately 3-10 rapes are not reported (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). Although rape is legally recognized as a crime, the general public has covertly condoned it, which is one reason why the crime is so grossly underreported. The infamous Steubenville, Ohio rape case exemplifies this; school officials and police attempted to cover up a teen girl’s rape. Despite the overwhelming evidence against the two boys—including videos documenting the assault filmed by the perpetrators and bystanders—the Steubenville community still attempted to protect the rapists rather than the victim. After the rape became national news, one of the rapists was interviewed on national television and portrayed as an All-American boy. Unfortunately, this type of behavior is all too common. Rape victims, such as in the Steubenville case, face social scrutiny if rape is reported and they often fear disbelief or blame for their victimization.

Rape Myths Rape myths are defined as stereotypes that blame the victim for their assault, absolve perpetrators of any wrongdoing, and completely dismiss the violence associated with rape (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). Lonsway and Fitzgerald further devised seven subcategories of rape myths: She Asked for It, It Wasn’t Really Rape, He Didn’t Mean To, She Wanted It, She Liked It, Rape is a Trivial Event, and Rape is a Deviant Event. These myths not only blame the victim but McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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also absolve the perpetrator of any wrongdoing.

I argue that an eighth subcategory of rape myths would be Males Cannot Be Raped, which is so heavily embedded in society that even Lonsway and Fitzgerald’s myths perpetuate it by using “she” when referring to the victim and “he” when referring to the perpetrator. The fact is that men and women can both be victims of rape and both men and women can also be the perpetrators. Male rape is not recognized socially and was not even legally recognized until fairly recently, as the law used to define rape as forced penile penetration of a vagina (King, 1990), thus making it legally impossible for a man to be raped. The legal definition of rape has since changed, and as of 2013 rape has been defined as “penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim” (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2013). This new definition allows for the inclusion of men as victims, thus legitimizing male rape.

Rape myths degrade victims by diminishing the severity of the crime committed against them while also condoning the crime itself, placing little or no responsibility at all on the perpetrator.

An overarching fallacy that these rape myths adhere to is that “real” rape is committed by a stranger with a weapon (Sleath & Woodhams, 2013). This widely accepted fallacy completely dismisses acquaintance and date rape, which often prevents victims from receiving—or even seeking—justice. A proposed explanation for this is the cycle-of-blame principle (Sinclair & Bourne, 1998), in which past court verdicts have established what is defined as real rape, by extension strengthening rape myths. Victims of rape have been historically blamed for their own attacks, and courts have continuously failed to find perpetrators guilty. In fact, the Federal Bureau of Justice Statistics reported only 14% of rape cases going to trial and result in a conviction (Greenfeld, 1997). This has led to a cycle in which victims continue to be blamed for their victimization, which only perpetuates the tendency of society to not treat rape seriously.

Rape myths are indicative of America’s long legacy as a patriarchal society. Rape myths essentially prescribe that women can avoid rape if they act more submissive (Chapleau & Oswald, 2014).

This implies that men are still considered to be dominant over women, who must subscribe to male-prescribed dress codes and ways of acting. For example, a victim of rape may be blamed for her attack if it is deemed that she was dressed inappropriately. Had she been dressed more conservatively, her rapist might have not attacked. This also applies to male rape, as a man who is raped may not be able to come forward because in a patriarchal society, men are powerful and dominant, thus making it impossible for men to be victims of rape.

In a study by Struckman-Johnson and Struckman-Johnson (1991), it was found that college men and women did not endorse male rape myths. That said, although college men and women

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generally do not report that they agree with rape myths, college students pledging in fraternities and sororities as well as college athletes do tend to display higher levels of acceptance of rape myths (McMahon, 2010). In fact, many studies have indicated that rape myths in general— concerning both men and women—are not as widely accepted as one would think. One study found that while men generally accepted rape myths more than women, the number of men who did accept these myths represented a minority of the participants (Giacopassi & Dull, 1986).

Despite these findings, rape is still a crime that is commonly committed and not often punished, suggesting that it is a crime that is being covertly condoned. If rape myths were truly not accepted by a majority of people, rape would not be as prevalent as it is today and most cases would end in a conviction. Giacopassi and Dull’s results seem to be indicative not of true belief, but of social desirability bias.

Social Desirability Bias Social desirability bias is the tendency to distort self-presentation toward a socially desirable position (Andrews & Meyer, 2003). While rape myths are commonly accepted, people may reject these myths publicly in order to please society as a whole, knowing that admitting to acceptance of rape myths would only make them look bad to the public. This research intends to measure the social desirability of students while also measuring their rape myth acceptance to gauge whether or not their answers on a rape myth acceptance scale are distorted to present themselves in a more appeasing light. Crowne and Marlowe devised a scale—called the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale—to determine whether or not individuals respond to a set of questions based on their own beliefs or based on how they believe their beliefs should be in order to be accepted socially (1960).

Although prior research suggests that rape myth acceptance is not very high among college students, social desirability bias may be affecting these results. Rape is a violent crime that occurs far too often because of society’s devaluation of women and their right to their bodies. Rape myths are demonstrative of this devaluation, as they perpetuate the idea that men’s actions are more valuable than those of women; a man can rape a woman because his actions are more valuable than a woman’s refusal and right to her own body. It is the acceptance of these rape myths that not only promotes the common occurrence of this crime, but also the underreporting by victims who are led to believe that their assault will not be taken seriously. In order to prevent rape and the dismissal of rape accusations, rape myths must be identified and systematically removed from our cultural frame of reference.

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Method Past research has studied the acceptance of rape myths among college students, but the influence of social desirability bias in student responses had yet to be examined. This study looked at rape myth acceptance among college students using the revised rape myths acceptance scale proposed by McMahon and Farmer (2011) in relation to their score on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Measuring social desirability helped determine whether or not a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response was reflective of his or her true beliefs rather than what he or she think others expect him or her to believe.

Participants 4,801 undergraduates were invited to take a survey via email. Using stratified sampling, participants were selected from six sub-groups: male and female athletes, fraternity and sorority members, and students not affiliated with either organization. Expecting a small to medium effect size and using Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1992) suggested sample size, email invitations were sent to 2,981 random university students who were not members of either subgroup (both male and female) and 1,820 athletes and fraternity and sorority members. Though stratified sampling was based on group membership, participants were asked to self-identify their group affiliation; 248 sorority and fraternity members and 50 athletes self-identified and participated in this study. A total of 1144 students participated in this study with an overall response rate of approximately 24%, which is in the range suggested by Cohen.

Design This was a 6 student group (fraternity members, sorority members, female and male student athletes, and female and male non-affiliated students) x 1 Rape myth acceptance x 1 Social desirability scale design. For the purposes of this study, student athletes refer to students who are on a collegiate athletic team, and do not include non-collegiate sports. Fraternity and sorority members refer to students who have been formally accepted to a university recognized fraternity or sorority. Non-affiliated students are students who are not involved in collegiate athletics, fraternities, or sororities. All participants completed both the rape myth acceptance scale and the social desirability scale.

Procedure Rape Myths Measure Participants completed an online survey to measure their rape myth acceptance as well as their social desirability bias. An updated version of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale was

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used, as the original version contains outdated language that is not relatable to college-aged students today as well as subcategories that are too overtly socially unacceptable to be accurately measured (McMahon & Farmer, 2011); see Appendix A. Four of the original seven subscales of rape myth acceptance were used, including She Asked for It, He Didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Mean To, It Wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Really Rape, and She Lied. For the purpose of this study, a fifth subscale was created and called Men Cannot be Raped. This final sub-scale was composed of four statements. Students were asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement from the rape myth acceptance scale on a scale from one to seven, one being that they strongly disagree with the statement and seven being that they strongly agree with the statement.

The score for each subscale on the rape myth acceptance scale was an average of the relevant statements, with average scores of four or higher being considered high acceptance and average scores of three or lower being considered low acceptance. For each subscale a score of 1-3 is considered low on rape myth acceptance, 4 is moderately high on rape myth acceptance, and a score of 5-7 is considered high on rape myth acceptance. The sum of the scores for each of the subscales reflects the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s overall level of rape myth acceptance. The range of overall level of rape myth acceptance is 5-35. Overall scores between 5-14 are considered low on rape myth acceptance, scores between 15-24 are considered moderately high on rape myth acceptance, and scores between 25-35 are considered high on rape myth acceptance.

Social Desirability Bias Measure To measure social desirability bias, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale that was used (Appendix B.) Respondents were asked to identify 36 forced-choice statements as true or false based on their agreement with the statement. Half the statements are biased as written and half are not. Agreement with a biased statement constitutes a score of 1; disagreement with a biased statement constitutes a score of 0. Overall scores between 0-11 are considered to be low on social desirability while scores between 12-23 are considered to be moderately high on social desirability. Overall scores between 24-36 are considered to be very high on social desirability.

Method of Analysis Correlations between the rape myth acceptance scale and the social desirability scale were and multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine if, for the five rape myths under investigation, rape myth acceptance was related to athlete status, fraternity or sorority membership, or sex (see Tables 2 through 6), while controlling for social desirability bias.

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Results As expected, Table 1 shows that four of the five rape myths under investigation were negatively correlated with social desirability bias, though the correlations were not statistically significant.

As the impetus to give a socially desirable answer increases, the inclination to endorse the rape myths decreases for the myths It Wasn’t Rape (r=-.055), He Didn’t Mean To (r=-.025), She Lied (r=-.039), and Men Cannot Be Raped (r=-.043). A positive correlation was observed between social desirability bias and one rape myth, She Asked For It (r=.021). Overall, social desirability bias and rape myth acceptance do not appear to be significantly related.

A multiple linear regression was conducted to investigate the influence of student characteristics (i.e. sex, fraternity or sorority membership, athlete status, and academic level) influence on the endorsement of five separate rape myths while controlling for the influence of social desirability bias.

First, for the myth She Asked For It women (b=-.295), non-athletes (b=-.135), and upper-level undergraduates (i.e. seniors) (b=-.106) were significantly less likely to endorse this myth than men, athletes, and lower-level undergraduates (i.e. freshmen). Social desirability bias (b=.039) had no effect. Overall, these five student characteristics explained 12.1% of the variation in the endorsement of the rape myth She Asked For It (see Table 1.)

Second, for the myth It Wasn’t Rape, women (b=-.223), non-athletes (b=-.107), and upper-level undergraduate students (b=-.057) were significantly less likely to endorse this myth than men, athletes, and lower-level undergraduates (i.e. freshmen). Likewise, social desirability bias (b=.010) had no effect. Overall, these five student characteristics explained 6% of the variation in the endorsement of the rape myth It Wasn’t Rape (see Table 2.)

Third, for the myth He Didn’t Mean to, women (b=-.246), non-athletes (b=-.120), and upper-level undergraduate students (b=-.195) were significantly less likely to endorse this myth than men, athletes, and lower-level undergraduates (i.e. freshmen). Social desirability bias (b=.014) had no effect. Overall, these five student characteristics explained 10.5% of the variation in the endorsement of the rape myth He Didn’t Mean To (see Table 3).

Fourth, for the myth She Lied, women (b=-.374), non-athletes (b=-.130), and upper-level undergraduate students (b=-.099) were significantly less likely to endorse this myth than men, athletes, and lower-level undergraduates (i.e. freshmen). Likewise, social desirability bias (b=.002) had no effect. Overall, these five student characteristics explained 15.5% of the variation in the endorsement of the rape myth She Lied (see Table 4.)

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Fifth, for the myth Men Cannot be Raped, women (b=-.087), non-athletes (b=-.117), and upperlevel undergraduate students (b=-.171) were significantly less likely to endorse this myth than men, athletes, and lower-level undergraduates (i.e. freshmen). Social desirability bias (b=.047) had no effect. Overall, these five student characteristics explained 4.7% of the variation in the endorsement of the rape myth Men Cannot Be Raped (see Table 5.)

Discussion The fact that women, non-athletes and upper-level students displayed low levels or rape myth acceptance was expected based on prior research. In contrast, the fact that fraternity or sorority membership and social desirability bias had no effect was surprising. Prior research suggested that fraternity membership would increase the likelihood of endorsement, while a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greater inclination to provide the socially correct answer was expected to decrease the likelihood of endorsement. Surprisingly, no significant results were evident from fraternity and sorority members suggesting that fraternity and sorority members are no more likely to accept this rape myth than other students.

These results challenge past research, in which it has been found that fraternity and sorority members are more likely to accept rape myths than other, non-affiliated students. Due to national media attention on the association between sexual assault and fraternity and sorority membership, college administrators have targeted these groups for sexual assault prevention training. It is possible that by the time of this study effort to prevent sexual assault may have already had an impact on beliefs.

Results also indicate that underclass students (freshmen and sophomores) were significantly more likely to endorse rape myths than upper-class students (juniors and seniors). These results may be indicative of a maturation effect; as students experience college life and transition into adulthood, acceptance of rape myths may decrease due to a deeper understanding of the issue.

As predicted, it was found that athletes were significantly more likely to accept all rape myths than non-athletes. It was surprising, however, that despite being more likely to endorse rape myths than other students, student athletes still exhibited a generally low acceptance of rape myths.

Conclusion Although this study has suggested a generally low acceptance of rape myths among all college students regardless of affiliation, it is imperative that further research be conducted. Rape and sexual assault are still prevalent crimes that disproportionately affect women and college students, despite national efforts to reduce its prevalence. Rape myth acceptance may be low McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ among the college students used in this study, but the extant problem of rape and sexual assault, particularly among college students, suggests that there may be other underlying factors that contribute to the prevalence of these crimes.

Limitations A limitation of this study is the fact that all participants were undergraduate students at a fouryear university. As such, the results of this study are not representative of the general population.

The sample in this particular study did not generally endorse rape myths, however, different results may be found among other groups, such as non-college students or police officers. Future research should broaden the sample to include more than just undergraduate students as participants.

Another limitation of this study was the small number of participants who self-identified as either student athletes or fraternity and sorority members. The small sample size for these two groups makes the results less generalizable to all student athletes, fraternity, and sorority members. A larger sample size should be used in future research to obtain more generalizable and accurate results.

References Andrews, P., & Meyer, R. G. (2003). Marlowe-Crowne social desirability scale and short form C: Forensic norms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 483-492.

Chapleau, K.M., & Oswald, D.L. (2014). A system justification view of sexual violence: Legitimizing gender inequality and reduced moral outrage are connected to greater rape myth acceptance. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15, 204-218.

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159.

Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354.

Du Mont, J., Miller, K. L., & Myhr, T. L. (2003). The role of “real rape” and “real victim” stereotypes in the police reporting practices of sexually assaulted women. Violence Against Women, 9(4), 466-486.

Estrich, S. (1987). Real rape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2014). Frequently asked questions about the change in the UCR definition of rape.

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Giacopassi, D. J., & Dull, R. T. (1986). Gender and racial differences in the acceptance of rape myths within a college population. Sex Roles, 15, 63-75.

Greenfeld, L. A. (1997). Sex offenses and offenders. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice (NCJ-163392), Bureau of Justice Statistics.

King, M. B. (1990). Male rape. BMJ, 301, 1345.

Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164 McMahon, S. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American College Health, 59, 3-11.

McMahon, S. & Farmer, G. L. (2011). An updated measure for assessing subtle rape myths. Social Work Research, 35, 71-83.

Sinclair, C.H., & Bourne, Jr., L.E., (1998). Cycle of blame or just world: Effects of legal verdicts on gender patterns in rape-myth acceptance and victim-empathy. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 575-588.

Sleath, E., & Woodhams, J. (2014). Expectations about victim and offender behavior during stranger rape. Psychology, Crime & Law, 20, 798-820.

Struckman-Johnson, C. & Struckman-Johnson, D. (1992). Acceptance of male rape myths among college men and women. Sex Roles, 27, 85-100.

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1998). Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence against Women: Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey. Research in Brief.

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Appendices Appendix A Rape Myth Acceptance Scale Subscale: She Asked for It 1.

If a girl is raped while she is drunk, she is at least somewhat responsible for letting things get out of control.

2.

When girls go to parties wearing slutty clothes, they are asking for trouble.

3.

If a girl goes to a room alone with a guy at a party, it is her own fault if she is raped.

4.

If a girl acts like a slut, eventually she is going to get into trouble.

5.

When girls are raped, it’s often because the way they said “no” was unclear.

6.

If a girl initiates kissing or hooking up, she should not be surprised if a guy assumes she wants to have sex.

Subscale: He Didn’t Mean To 7.

When guys rape, it is usually because of their strong desire for sex.

8.

Guys don’t usually intend to force sex on a girl, but sometimes they get too sexually carried away.

9.

Rape happens when a guy’s sex drive gets out of control.

10. If a guy is drunk, he might rape someone unintentionally.

11. It shouldn’t be considered rape if a guy is drunk and didn’t realize what he was doing.

12. If both people are drunk, it can’t be rape.

Subscale: It Wasn’t Really Rape 13. If a girl doesn’t physically resist sex—even if protesting verbally—it can’t be considered rape.

14. If a girl doesn’t physically fight back, you can’t really say it was rape.

15. A rape probably didn’t happen if the girl has no bruises or marks.

16. If the accused “rapist” doesn’t have a weapon, you really can’t call it rape.

17. If a girl doesn’t say “no” she can’t claim rape.

Subscale: She Lied 18. A lot of times, girls who say they were raped agreed to have sex but then regret it.

19. Rape accusations are often used as a way of getting back at guys.

20. A lot of times, girls who say they were raped often led the guy on and then had regrets.

21. A lot of times, girls who claim they were raped just have emotional problems.

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22. Girls who are caught cheating on their boyfriends sometimes claim that it was a rape.

Subscale: Men Cannot be Raped 23. Guys can only get an erection if they are consenting to sex.

24. Girls cannot rape guys because guys are physically stronger than girls.

25. Guys have strong sex drives that make them always want sex even when they say they don’t want it.

26. If a guy really does not want to have sex, he is powerful enough to resist it.

Appendix B Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale Listed below are a number of statements concerning personal attitudes and traits. Read each item and decide whether the statement is true or false as it pertains to you personally.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

Before voting I thoroughly investigate the qualifications of all the candidates. (T) I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone in trouble. (T) It is sometimes hard for me to go on with my work if I am not encouraged. (F) I have never intensely disliked anyone. (T) On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. (F) I sometimes feel resentful when I don’t get my way. (F) I am always careful about my manner of dress. (T) My table manners at home are as good when I eat out in a restaurant. (T) If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen I would probably do it.

(F) On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too little of my ability. (F) I like to gossip at times. (F) There have been times when I felt like rebelling against people in authority even though I knew they were right. (F) No matter who I’m talking to, I’m always a good listener. (T) I can remember “playing sick” to get out of something. (F) There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone. (F) I’m always willing to admit it when I make a mistake. (T) I always try to practice what I preach. (T) I don’t find it particularly difficult to get along with loud mouthed, obnoxious people. (T) I sometimes try to get even rather than forgive and forget. (F) McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

When I don’t know something I don’t mind admitting it. (T) I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable. (T) At times I have really insisted on having things my own way. (F) There have been occasions when I felt like smashing things. (F) I would never think of letting someone else be punished for my wrongdoings. (T) I never resent being asked to return a favor. (T) I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own. (T) I never make a long trip without checking the safety of my car. (T) There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. (F) I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off. (T) I am sometimes irritated by people who ask favors of me. (F) I have never felt that I was punished without cause. (T) I sometimes think when people have a misfortune they only got what they deserved. (F) I have never deliberately said something that hurt someone’s feelings. (T)

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Table 1: Correlation Between Rape Myths and Social Desirability Bias Correlations Social Desirability Bias She asked for it

It wasn't rape

He didn't mean to

She lied

Men can't be raped

Pearson Correlation

.021

Sig. (2-tailed)

.477

N

1105

Pearson Correlation

-.055

Sig. (2-tailed)

.069

N

1106

Pearson Correlation

-.025

Sig. (2-tailed)

.399

N

1106

Pearson Correlation

-.039

Sig. (2-tailed)

.192

N

1106

Pearson Correlation

-.043

Sig. (2-tailed)

.151

N

1104

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Table 2: Multiple Regression Predicting the Rape Myth She Asked For It

Coefficientsa

Model 1

(Constant)

Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta 2.906 .145

Sig. .000

female from survey

-.721

.073

-.295

-9.847

.000

fsl from survey

-.131

.084

-.048

-1.553

.121

athlete from survey

.733

.163

.135

4.495

.000

level from IR

-.011

.003

-.106

-3.449

.001

.006

.039

1.312

.190

biasraw

.008 a. Dependent Variable: askedforit She asked for it

308

t 20.004

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Table 3: Multiple Regression Predicting the Rape Myth It Wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Really Rape Coefficientsa Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1

Standardized Coefficients

B 1.752

Std. Error .092

t 18.967

Sig. .000

female from survey

-.337

.047

-.223

-7.240

.000

fsl from survey

-.051

.054

-.030

-.956

.340

athlete from survey

.357

.104

.107

3.445

.001

level from IR

-.004

.002

-.057

-1.815

.070

.001 a. Dependent Variable: notrape It wasn't rape

.004

.010

.322

.748

(Constant)

biasraw

Beta

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Table 4: Multiple Regression Predicting the Rape Myth He Didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Mean To Coefficientsa Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1

B 3.066

Std. Error .128

female from survey

-.527

.065

fsl from survey

-.017

athlete from survey level from IR

(Constant)

biasraw

t 23.947

Sig. .000

-.246

-8.173

.000

.074

-.007

-.228

.820

.569

.144

.120

3.959

.000

-.017

.003

-.195

-6.326

.000

.006

.014

.480

.632

.003 a. Dependent Variable: meanit He didn't mean to

310

Standardized Coefficients Beta

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Table 5: Multiple Regression Predicting the Rape Myth She Lied Coefficientsa Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1

Standardized Coefficients

B 3.360

Std. Error .148

-.952

.075

fsl from survey

.098

.086

.034

1.141

.254

athlete from survey

.734

.166

.130

4.418

.000

level from IR

-.010

.003

-.099

-3.303

.001

.000

.007

-.002

-.069

.945

(Constant) female from survey

biasraw

Beta

t 22.698

Sig. .000

-.374 -12.761

.000

a. Dependent Variable: lied She lied

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TAYLOR MARTINEZ Table 6: Multiple Regression Predicting the Rape Myth Men Cannot Be Raped Coefficientsa Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1

B 2.631

Std. Error .114

-.160

.058

fsl from survey

.007

athlete from survey level from IR

(Constant) female from survey

biasraw

t 23.013

Sig. .000

-.087

-2.786

.005

.066

.003

.102

.919

.480

.128

.117

3.745

.000

-.013

.002

-.171

-5.390

.000

.005

.047

1.504

.133

.008 a. Dependent Variable: mencant Men can't be raped

312

Standardized Coefficients Beta

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JORGE PEREZ-AGUILAR

The effects of corrosion on the mechanical characteristics of Alloy 22

Jorge Perez-Aguilar Major: Chemical Engineering Mentor: Dr. Devocharan Chidambaram Graduated: 2015

The goal of this work is to provide insight into the effects of corrosion on the mechanical properties of the austenitic alloy, Alloy 22. This engineering alloy is resistant to localized corrosion, but is still susceptible to environmental degradation. [1] This work investigated the effects of corrosion under both ambient temperature and 80°C on the mechanical characteristics of Alloy 22. Tensile specimens were subjected to potentiodynamic accelerated corrosion experiments in a corrosive environment of 0.05M NaCl while the samples underwent slow strain rate of 1.5 10-4 s-1 to determine the alteration to its mechanical characteristics that occurred as a result of the accelerated corrosion. The oxide surface films formed during the experiments were characterized by Raman Spectroscopy.

Enrolled: PhD Program Engineering, University of CA, Davis

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JORGE PEREZ-AGUILAR I. Introduction The goal of this work is to provide insight into the effects of corrosion on the mechanical properties of the autenitic alloy, Alloy 22. This engineering alloy is resistant to localized corrosion, but is still susceptible to environmental degradation. [1] This work investigated the effects of corrosion under both ambient temperature and 80°C on the mechanical characteristics of Alloy 22. Tensile specimens were subjected to potentiodynamic accelerated corrosion experiments in a corrosive environment of 0.05M NaCl while the samples underwent slow strain rate of 1.5â&#x2C6;&#x2122;10-4 s1 to determine the alteration to its mechanical characteristics that occurred as a result of the accelerated corrosion. The oxide surface films formed during the experiments were characterized

by Raman Spectroscopy.

II. Theory 2.1 Electrochemical Materials are observed to undergo interactions with many different and diverse environments.

The interactions can result in the deterioration of the mechanical properties, the appearance, and the deterioration of the surface. This phenomena is the result of two reactions called reduction and oxidation, which allow for the transfer of electrons. For example, a species that loses its valence electrons and becomes positively charged is due to the oxidation reaction, while in the reduction reaction the other species gains valence electrons and becomes negatively charged.

These ions may either remain in solution or form insoluble products. Equation 1 is the anodic reaction of a metal where n represents the number of electrons released by the metal [2].

M=M^(n+)+ne^-

[1]

Additionally, cathodic reactions consume electrons from the anodic reactions. Lastly, sites at which oxidation and reduction occurs is also referred to as anode and cathode, respectively. The reason for metals corroding is due to its metallic form having a higher free energy compared to the oxides and ores [3].

2.2 Polarization The difference between the potentials of an electrode with and without an external current applied is defined as polarization. These departures from equilibrium are displayed in Fig. 1.

Several important points drawn from the potential versus the current logarithm curve are displayed. For example, an induced positive potential is called an anodic potential and a negative potential is called a cathodic potential. In an anodic polarization, the potential progresses in a positive direction as seen in Fig. 1. The open circuit potential where the sum of the anodic and cathode reaction rates on the electrode is zero is point A [4]. As the potential is increased, the active region where the working electrode oxidizes is known as point B. The passivation region

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occurs where a oxide forms and increases the corrosion resistance of the metal is point C. Once the passive region ends, the material can either enter a transpassive region or a localized breakdown of passivity known as pitting.

Fig. 1: Potential versus the logarithm of current density [4].

2.3 Mechanical Characteristics Several equations were used in order to find mechanical properties at ambient and elevated temperatures of the specimens. Equation 2 was used to determine the engineering stress of the specimen measured in Megapascals where F is the instantaneous force applied on the rod in Newtons and A0 is the original cross sectional area in units of mm2 before any load is applied on the reduced section [2]. Ď&#x192;=F/A_0

[2]

Equation 3 was used to determine the strain measure in percent where, li is the instantaneous length and l0 is the original length of the reduced section of the specimen in millimeters [2]. Ďľ=(l_i-l_0)/l_0 â&#x2C6;&#x2122;100%

[3]

Equation 2 and 3 combined give several regions and values of importance that can characterize materials in a stress strain curve. In the elastic region, the stress is linearly proportional to the McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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strain. This phenomenon follows Hooke’s law where the proportionality constant is called Young’s modulus given in GPa. The atomic bonds are stretching until the material reaches the yield strength in the elastic region. Non-recoverable deformation occurs and Hooke’s law becomes invalid in the plastic region. Fig. 2 displays a stress-strain curve and the key points of the graph as well as a depiction of the specimen at certain points. Lastly, Fig. 2 displays the max stress point reached which is the ultimate tensile strength and the intersection of the offset line and the real stress point which is the 0.5% yield strength.

Fig. 2: Example of stress-strain curve of tensile specimens [5].

III. Experimental 3.1 specimen composition The metal material that was used to conduct the experiments was Alloy 22. Table 1 displays the weight compositions of the elements of the alloy.

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Table 1: Element compositions of test specimens [6].

Element

Max (%)

Min (%)

Nickel

Bal

N/A

Chromium

22.3

20

Manganese

0.5

N/A

Carbon

0.02

N/A

Molyibdem

14.5

12.5

Silicon

0.08

N/A

Iron

6

2

The specimen dimensions are displayed in Fig. 3 in millimeters and inches where the inner diameter is 2.108 mm and the outer diameter is 3.175 mm.

Fig. 3: Dimensions of cylindrical test specimen with threaded ends.

3.2 potentiodynamic scans A Gamryâ&#x201E;˘ PCI4/300 Potentiostat/Galvanostat /ZRA in conjunction with EChem Analyst software v6.03 was employed to conduct and analyze all electrochemical testing. Potentiodynamic polarization facilitated evaluating the electrochemical resistance, and the study of the polarization behavior of each material at a given set of experimental conditions. A platinum coated niobium mesh was used as the counter electrode, and an Ag/AgCl reference electrode was used. Open Circuit potential, EOCP, was monitored and the samples were polarized from -500mV vs EOCP to +1000mV vs EOCP at a rate of 2mV/s. A display of the setup is shown in Fig. 4 that includes the working, counter, and reference electrode.

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Fig. 4: Potentiostat and three electrodes set up [7].

While the potentiodynamic polarization takes place, the samples underwent slow strain rate testing to determine the alteration to their mechanical characteristics that occurred. Fig. 5 displays the apparatus where the A is the working electrode, B is the reference electrode, C is the counter electrode, D is the immersion heater, E is the load cell that measured the tensile force, and F is the solution. Once the strain-stress test finished, the data was taken for analysis. A universal testing machine (United Calibration Corp. Model STM-10E-S) designed for slow strain rate testing (SSRT), was used for the electromechanical experiments. A Pentium based custom made computer (Southern California Computers, Model PAC-1200/PC I- 1 OS) with data processing software and hardware (United Calibration Corp. Datum for Windows, Version III ) was used for stress-strain curve scanning.

3.3 specimen environment set up Samples were immersed in 0.05 M NaCl 1 liter environmental cell shown in Fig. 5. It consisted of seven necks and joints at the top, and one joint at the bottom. In order to prevent any solution from leaking O-rings was placed at the bottom and top joints. Where, A is the working electrode, B is the reference electrode, C is the counter electrode, D is the immersion heater, E is the load cell that measured the tensile force, and F is the solution.

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Fig. 5: Mechanical test apparatus [3].

3.4 Test Procedures Immersion experiments were conducted at a computer controlled work station. Potentiodynamic scans were taken before any stress was applied allowing the specimen to be polarized from 500mV vs EOCP to +1000mV vs EOCP at a rate of 2mV/s. Additional scans were conducted during the plastic region and after necking was observed on the instantaneous stress strain curve. At ambient temperatures as well as at 80 °C experiments were conducted. Elevated temperatures were provided using an immersion heater with a PID temperature controller. Lastly, a ThermoScientific DXR dispersive Raman microscope, with OMNIC 9 software was utilized to characterize the oxide formations on the sample surfaces. Using a 10mW 532nm laser, 64 exposures of 10 seconds each was collected at 50 x magnification for analysis from all samples.

IV. Results 4.1 Graphs and Tables The force and distance traveled was measured using the UTM machine. Applying Equation 2, and 3, the stress versus strain curve at ambient temperature and at 80 °C was created. Where stress was calculated in MPa and Elongation as a percentage are shown in Fig. 6.

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Fig. 6: Stress versus Strain curve at ambient and 80 째C. Table 2 displays the calculated mechanical characteristics of Alloy 22. Using Fig. 6, the ultimate tensile strength was found on the curve. The elongation percent and the 0.5% yield strength was also found using Fig. 6.

Table 2: Calculated mechanical characteristics of Alloy 22 at ambient and 80 째C Ambient Temperature (22째C)

80째C

UTS, Mpa

730

688

Elongation, %

76

73

Yield Strength, Mpa (0.5%)

348

290

Using the EChem Analyst software v6.03, the potential versus current density curve was plotted prior to any stress applied. Where the potential was measured versus the reference electrode and the logarithm of the current density was calculated.

Fig. 7: Potentiodynamic Curve prior to slow strain rate test.

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During the plastic region of the stress versus strain curve the potential versus current density curve was plotted as Fig. 6. Where the potential was measured versus the reference electrode and the logarithm of the current density was calculated.

Fig. 8: Potentiodynamic Curve in the plastic region.

Lastly, a graph of Raman spectroscopy is depicted in Fig. 7 where each peak is confirmation of an oxide forming on the surface of the tensile specimen when compared to literature values of know peaks of oxides.

Fig. 9: Raman spectra of samples having undergone slow strain rate testing in 0.05M NaCl in ambient temperature and 80°C [8], [9]. Asterisk (*) denotes artifact.

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JORGE PEREZ-AGUILAR 4.2 Discussion of Results From Fig. 6, it is observed that the stress strain curve at 80°C is less elongated than the ambient temperature curve. Additionally, the ultimate tensile strength and elongation percent also decreased at 80°C than at ambient temperature. Reasons for the decrease in ultimate tensile strength and elongation percent are attributed to the accelerated corrosion. At 80°C there is less of a resistance of corrosion as seen in Fig. 8. There is more of a driving force to corrode; hence corrosion will occur facilely when compared to ambient temperature. However, it should be noted that the 0.5% yield strength at both 80°C and ambient temperatures did not change significantly.

From Fig. 7, the polarization potential versus the reference electrode at both 80°C and ambient temperatures is the same prior to any stress and strain. However, in Fig. 8 it is displayed that at 80°C there is an increase in magnitude of the potential versus reference electrode leading to a higher driving force for corrosion of the alloy during the plastic region.

The Raman spectra displayed in Fig. 9 illustrates the oxide films that were formed during the accelerated corrosion. Measured peaks from experimental data were compared to known peaks of metal oxides and the oxides present were determined. At 80°C the main oxide present is NiFeO4.

At ambient temperatures, the main oxide is Mn4O11 which gave the alloy a blue purple discoloration. Additionally, both 80°C and ambient temperatures displayed Cr2O3 present in the oxide film.

V. Conclusion This work was to provide insight in the effects of corrosion on the mechanical properties of Alloy 22 both an ambient temperature and 80°C. By immersion of Alloy 22 into a solution of 0.05M NaCl, and providing a strain rate of 1.5∙10-4 s-1 the effects of corrosion on the mechanical characteristics was determined. At 80°C the ultimate tensile strength and elongation percent decreased compared to the ambient temperature. However, the 0.5% yield strength did not change. The polarization potential versus the reference electrode at both 80°C and ambient temperatures is the same prior to any stress and strain. However, at 80°C there is an increase in magnitude of the potential versus reference electrode. Lastly, Raman spectroscopy displayed that at 80°C the main oxide film present was NiFeO4, at ambient temperatures the main oxide was Mn4O11 and both temperatures displayed Cr2O3 present in the oxide film.

VI. Acknowledgement I acknowledge the Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program for funding this research. I thank Dr. Dev Chidambaram for his mentoring and guidance. I thank Zachary Karmiol for his technical support and guidance in conducting this research.

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JORGE PEREZ-AGUILAR References 1)

Rebak, R.; Factors affecting Crevice Corrosion of Susceptibility of Alloy 22. Proceedings from a symposium of the CORROSION/2005 - Conference and Exposition, Houston, April 3, 2005; Larence Livermore National Laboratory: Livermore, CA 2004.

2)

Callister, W., Rethwisch, D. Material Science and Engineering An introduction; John Wiley & Sons: Massachusetts, 2010.

3)

Yilmaz, A. Degradation and failure susceptibility of Carbon Steels in simulated Yucca Mountain nuclear repository environments. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, 2003.

4)

Gamry Insturments. Basics of Electrochemical Corrosion Measurements. http://www.gamry.com/application-notes/basics-of-electrochemical-corrosionmeasurements/ (accessed 2014).

5)

NDT Resource Center. Tensile Properties. https://www.ndeed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/Tensile.htm (accessed 2014).

6)

Mega Max. Hastelloy C22 Web. http://www.megamex.com/hastelloy-c-22.htm (accessed 2014).

7)

Roy D. Time dependence of the structural stability of a corrosion protective film Web. http://people.clarkson.edu/~droy/Corrosion_EIS.htm (accessed 2014).

8)

Shinlim-dong, Gwanak-gu; Development of an in situ Raman spectroscopic system for surface oxide films on metals and alloys in high temperature water. Nuclear Engineering and design. 2004, 1029â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1040.

9)

Dieterle, M., Mestl, G.; Raman spectroscopy of molybdenum oxides. Phys. Chem. 2002, 4.

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COURTNEY SMITH

A Program Evaluation of Fit Learning Using AIMSweb

Courtney Smith Major: Psychology Mentor: Dr. Mark Alavosius Graduated: 2014 Enrolled: Masters Program Psychology, University of NV, Reno

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This research study is a program evaluation of Fit Learning. Fit Learning uses Precision Teaching and Direct Instruction in order to increase students' reading, mathematics and relational skills. The subject that will be focused on in this study is reading. The two specific measures of reading are reading comprehension and oral reading skills. Crucial to the evaluation is the introduction of a program called AIMSweb into Fit Learning. AIMSweb will be used to track the progress of the students, give a visual representation of progress to the clients, and compare the progress of Fit Learning to district standards. The progress monitoring aspect of AIMSweb will measure program performance in order to establish, and strengthen, concurrent validity for Fit Learning's existing measures of student progress. The program evaluation will include aspects such as client satisfaction, standardization of measurement techniques, and overall effectiveness of the program.

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COURTNEY SMITH Effective teaching technologies have been adopted into practice by private schools and learning centers scattered across the U.S. Morningside Academy located in Seattle, Washington; Haughton Learning Center in California; The Fluency Factory in Massachusetts; and Fit Learning located in Nevada, Oregon, and New York are a sample of the places where effective behavioral technologies are being impactful on the surrounding community (Binder & Watkins, 2013). Awareness of the effectiveness of each learning center is clear to the precision teaching community, but a lack of effective communication with laypersons and stakeholders could attribute to why there has not been more overall understanding and infiltration of precision teaching and direct instruction technologies into public schools.

Hayes, Barlow, and Nelson-Gray (1999) have discussed the importance of a “Scientist Practitioner” and the relevance of conducting program evaluations. Scientist practitioners are defined as having three primary functions: to implement relevant, current research; to evaluate their programs; and to produce and distribute new research (Hayes et al.,1999). The idea of a “Scientist Practitioner” is an applicable classification for the objectives of Fit Learning staff. A program evaluation of Fit Learning using AIMSweb is hypothesized to provide concurrent validity regarding academic outcomes and to improve social validity through the use of an online data management system.

Fit Learning is a private learning center that combines Direct Instruction with Precision Teaching and provides a data driven approach to education. Precision Teaching focuses on measuring and achieving fluency—a metric of speed and accuracy—and relies on the Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) as its primary data management tool. Fluency has been demonstrated to be a sensitive measure of functional mastery, which includes retention, endurance, stability and application (Binder, 1988) The SCC supports real-time pedagogical decision-making based on rates per minute of correct and incorrect responses plotted on a log scale. This sort of rigorous progress tracking can lead to decisions about how the student is progressing in relation to the fluency aims provided for the specific skill (Haughton, 1972). Fluency aims are a way to benchmark the rate of correct responses typically sufficient for mastery. These aims are set by establishing benchmarks by assessing fluency of competent performers in relation to functional outcomes. The learner progresses to a new target when aims on the program are reached consistently with minimal errors. Fit Learning has an established track record of success with these methods (cite Binder updated article we read in staff meeting).

Fluency building efforts often target isolated, foundational academic skills. For example, fluency building with letter names and letter sounds is a strategy for teaching beginning learners.

However, the success of those efforts is judged by its effect on more global measures of academic performance, such as reading grade-level passages. These global measures are formally classified McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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COURTNEY SMITH as curriculum-based measurement (CBM).

The CBMs utilized by Fit Learning are produced and norm-referenced by AIMSweb, which is also utilized by thousands of schools and teachers across the US. AIMSweb publications assert that CBM is a valid way to measure both reading and mathematics proficiency and includes a handbook on how to administer each CBM. Administration procedures include environmental factors, ways to count errors, and the different passages for each grade level (Shinn & Shinn, 2002). Adherence to these procedures ensures the user is following the standardized procedure for measuring their students’ progress. Standardization is important because it makes it possible to evaluate how students’ progress compares to national norms. Ardoin and Christ maintain that students whose teachers use CBM are more likely to make academic improvements (2009). When component skill fluency and CBM fluency are both plotted on the SCC, instructors can observe functional relations among these two outcomes, thereby supporting data-based decision making.

For all of its technical precision and utility, the SCC can be a cumbersome communication tool for laypersons and stakeholders. It is difficult to orient to because of its logarithmic scale and its surplus of information. Standard practice at Fit Learning involves utilizing the SCC in meetings with clients and stakeholders to communicate learner progress because it provides a specific and accurate display of that progress. However, when it is used as the sole tool for data displays, it is not always the most effective way to display student progress to persons outside of the field. The complement of another data display tool could aid in the way clients are communicated with.

Traditionally, Fit Learning has utilized AIMSweb CBM materials, but has not utilized the AIMSweb data management systems out of preference for the precision of the SCC and other ‘in-house’ reporting tools. The current study will evaluate the pros and cons of utilizing AIMSweb datadisplay and norm referencing tools in conjunction with the SCC and other tools currently utilized in the Fit Learning program. Specifically, R-CBM is the measure evaluated in this study. R-CBM stands for Reading Curriculum Based Measurement and measures oral reading skills. For R-CBM, the student is evaluated on the rate of words read correctly in one minute. Further validation of Fit Learning’s outcomes and increased consumer communication were predicted benefits of utilizing simplified data displays and national norm rankings provided by AIMSweb.

Literature Review Precision Teaching and Direct Instruction have existed for over 40 years and have been shown to be highly effective methods of education (Binder & Watkins, 2013). There have been research studies on Precision Teaching done with various populations, uncluding participants with learning disabilities (Lindsley, 1992), children with autism (Kerr, Smyth, & McDowell, 2003), and adults with aphasia (Ayers, Potter, & McDearman, 1975). Most of the Precision Teaching research in educational settings has used single-subject design.

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COURTNEY SMITH Owen Roberts White (1986) discusses Precision Teaching as “not a way of teaching, but a way of evaluating whatever teaching strategies and curricula one might be using.” He asserts that Precision Teaching is an important educational tool because it can be conducive to learners ranging in age and ability. In his work, White provides a summary of six Precision Teaching studies. Of these six, all provided significant results supporting the idea that Precision Teaching is helpful in educational settings. Precision Teaching is not an intervention, but a technology used to assess, modify, and track the behavior of the learner (White, 1968) .

Ogden Lindsley (1992), for instance, discusses the impact of Precision Teaching techniques on a girl who was learning disables, Lisa. Lisa, who was in the second grade, began her reading instruction with a frequency of eight correct words read per minute with 50 incorrect words read. Lisa began improving over the next two weeks, with a deceleration in errors. Because her instructor was charting her progress on a standard celeration chart, she was able to predict her level of performance in the following month. Flashcards were added to her program based on the analysis of data plotted on the standard celeration chart to increase her fluency and reach her standardized goal. This observation and data-based decision allowed Lisa to reach her goal on time (Lindsley, 1992). Lindsley demonstrates, through this case study, the utility of the standard celeration chart,.

Potts, Eshleman and Cooper (1993) discuss the important attributes of the Standard Celeration Chart that originated from Ogden Lindsey. It is one tool that makes Precision Teaching unique (Potts, et al., 1993).

Kerr, Smyth, and McDowell (2003) conducted a similar case study in which a 4 year old boy with autism, Sean, was the subject. The skill targeted was the ability to identify objects. Baseline data showed that Sean was able to identify about 2 objects with around 8 errors per minute. Using the Standard Celeration Chart to track the progress of Sean’s ability to correctly identify objects, his instructors were afforded real-time learning data to maximize the efficiency of his learning. Sean was able to accurately identify all ten objects presented to him with no errors after two months.

This was then checked a month later, and the subject was shown to have retained the skill. In the two months that Sean was treated, seven interventions were made to his programming. Kerr et al. discuss the importance of making changes when the learner is not accelerating and training a task to fluency before moving on.

In addition to its application in traditional educational settings, Precision Teaching has been examined in treatment setting for patients with aphasia (Ayers, Potter & McDearman, 1975).

Precision Teaching and Reinforcement Therapy were combined to treat four adults with aphasia and was found to be an effective approach. The median errors decreased significantly with each of the four adults in their tasks. Ayers et al. (1975) asserted that the methodology used allowed the therapist to present both the material and directions in a standardized way.

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In addition to the studies above, Din’s study indicates that Direct Instruction is also an effective method of instruction (2007). Din uses Direct Instruction as the main method of instruction throughout the study, but he also incorporates curriculum design as well. The integrated approach was proven to be effective after conducting a within subjects design consisting of nineteen students struggling in math. The results show that the average pretest score was 3.58 and the average posttest scores was 5.53 (Din, 2000).

The research that has already been conducted in regards to Direct Instruction and Precision Teaching shows the effectiveness of both technologies in various settings and populations. Fit Learning combines these two technologies to create a unique learning environment. As Binder and Watkins (2013) assert, the effectiveness of these technologies has not been widely disseminated.

Taken together, the selection of case-studies outlined above demonstrates the benefits of frequent data-based decision-making informed by a technically precise, standardized measurement system, the SCS. However, as Binder and Watkins (2013) assert, the effectiveness of these technologies has not been widely disseminated. Based on the experience of instructors at Fit Learning, it is suggested that this failure to disseminate effective teaching tools may, in part, be based on the steep learning curve required for their use and interpretation. Thus, evaluation of supplementary communication tools, designed specifically for consumption by laypersons, used in conjunction with the SCC is identified as a worthy target for program evaluation.

Methodology Overview The goals of the current program evaluation are: to evaluate the extent to which changes in learners’ national percentile ranking in reading do or do not validate Fit Learning’s outcomes as evidenced by the SCC and to conduct a descriptive assessment of the impact of supplementing the SCC with AIMSweb data management tools.

Setting Fit Learning is located in Reno, Nevada and is a university affiliated learning center that individualizes instruction in the areas of mathematics, reading, problems solving, spelling, and handwriting. Fit Learning is comprised of about 20 staff and directed by two PhD holders.

Sessions with the students last 50 minutes and have 1:1 teacher-to-student ratios. The sessions follow a curriculum customized to the learner in the subject area they enroll for. Enrollments consist of a minimum of 50 hours broken up into at least three hours a week of instruction.

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Participants Twenty-one archival data sets from the learners at Fit Learning enrolled in the reading curriculum area were designated to be included by the Principal Investigator (PI). Data sets not pertaining to the aforementioned curriculum area, data sets containing less than forty hours in the curriculum area, and data sets that are incomplete were excluded from the study. Participants were then randomly assigned a number so no identifying information could be attached to their coded data.

Participants were coded by functional grade level, actual grade level, R-CBM ROI, intake score and corresponding percentile, 40 hour reassessment score, and corresponding percentile. Functional grade level was defined as the level at which the student is performing and will not pertain to their age. Actual grade level is based on their school placement. R-CBM rate of improvement (ROI) is the rate of improvement designated by AIMSweb for the student and is based on their intake scores and subsequent scores per grade level. The intake score and 40 hour reassessment score were documented so that the percentile ranking at each level could be coded.

Variables The key variables in this study are raw reading fluency scores, rates of improvement, national percentile rankings and consumer satisfaction assessments.

Analysis The data were stratified based on special education studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; data and general studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; data, so an analysis could be done comparing each separate group to the national norm. A comparison was then made using both data sets together. This was done by an analysis of percentile and rate of improvement (ROI). AIMSweb does not provide information on the proportion of special education students to general education students in their sample used to attain the national norms so stratification was necessary to attain the best analysis.

Results The results from the percentile analysis showed participants moved up 22 percentiles on average within the first 40 hours of being enrolled in the reading curriculum at Fit Learning. The average intake percentile was the 23rd percentile, and the average percentile after 40 hours was the 45th percentile.

The results from the ROI analysis were done with 8 first gradersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; data. Each ROI is calculated per grade level and the first grade had the most participants available for analysis. The national average for first graders in the 38th percentile is 1.25 words per minute per week. 1.30 is the McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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average words per minute per week achieved by the students in the Fit Learning sample.

Discussion Utilizing the AIMSweb data management system allows for an increase in client satisfaction and concurrent validity in Fit Learning effectiveness. The implementation of AIMSweb has had an effect on client satisfaction, because AIMSweb provides simplified visual representations that clearly indicate the progress of the student. Use of such data display tools has allowed clients to fully understand what Fit Learning will accomplish with enrolled students, because familiar terms and visual display(s) are provided for the clients. These data displays have complemented Fit Learning client meetings and have become a daily part of Fit Learning procedures.

The ROI analysis that was done shows that Fit Learning had .05 words per minute per week higher than that of the national average for first graders enrolled in reading. The national sample data given by AIMSweb did not include students with disabilities within its sample, but the sample taken from Fit Learning was taken with all 8 of the students diagnosed with a disability. While this comparison is difficult to make because the two groups differ from one another, it is important to note that one hundred percent of Fit Learningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sample were diagnosed with disabilities. These students with disabilities were being compared to the national sample that took no students with disabilities into account and was still found to have higher averages.

The program evaluation conducted by this study led to changes in the practices in place at Fit Learning. New practices at Fit Learning now include the data display produced by AIMSweb which complements the standard celeration chart, fluency benchmarks, and percentile rankings. Further research showing the difference between the percentile rankings of students in the mathematics curriculum as well as the reading curriculum should be conducted to further explore the effectiveness of Fit Learning on students.

Future Research The current study was able to analyze the improvement of first grade reading students of Fit Learning compared to that of the national norms. However, this sample size is small and more analysis should be done regarding the effectiveness of the entire program. The current study was able to provide a descriptive assessment of social validity impact, but more assessment is necessary to evaluate the impact of complementary data displays.

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References Ardoin, S.P., & Christ, T.J. (2009). Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading: Standard errors associated with progress monitoring outcomes from DIBELS, AIMSweb and an experimental passage set. School Psychology Review, 38, 266-283.

Binder, C. (1988). Precision teaching: Measuring and attaining exemplary academic achievement. Youth Policy, 10(7), 12-15.

Binder, C. & Watkins, C.L. (1990). Precision teaching and direct instruction: Measurably superior instructional technology in schools. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 3(4), 74-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1937-8327.1990.tb00478.x Binder, C., & Watkins, C. L. (2013). Article update: Precision teaching and direct instruction: measurably superior instructional technologies in schools. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 73-115. doi: 10.1002/piq.21145 Christ, T., Zopluoglu, C., Monaghen, B., & Van Norman, E. (2013). Curriculum-Based Measurement of Oral Reading: Multi-study evaluation of schedule, duration, and dataset quality on progress monitoring outcomes.Journal of School Psychology, 51(1), 19-57. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2012.11.001 Din, F.S. (2000). Direct instruction in remedial math instructions. National Forum of Special Education Journal, 9E, 3-7.

Hayes, S.C.; Barlow, D.H. & Nelson-Gray, R.O. (1999). The scientist practitioner: Research and accountability in the age of managed care. MA: A Pearson Education Company.

Haughton, E. (1972). Aims â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Growing and Sharing. In Jordan, J.B., and Robbins, L.S. (Eds.).

Let's Try Doing Something Else Kind of Thing: Behavioral Principles and the Exceptional Child.

Kranzler, J., Brownell, M., & Miller, M. (1998). The construct validity of curriculum-based measurement of reading: An empirical test of a plausible rival hypothesis. Journal of School Psychology, 36(4), 399-415. doi: 10.1016/S0022-4405(98)00018-1 Kubina, R., Morrison, R., & Lee, D. (2002). Benefits of adding precision teaching to behavioral interventions for students with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 17(4), 233-246. doi: 10.1002/bin.122 McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Lindsley, O. R. (1992). Precision teaching: Discoveries and effects. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(25), 51-57.

Potts, L., Eshleman, J.W. & Cooper, J.O. (1993). Ogden R. Linsley and the historical development of precision teaching. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 177-189.

Shinn, M.R. (2002). Best practices in using curriculum-based measurement in a problem solving Model. Best practices in school psychology IV, 1, 671-697.

Shinn, M.R. & Shinn, M.M. (2002). AIMSweb training workbook: Administration and scoring of reading curriculum-based measurement (R-CBM) for use in general outcome measurement. MN: Edformation Inc. White, O.R. (1988). Precision teachingâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;precision learning. Exceptional Children, 6(52), 522-534.

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Food Allergy Awareness Among College Students at the University of Nevada, Reno, College of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural Resources Overview Food allergies are complicated disorders affecting approximately 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2% of the adult population and up to 8% of children. Although these numbers are relatively low, there seems to be a growing number of those diagnosed with food allergies.

Young adults and adolescents are disproportionately at higher risk for allergic reactions to food than any other age group. The purpose of this study is to identify strengths and weaknesses of food allergy related knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions in non-allergic college students.

Melinda Spooner Major: Nutritional Science & Dietetics Mentor: Dr. Judith Ashley Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: PhD Program Nutrition, Oregon State University

Methods An internet-based pilot survey was designed and piloted to McNair Scholars Program (MSP) students to identify issues existing in the design and understandability of the developing survey about food allergy awareness among college students. Components of The Chicago Food Allergy Research Survey for the General Public were employed and modified to specifically target the college population. By melding this validated instrument and questions pertaining specifically to the college population, correlations between previous studies and this study to be made with a level of consistency in the language and method used.

Results Percentages and frequencies were calculated to give an overall picture of knowledge, based on gender, class-level, major, and relationships. Chi-square analysis was used to determine degree of significance in all comparisons. There were 170 total participants, which is approximately 12% of the undergraduate student population with in the College of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural Resources at the University of Nevada, Reno.

Conclusion This study sought to identify food allergy awareness among college students. No previous studies have been identified that target this specific population, yet young adults are the group the most at risk for experiencing an allergic reaction to food. While the data is inconclusive based on the modest number of participants, there are areas especially related to the degree programs that illustrate some interesting trends in this data.

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Introduction Twenty-five percent of people living in industrialized countries believe they suffer from food allergies. While most are not diagnosed, the number of those affected is growing and currently accounts for one to ten percent of the entire population regardless of age.₁₀ Up until recently, food allergies were thought to be a childhood phenomena, leaving a substantial void in adolescent and adult onset food allergy knowledge.₁₀,₁₂,₁₆ Chaundry reviewed evidence that indicated adults, like children are equivalently affected by food allergies. Additionally, this review highlighted a trend of increased diagnosed food allergies through the comparison of similar studies over time.

Food allergies are puzzling multifactorial diseases, these factors include: types of reactions, instigating foods, diagnostic testing, treatments, as well as social factors and healthcare related quality of life (HRQOL) contribute to the complexity facing those affected. A profound obstacle that must be confronted is the lack of generalizability of the research due to relatively small sample sizes, inadequate diagnostic methods, and varied results.₁₇, ₂₇ Moreover, the amount and type of data gathered from children with food allergies is not necessarily valid for the adult population.

Correlations drawn from existing evidence are important; however, new research specific to the adult population needs to be conducted to clarify the distinct properties of food allergy, and the associated problems besetting this population.₁₀ People with food allergies are required to manage their allergies in order to protect their health, but there are many aspects that contribute to the overall wellbeing of the food allergic individual.

Food allergies have a substantial negative impact on health related quality of life (HRQOL) regardless of the extent of care taken to avoid allergic reactions.₂₈,₂₉ Self-perception, physiologic and psychological management of the allergy, peer situations, and social influences all relate to the HRQOL of those affected by food allergies. Two studies in the Netherlands found anxiety, missed school days, and higher unemployment rates are factors affecting the lives of young adults and children alike.₁₃ Conversely, Marklund’s review of HRQOL found that allergies have less influence in young adult lives than their peers realize. Furthermore, their anxiety is lower regarding food allergies than their academics, social activities, and physical fitness.₂₈ As previously established, HRQOL seems to be a multi-factorial part of the allergic individual’s life, but is dependent on severity and the complexity of the disease. Because HRQOL can be directly related to comorbidities, physical ailments, the limitations on daily life, as well as a broad scope of societal conditions, it is clear that food allergies affect the body, mind, and spirit of the individual.₃₃ Among all other groups of food allergic populations, college students are unique in the circumstances they face. Most are on the cusp of complete independence, having little parental guidance as they enter adulthood. Some may have allergies lingering from childhood, while some

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will develop new sensitizations. This population also experiences a definite shift in food allergy patterns, such as late onset of reactions to foods they once had no reaction to and the potential of a reaction instigated by alcohol consumption.₃₄ The type of food allergens and associated reactions as well as the situations provoking reactions create the need for further knowledge and awareness in the familial and community contexts. Food allergy perception in the general population plays a role in how one with food allergies manages their condition. Common problems facing adolescent and young adult food allergy sufferers include, a lack of knowledge or understanding by the public and family members, and teasing from peers. These issues can decrease food allergen management practices and can lead to social isolation. Family relationships can also be hindered by disbelief of food allergies leading to resentment in the relationships.₁₃ All of these factors have a tendency to increase the risk among food allergic people.

Given the scope of food allergies and their complexity, it is important for those directly or indirectly affected by food allergies to have adequate support. Without awareness of food allergies, support is futile. The purpose of this research is to discover college student awareness of food allergies. By administering an online survey to a group of students that do not have food allergies, we hope to identify strengths and weaknesses in the college students’ food allergy related knowledge, perceptions and attitudes. Equipped with this information, we can attempt to address the existing gaps and contribute to the scarce information involving this population.

Ultimately, this study could stimulate interest in food allergy awareness by highlighting the needs of those who live with food allergies. Furthermore, food labeling and food allergy resources could become commonplace on college campuses in the future.

Literature Review Prevalence Epidemiologic evidence suggests one to ten percent of the United States population has some form of food allergy. However, discovering the actual prevalence is daunting as there are no standardized methods to accurately assess the presence of food allergy.₂₂,₃₂,₃₆,₃₇ A review conducted by Chaundry in 2012 revealed these inconsistencies including issues involving selfreport and comparing a variety of testing methods against one another.

First, the self-report method of data collection typically reflects an inflated number of those suffering from food allergies because many of these do not differentiate between those who have a confirmed allergy versus those who feel they are allergic. Yet, other self-report surveys such as those in conducted in Europe, confirmed oral food challenges (OFC) and double-blinded placebocontrolled food challenges (DBPCFC) as inclusionary criteria. These help illustrate the profound differences in the reported versus confirmed food allergy incidence as well as the trend of McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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increasing food allergy in adults over a period of ten years from 1.4 - 1.8% to 3.7%.₁₀ Ben-Shoshan 2010 concurs with Chaundry and further emphasizes unnecessary alterations to the diet are possible, or the risk of an unwanted reaction could increase without a confirmatory test. This study also concludes low socioeconomic and/or immigrant populations are often under studied and may contribute to skewed response rates favoring those with food allergies.₈ Other types of surveys employing serum Immunoglobin E (IgE) testing had lower food allergy incidence resulting in about 2.5% of the population being affected. Despite that, adult’s aged 2039 had the highest rates for Immunoglobin E-mediated (IgE) reactions.10 This review further indicates an increase in childhood food allergies from 1997 to 2007, but there is insufficient data on increasing adult food allergy prevalence.₁₀ The correlation between food allergies as a child and food allergy in adulthood remains a major gap in the research.₉,₁₀ Types and presentations of food allergies Food allergies are a complex series of diseases that may include accompanying comorbidities.

Asthma, atopic dermatitis, eosinophilic esophagitis and exercise-induced anaphylaxis are conditions that can exacerbate a food allergy reaction. While atopic dermatitis reactions are generally less intense, other disorders like asthma and exercise-induced anaphylaxis tend to be more serious in nature.₉,₂₇ Mixed IgE reactions and cell-mediated reactions are linked with conditions such as allergic rhinitis and eczema. DBPCFC's confirm the link between food allergies and children with moderate or severe cases of atopic dermatitis. Further, a connection has been seen between early onset eczema in children and IgE mediated food allergy reactions in 33% of the cases.27 While adult prevalence of eczema food reactions are expected to be low, they are believed to be cross-reactive to birch pollen (green apple, carrot, hazelnut, celery, pear). Even so, few studies linking the two in the adult population have been conducted.₁₅,₂₃ Oral allergy syndrome (OAS) is another comorbid manifestation, and the most prevalent form of food allergy, yet is generally the most mild, affecting the mouth and throat.₂₄ Allergic rhinitis, asthma, and allergies to pollen such as birch make this syndrome more likely to occur.₂₄ In addition to the previously discussed comorbidities, De Bruin Weller indicates there is a potential link of eczema to foods shown in a birch pollen-related challenge in which 17 of 34 patients had increased eczema, itching and sleeplessness.₁₅ Nevertheless, a recent systematic review found no benefit in restricting the diet as a means of improving eczema symptoms. Although, due to poor methodology, and the limitation of children only studies makes this conclusion difficult to accept.₁₅ Adults coping with food allergies are faced with not only the possibility of having a history of child

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hood food allergies and their reactions, but they could also experience a new food allergy that is completely distinct from the typical childhood allergic reactions. Direct sensitization occurs in adults as it does in children, by simply ingesting an offending food. However, cross-reactions are very common for adults. They are associated with the merging of: seafood varieties, certain food and pollen mixtures, and aeroallergens like lupine flour and soybean dust.₃₈ Regardless of the type or source of the reaction, the commonality of all food allergy reactions seems to be related to oral intolerance or the inability to produce tolerance in the body.₃₇ Reviews

by Bahna of multiple studies focusing on inconspicuous types of food allergy emphasizes there is no set pattern to reactions or culprits. In fact, there are multiple ways in which a food can adversely affect the body and it must be understood that allergic reactions are not restricted to the commonly understood types.₃,₄ Food allergies are most commonly associated with the ingestion of an allergenic food, yet reactions can be provoked from skin contact. Common settings where one can have skin contact reactions include restaurants, grocery stores, farms, at home, and at school; all of which are possible in the college population. The types manifestations are as equally varied as the settings in which they occur. They can be dermatologic in nature and include immediate or delayed reactions such as contact urticarial, angioedema, or allergic contact dermatitis respectively.₃,₄ Nondermatologic manifestations can result in respiratory symptoms from inhalation, and are associated with rare cases of anaphylaxis. Skin contact reactions are diverse, as are the types of food associated with them. Generally they can be broken down into three categories: foods, additives, and contaminants. No one is completely impervious to any of these potential allergenic sources; therefore, they should be considered when one has an unexpected adverse reaction .₃,₄ Additionally, Chen, Bahna 2011, revealed even spices can be considered for a food allergy source in adults, more likely women, due to their cosmetic use.₁₁ The estimated affected population is between 0.04-0.13%, a low percentage; however, this type of allergen has not been widely studied. Further, allergenic spices may be an area of research needing more attention; clarifying the role of these minute foods in the broad context of food allergy.₁₁ Other obscure areas with potential relationships to food allergy research revolve around diseases like irritable bowel syndrome and analyzing food allergy issues in the elderly. Research identified

by Cuomo acknowledges IBS and food allergy as two independent diseases, yet if a clear allergic response to a food has been identified and IBS is uncontrolled, the role of food allergy should be considered.₁₄ Food allergies are also difficult to diagnose in the elderly due to confounding factors associated with aging, therefore a thorough evaluation of symptoms that may correspond to food allergies could be instrumental in reducing the perceived prevalence rate in this population.₃₄ McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Psychosocial impact and quality of life Young adults having food allergies while attending college face challenges often making them susceptible to engaging in risky food choice behavior.₃₃ Some risk taking is due to inadequate awareness of the risk associated with those behaviors including: intentional consumption of known allergenic food, failure to carry self-injectable epinephrine (SIE), peer pressure, failure to follow food labels, low quality of life, and inadequate communication and comprehension skills.

These challenges coupled with the wide variety of food allergies and their presentations make food allergy awareness an important topic to educate about.₃₃ Sommer et al. concluded food allergic teenagers have characteristics that set them apart from their non-allergic peers. While selection of foods is more difficult, they found sensory issues to some degree affect both allergic and nonallergic populations. Newly diagnosed food allergies affect teenagers differently because a sense of deprivation can ensue. On the other hand, those who never developed the taste for a food may not feel cheated out of the satisfaction from eating said food. Contrary to other studies, Sommer et al. also found that going to parties and seeking out safe food to eat was relatively effortless. An area of concern is that these food allergic teens seemed to downplay the significance of their condition by participating in risky behaviors.₃₅ HRQOL, acceptance, and education especially pertaining to family relationships and peer play crucial roles in the lives of people with food allergies.₁₉,₂₈,₂₉ To acknowledge the differences of HRQOL between those born with food hypersensitivity (FHS) and those who developed FHS sometime in childhood, MacKenzie investigated these distinct groups through taped audio interviews. While adaptations were similar between the groups, the conditions involved with food allergies remain burdensome. The most consequential factor was inadequate understanding by their peers. Additionally, insufficient knowledge and unheeded risk contributes to non-adhereance of the allergenic diet. By the same token, inadequate education in foodeservice can further compound the probability of a reaction.₂₆ In school settings, there are conflicting indications on how food allergies affect students. Avery et al. discussed anxiety as a major factor for peanut allergic children in the United Kingdom, but also highlighted that being in a school setting lowered the percieved risk to peanut allergen than being outside of the educational environment. The limitation to this particular study was the inability to corroborate the findings with previous research due to privacy and data protection issues related to this sensitive group.₂ In another sudy, Letourneau et al investigated the effectiveness of online peer-support interventions through the use of pre- and post-testing. Although the sample size was negligible, the results of the study indicated that psychological issue such as social isolation and loneliness improved. Qualitatively, this form of support was advantageous for those who struggle with peer bullying and a lower level of self-esteem. This type of support provided individuals with

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peer interactions normally absent to a portion of this population.₂₅ People with food allergies generally have a reduced HRQOL, lying between those suffering from diabetes mellitus or rheumatoid arthritis and asthma or irritable bowel syndrome. While behavior issues were lower in food allergic young people, pain was reported to more often, moreover, comorbidities like asthma may contribute to these findings. However, HRQOL questions are general and do not investigate the differences in the diseases in question and comorbidities, which may influence the findings.₁₉ While the majority of research has focused on pediatric populations, Skypala’s review focused on adult food allergies because this population is often overlooked as to their risk. They often have cofactors that produce reactions like exercise, alcohol consumption, and asprin intake. These issues can often be masked by other common conditions. As the population ages, the etiology of food allergy changes, as does the food associated with the reactions. In the older populations, reaction from fruit and vegetables is greater peanut and tree nut. Additionally, up to 12% of accidental exposures occur due to kissing.₃₄ Education Education, management, ingredient labeling and training among food service workers contribute to problematic issues related to avoidance and furthermore the HRQOL. Education is considered to be an element that could place an emphasis on food allergy safety, especially in the case of the use of self-injectable epinephrine (SIE). Essential to proper use of SIE is the identification of symptoms that necessitate its use. However, education of rescue medication use is a small fraction of the opportunities to reduce risk factors in food allergic young people. Many situations have been identified in which teenagers have difficulty with assessing risks. Eating at restaurants, reading food labels and cross-contamination are key topics to increase knowledge on Moreover, educating friends is important in improving the lives of food allergy sufferers. However, those having food allergies do not want to teach about food allergy, and would feel more comfortable with an educational class or forum. A lack of understanding and seriousness is a major problem among their peers according to Monks et al.₃₁ Food allergy and anaphylaxis network (FAAN) provides a website called Protect-A-Life (PAL) for education and awareness where peers and food allergic young people can increase their knowledge to help themselves or others.₃₃ Goossens research “Food allergy knowledge of parents - is ignorance bliss?” examined food allergy awareness, attitudes, beliefs, knowledge comparison between the US and Netherlands. While US parents had a higher level of knowledge bout food allergies, but a lower sense of optimism than their Netherland counterparts; this could be linked to a lack of knowledge in the Netherland group and should be a concern of medical practitioners when educating patients about knowledge and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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safety and the relationship to QoL.₂₀ Furthermore, Hefle found parents often cannot identify allergens on labels indicating a higher standard is necessary to make identification of allergenic foods easier to comprehend. Therefore, education needs to be paramount for food allergic people.

Educational aspects do not solely affect those directly impacted by food allergies. A wide-range of occupations that need food allergy education implemented in their job trainings are also at issue.

Those include travel and food service establishments.₂₂ Barnett, et al., through a qualitative interview study of 32 participants, found that people who traveled are impacted by their food allergy. It contributed to their choice of destination, based on medical services available and if nuts were widely used in the cuisine. However, they still found travel to be enjoyable and adopted a plan of action when traveling that includes packing ample medication, and employing the use of translational devices to help communicate their situation.

With 58% participants reporting an inhalation reaction and 33% reacting from ingestion of nut products, this study proposes in flight nut products may need to be eliminated in order to lessen the potential for allergic reactions during travel via the airlines. While this makes sense, a previous study also indicates that participants reporting inhalation reactions to peanuts did not have a reaction during a blinded challenge.₇ This research implies that those traveling with food allergies are well aware of the risks involved, and take extra measures to help ensure a safe trip. However, the travel industry is not implementing policies that help protect this population. Therefore, acquiring information aiding in travel plans prior to travel from medical practitioners should be a consideration. Furthermore, all food service staff whether on airlines, in airports, or in restaurants need to be trained about food allergies and how to better serve and protect those customers eating at their establishment.

Traveling in general is difficult for those who have food allergies, but to travel abroad takes a heightened awareness of their condition due to seemingly benign factors including the destination, method of travel, and medical care. To compound these issues is being unfamiliar with the area and language, which contributes to difficulty in avoiding allergenic foods.₇ Bailey et al identified a lack of training about food allergies as being a significant gap in food allergy awareness in the restaurant setting, this includes all front and back of house staff. Furthermore, a skewed perception of knowledge may be an issue, as learning may not be perceived as a problem regarding food allergy knowledge. In fact, some chefs may exaggerate their competence with regard to food allergy issues, potentially elevating the likelihood of a reaction by a consumer by feeling comfortable with their level of food allergy knowledge, but exhibiting a low proficiency in the subject. While this survey was performed on a very small scale, it helped identify the needs of restaurant staff training.₅ Bailey also suggests that a food allergy accreditation program be

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established to increase food allergy awareness in the food service community with the purpose of ensuring customer safety that is cost effective level and accessible for food service staff.₆ To conclude, there are many gaps in the research still needing to be addressed. Altman addresses the practitioners by stating the allergy profession in general has not made much progress on educating the public about food allergies and in rectifying the issues regarding food allergy beliefs.₁ While Erdman cites proactive treatment does not exist for food allergies. The only intervention is the avoidance of the allergen, but immunotherapy is showing signs of promise in some clinical trials.₁₈ Furthermore, Muñoz-Furlong emphasized strategies must be in place to adequately deal with emergency reaction situations, but are often weakend by outside forces such as family disbelief, resentment, bullying, or teasing. These problems can lead to eating disorders and social withdrawl. While some children have the above stated problems, some lead completely normal lives. Although the patient needs to be warned of the dangers associated with food reactions, they also need to be empowered to participate in their own health care. A part of that is to learn how to identify foods on ingredient labels that use scientific language, not only on food labels, but also on beauty and bath products whch often contain food ingredients. Because the 10-19 year olds are increasingly spending more time with friends, they have the highest risk for food induced anaplylaxis.36 An important gap in support services for food allergies needs to be addressed. It has been shown that other childhood diseases have a wide range of supportive specialists such as the case of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Yet, Avery et al suggests support services for food allergy patient’s needs is not a priority but needs to be to alleviate anxiety and lifestyle issues.₂ Methods The Food Allergy Awareness Among College Students (FAAACS) who attend programs within the College of Agriculture, Biotechnology, and Natural Resources (CABNR) was piloted by a group of students in the McNair Scholars Program (MSP). This group was chosen based on the fact that they are also researchers who have familiarity with scientific studies and could provide valuable feedback that would guide the composition of the FAAACS for the CABNR population.

Furthermore, the survey utilized components of a previously validated survey, “The Chicago Food Allergy Research Survey for the General Public” as a foundation from which to build the survey targeting college students without being burdensome.₂₁ This survey was administered online using the respective list serves for the MSP and CABNR students. The utilization of the list serves was also employed in sending recruitment emails and reminders. The Center for Research Design & Analysis at the University of Nevada, Reno enabled our use of the Qualtrics Online Survey Software for data collection. The survey included questions McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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ranging from demographic information such as age, gender, and degree program enrollment, to food allergy knowledge, perceptions, and policies. The types of questions used to derive these responses were composed of true/false, Likert scale, ranking and fill-in. The questions were also intentionally phrased to help avoid monotony associated with completing multiple item surveys (Appendix A).

Exclusionary criteria encompassed being under the age of 18, which would require parental consent, and if the participant has a physician diagnosed food allergy. Because our target population was college students, we expected that the majority of those attending UNR would be over 18 years old and of legal age to freely choose whether or not to participate in this study. In addition to the age limitation, we specifically studied those who do not have food allergies to identify what the unaffected portion of the college population knows and perceives about food allergy. Inclusionary criteria were that the participants be current undergraduate students majoring or minoring in the programs within CABNR at UNR. A letter was drafted and emailed by the researchers to CABNR participants on September 25, 2015, using the CABNR list serve alerting the targeted population of the impending survey and what their role in participating would be. Administration of the survey occurred on October 2, 2015, after the universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s internal review board (IRB) approved the proposal. Finally, an email reminder letter was sent on October 14, 2015 via the administrators of CABNR in the same manner previously described, containing the link to the Qualtrics based survey.

A statement of informed consent was given to the participants upon accessing the survey instrument explaining their right to participate, risks, and assurance that their personal information will be treated in a professional and confidential manner. Utilizing the password protected Qualtrics Survey Software, the CABNR list serve, as well as the design of the survey the protection of participant identities was achieved. Additionally, the participants were notified of their right to terminate their participation at any point during the survey if they chose to do so.

There was a potential for a low response rate, as surveys through email are numerous and may be overlooked or ignored. Additionally, response bias had the potential to play a role because the targeted population might have an elevated interest in the scientific process than students who are not involved in the sciences. Another potential factor could have impacted the responses was the inclusion of nutrition majors, as this population may have a much greater understanding of food allergy based on coursework incurred in the degree program.

Results Data was collected from October 2 through October 26, 2015 resulting in 214 total participants

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with 170 being eligible. Ineligible participants included those who indicated they were under 18 years of age, had a food allergy, or were in major outside of CABNR. Others that were excluded from the data were graduate level students and those participants who failed to complete key items in the survey. There were 37 male and 132 female participants, and of these 153 were traditional college aged students (18 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 24 years) and the remaining 16 were 25 years of age and older. Their class levels were relatively evenly distributed with 51 freshmen, 40 sophomores, 35 juniors and 41 seniors with 39 of this total sample being enrolled in the Nutritional Science or Dietetic Programs (Appendix B, Table 1). Table 2 in Appendix B illustrates that just over 60% of the participants reported having a relationship (family, friend, or both family and friend) with someone who has food allergies.

This research sought to derive information on college student knowledge, perceptions and attitudes regarding food allergies. Table 3 (Appendix B) illustrates the percentages associate with correct number of answers per category. About 50% of the participants correctly answered all questions regarding perceptions and coexisting conditions, but a markedly lower percentage correctly answered items related to knowledge, environment, and triggers.

There are two comparisons that indicate some significance regarding the dietetic and nutrition majors focusing on environmental concerns and perception aspects of food allergy. In reference to environmental concerns affecting allergic people, we found there is a significant difference between Nutrition/Dietetic majors and all other majors within CABNR (Appendix B, Table 4a). ChiSquare = 18.6, df = 3, p < .001. This result is opposite of the expected result and appears to be driven by a particular question, (i.e., People with food allergies have difficulty staying away from food they are allergic to). Nutrition/Dietetic students responded incorrectly to this question to a larger degree than non-Nutrition/Dietetic majors (77% versus 59%; chi-square = 4.3, df = 1, p = .038). Table 4b focuses on the Nutrition/Dietetic majors and factors that may influence this anomaly such as class standing and relationships with friends and family who may have food allergies. Regarding perceptions Nutrition/Dietetic majors, they answered all items correctly 72% of the time while other majors answered correctly 51% of the time. Chi-Square = 5.81, df = 2, p = .055 (Appendix B, Table 5).

Taking a look at Freshmen/Sophomores versus Juniors/Seniors, there is a relationship in the level of knowledge relating to the combined coexisting conditions, Chi-Square = 7.4, df = 3, p = .06 (Appendix B, Table 6). The coexisting conditions tested were asthma, atopic eczema, and pollen allergies. The juniors and seniors correctly answered all three conditions correctly 56% of the time while the freshmen and sophomores were correct 43.8% of the time.

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allergies, Table 7 (Appendix B) illustrates a trend that exists the tendency of women (60.5%) correctly answer the three perception questions correctly over their male (42.9%) counterparts.

Tables 8 and 9 (Appendix B) outline how these college students view five topics according to the level of importance. Table 8 displays the most important percentages while Table 9 reveals the least important percentages. These results were ranked from 1 to 5 and included the following statements: Find the causes of food allergies, Improve treatments for food allergies, Develop a cure for food allergies, Promote school education programs for food allergies, Improve treatments for food allergies.

Finally, the researchers investigated how the students felt about two policies relating to circumstances they may find useful in the university setting. Neither of them provided any significant findings, but they represented a general view of how favorable those policies would be to the university population with each statement receiving approximately an 80% positive response rate in favor of the policies (Appendix B, Table 10).

Discussion This research explored the awareness level of food allergies in a college population. Overall, findings revealed trends and a few instances where there were significant differences. What was gained is the observation of many trends in the results. First, in Table 1, the college population does have a wide range of awareness, but shortfalls exist in the awareness level overall. Although significance was scarce, there were three particular chi-square tests that revealed significant findings.

Table 4a (Appendix B) illustrates the percentage of Nutrition/Dietetic majors as compared to all the other majors within CABNR regarding environmental concerns connected to food allergies. It was anticipated the Nutrition/Dietetic students would have a consistently greater level of awareness in this area than the other majors, yet, just 10.5% responded to all four items correctly whereas their fellow CABNR students had a rate of correctness of 28.3%. There is one statement that may have driven this conclusion. The statement in question is, â&#x20AC;&#x153;People with food allergies have difficulty staying away from food they are allergic toâ&#x20AC;?. The researchers suspect that the students in this major interpreted the question differently than the other majors. These Nutrition/Dietetic students have had extensive coursework to prepare them for clinical dietetic work. Yet, what may be influencing this anomaly in the data is their inexperience practicing social cognitive theories and psychological methods, which help the practitioner present vital information for their patients.

This could be an area of coursework that would benefit the students that is currently not a part of the Nutrition and Dietetic degree programs. It would give students additional methods of communicating vital information to their patients as well as understanding a spectrum of issues

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that may play a factor in how the patient interprets health care instruction. However, the ratio of true to false responses by all Nutrition/Dietetic majors regardless of class standing is equivalent, indicating that the progression of these students in their respective programs has no influence on how they answered this question (Appendix B, Tables 4b). When examining this group further to attain any association between having a relationship with friends or family and their responses, there was no indication that any form of relationship had an effect on this aberration. Another possible factor is the student’s innate belief about the level of knowledge someone with food allergies should have about all foods, regardless of the fact that many foods contain allergens that are not seen or included on labels, especially in the case of dining out. Food allergies are not confined to the eight most common foods, and while the prevalence rates low, there is the possibility of a reaction to spices and ingredients applied as topical agents as Chen and Bahna 2011 reported.₃,₄,₁₁ In addition to the interpretation of this question, the language used could have played a role because wording does vary from a similar question used in the Gupta et al survey, “The Chicago Food Allergy Research Survey for the General Public”.₂₁ While the survey designed for the general public was not used to determine the knowledge of Nutrition and Dietetic students against other majors, the phrasing of the similar statement “For someone who has a food allergy, staying away from the food that he or she is allergic to is difficult" must be considered.

The next area of significance found focuses on Nutrition/Dietetic majors and their awareness of perceptions related to food allergy sufferers. In this case, researchers found 71.8% of the Nutrition/Dietetic majors answered correctly compared to 51.2% (Table 5) of the other CABNR majors. This is expected, and, again relates to the coursework associated with these degree programs. This finding aligns well with previous research results and the struggles people with food allergies face.₃,₄,₁₁,₃₁ A positive aspect of the analysis is the overall trend concerning the understanding of these perception issues by this population which is supported by research conducted by Sampson et al 2006 indicating the importance of peers being educated about their friends allergies.₃₃ Finally, among the significant findings, the awareness level tested between Freshmen/Sophomores and Juniors/Seniors with regards to coexisting conditions illustrated that as students progress through their degree programs, the more they become aware of other conditions often associated with food allergies (Appendix B, Table 6). One could assume that as a student is exposed to many other people whether they be peers or instructors that they may interact with those who have food allergies and learn from exposure. However, in the case of Nutriton/Dietetic students, perhaps the level of coursework they are engaged in may influence their awareness as well.

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perceptions over their male counterparts (Table 7). Additionally, the participants revealed that while finding a cause for food allergies earned the highest percentage of most important responses, they largely felt all of the ranking items featured in Tables 8 and 9 (Appendix B) were of relatively equal importance. Yet, when we asked about policy issues the participants tended to be highly in favor of schools implementing emergency plans for an emergency food allergic reaction and for posting all ingredients used in facilities that serve food (Appendix B, Table 10). While not significant, these results do give an indication that these are important issues to investigate further in the college population.

While this study did produce some important insight about food allergy awareness in the college population, there are limitations. First, this study was conducted on a small segment of a moderately sized university which may have impacted the low number of participants. A notable flaw in the design of survey may have contributed to our ability to compare our results to a similar study by changing the format of questions from Likert scale to true false and visa versa; by doing so, some possible meaningful conclusions were not identified. Future research could expand to other universities to compare awareness of food allergies in regions across the United States and with the increase in food allergy prevalence, allied health programs could be studied to assess food allergy knowledge of those students who will be providing healthcare services to the public.

Furthermore, data such as this provides a foundation for researching policy issues that would benefit those afflicted with food allergies.

Conclusion Food allergies are a complex set of diseases that take on many forms. To aid those who suffer from food allergies, countless research studies must continue to be conducted. These range from the molecular and cellular level to studies such as this one. The Food Allergy Awareness Among College Students at the University of Nevada, Reno, College of Agriculture, Biotechnology and Natural Resources provided a baseline in understanding the level of awareness college students have, what their general feelings are toward important policies and how they feel certain topics rank in importance.

What we found is that there is a connection between awareness and the major of the students and the class standing in certain areas. Furthermore there are trends that may inspire future studies including policy issues that would encourage positive changes within the college environment making the lives of food allergy sufferers more enjoyable. While we cannot generalize our findings to a larger population, there is hope for those afflicted by food allergies because there appears to be a level of awareness that exists in college students that evolves as they progress through their degree program.

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Acknowledgements This research would not have been possible without the dedication of my faculty mentor Doctor Judith Ashley. I cannot thank her enough for all the support and guidance she has given me throughout not only this past year as a McNair Scholar, but also as my primary nutrition professor over the course of two years. I would also like to extend a thank you to all of those who have provided academic, moral, and research support to me. Especially Perry Fittrer and Heather Williams at the University of Nevada, Reno McNair Scholars Program, Heidi Himler and Doctor Gail Ferrell who have encouraged me throughout my academic career, and finally my husband Larry and daughter Holly for accepting their roles and continuing support as my goals evolve.

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MELINDA SPOONER Appendix A: Survey Instrument Information Sheet We are conducting a research study to learn about food allergy awareness including knowledge and perceptions in the college population.

If you volunteer to be in this study, you will be asked to respond to a series of questions and statements. The first section includes eligibility criteria and demographics. The second contains food allergy knowledge questions and statements. This survey should take less than 15 minutes to complete.

This study is considered to be minimal risk of harm. This means the risk level is typical to those encountered during your daily activities. You may experience disappointment if you do not meet the eligibility requirements.

Benefits of doing research are not definite; but we hope to identify gaps in food allergy knowledge, as well as if there are differences in knowledge based on the types of relationships non-affected people have with those having food allergies. There are no direct benefits to you in this study activity.

The researchers and the University of Nevada, Reno will treat your identity and the information we collect about you with professional standards of confidentiality and protect it to the extent allowed by law. You will not be personally identified in any reports or publications that may result from this study. The researchers, the Department of Health and Human Service (HHS) and the University of Nevada, Reno Social Behavioral Institutional Review Board.

You may ask questions of the student researcher at any time. The contact email address: mspooner@nevada.unr.edu. You may also call us at 775-784-4665.

The University of Nevada, Reno Office of Human Research Protection oversees all human research conducted by University researchers. If you have questions or concerns about the conduct of the study, call this office at 775-327-2367. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You may stop at any time. Declining to participate or stopping your participation will not have any negative effects on your status with the College of Agriculture, Biotechnology, and Natural Resources or any other academic or personal records.

Thank you for your participation in this study!

This survey is about food allergy awareness of college students including beliefs, knowledge, and perceptions. It is being conducted by a McNair Scholars undergraduate researcher at the University of Nevada, Reno.

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MELINDA SPOONER It is estimated that the survey will take less than 15 minutes to complete in one sitting.

Additionally, the confidentiality of the participants is paramount; therefore, only administrators at the College of Agriculture, Biotechnology, and Natural Resources (CABNR) will email the participants eliminating any risk of identification by the researchers.

Eligibility How old are you?

Do you have any physician diagnosed food allergies? (Yes or No) Is your degree program in the College of Agriculture, Biotechnology, and Natural Resources (CABNR)? (Yes or No) Demographics What is your current class level? Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior) What is your major(s)? (Fill in) What is your minor(s)? (Fill in) What is your gender? (Male or Female) Questionnaire Do you have friends or family affected by food allergies? (Yes or No) • How would you classify your famiy and/or friends who have food allergies? (check all that apply) o Close family (parents, siblings) o Distant family (grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.) o Close friends (roommates, high school friends) o Acquaintances (classmates, coworkers) Express your knowledge about people with food allergies by answering the following true or false statements.

• People with food allergies can safely consume a small amount of a food they are allergic to.

• People with food allergies have difficulty staying away from food they are allergic to.

• People with food allergies have difficulty eating safely at restaurants.

• People with food allergies need to read food labels.

• People with food allergies know how to identify allergenic foods.

• People with food allergies sometimes have reactions that are visible to others.

• People with food allergies are not affected by the perceptions of food allergies by others.

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• •

People with food allergies cannot have an allergic reaction after touching a food.

People with food allergies are not treated differently than people without food allergies.

People with food allergies are not afraid to eat new foods.

Express your knowledge about food allergies in general by responding strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree.

• Food allergies are not serious health problems in the United States.

• Food allergies do not run in families.

• Food allergies do not disrupt travel plans.

• Food allergies are curable.

• Food allergies are difficult to diagnose.

• Food allergies affect social activities.

• Food allergies go away as a person gets older.

• Food allergies means the same thing as food intolerance.

A food allergy reaction can be brought on by: (True or False) • Pollen • Alcohol • Exercise • Medication Food allergies often co-exist with: (True or False) • Asthma • Atopic eczema • Pollen allergies Any establishment that serves food should post ingredients used in their menu items as to decrease the potential for an allergic reaction. (True, False Neither True nor False) What are your feelings about the following statements regarding access to food allergy knowledge and school policies? (strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree or strongly disagree.

• Online resources such as Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network and foodallergy.org could help me learn about and become aware of the types of issues people face that are affected by food allergies.

• Schools should have plans for emergency treatment of food allergy on their campuses.

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Please rank the following in the order of importance by typing the numbers 1 through 5, with 1 being most important and 5 being least important, in the boxes to the left of the statement.

• Develop a cure for food allergy • Improve treatments for food allergy • Find the causes of food allergy • Promote school education programs for food allergy • Promote public awareness campaigns for food allergy

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MELINDA SPOONER Appendix B: Tables 1 through 10 Table 1. Frequencies and percentages: Demographics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; gender, age (traditional vs. non-traditional students), class standing, degree programs.

Demographics What is your gender? (n=169) Frequency Percent Male 37 21.8 Female 132 77.6 How old are you? (n=169) 18-24 153 87.2 25 and older 16 12.2 Class Standing (n=167) Freshmen 51 30 Sophomore 40 23.5 Junior 35 20.6 Senior 41 24.1 Degree Program (n=167) Nutrition/Dietetics 39 23.4 All Others 128 76.6

Table 2. Percentage: Participants having personal relationships with people having food allergies.

Frequency Percentage No family or friends 67 39.4 Family only 21 12.4 Friends only 48 28.2 Both family and friends 34 20

n=170

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Table 3. Percentage: Trends in Knowledge, Perceptions, Environmental Concerns, Triggers and Coexisting Conditions. % Based on Number of Correct Replies Category 0 1 2 3 4 Knowledgea People with food allergies need to read food 0 72.4 27.6 N/A N/A labels.

People with food allergies know how to identify allergenic foods.

Perceptionsb People with food allergies are not treated differently than people without food allergies.

2.9 12.9 28.8 55.3 N/A People with food allergies are not affected by the perceptions of food allergies by others.

People with food allergies are not afraid to eat new foods.

Environmental Concernsc People with food allergies can safely consume a small amount of a food they are allergic to.

People with food allergies have difficulty staying 1.2 11.8 28.8 34.7 23.5 away from food they are allergic to.

People with food allergies cannot have an allergic reaction after touching a food.

People with food allergies have difficulty eating safely at restaurants.

Triggerd A food allergy reaction can be brought on by: Pollen A food allergy reaction can be brought on by: 10.2 14.4 25.1 33.5 16.8 Alcohol A food allergy reaction can be brought on by: Exercise A food allergy reaction can be brought on by: Medication Coexisting Conditionse Food allergies often co-exist with: Asthma 6.6 16.8 28.1 48.5 N/A Food allergies often co-exist with: Atopic eczema Food allergies often co-exist with: Pollen allergies

na,b,c=170 nd,e= 167

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Table 4a. Chi-square: Nutrition/Dietetic majors versus All Other majors regarding environmental concerns (combined).

Environmental Concerns Number of Correct Nutrition/Dietetic (%) All Others (%) Responses 1 10.5 12.6 2 15.8 33.1 3 63.2 26.0 4 10.5 28.3

n = 165 Table 4b. Frequency: Nutrition/Dietetic major responses to â&#x20AC;&#x153;People with food allergies have difficulty staying away from food they are allergic toâ&#x20AC;? based on class standing and class standing versus relationships to people with food allergies.

People with food allergies have difficulty staying away from food they are allergic to.

Class Standing True False Freshmen/Sophomores 3 10 Juniors/Seniors 6 20 Class standing versus relationships with food allergic people with true response Family and Class Standing Family Friends Friends Neither Freshmen/Sophomores 1 1 1 0 Juniors/Seniors 1 2 1 2 Class standing versus relationships with food allergic people with false response Family and Class Standing Family Friends Friends Neither Freshmen/Sophomores 0 4 1 5 Juniors/Seniors 3 5 4 8

n = 39 Table 5. Chi-square: Nutrition/Dietetic majors versus All Other Majors regarding Food Allergy Perceptions (combined).

Food Allergy Perceptions Number of Correct Nutrition/Dietetic (%) All Others (%) Responses 1 5.1 16.3 2 23.1 32.5 3 71.8 51.2

n = 162

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Table 6. Chi-square: Class Standing (Freshmen/Sophomores vs. Juniors/Seniors) with regard to Co-existing Conditions (combined).

Coexisting Conditions by Class Standing Number of Correct Freshmen/Sophomores (%) Juniors/Seniors (%) Responses 0 7.9 5.3 1 18.0 14.7 2 34.8 20.0 3 39.3 60.0

n = 167 Table 7. Percentage: Tendency of Women to answer all three Perception questions correctly versus Men. Food Allergy Perceptions Number of Correct Women (%) Men (%) Responses 1 11.6 20 2 27.9 37.1 3 60.5 42.9

n = 164 Table 8. Ranked: Five topics ranked in the order of importance from 1 to 5.

Ranking of Most Important Topics Issue Most Important (%) 27.7 Find the causes of food allergies 20.0 Improve treatments for food allergies 18.7 Develop a cure for food allergies 18.7 Promote school education programs for food allergies 14.8 Promote public awareness campaigns for food allergies

n = 155, missing responses = 15.

Table 9. Ranked: Five topics ranked in the order of least importance from 1 to 5.

Ranking of Least Important Topics Issue Least Important (%) 38.1 Develop a cure for food allergies 32.3 Promote public awareness campaigns for food allergies 12.9 Find the causes of food allergies 10.3 Promote school education programs for food allergies 6.5 Improve treatments for food allergies

n = 155, missing responses = 15.

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Table 10. Percentage: General policy favorability in the university population.

% Strongly Agree

% Agree

% Neither Agree nor Disagree

% Disagree

54.7

34.6

4.1

1.2

Policy #2 (n = 159)

% True

% False

% Neither True nor False

Any establishment that serves food should post ingredients used in their menu items as to decrease the potential for an allergic reaction.

78.8

2.4

12.4

Policy #1 (n = 156)

Schools should have plans for emergency treatment of food allergy on their campuses.

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MELINDA SPOONER References 1. Altman DR, Chiaramonte LT. Public perception of food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol.

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3.

Bahna SL. Unusual presentations of food allergy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol.

2001;86(4):414-420. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)62487-8.

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Bahna SL. Adverse food reactions by skin contact. Allergy. 2004;59 Suppl 7(Table 2):66-70. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2004.00567.x.

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Bailey S, Albardiaz R, Frew a. J, Smith H. Restaurant staffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge of anaphylaxis and dietary care of people with allergies. Clin Exp Allergy. 2011;41(5):713-717. doi:10.1111/j.13652222.2011.03748.x.

6.

Bailey S, Billmeier Kindratt T, Smith H, Reading D. Food allergy training event for restaurant staff; a pilot evaluation. Clin Transl Allergy. 2014;4(1):26. doi:10.1186/2045-7022-4-26.

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Barnett J, Botting N, Gowland MH, Lucas JS. The strategies that peanut and nut-allergic consumers employ to remain safe when travelling abroad. Clin Transl Allergy. 2012;2(1):1. doi:10.1186/2045-7022-2-12.

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Ben-Shoshan M, Harrington DW, Soller L, et al. A population-based study on peanut, tree nut, fish, shellfish, and sesame allergy prevalence in Canada. J Allergy Clin Immunol.

2010;125(6):1327-1335. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.015.

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Boyce JA, Assaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ad A, Burks AW, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: summary of the NIAID-Sponsored Expert Panel report. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(1):175-192. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2010.11.020.

10. Chaudhry RQ, Oppenheimer JJ. Update on food allergy in adults. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2012;12(4):311-320. doi:10.1007/s11882-012-0266-3.

11. Chen JL, Bahna SL. Spice allergy. Ann Allergy, Asthma Immunol. 2011;107(3):191-199. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2011.06.020.

12. Cianferoni A, Spergel JM. Food allergy: review, classification and diagnosis. Allergol Int. 2009;58(4):457-466. doi:10.2332/allergolint.09-RAI-0138.

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MELINDA SPOONER 13. Cummings a. J, Knibb RC, King RM, Lucas JS. The psychosocial impact of food allergy and food hypersensitivity in children, adolescents and their families: A review. Allergy Eur J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;65(8):933-945. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02342.x.

14. Cuomo R, Andreozzi P, Zito FP, Passananti V, De Carlo G, Sarnelli G. Irritable bowel syndrome and food interaction.

World J Gastroenterol.

2014;20(27):8837-8845. doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i27.8837.

15. De Bruin Weller MS, Rockmann H, Knulst a. C, Bruijnzeel-Koomen C a FM. Evaluation of the adult patient with atopic dermatitis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2013;43(3):279-291. doi:10.1111/cea.12030.

16. Diesner SC, Untersmayr E, Pietschmann P, Jensen-jarolim E. Europe PMC Funders Group Food Allergy : Only a Pediatric Disease ? Immunological Changes due to Ageing Processes.

2014;57(1):28-32. doi:10.1159/000279756.Food.

17. Ebert CS, Pillsbury HC. Epidemiology of Allergy. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2011;44(3):537548. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2011.03.001.

18. Erdmann SM, Sachs B, Merk HF. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Food allergy in adulthoodâ&#x20AC;?. Allergy. 2004;59(3):358. doi:10.1046/j.1398-9995.2003.00362.x.

19. Flokstra-de Blok BMJ, Dubois a EJ, Vlieg-Boerstra BJ, et al. Health-related quality of life of food allergic patients: comparison with the general population and other diseases. Allergy.

2010;65(2):238-244. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02121.x.

20. Goossens NJ, Flokstra-de Blok BMJ, van der Meulen GN, et al. Food allergy knowledge of parents - is ignorance bliss? Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2013;24(6):567-573. doi:10.1111/pai.12099.

21. Gupta RS, Kim JS, Springston EE, Pongracic J a, Wang X, Holl J. Development of the Chicago Food Allergy Research Surveys: assessing knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of parents, physicians, and the general public. BMC Health Serv Res. 2009;9:142. doi:10.1186/1472-69639-142.

22. Hefle SL, Furlong TJ, Niemann L, Lemon-Mule H, Sicherer S, Taylor SL. Consumer attitudes and risks associated with packaged foods having advisory labeling regarding the presence of peanuts. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(1):171-176. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.04.013.

23. Katta R, Schlichte M. Diet and dermatitis: Food triggers. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2014;7(3):3036.

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24. Kurowski K, Boxer RW. Food Allergies: Detection and Management. Am Fam Physician. 2008.

25. Letourneau N, Stewart M, Masuda JR, et al. Impact of Online Support for Youth With Asthma and Allergies: Pilot Study. J Pediatr Nurs. 2012;27(1):65-73. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2010.07.007.

26. MacKenzie H, Roberts G, Van Laar D, Dean T. Teenagers’ experiences of living with food hypersensitivity: A qualitative study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2010;21(18):595-602. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00938.x.

27. Mahoney EJ, Veling MC, Mims JW. Food Allergy in Adults and Children. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2011;44(3):815-833. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2011.03.014.

28. Marklund B, Ahlstedt S, Nordström G. Food hypersensitivity and quality of life. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;7(3):279-287. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e32814a569b.

29. Marklund B, Ahlstedt S, Nordström G. Health-related quality of life among adolescents with allergy-like conditions - with emphasis on food hypersensitivity. Health Qual Life Outcomes.

2004;2:65. doi:10.1186/1477-7525-2-65.

30. Möhrenschlager M, Ring J. Food allergy: An increasing problem for the elderly. Gerontology.

2010;57(1):33-36. doi:10.1159/000316576.

31. Monks H, Gowland MH, MacKenzie H, et al. How do teenagers manage their food allergies?

Clin Exp Allergy. 2010;40:1533-1540. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010.03586.x.

32. Muñoz-Furlong A. Daily coping strategies for patients and their families. Pediatrics.

2003;111(6 Pt 3):1654-1661.

33. Sampson MA, Muñoz-Furlong A, Sicherer SH. Risk-taking and coping strategies of adolescents and young adults with food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;117(6):1440-1445. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.03.009.

34. Skypala I. Adverse food reactions--an emerging issue for adults. J Am Diet Assoc.

2011;111(12):1877-1891. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.09.001.

35. Sommer I, MacKenzie H, Venter C, Dean T. An exploratory investigation of food choice behavior of teenagers with and without food allergies. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol.

2014;112(5):446-452. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2014.02.009.

36. Teufel M, Biedermann T, Rapps N, et al. Psychological burden of food allergy. World J Gastroenterol. 2007;13(25):3456-3465.

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37. Wang J. Management of the patient with multiple food allergies. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2010;10(4):271-277. doi:10.1007/s11882-010-0116-0.

38. Yun J, Katelaris CH. Food allergy in adolescents and adults: CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES. Intern Med J. 2009;39(7):475-478. doi:10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.01967.

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Identification of anti-fungal compounds isolated from Piper holdridgeanum that cause inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells

Federico Urbano-Munoz Major: Biochemistry & Molecular Biology Mentor: Dr. Chris Jeffrey, Dr. Lora Robinson, & Dr. Ian Wallace Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: PhD Program Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Tech University

Natural products isolated from an array of organisms have served as templates for medicine and many other applications. Piper is a phytochemically diverse genus, which has not fully been chemically explored. One major challenge lies in identifying bioactive molecules from crude extracts. To identify possible bioactive compounds found in species of Piper, a series of assays were performed to determine which species crude extract demonstrated growth inhibition on Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 root length, and cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae S288c, and Escherichia coli DH5Îą. We combined these screens with NMR based metabolomics analysis to determine possible candidates for further isolation of bioactive compounds.

From the 31 species screened in triplicate we found high inhibition levels of cell growth of S. cerevisiae S288c grown in the presence of Piper holdridgeanum extract. This extract was partitioned into an aqueous, hexanes, and chloroform partition by liquid-liquid extraction. Activity was retained in the chloroform partition, which was further fractionated on a Sephadex LH-20 column and produced fractions 14-18 and 19-24 with the growth inhibition activity. Current work is using bioassay guided fractionation to identify active metabolites and more comprehensive bioassays of isolated compounds to determine if synergistic effects are resulting in enhanced activity.

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Introduction Mixtures of natural products, often referred to as plant secondary metabolites (PSM), are an important aspect of compounds found in plants₂. Profiles of PSM mixtures can vary within plant tissues. These changes can also be seen between different specimens and between different species₁. These mixtures can have multiple functions in the plant. They can provide a form of communication as well as diverse defense mechanisms against pathogens (fungi and bacteria) and herbivores. An important aspect of these mixtures is the ability to behave in a synergistic manner.

One important, and well-studied, function is as a defense mechanism for plants against herbivores and parasitoids₃. These compounds have been tested in different ways to determine the exact effect it would have on herbivores such as Spodoptera frugiperda and Eois species, a generalist and specialist caterpillar respectively. Depending on the classification of the herbivore (i.e. generalist, specialist, or mutualist) a different effect can be seen depending on the mixture used. Three different interactions can arise from mixtures of PSM’s: additive, synergistic, or antagonistic₂,₃,₄. A synergistic effect is one where the overall effect of compounds interacting is greater than the expected additive value of those compounds. An additive effect is when the overall compound effect is equal to the added value of each compound taken individually. An antagonistic effect is when the sum value of a mixture is less than that of the sum of all individual compounds.

Synergistic interactions are important in many scientific fields from ecology to pharmacology₇.

One family of plant species that is of high interest due to its high biodiversity is Piperaceae₁₂,₁₈.

There are two main genera within this family, Peperomia and Piper. Between these two genera, over 2000 different species have been identified₁₈. Many of these species have been used throughout the world and are important in traditional medicine in Latin America and Asia. Forms of biological activity associated with species of Piper include: anti-microbial, anti-biotic, antimalarial, local anesthetic, and as an insecticide₇,₁₂,₁₈. The ethnopharmaceutical value of these plants have steadily been studied, reassuring the potential applications Piper species have₁₈.

The leaves and fruit of Piper have been used as a form of medicine for many years in many parts of the world₈. Isolated compounds from a species of Piper, P. solmsianum, were screened against many different forms of opportunistic fungal infections that effect patients after surgery. The fungi tested in this experiment were various species of mycoses and a few yeast including the clinical important species Candida albicans₁₁. Upon screening, not all isolated compounds showed an effect as anticipated. The Piper isolates conocarpan, eupomaternoid-5, and orientin showed the greatest inhibitory effect on dermatophytes₁₁. The presence of any of these isolates gave a similar effect as seen in one of the controls, the anti-fungal drug ketoconazole. However, the same

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compounds did not have as great an effect on yeast. The single isolated compounds and mixtures were tested on these types of fungi, however specific mixtures of these compounds were not tested to see their overall effect.

The goal of this project is to identify biologically active compounds in a species of Piper possessing a desired effect. The bioassays to be ran will test for growth inhibition of root length or cell growth.

The first objective is to successfully screen wild type strands of E. coli, S. cerevisiae, and A. thaliana in rich growth media while in the presence of a concentrated extract of a Piper extract. The second objective is to select a potent species of Piper and continue with characterization of the chemical mixture. The third objective is to follow through with these extracts and isolate compounds using bioassay guided isolation. The fourth objective is to screen the isolated molecules and mixtures on the model organism it showed an inhibition effect on to identify a possible synergistic interaction.

Methods Preparation of Piper extracts for growth inhibition screens: Leaf samples from various Piper species were dried, homogenized and extracted. Each extract was evaporated to dryness and weighed. Each extract was resuspended in methanol at a concentration of 80mg/mL based on the dried extract mass. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation for 1 min. at 10,000rpm, and the supernatant was transferred to a new tube. Samples were stored at -20º C until further use.

Arabidopsis thaliana, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Escherichia coli growth inhibition assays: Escherichia coli strain DH5α cells were plated on Luria Broth (LB) solid media and incubated at 37° C for 12 hours. A single colony was used to inoculate a 10 mL LB liquid culture, which was incubated at 37° C for 12 hours with shaking. This culture was used to prepare samples for growth assays. Saturated E. coli cultures were diluted 100-fold in liquid LB and vortexed to mix. 1µL of Piper-derived methanol extracts or other small molecule fractions was added to the samples and vortexed. Samples were arrayed into individual wells of a flat bottom 96-well plate (Greiner BioOne, Frickenhausen, Germany), and sealed with clear adhesive film (Fisherbrand, Loughborough, United Kingdom). E. coli samples containing no additives or equal amounts of organic solvent were included in each plate as negative controls. The plate was placed in a SpectraMax M2e 96-well plate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA) equilibrated at 37° C. The absorbance at 600 nm (OD₆₀₀) was measured every 5 minutes for 12 hours with an initial shake time of 5 seconds and a 3 second shake between each measurement interval. Growth curve data was collected by SoftMax Pro 6.6.2 software (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA) and exported to Prizm 6 (GraphPad Software, Inc., La Jolla, CA) for data analysis. Growth curves were analyzed in Prizm 6 by calculating the Area Under the Curve (AUC) as a measurement of total growth for each sample.

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Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth curves were measured in a similar manner. S. cerevisiae strain S288c cells were plated on yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) solid media and incubated for 2 days at 30° C. A single colony was used to inoculate a 10 mL liquid YPD culture, which was incubated at 30° C with shaking for 18 hours. Saturated S. cerevisiae cultures were diluted 100-fold into liquid YPD and 1 µL of each extract or small molecule fraction to be tested was added and vortexed to mix thoroughly. Samples were arrayed into individual wells of a 96-well plate and sealed with clear adhesive film. Solvent controls and control samples containing no additives were also included as described above. A sterile needle was used to puncture a small hole in the top of each well to allow for gas exchange. Plates were loaded into a Spectramax M2e 96-well plate reader equilibrated at 30° C, and the OD₆₀₀ was measured in 5 minute intervals for 18 hours with an initial 30 seconds shake and 30 seconds of shaking between measurement intervals. Growth curves were collected and analyzed as described above.

Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 seeds were surface sterilized with a seed cleaning solution (3% [v/v] sodium hypochlorite, 0.1 % [w/v] sodium dodecylsulfate) for 20 minutes at 25° C. The seed cleaning solution was removed and seeds were washed 5 times in 0.7mL of sterile water. Seeds were resuspended in a final volume of 0.7 mL of sterile water and incubated at 4° C for two days.

Seeds were plated on MS media (1/2 X Murashige and Skoog [MS] salts, MES-KOH pH 5.7, 1 % [w/v] sucrose, 1 % [w/v] phytoagar) with or without the addition of 80mg/mL Piper extracts. Plants were grown vertically in a growth chamber at 22° C on a long day cycle for seven days. The roots of each seedling were straightened, and the resulting plants were imaged on a flatbed scanner.

Root lengths were measured using ImageJ (http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/) and analyzed in Prism 6.

Activity Screen: After each isolation step, a bioassay was conducted to measure inhibition of S. cerevisiae cell growth. The same protocol was used as in the initial screens using an 80mg/mL solution with the associated organism.

Liquid-liquid partitioning of Extract: Two methods were used to partition the crude extract of P. holdridgeanum. Two separate samples were prepared, one per method.

Method 1: Samples of P. holdridgeanum were collected from La Selva National Laboratory in Costa Rica.

Dried P. holdridgeanum was ground to a fine powder in an electric grinder and transferred to a vial, and weighed. The plant material was transferred to a 250mL Erlenmeyer flask, and resuspended in 100mL of methanol. The sample was sonicated for 10 minutes. The sample was then filtrated through a disposable polyethylene filter funnel three times. The sample was then transferred to a

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500mL round bottom flask and evaporated to dryness using a BUCHI R-114 rotary evaporation device (BUCHI Labortechnik, Flawil, Switzerland).

200mL of 70 % [v/v] aqueous ethanol was added to the crude extract, and this sample was briefly sonicated to fully resuspend the extract. The sample was transferred to a 250mL separatory funnel, and 50mL of hexanes (C₆H₁₄) was added. The solvent system was mixed by rotation with occasional venting to prevent gas build up. The aqueous and hexanes fractions were collected, and this extraction process was repeated four times. The aqueous fraction was returned to the separatory funnel, and 50mL of chloroform (CHCl3) was added. This was repeated four times. All partitions were placed on a rotary evaporation device to dry down.

Method 2: More plant material was collected from La Selva National Laboratory in Costa Rica. Dried P. holdridgeanum leaves was grounded using liquid nitrogen in a mortar and pestle into a fine powder. The plant material was added to a 500mL Erlenmeyer flask with 400mL of a MeOH:H₂O (3:1) mixture and placed on a stir plate overnight. The flask was then removed from the stir plate and decanted using vacuum filtration with a disposable polyethylene filter funnel. The collected filtrate was added to a 1000mL round bottom flask and placed on a rotary evaporation device to remove solvent. The flask had another 400 mL of 3:1 MeOH:H₂O added and placed on a stir plate overnight. This process was repeated three times, following the same procedure each time.

The crude extract was resuspended in 175mL of 70 % [v/v] aqueous ethanol. The solution was transferred to a 500mL separatory funnel and had 75mL of hexanes added. The solvents were mixed by rotation and occasionally vented to prevent gas build up. The resulting hexanes layer was filtered into a 500mL round bottom flask, and the aqueous layer returned to the funnel. This process was repeated five times for a total of 350mL hexanes used. After the fifth hexanes cycle, 75mL of chloroform was added to the aqueous layer and mixed by rotation, venting occasionally to prevent gas build up. The same procedure was followed to partition the chloroform layer as the hexanes layer. A total of five cycles was done using a total of 350mL of chloroform. Each partition was placed on a rotary evaporation device to remove excess solvent present.

Separation by Sephadex LH-20 column: Liquid chromatography was performed by using a Sephadex LH-20 (GE Healthcare, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom) column. Sephadex LH-20 is a specialized dextran used for separation of small molecular weight natural products. The beads were prepared by swelling for three hours before use. The beads were placed in a separatory funnel. The active partition was McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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resuspended in 2mL of methanol and evenly dispersed across the bed of the column. The resuspended partition was allowed to enter the column completely, then had a reserve of methanol added to maintain a constant flow rate of 1 ml/min using gravity filtration. Two column volumes were ran and collected in 5mL fractions. The collected fractions were then tested using thin layer chromatography (TLC).

TLC analysis: A small portion of Sephadex LH-20 fractions were tested on UV active TLC silica plates. A solvent system of chloroform:methanol (95:5) was used. Fractions were compared side by side and grouped into larger fractions based on similar compounds identified. Similar fractions were grouped and placed in labeled vials, obtaining a mass for each.

Biotage Isolera Flash Chromatography: Further separation was conducted using flash chromatography on a Biotage Isolera. A 5g SiO2 column was used for separation. Material was dissolved in 400mL of dichloromethane and placed on the bed of the SiO2 column, evenly distributed across. A hexanes:ethyl acetate solvent system was used, ramping up the ethyl acetate from 20 % to 100 %. Methanol was used at the end of the cycle to remove any remaining compounds from the column. Collected fractions are dried down and weighed to obtain a mass. NMR is obtained for each fraction to determine purity.

Gas Chromatography/ Mass Spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis: 300ÂľL of the hexanes layer was collected and added to 700ÂľL of dichloromethane to be ran for a Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. The same amount of the chloroform partition was collected and diluted in the same manner. Samples of each Sephadex LH-20 fraction were diluted in dichloromethane. The samples were placed in GC vials containing inserts and ran.

Blanks containing dichloromethane were used to ensure no residual material give rise to signals.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis: The crude extract had an NMR sample prepared in deuterated chloroform (CDCl3). The sample was placed in an NMR machine (Agilent Technologies, Folsom, CA) and ran using standard proton parameters. NMR spectra was obtained using VnmrJ software (Agilent Technologies). An NMR sample was taken after each isolation step to determine purity of the compound, as well as for structure determination.

Results Crude extracts were used in order to test the biological activity of various species of Piper. The prepared crude methanolic extracts were added to either diluted S. cerevisiae cells, diluted E. coli

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cells, or A. thaliana growth media and allowed to grow in its optimal growth conditions. For E. coli and S. cereivisiae cells the experiment was done in triplicate (biological replicates) and each contained four identical replicates. The area under the growth curve (AUC) value was obtained from each experiment to create an arbitrary value capable of comparison between the various species shown in figure 1. For A. thaliana seedlings the experiment was conducted in duplicate with multiple seedlings (n>10) on each plate. The root length of each seedling was measured and compared to the control length in order to obtain an arbitrary value for comparison. A heat map that shows values that are indicative of high biological activity (red) and low biological activity (blue) was created from the obtained ratio values and is shown in figure 1. E. coli had the least amount of growth inhibition when exposed to the crude extracts of Piper. No Piper species had an effect that exceeded 50 % inhibition of growth. The majority of species had an effect less than 20 %. While no species had a potent effect against E. coli, inhibition on S. cerevisiae was much more potent for a single species. The rate of inhibition for species identification HOL1 was 92 % over the 18 hour growth period. HOL1 was identified as P. holdridgeanum.

Table 1: Species identification code and its collected mass. Initial extracts for bioassays where the amount of methanol used in µL was calculated based on an 80mg/mL concentration.

Species ID XAN1 TON1 PSD1 PRI1 GRG1 CON1 HOL1 PAU1 URO1 URP1 GEN2 GLA2 NDF1 SLV1 UBC3 COL2

Mass (mg) 165.8 160.2 9 71.4 19 49.1 35.7 59.8 98.2 80.3 130.1 7.9 90.2 94.6 64.5 219.4

µL 2072.5 2002.5 112.5 892.5 237.5 613.75 446.25 747.5 1227.5 1003.75 1626.25 98.75 1127.5 1182.5 806.25 2742.5

Species ID PER1 MEL1 ARB1 DEC1 S-F1 RET1 PEL1 BIS1 CENO1 MPV1 AUR2 IMP2 CYP1 BIO1 UMB1

Mass (mg) 298.8 4.2 27 132.1 96 101.2 88.1 122.4 141.8 173.6 95 152.5 66.6 70.8 137.5

µL 3735 52.5 337.5 1651.25 1200 1265 1101.25 1530 1772.5 2170 1187.5 1906.25 832.5 885 1718.75

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Figure 1: Multiple model organism growth inhibition assays of 31 Piper methanolic extracts. Piper methanolic extracts were screened against E. coli, S. cerevisiae, and A. thaliana to determine growth inhibition. Heat map of 31 screened species was obtained showing highest inhibitory activity in red.

The initial growth curve for HOL1 was ran alongside PAU1 and URO1 as shown in figure 2A. While PAU1 and URO1 showed minimal change in growth as compared to the controls, HOL1 showed a

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drastic effect showing no visible growth over the 18 hour growth period. The obtained AUC value for HOL1 was 0.8467 while the other extracts had values of 9.731 and 10.45 for PAU1 and URO1 respectively, shown in figure 2B. Using the control AUC of 11.05 the growth percentage of the three extracts was 7.7 %, 88.1 %, and 94.6 % for HOL1, PAU1, and URO1 respectively.

Figure 2: Automated growth curve and bar graph representation of selected extracts. Highest species with inhibition was shown for S. cerevisiae for HOL1 identified as P. holdridgeanum.

Comparative growth curves are shown for HOL1 against controls and species showing little activity (A). Area under the curve (AUC) of the growth curves were obtained and used to compare relative growth rate of S. cerevisiae in the presence of a Piper extract (B).

A dilution series of the overall crude methanolic extract of P. holdrigeanum was conducted to test for the potency of concentration on inhibition of growth. Dilutions were made in methanol ranging from 24mg/mL to 80mg/mL. Growth of S. cerevisiae became readily more visible as the concentrations decreased. Figure 3A showed that a slight decrease in concentration from 80mg/mL to 72mg/mL was enough to exhibit cell growth. The AUC obtained from the curves were 8.207, 7.558, 6.51, 2.379, 1.783, 0.9677, and 0.7771 in an increasing order of concentration. Figure 2B shows the increasing concentration gradually lowers the obtained AUC values, reinforcing the growth curves from figure 2A. The control AUC was obtained to be 12.37 giving growth percentages of 66.3 %, 61.1 %, 52.6 %, 19.2 %, 14.4 %, 7.8 %, and 6.3 % in the same increasing order. The potency of the extract decreases readily, giving roughly 50 % growth at a 40mg/mL concentration.

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Figure 3: Dilution series of methanolic P. holdridgeanum extract. Multiple dilutions of the overall methanolic P. holdridgeanum extract was tested to determine the difference in potency based on concentration. Comparative growth curves shown of the various dilutions against S. cerevisiae (A).

AUC of the growth curves were obtained to compare the relative growth of each dilution against S. cerevisiae (B).

11.54g of P. holdridgeanum was used to prepare a crude methanolic extract. The crude extract of P. holdridgeanum was partitioned using liquid-liquid extraction. Three layers, aqueous, hexanes, and chloroform, were obtained. The aqueous partition was discarded and the hexanes and chloroform were collected in separate round bottom flasks. 499mg of the chloroform partition was collected.

Extra controls that included HPLC grade hexanes and chloroform were used to ensure the solvents were not responsible for any growth inhibition obtained. The individual partitions and mixtures were tested, and the chloroform partition and mixtures showed inhibition. The growth curves shown in figure 4A show growth was greatly inhibited in the presence of the chloroform partition, but not for the hexanes. The two mixtures showed growth inhibition. More growth was present in the mixture with more hexanes, thus showing that diluting the chloroform partition assisted in decreasing growth inhibition. The AUC obtained from the curves were 9.904, 1.109, 5.04, and 3.481 for the hexanes, chloroform, 2:1 hexanes:chlroform mixture, and the 1:1 hexanes: chloroform mixture respectively. Figure 4B exemplifies the potency of the chloroform partition by its low AUC value as compared to the controls. Growth percentage for the given AUC values translated to 82.1%, 9.2%, 41.8%, and 28.9% respectively.

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Figure 4: Solvent partitioning of P. holdridgeanum crude methanolic extract. Growth curves for partitions obtained from the crude methanolic extract ran against S. cerevisiae. Average growth curves showing inhibitory effects of partitions and two mixtures(A). AUC of each growth curve shows the relative growth of S. cerevisiae cells in the presence of each individual partition and mixtures (B).

The chloroform partition was chosen to proceed with isolation of natural products for its potent inhibition of S. cerevisiae cells. The partition was taken up in 2mL methanol and further fractionated using a Sephadex LH-20 column. A total of 71 fractions were obtained from the column, with each analyzed using thin-layer chromatography (TLC) for grouping of similar compounds. TLC analysis showed no visible compounds appear until fraction 8. 11 total fraction groups were formed: 8-13, 14-18, 19-24, 25-30, 31-39, 40, 41-45, 46-50, 51-55, 56-61, and 62-71.

Collected mass for the grouped fractions were 114.8mg, 114.9mg, 103.5mg, 15mg, 2.5mg, 6.9mg, 6.7mg, 6.6mg, 5.4mg, and 0.9mg in the same order. Of the 11 groups obtained, only two showed the growth inhibition characteristic of the crude and chloroform partition. Figure 5A showed fractions 14-18 and fractions 19-24 have the potent growth inhibition. The AUC values obtained from the curves for fractions 14-18 was 0.5625 and for fractions 19-24 was 0.6572 obtained from figure 5B. This transitions to a growth percentage of 5.1% for fractions 14-18 and 5.9% for fractions 19-24. All grouped fractions were analyzed on a TLC plate side-by-side for observation of specific compounds using a 95:5 chloroform:methanol solvent system. Figure 6 shows a TLC plate with all fractions developed by a Cerium Ammonium Molybdate (CAM) stain. Fractions 14-18 and 19-24 were highlighted as inhibition was achieved with these fractions. Fractions 14-18 developed three McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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spots, one smearing near the baseline and two halfway up the solvent line. Fractions 19-24 developed four spots, one well defined spot near the baseline, and three defined spots halfway up the solvent line. Later fractions showed developed spots higher on the TLC plate, with fractions 4145, 46-50, 51-55, and 56-61 having a strong spot halfway up the solvent line. Fractions 41-45, 4650, and 51-55 showed spots close to the top of the solvent line, while the spot was absent from the active fractions.

Figure 5: Sephadex LH-20 column fractions of P. holdridgeanumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chloroform partition. Growth curves of S. cerevisiae on various fractions obtained from the Sephadex LH-20 column (A). The relative growth shown as a bar graph comparing the AUC of cell growth in the presence of each fraction against S. cerevisiae (B).

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Figure 6: Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) of a UV active plate for detection of compounds.

Multiple fractions obtained from the Sephadex LH-20 column were tested side by side on a TLC plate for the comparison of different molecules found in the various fractions. The plate was developed in a 95:5 Chloroform:Methanol solvent system. The plate was developed using a Cerium Ammonium Molybdate (CAM) stain.

Figure 7: Chromatogram of fractions 19-24 ran on a SiO2 flash column. The active grouped fractions 19-24 from the Sephadex LH-20 column were ran on a flash column using a Biotage Isolera. UV light at 254nm and 280 nm was used to detect compounds.

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Fractions 19-24 were further fractionated using a 5g SiO2 column on a Biotage Isolera. 7.4mg of the fraction was taken up in 40mL of dichloromethane and placed on the column bed. Two peaks were obtained using the hexanes:ethyl acetate solvent system ramping from 20% ethyl acetate to 100% ethyl acetate. As seen in figure 7, the first peak appeared in fraction 5 and declined in fraction 6 once 100% ethyl acetate was used. The following peak began in fraction 7 and declined in fraction 9. These fractions were grouped as fractions 5-6 and 7-9. The obtained fractions had a mass of 2.7mg and 4.2mg respectively. An additional 750mL of methanol was used to wash the column, and a third peak was obtained in fraction 17. The obtained mass for this fraction was 2.6mg. The remaining non-UV active fractions were also collected and were 1-4, 6/10, 11-15, and 16/18-20. The collected mass was 3.4mg, 0.4mg, 0.6mg, and 1.3mg respectively. These obtained fractions were used in bioassays to test for growth inhibition. All were set to a standard concentration of 80mg/mL. Figure 8A showed that combinations of various fractions had minimal to no growth inhibition that was seen by the starting Sephadex fractions. A recombination of all obtained fractions was conducted and ran alongside Sephadex fractions 19-24 as a control. Figure 8B showed that the recombination did not exhibit the same potency as the starting fractions.

Figure 8: All flash column fractions obtained screened against S. cerevisiae. Combinations were created using UV and non-UV active fractions obtained from the flash column. Growth curves of S. cerevisiae against various mixtures of UV active and non-UV active fractions (A). Recombination of all fractions obtained was tested against S. cerevisiae (B).

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Discussion Various species of Piper were tested against model organisms to show possible applications of the extracts. The extracts have potential to obtain anti-microbial and herbicidal compounds. No extract had potent activity against the bacteria E. coli showing that these plants did not possess potent anti-bacterial properties as a crude extract. Although there could be potential for anti-bacterial activity in these plants, those compounds are not found in the leaves of any of the species screened.

Some species were unable to be tested against A. thaliana due to the low quantity of extract available. PSD1, GRG1, GLA2, MEL1, and ARB1 all had around 100ÂľL of available extract. Root growth assays consumed 50ÂľL of extract, making it unpractical to use in those circumstances. Of the tested extracts against A. thaliana three showed greater than 50 % inhibition, and one with greater than 80 % inhibition. Of the three, RET1 showed a 90 % root length reduction when compared to seedlings grown on plates with no extract incorporated. RET1, identified as P. reticulatum, has previously been studied. While the secondary metabolite profile has been investigated for this species, there can be potential in investigating the metabolites responsible for the potent reduction in root growth.

Only one species showed potent inhibition of growth on S. cerevisiae cells. P. holdridgeanum had no visible growth of cells in the 96-well plate after its growth cycle. This extract showed potential for reducing the cells ability to deviate or could kill the cells when exposed to specific metabolites in the extract. While the mechanism of action by which this extract works is not currently known, it could have potential use as an anti-fungal. Samples kept for more than two days showed no signs of growth, backing up the results given in the 18 hour run from the bioassays. No extract showed as great an impact in any of the tested organisms as P. holdridgeanum, giving us an optimal target to follow up on with isolation. A dilution series of the overall crude extract gives a good idea of what concentration is necessary to cause inhibition. We saw that even after slightly diluting the extract, to a concentration of 72mg/mL, growth in the wells returned slightly. As expected, decreasing concentration gave more cell growth over time. This could possibly be due to the active compound or compounds being present in a low concentration when compared to the other metabolites of the extract that diluting it slightly causes a huge shift in the active compound concentration. While this could be the case, which can be backed by the dilution curves, it may also be plausible that multiple compounds need to be present and one is virtually gone after dilution.

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holdridgeanum extract. The crude extract was partitioned into an aqueous layer, hexanes layer, and chloroform layer. The aqueous layer contained mostly sugars, which did not show any activity enabling it to be discarded. The hexanes layer contained the fairly non-polar compounds, while the chloroform extracted the polar compounds from the crude extract. After running a bioassay using these partitions, we were able to identify the chloroform partition as the active layer, indicating that the biologically important compound or compounds is relatively polar and soluble in chloroform. A slight decrease was observed in the hexanes, although this can be due to some compounds found primarily in the chloroform layer.

Further fractionation of the chloroform partition was conducted on a Sephadex LH-20 column. This column is a size exclusion column specialized for small metabolites. As the column eluted the metabolites, the larger compounds eluted first. When tested using TLC analysis, a polar solvent system was used for better separation of the fractions. A 95:5 chloroform:methanol solvent system allowed for good resolution of spots on UV active TLC plates when compared to less polar solvents such as ethyl acetate and hexanes. The obtained fractions that showed inhibition eluted earlier on in the run, 14-18 and 19-24, indicating that the active metabolite or metabolites are of the larger compounds found in the fraction. This can be backed by the size exclusion principle used for eluting using the Sephadex LH-20 column.

The active fractions 19-24 were applied to a silica (SiO2) column and ran on a flash column. The two peaks obtained using flash chromatography were eluted with 100 % ethyl acetate, and a third with 100 % methanol. Methanol needed to be applied after the final run to obtain the last peak.

This may indicate that compounds are inclined to stick to the silica column and either may not elute or elute after application of a strong polar solvent. The obtained fractions gave negative results, and also gave negative results when recombined with the non-UV active fractions. This could have implications on the techniques and material used to further isolate compounds. Silica has the potential to inactivate a compound by interacting and altering the structure, giving plausible reason to the negative result after recombining all fractions from this run. Another reason could be the affinity silica has to the active compounds. If the affinity is high enough, the compounds will stick to the column and fail to elute regardless of the solvent. This result gives rise to other approaches in which isolation may continue, such as the use of C18 column or using reverse phase techniques. This project is still currently being conducted, and efforts will continue to be made in identifying the compounds responsible for growth inhibition of S. cerevisiae cells.

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FEDERICO URBANO-MUNOZ Acknowledgements I would like to thank my Ronald E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program mentors Dr. Christopher S. Jeffrey, Dr. Lora A. Richards, and Dr. Ian S. Wallace for the tremendous amount of support and guidance during my undergraduate research career. I would also like to thank Dr. Craig D. Dodson for his incredible guidance and support in the isolation portion of this project. My desire to continue working towards a doctorate degree would not be where it is today without the guidance and support of my mentors. Lastly, I would like to thank the McNair Scholars program, Perry Fittrer, and Heather Williams for giving me the opportunity to be a part of the program.

References 1. Gershenzon, J., Fontana, Anna (Department of Biochemistry, M. P. I. for C. E., Burow, M., Wittstock, U. & Degenhardt, Joerg (Institute of Pharmacy, M. L. U. of H.-W. in The Ecology of Plant Secondary Metabolites: From Genes to Global Processes 56–77 (2012).

2. Jones, C. G. & Firn, R. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 333, 273–280 (1991).

3. Dyer, L. a et al. Synergistic effects of three Piper amides on generalist and specialist herbivores.

J. Chem. Ecol. 29, 2499–2514 (2003).

4. Richards, L. A., Dyer, L. A., Smilanich, A. M. & Dodson, C. D. Synergistic Effects of Amides from Two Piper Species on Generalist and Specialist Herbivores. J. Chem. Ecol. 36, 1105–1113 (2010).

5. Rasmann, S. & Agrawal, A. a. Plant defense against herbivory: progress in identifying synergism, redundancy, and antagonism between resistance traits. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 12, 473–478 (2009).

6. Zhang, J., Chung, T.D.Y., Oldenburg, K. R. A Simple Statistical Parameter for Use in Evaluation and Validation of High Throughput Screening Assays. (1999).

7. De Campos, M. P. et al. Evaluation of antifungal activity of Piper solmsianum C. DC. var. solmsianum (Piperaceae). Biol. Pharm. Bull. 28, 1527–1530 (2005).

8. Bucar, F., Wube, A. & Schmid, M. Natural product isolation--how to get from biological material to pure compounds. Nat. Prod. Rep. 30, 525–45 (2013).

9. Yang, J. Y. et al. Molecular networking as a dereplication strategy. J. Nat. Prod. 76, 1686–1699 (2013).

10. Firn R. 2010. Nature’s Chemicals: The Natural Products that Shaped Our World. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 127-171 11. Brown, G. & Denning, D. Hidden killers: human fungal infections. Sci. Transl. Med. 4, 1–9 (2012).

12. Dyer, L. a. & Palmer, A. D. N. Piper : A Model Genus for Studies of Phytochemistry , Ecology , and Evolution. (2004). doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30599-8 13. Ghannoum, M. a & Rice, L. B. Antifungal agents: mode of action, mechanisms of resistance, and correlation of these mechanisms with bacterial resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12, 501–517 (1999).

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14. Newman, D. J. & Cragg, G. M. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the 30 years from 1981 to 2010. J. Nat. Prod. 75, 311–335 (2012).

15. Pichersky, E. & Gang, D. R. Genetics and biochemistry of secondary metabolites in plants: An evolutionary perspective. Trends Plant Sci. 5, 439–445 (2000).

16. Xu, Wen-Hui, Li, X.-C. Anitfungal Compounds from Piper Species. Changes 29, 997–1003 (2012).

17. Sasidharan, S., Chen, Y., Saravanan, D., Sundram, K. M. & Yoga Latha, L. Extraction, isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds from plants’ extracts. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement.

Altern. Med. 8, 1–10 (2011).

18. Perez Gutierrez, R.S., Neira Gonzalez, A.M., Hoyo-Vadillo, C. Alkaloids from Piper: A Review of its Phytochemistry and Pharmacology. Min. Rev. Med. Chem. 13, 13-193 (2013).

19. Sebaugh, J. L. Guidelines for accurate EC50/IC50 estimation. Pharm. Stat. 10, 128–134 (2011).

20. Dewanjee, S., Gangopadhyay, M., Bhattabharya, N., Khanra, R., & Dua, T. K. Bioutography and its scope in the field of natural products chemistry. J. Pharm. Anal. 5, 75-84 (2014).

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Testing gravity up close: A new method

Jose Valencia Major: Engineering Physics Mentor: Dr. Andrew Geraci Graduated: 2016 Enrolled: PhD Program Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder

There is an outstanding puzzle in high energy physics: why is gravity so weak compared to the other Standard Model forces? Finding an answer can lead to new interesting physics, and by measuring gravity â&#x20AC;&#x153;up-closeâ&#x20AC;? it is possible to find an explanation for this mystery [1]. At the University of Nevada, Reno, Dr. Geraci is developing an experiment using levitated silica beads in vacuum to test gravity at short distances [2]. Theoretically, this experiment will exceed the sensitivity of current systems by 6 orders of magnitude, allowing new searches for non-Newtonian gravitational forces [2]. In particular, A MEMS-actuator (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System) has been designed, built, and characterized to assist in the experiment and its details of theoretical preparation, manufacturing details, and calibration are explained. The actuator serves to modulate the distance of a source mass from the silica bead, which acts as the test mass in the experiment. The MEMS device has a goal objective of capacitively oscillating a cantilever with an amplitude of ~2.6 um and at 2 kHz. The cantilever oscillates promisingly at its resonance frequency of 1.99 kHz for the fundamental flexural mode, and the higher order resonant modes of the cantilever match well with Bernoulli-Euler Theory. The amplitude of motion is compared with theoretical expectations. The amplitude was measured to be 172 nm at a nominal value of driving voltage, suggesting a maximum amplitude of 19 um at maximum applied voltages, greatly exceeding the requirements. Thus this system shows substantial promise for use as the driving mechanism for the source mass in the gravity experiment.

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JOSE VALENCIA List of Figures: Figure 1: Taken from [2]. The figure shows a nanosphere trapped in an optical trap.

Figure 2: Taken from [2] shows the new possible explorations of the proposed system for nonNewtonian forces Figure 3 & Figure 4: Figure 5: Equation (5) shows the allowable separation distance for capacitive driving according to cantilever length that will fulfill 2.6 um lateral displacement Figure 6: Equation (5) is graphed for a critically damped cantilever beam projected for a lateral displacement of 2.6 um.

Figure 7: The Paschen curve places limits on the power supplies.

Figure 8: Table with the first 6 theoretical flexural and lateral resonant frequencies.

Figure 9: Table of multiplicative factors between flexural resonance frequencies.

Figure 10: Table of theoretical torsion modes Figure 11: Table of multiplicative factors between torsional resonance frequencies Figure 12: An image of the completed assembly of the cantilever is placed for testing.

Figure 13: A physical image of the stage where the cantilever rests on is shown.

Figure 14: [Taken from Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)]. Two SEM photos of the cantilever apparatus which are used to determine cantilever functionality.

Figure 15: The experimental setup driving the cantilever is shown.

Figure 16: A theoretical counterpart to Figure 15 is shown.

Figure 17: The process of the experiment is visually expressed; the driving setup and data collection is chronologically shown.

Figure 18: Data collected from an oscilloscope readout of the function generator, In-Phase, and Out-of-Phase outputs of the lock-in amplifier.

Figure 19: The x-direction voltage-to-distance ratio is found by measuring the voltage after moving the quadrant 1mil tick repeatedly with the X-Y thorlabs stage.

Figure20: The y-direction voltage-to-distance ratio is found by measuring the voltage after moving the quadrant 1 mil tick repeatedly with the X-Y thorlabs stage.

Figure 21: First-mode cantilever approximation as circular displacement Figure 22: First-mode cantilever approximation as circular displacement (cont.)

Figure 23: Table of x-direction cantilever modes with details of resonant frequency, amplitude, width, quality factor, and displacement at quadrant.

Figure 24: Table of y-direction cantilever modes with details of resonant frequency, amplitude, width, quality factor, and displacement at quadrant.

Figure 25: Cantilever data analyzed for driving-cantilever properties.

Figure 26: Y-data of cantilever resonant frequencies compared to theoretical.

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Figure 27: X-data of cantilever resonant frequencies compared to theoretical.

Figure 28: Comparison of flexural, X and Y, experimental to theoretical multiplicative factors.

Figure 29: Displacement at cantilever vs theoretical displacement at cantilever Figure 30: Amplitude at quadrant graphed over different applied AC voltages, showing AC and DC voltage limits for capacitive driving.

Figure 31: Piezo displacing beam from quadrant detector when applied a voltage.

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Figure 27: X-data of cantilever resonant frequencies compared to theoretical.

Figure 28: Comparison of flexural, X and Y, experimental to theoretical multiplicative factors.

Figure 29: Displacement at cantilever vs theoretical displacement at cantilever Figure 30: Amplitude at quadrant graphed over different applied AC voltages, showing AC and DC voltage limits for capacitive driving.

Figure 31: Piezo displacing beam from quadrant detector when applied a voltage.

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JOSE VALENCIA SKILLS LEARNED: The last 3 years have been a blast, and while initially I tried taking a job at UNR to escape the catering life, I soon became invested and started coming into lab regularly. I learned various skills from computational skills to turning a wrench. The experience of creating devices and learning the methodology for conducting physics has been monumental. I almost got a federal job! But I turned it down when I got accepted into CU Boulder for Physics; I couldn’t believe it. I got into my top school, which would’ve been impossible without the research experience I had here and the various skills I’ve learned. I learned how to use Labview as a DAQ device; I researched with Cris Montoya on a previous experiment for atomic spin manipulation, giving me experience with optomechanics; I learned about Paul and ion traps; how to use comsol and mathematica; 10 MHz detectors; and now cantilever driving. I learned about cantilever vibrational interactions and MEMS preparation methods. For example, Cris gave a presentation about how he and Geraci created the source masses, and Cris and Geraci both steered and mentored me for this project when creating the MEMS apparatus. I applied these skills and learned of data analysis at the end of this project. I’ve learned so much but it would take another paper to fully describe the skills I’ve accumulated over the years, so I will end it here. Thanks for everything.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Initially, I would like to thank all the physics, math, and engineering faculty at UNR for preparing me for grad school. I especially want to thank Andrew Geraci for his valuable time and for inducting me into his lab. At the time, I had tried contacting professors to join a research group, but each time I was denied, so it’s invaluable to me that I finally was able to get into a research group. Thank you, and thanks everyone: Every undergrad has a grad, and Cris was my grad. He taught me research methodology when Andrew was away and slaved me by teaching me how to collimate beams or do other tasks and then proceeded to call me “master of collimation [or whatever]” to manipulate me to do his work.

It was great. “Excellent.”

Gambhir has always helped me whenever I needed him. Whenever I had nothing to do, I would ask him if he needed help and he would begin teaching me the theory of whatever he was doing, expanding my knowledge of the experiment. Sometimes I had to work with him in exchange. He also always blamed me for breaking his stuff even though I didn’t do anything. I swear; sometimes I wasn’t even in the lab and somehow it was my fault.

“Just do it. Make your dreams come true. JUST. DO. IT”-- Kirsten Casey. She says that to me a lot whenever I tell her that I don’t want to do it. Homework is just a real pain sometimes.

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JOSE VALENCIA A last minute thank you for Tim, who helped me stay up 24+ hours doing my thesis. Weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re the last minute thesis buddies! We played ping pong, which ended up trying to hit the ball as hard as we canâ&#x20AC;Ś I would also like to thank Big David, Professor Weinstein, Mark, Bella, Harry, April, Jake, and Chloe for the laughs and conversations weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve had. Lastly, but donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t forget them, Wade and Karl, thank you for helping me better myself with solidworks and sketches. Thanks for also taking machining to the smallest level. Without them, none of this wouldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve been possible.

MOTIVATION This type of research is fundamental since it deals with finding corrections to gravity and the Standard Model. Such corrections have been fueled by the hierarchy problem: a problem between the strength disparity of the weak force and the gravitational force. This difference could reveal novel field theories beyond the current Standard Model [1]. Therefore, exploration of deviations in gravity can potentially reveal new interesting physics, such as the mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking and the stabilization of the hierarchy problem [1].

Several theoretical predictions suggest a Yukawa-type correction to the gravitational potential as: đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;(đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;) =

đ?&#x2018;&#x2026; đ??ş â&#x2C6;&#x2122; đ?&#x2018;&#x161;1 đ?&#x2018;&#x161;2 1 + đ?&#x203A;ź â&#x2C6;&#x2122; đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; â&#x2C6;&#x2019;Îť đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;

Equation 1: Gravity potential with Yukawa correction.

Equation 1 has two parts: the left-most term including the blue section of the formula in the parenthesis is Newtonian gravity, and the right-most term including the red section of the formula within the parenthesis represents non-Newtonian gravity, the deviation from Newtonian gravity.

Newtonian gravity describes how things fall on Earth and how the planets orbit the sun. It is dependent on the masses of the objects, mâ&#x201A; and mâ&#x201A;&#x201A;, a gravitational constant, G, and the distance between the objects, R [2]. Non-Newtonian gravity is the deviation of gravity, where đ?&#x203A;ź is the strength and đ?&#x153;&#x2020; is the range of this new correction [2]. Because of the negative-powered exponential, the non-Newtonian correction becomes negligible at scales larger than đ?&#x153;&#x2020;, and the potential of gravity returns to be Newtonian. However, at short scales comparable to đ?&#x153;&#x2020;, the nonNewtonian correction becomes influential, so experiments testing for corrections must be at these scales [2]. The correction arises from new theories trying to unify all the Standard Model forces, explaining every physical interaction possible [2].

Such a theory is called a theory of everything, and one possible candidate is string theory.

However, due to the hierarchy problem, string theory suggests that there are new forces beyond

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the Standard Modelâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and thus, new force carriers that couple with gravitational strength [3].

Examples of such coupling mechanisms are called moduli; three examples are presented in Ref. [3].

The three presented moduli are called dilation, gauge, and the Yukawa moduli, which produce interactions between test masses which are parametrized through the đ?&#x203A;ź and đ?&#x153;&#x2020; variables given in equation 1 [3]. Previous experiments have already explored hypothetical regions of đ?&#x203A;ź and đ?&#x153;&#x2020; through various means and have excluded certain regions for hypothetical moduli [4].

PROPOSED EXPERIMENT The proposed system by Dr. Geraci uses levitated, dielectric nanospheres to explore new limits of short-scale gravity. The levitation decouples the nanospheres from the environment to prevent mechanical loss and to achieve high force-sensitivity [2]. Previous experimental work with lasers has shown dielectric particle levitation is possible [5], and previous theoretical and experimental work on levitated nanospheres has predicted center-of-mass cooling, allowing for sensitive displacement and force measuring [6], [7]. Thus, levitating and using a nanosphere for forcedetection is possible yet novel for gravitational exploration.

The experiment proposes trapping a levitated nanosphere near an oscillating source to test for non-Newtonian gravity. A nanosphere of 150 nm radius is trapped in an optical cavity via light, where the cavity enforces a standing-wave trap for the nanosphere [2]. In the trap, antinodes of the standing-wave trap the bead via the electric dipole effect. Meanwhile, the center-of-mass motion of the nanosphere is optically cooled with a feedback control system such that the centerof-mass motion is consistently monitored and cooled. At one end of the cavity, a 200 nm thick SiN membrane is coated in gold to act as a mirror for the trap. In order to induce gravitational interaction, the nanosphere is trapped closely to the mirror, where behind the mirror is a mass source [2]. Because the source mass is pressed closely to the mirror, the nanosphere is also trapped closely to the source mass. The mass source is of equal stacks of silicon and gold and is harmonically oscillated to gravitationally interact with the nanosphere [2]. The mass source provides a differential gravitational interaction due to its patterned density, allowing for a driven oscillation [2]. The source mass has a thickness of 5 um, a length of 20 um, and a repeated patterned density of 2 um [2]. This system is explicitly shown in figure 1.

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Figure 1: Taken from [2]. The figure shows a nanosphere trapped in an optical trap. The K_trap shows the trapping light entering the system while K_cool vector shows the cooling, feedback light dependent on the center-of-mass motion, δz, and the phase shift, δɸ. The phase shift is a consequence of the center-of-mass displacement, so K_cool is dependent on the nanosphereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s displacement motion [2]; this coupling allows for center-of-mass cooling and sensitive forcemeasuring. The δy is the mass oscillating behind the gold mirror with a thickness, t, and the stacks of color show its pattern of differential density. a in the figure is the nanosphere trapped by light some z distance away from the mirror [2].

The system proposes the nanosphere surface to be trapped 1 um, z, from the source mass [2]. The thickness of the mirror and spacing of the trapping mechanism is to ensure that the mass and bead are within đ?&#x153;&#x2020;-range of equation 1 in order to explore non-Newtonian forces. As mentioned, previous heroic endeavors have already explored many đ?&#x203A;ź and đ?&#x153;&#x2020; regions for equation 1 [3]; however, the proposed system theoretically promises yoctonewton force sensitivity, six orders of magnitude greater than current established systems [2]. Figure 2 shows the possible exploration of the proposed experiment and other endeavors that have explored non-Newtonian regimes.

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Figure 2: Taken from [2] shows the new possible explorations of the proposed system for nonNewtonian forces in red lines a and b with theoretical predictions outlined, showing possible corrections of gravity, like gauged, Yukawa, and dilation moduli. The yellow outline shows currently explored regimes of non-Newtonian gravity [2]. The two red lines come from the versatility of the proposed system: using various nanosphere masses allow for diverse exploration [2].

OBJECTIVE In particular, the focus of this thesis is to reveal the design, manufacturing, and characterization of a suitable apparatus that secures and oscillates the source mass. By using electrical and mechanical transducers, we propose a MicroElectrical-Mechanical System (MEMS) to secure and harmonically oscillate the source mass, with a flexural displacement of 2.6 um and at a frequency ~2 kHz to achieve gravitational interaction. Figure 3 and 4 show the apparatus and its purpose in the experiment.

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Figure 3 & Figure 4: Figure 3 shows the entire MEMS apparatus in SOLIDWORKS while Figure 4 reveals the cantilever-focused portion also in SOLIDWORKS. {Both images do not show the source mass on top of the cantilever}. A detailed account of the MEMS is made in figure 3. The Top and Bottom elbows attach the apparatus to an external actuator (not shown). The Proxy block connects two PZTs (piezoelectric transducers) while the Insulators insulate electrically charged blocks from shorting. The Clamp secures the cantilever-focused portion in figure 3. The Stage is where the Cantilever is placed on and interacts capacitively with the Cantilever. Figure 4 is an exaggeration that focuses on the cantilever interaction of the MEMS behind a gold mirror that is theoretically discussed in figure 1.

DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH This section illustrates the theoretical preparation, the manufacturing procedure, and lastly the calibration of the MEMS, respectively, through the subcategories Theoretical Needs, Manufacturing Procedures, and Calibration in light of the MEMS goals highlighted in Objective.

THEORETICAL NEEDS For gravitational interaction, the MEMS must oscillate the source mass at an amplitude of 2.6 um and at a frequency ~2kHz. Descriptions detailing the theoretical predictions for controlling flexural displacement are described in the subsection Flexural Parameters while details of frequency control are mentioned in the subsection Frequency Parameters.

FLEXURAL PARAMETERS To meet the first requirement, the source mass will be planted at the tip of a silicon cantilever, where the bottom of the cantilever is filmed with gold. The bottom, gold film will interact with a flat metal stage and act as a parallel plate capacitor with the stage. By placing external, harmonic

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(AC) and flat (DC) voltages on the plates, the separation distance of the capacitor is influenced to move harmonically and consequently move the source mass; this effect is called capacitive driving and defines the electromechanical aspect in MEMS for this apparatus.

The driving source for capacitive driving relies on the squared of the voltage source. Examining the voltage source with AC and DC sources allows for two different methods of driving.

2 2 đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; 2 = (đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś + đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś cosâ Ą (đ?&#x153;&#x201D;đ?&#x2018;Ą))2 = đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś + 2đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś cos(đ?&#x153;&#x201D;đ?&#x2018;Ą) + đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś cos(đ?&#x153;&#x201D;đ?&#x2018;Ą)2

Equation 2: Capacitive driving voltage dependency Because we are driving at certain frequencies and are expecting a sinusoidal signal as an output, the V_DC^2 constant may be neglected, which leaves us with two terms yet ă&#x20AC;&#x2013;cos(Ď&#x2030;t)ă&#x20AC;&#x2014;^2 may be rewritten.

2 2đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś cos(đ?&#x153;&#x201D;đ?&#x2018;Ą) + đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś

(cos(2đ?&#x153;&#x201D;đ?&#x2018;Ą) + 1) 2

Equation 3: Driving voltages that affect capacitive drive The two components are VAC dependent, but the first is at the driving frequency while the second is at twice the driving frequency. As well, the left term is dependent on VDC and is multiplied by two. The second term is cut in half, so already the first term is greater by a factor of 4 when VDC=VAC. In the limit the VDC >> VAC, the amplitude of the cantilever tip approximately follows: đ?&#x2018;?=

đ?&#x2018;&#x201E;đ?&#x153;&#x20AC;0 đ??´ đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ??žđ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x201C;đ?&#x2018;&#x201C; đ??ˇ2 đ??´đ??ś đ??ˇđ??ś

Equation 4: Displacement of cantilever tip Z is the displacement of the cantilever tip; Q is the quality factor of the cantilever; Îľ_0 is the permittivity of free space, A is the area of the capacitor; K_eff is the effective spring constant which describes the springy nature of the cantilever [8]; D is the separation distance of the capacitor plates; and lastly, VAC and VDC are the applied AC and DC voltages. These dimensions and voltages correspond to the amplitude of the displacement for the cantilever and, therefore, the amplitude of the source mass. By adjusting the parameters, it is possible to manipulate the flexural displacement of the source mass to be 2.6 um.

However, some of these parameters cannot be manipulated easily. For example, higher voltages are precarious due to their arcing possibilities, so the displacement cannot be solely increased by higher voltages. Also, the quality factor of the cantilever is dependent on its environment and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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cannot be controlled precisely. The variable Keff depends on the cantilever parameters, such as length and thickness, so cantilever fabrication must be accounted for. Overall, these parameters, voltage, quality factor, and lastly cantilever length and thickness will be theoretically explored with correlated hindrances to optimize the flexural motion of the source mass.

Approximate ranges of the cantilever thickness, length, quality factor, and power supply voltages are already known, so theoretical predictions can be made. The thickness of the cantilever, t, is ~30 um due to fabrication techniques, and the length of fabricated cantilevers, L, range from 1 to 4 millimeters because of multiple cantilevers. The quality factor can range from 0 to 1000; therefore, the quality factor will be taken into consideration to explore different environments. Three important environments will be calculated, such as the cantilever with no quality factor assistance (as if critically damped), damped by air molecules at room pressure, and finally in vacuum, respectively giving ½ , 25, and 1000 as numerical representations for these environments. The VAC can be up to 170 volts while VDC can be up to 200 volts due to power supply limitations.

The maximum separation distance can be found with these parameters, thus setting a limitation on capacitive driving. By rearranging equation (4) and replacing Keff=(E*w*t^3) / (4*L^3 ), [9] where E is the Youngâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s modulus of the cantileverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s material, silicon, w is the width of the cantilever, t is the thickness of the cantilever, and L is the length of the cantilever, the separation distance is found as: đ??ˇ=

4đ?&#x2018;&#x201E;đ?&#x153;&#x20AC;0 đ??´đ??ż3 đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ??¸đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;Ą 3 đ??´đ??ś đ??ˇđ??ś

Equation 5: Separation distance for capacitive driving Graphing this equation with the known variables and ranges of Q and L we find:

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Figure 5: Equation (5) shows the allowable separation distance for capacitive driving according to cantilever length that will fulfill 2.6 um lateral displacement. Three graphs, one for each quality factor, are shown with highlighted areas showing allowable separation distance. Noticeably, there is a relationship with a lower quality factor that the smaller the separation distance must be to fulfill the needed ~2.6 um displacement. Physically, this is because of the separation distance affecting the energy of the capacitor. Also, a higher quality factor correlates to a stronger oscillator with less damping, so less energy is needed to drive the cantilever.

With the lowest quality factor, it is possible to find distance limitations on capacitive driving, where a pass or fail criterion for capacitive driving can be made. Graphing only the ½ quality factor we find limitation as seen in figure 6.

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Figure 6: Equation (5) is graphed for a critically damped cantilever beam projected for a lateral displacement of 2.6 um. Like figure 5, the highlighted portion shows successful and possible lengths and separation distances for capacitive driving. An upper limit for separation distance is found for any cantilever length with V_AC = 170 v and V_DC= 200 v, revealing possible capacitive driving. A nominal separation distance is 60 um since most cantilevers fabricated are greater than 2.5 mm. For our current system, L = 4 mm, so the maximum tolerated separation distance is 132 um.

Using this nominal separation distance, however, capacitive driving can still arc with high voltages, causing damage to the cantilever and MEMS apparatus, so voltage limitations will be shown to prevent arcing. Arcing follows Paschenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Law which is an empirically found law that models the arcing breakdown voltage potential between two plates based on gas pressure, gas content, and separation distance. At vacuum, Paschenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law breaks down, and allows for high voltages between plates; however, at room pressure, Paschenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law can affect capacitive driving and arc. The breakdown voltage, VPB, is dependent on the gas content constant, B, the pressure, P, the separation distance, D, and an enigmatic ionization constant C [10].

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đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ??ľ

đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ??šđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x; đ??´đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x; 365 đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;&#x161; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;&#x192; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ??ˇ đ??ľâ&#x2C6;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;â&#x2C6;&#x2014;đ??ˇ = đ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x201D;(đ?&#x2018;&#x192; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ??ˇ + đ??ś) đ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x201D;(đ?&#x2018;&#x192; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ??ˇ) + 1.18)

Figure 7: The Paschen curve places limits on the power supplies. The figure gives the Paschen curve plotted in light blue against the product of pressure and distance two electrodes and a voltage difference. The red, green, and blue lines are cases at room pressure, 760 torr, and with a distance of 30 um, 50 um, 100 um, respectively.

As well, by using equation 6, the breakdown voltage for three different cases at room temperature are found with breakdown voltages of 415 V, 551 V, 864 V, allowing for the use of 370 V at room pressure for 30 um, 50 um, and 100 um distances.

FREQUENCY PARAMETERS The oscillation frequency relies on the voltage driving frequency, but because of the nature of damped systems, the cantilever will have a number of resonant frequencies. Resonance is a characteristic of damped systems at which the system naturally vibrates and depends on the boundary conditions of the system. Resonance is quantitatively measured by damping factor or the inverse, quality factor. The quality factor of the cantilever will amplify its vibrational amplitude at McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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resonant frequencies. The amplification of quality factor ushers the question to drive the cantilever on or off resonance for maximum displacement, however, with the consequences that the boundary conditions of the cantilever specifies fixed resonant frequencies. If resonance is used, the fixed frequencies must be calibrated to meet our Objectiveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal of ~2 kHz. As such, the cantilever can be fabricated to include ~2 kHz for resonance with Bernoulli-Euler theory (BE) [8]. The resonant frequencies for specific cantilever dimensions and boundary conditions can be approximated with BE theory in the case that the length is much larger than the height of the beam. The resonant frequencies for BE theory are defined as: đ?&#x153;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;2 đ??¸đ??ź đ?&#x2018;&#x201C;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; = 2 2đ?&#x153;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122; đ?&#x153;&#x152;đ??ś

Equation 7: Resonant modes of cantilever in BE regime f_j is the jth resonant frequency; Îť_j is the jth root of the frequency equation that satisfies cosh(Îť_j ) cos(Îť_j )=-1 due to the fixed-free boundary conditions of the cantilever [11]; l is the length of the cantilever; E is the Young modulus of the material; I is the moment of inertia for the cantilever; Ď is the density of the material; and lastly, C is the cross-sectional area of the beam. The roots of the frequency equation depends on the boundary conditions of the cantilever [8]. The flexural (out-ofplane) and lateral (in-plane) modes can be approximated with BE theory by having different cantilever physical properties. Approximating the thickness, t, to 30 um, the width to 400 um, the length to 4 mm, the material to be silicon, the approximate modes are found: Frequency Mode 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Flexural Frequency (Hz)

Lateral Frequency (Hz)

2227.82 13961.6 39093.2 76605.7 123634

29704.3 186155 521243 1.02141â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 106 1.68846â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 106

Figure 8: Table with the first 6 theoretical flexural and lateral resonant frequencies.

The multiplicative factor between each resonance mode can be found, which is directly related to the roots Îť_j^2:

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JOSE VALENCIA Frequency Mode Comparison 1st - 2nd 2nd - 3rd 3rd â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4th

Multiplicative actor 6.2669 2.8000 1.9596

Figure 9: Table of multiplicative factors between flexural resonance frequencies. Frequency mode is comparing two numbers, X-Y, and the multiplicative factor needed for the Xth number to equal the Yth. Torsional motion can also occur and with it resonant motion. With a cantilever, the torsional resonant-modes of the cantilever is dependent on the length and wave propagation [12]. đ?&#x2018;&#x201C;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; =

2đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 1 đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x2021; 4đ??ż

Equation 8: Torsional resonant frequencies for a cantilever đ??ş=

đ??¸ 2(1 + đ?&#x2018;Ł)

The nth resonant frequency, f_n, for torsional motion is dependent on the length, L, of the cantilever, and the wave propagation, C_T [12]. đ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x2021; =

đ??şđ?&#x203A;ž đ?&#x153;&#x152;đ??˝đ?&#x2018;?

Equation 9: Wave propagation in a cantilever The wave propagation is dependent on the shear modulus G=E/2(1+v) , where v is the poisson ratio for the material, the torsion constant, Îł, density, Ď , and polar moment of inertia, J_p [12].

The torsion constant and polar moment of inertia for a cantilever is given by equations 8 and 9 [12]. đ?&#x203A;ž â&#x2030;&#x2C6; đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;Ą

3

1 đ?&#x2018;Ą đ?&#x2018;Ą4 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; .21 1â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 3 đ?&#x2018;¤ 12đ?&#x2018;¤ 4

Equation 10: Torsion constant for torsion resonance đ??˝đ?&#x2018;? =

đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;Ą 12

(đ?&#x2018;Ą2 + đ?&#x2018;¤2 )

Equation 11: Polar mass moment of inertia for a cantilever McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Theoretical torsion modes for the cantilever are calculated in figure 10, and the multiplicative factors between resonant torsional modes are shown in figure 11.

Frequency Mode

Torsional Frequency (Hz)

1st

42114

2nd

126342

3rd

210570

4th

294798

5th

379026

Figure 10: Table of theoretical torsion modes Frequency Mode Comparison 1st - 2nd 2nd - 3rd 3rd – 4th 4th - 5th

Multiplicative factor 3 1.666 1.4 1.286

Figure 11: Table of multiplicative factors between torsional resonance frequencies MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES The machine and glass shop were both consulted for making the macroscopic blocks for the MEMS. The appendix section A goes into detail of each block with schematics. A detailed recipe for making the apparatus is given in appendix section B. The MEMS was built by gluing various components together with two epoxies: EPO-TEK 353ND® and epoxi-patch LOCTITE ® HYSOL ® 1C ™. 353ND was used to ensure strong connections while epoxi-patch glued weak joints in case for future breaking. As well, placers and a flat brass weight confirmed parallel and firm connections.

The cantilever is glued above the top metal stage with small Kapton film squares placed in between, roughly 60 um thick, to isolate it from the metal stage. Figure 12 shows the made MEMS apparatus. Figure 13 shows the “top” portion of the apparatus where different cantilevers are driven from.

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Figure 12: An image of the completed assembly of the cantilever is placed for testing. Figure 13: A physical image of the stage where the cantilever rests on is shown.

To determine empirical capacitive separation distance and cantilever function, the UNR scanning electron microscopy was used. The microscope determined if the cantilever was isolated from the apparatus and helped quantify the separation distance.

Figure 14: [Taken from Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)]. Two SEM photos of the cantilever apparatus which are used to determine cantilever functionality. The cantilever, which is the erect board in both pictures, has a separation distance of about 50 um from the metal stage. The separation distance must be empirically known due to its importance for capacitive driving as noted in the theoretical section.

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CALIBRATION AND RESULTS The calibration section is parsed into three sections handling the setup of the experiment, measuring experimental data, and lastly calibrating the cantilever and piezo, respectively.

SETUP The optical setup followed basic methodology for lens and mirror handling. ThorLab optomechanics were used with an 18x24 inch metallic breadboard for placement. A X-Y ThorLab stage was used to hold the quadrant detector for zeroing and calibration.

Figure 15: The experimental setup driving the cantilever is shown. The light from the He-Ne laser is focused on the tip of the cantilever and then it is collimated towards the quadrant detector. Once the cantilever is capacitively driven, the cantilever tip will oscillate and deflect the path of the laser on to the quadrant detector.

A quadrant detector is a photodetector circuit with four quadrant-placed receivers. The receivers are added or subtracted from each other to distinguish and quantify beam positioning. The quadrant detector was zeroed with the beam such that by incrementing the X-portion of the X-Y stage there was no vertical response from the detector and vice-versa with the Y-portion. This zeroing of the X-Y stage ensures that the quadrant and X-Y stage directions are aligned, any deflections caused by the cantilever will affect the quadrant output.

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Figure 16: A theoretical counterpart to Figure 15 is shown. The figure explicitly shows the laser light bouncing off of a mirror, into a lens, and then bouncing off of the cantilever of the MEMS device. Once capacitively driven, the cantilever tip will oscillate and deflect light differently from its rest position. The deflected light will end up some offset, δh, from its rest position from the quadrant. The quadrant takes the four photodiode cells A, B, C, D and depending on the orientation, adds or subtracts them to determine vertical and horizontal positioning.

MEASURING EXPERIMENTAL DATA

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Figure 17: The process of the experiment is visually expressed; the driving setup and data collection is chronologically shown. The cantilever is first driven with an AC signal, which causes the deflected beam to steer differently at the quadrant detector at the AC driving frequency. The use of a lock-in amplifier allows the selection and amplification of a signal at the driving frequency from the quadrant, so even small signals, and therefore small cantilever displacements, may be found.

Data collection began while driving the cantilever with a function generator, creating an AC voltage source. A DC power supply was used in conjunction to capacitively drive the cantilever. Once driven, the beam of light hitting the cantilever would deflect and propagate through the optical system, causing a displacement of the beam at the quadrant. Because of the AC driving, the cantilever amplitude will oscillate at the driving frequency, allowing the use of a lock-in amplifier to use the driving frequency as a reference to select it from the quadrant detector signal. The multiplicative effect from the lock-in requires a phase shift on the reference so the reference and signal from the quadrant may be in-phase or out-of-phase giving an absorptive or dispersive-like figure.

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Figure 18: Data collected from an oscilloscope readout of the function generator, In-Phase, and Out-of-Phase outputs of the lock-in amplifier. The axis E is given in volts while the axis D is the timing in seconds of the data collection. The function generator may be frequency modulated (FM), modulating its frequency from a START and STOP frequency linearly during a time SPAN and a voltage sweep from 0 to 10 volts (in this case the amplitude was cut in half to 5 volts). This function allows for driving and scanning of many frequencies. As seen from the graph, there is a noticeable feature around 1.3 seconds of the data collection. By knowing the start and stop frequencies of the FM and the linear voltage relationship of FM, it’s possible to deduce the center frequency of the feature.

The method stated in Figure 18 gives the frequency at which the cantilever rings at, but does not give the amplitude. To deduce the amplitude, the beam displacement caused by the cantilever’s motion must be quantified and understood. The X-Y stage in figure XYZ has mil, .001 inch, precision, so the quadrant detector in the setup may be moved precisely to monitor the beam’s electronic translational effect. By monitoring and graphing this effect, a voltage-to-distance ratio is found in both horizontal, x, and vertical, y, directions of the quadrant.

Figure 19: The x-direction voltage-to-distance ratio is found by measuring the voltage after moving the quadrant 1mil tick repeatedly with the X-Y thorlabs stage. The slope of these points give the voltage-to-distance ratio and a conversion of the voltage give from the quadrant to the distance moved in the x-direction on the quadrant. The ratio gives ~ .23968 mV/um in the X-direction.

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Figure20: The y-direction voltage-to-distance ratio is found by measuring the voltage after moving the quadrant 1 mil tick repeatedly with the X-Y thorlabs stage. The slope of these points give the voltage-to-distance ratio and a conversion of the voltage give from the quadrant to the distance moved in the y-direction on the quadrant. The ratio gives ~ .2617mV/um in the Y-direction.

Even with the voltage-to-distance ratio, the amplitude of the cantilever cannot be found without taking the geometric setup of the experiment into account. The fact a beam is deflecting raises the suggestion of using ray matrices to conclude the relation of the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s deflection and cantileverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s amplitude. In paraxial approximation, Two matrices are used, the drift matrix and lens matrix to represent the setup [13]. The drift matrix expresses the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movement through content while the lens matrix represents the lens that affects the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s path as seen in figure 15. The overall system matrix can be found with the following multiplication:

Equation 12: Optics Matrix Order Plugging the cantilever-to-lens distance as 400 mm, the lensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; focal length as 400 mm, and the lensto-quadrant distance as 140 mm, the following system matrix is found: đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;&#x161; đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;Ľ =

. 65 â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5

. 45 0

Equation 13: Numerical System Matrix

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JOSE VALENCIA The system matrix gives a relationship between the displacement of the beam at the quadrant detector and the displacement of the beam at the cantilever: đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; . 65 đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5

. 45 0

đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;?

Equation 14: System of Matrix Equations xq and θq are the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s displacement and angular incline at the quadrant detector in regard to the optical axis while xc and θc are the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s displacement and angular incline at the cantilever in regards to the optical axis. The matrix representation shows the beamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conditions, offset and angle, effect the system matrix and propagate through the system towards the quadrant. Sadly, there are four variables and only 2 knowns, xq and θq, the beam displacement and angular incline on the quadrant. The beam displacement is given by the data taken and the distance-to-voltage ratio, and the angular incline is nearly zero due to the geometric setup.

The cantilever mode displacement function has a complicated analytic form [14], but to get a rough approximation we assume the cantilever bends along the arc of a circle. Doing this circular approximation for the first-order cantilever resonance, we may find a relationship between the cantileverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s amplitude and angle.

Figure 21: First-mode cantilever approximation as circular displacement Figure 21 shows a circular approximation to a cantileverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s displacement. The tangent green line is the tip of the cantilever which follows the arc of the circle, where the tangent black line on top is an exaggeration of the cantilever at rest. From figure 21, it is obvious to see that θ=β, where β is the angle of deflection from the tip of the cantilever.

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JOSE VALENCIA đ?&#x153;&#x192;=đ?&#x203A;˝

Equation 15: Deflection relation to angular section Relations between β and, amplitude, δ, will be seen from further development of ι in figure 22.

Figure 22: First-mode cantilever approximation as circular displacement (cont.)

At the tip of the cantilever, by summing all the angles we get the relation: 360 = 2đ?&#x153;&#x192; + 2đ?&#x203A;ź +

2(180 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x153;&#x192;) â&#x2020;&#x2019; 2

đ?&#x153;&#x192; = 2đ?&#x203A;ź

Equation 16: Deflection angle relation At paraxial approximation,θâ&#x2030;Ş.5 rad, sin(θ)â&#x2030;&#x2C6;θ=sin(β)â&#x2030;&#x2C6;β=sin(2Îą)â&#x2030;&#x2C6;2Îą. Using the sin(Îą): sin(đ?&#x203A;ź) =

đ?&#x203A;ż đ?&#x203A;ż = đ?&#x2018;&#x; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;?â&#x201E;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;(đ?&#x153;&#x192;) đ?&#x2018;&#x; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 2 sin đ?&#x153;&#x192; 2

â&#x2020;&#x2019;

Using paraxial approximation and equations 13 and 14: đ?&#x203A;˝ đ?&#x203A;ż đ?&#x203A;ż = = â&#x2020;&#x2019; 2 đ?&#x2018;&#x; â&#x2C6;&#x2014; 2 â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ?&#x153;&#x192; đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x153;&#x192; 2 đ?&#x203A;˝=

404

2đ?&#x203A;ż đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x153;&#x192;

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Due to the cantilever being displaced, rθ, the arc length, is the same as the length, L, of the cantilever that is deflecting: đ?&#x203A;˝=

2đ?&#x203A;ż đ??ż

=> đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;? =

4đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? đ??ż

Equation 17: First-Mode Cantilever Approximation Deflection dependence on Amplitude Plugging this back into equation 14 and taking note of the law of reflection, where the beam of light deflection is twice the cantilever angular deflection, we find: đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; . 65 . 4 đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5 0

đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?

4đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? đ??ż

Solving the system of equations solely for x_q, which is the beam displacement at the quadrant: đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = .65 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? + 1.6

đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? = .65đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? + 400đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? đ??ż

The blue highlighted portion in x_q is the contribution to the quadrant displacement from flexural displacements, δ, of the cantilever, which is .65x_c. On the other hand, the yellow highlighted portion in x_q is the contribution from the angular deflection, β, of the cantilever, which is 400x_c.

Therefore, the angular contribution dwarves the flexural contribution. This is mainly a result of the geometric setup of our experiment, where angular deviations become influential with long distances. Overall, a relation between the quadrant displacement and cantilever displacement can be made. đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?

400.65

Equation 18: Quadrant displacement to cantilever displacement CALIBRATION OF CANTILEVER AND PIEZO The cantilever was driven at 0 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 100 kHz and only the following frequencies were found with the following properties in the x-direction:

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Frequency

Frequency Error

Amplitude

Amplitude Units

Sensitivity

Displacement at quadrant

Width

Width Error

Quality factor

KHz

KHz

(varying)

(Units)

mV/nA

um

KHz

KHz

(unit less)

1.99507

7.02E-05

8.29372

V

20

31.54105343

12.52152

4.06E-04

7.43378

mV

20

0.028270698

19.54273

0.00147

1.02306

mV

10

0.001945351

23.67036

0.00274

-0.07551

mV

10

0.000143582

34.22056

0.00152

0.99804

mV

10

0.001897775

39.26911

0.00263

0.56361

mV

10

0.001071706

0.074 27 0.248 45 0.586 08 0.612 41 0.626 43 0.344 37

2.11E04 0.0014 1 0.0073 3 0.0136 4 0.0079 6 0.0099 4

26.86354 50.39898 33.34496 38.65091 54.62785 114.0319

Figure 23: Table of x-direction cantilever modes with details of resonant frequency, amplitude, width, quality factor, and displacement at quadrant.

The same modes are detailed in the y-direction: Frequency

Frequency Error

Amplitude

Sensitivity

Displacement at quadrant

Width

Width Error

Quality factor

KHz 1.99781 12.53974 19.54923 23.47623 34.1927

KHz 1.88E-04 0.00114 0.00162 9.24E-04 6.80E-04

mV -2.2473 -1.44314 1.75855 1.76691 3.77905

mV/nA 20 20 10 10 10

um 0.008556254 0.005494536 0.003347706 0.003363621 0.00719408

KHz 0.07424 0.22714 0.61676 0.63725 0.62527

KHz 5.64E-04 0.00392 0.00834 0.00489 0.00355

(unit less) 26.90995 55.20793 31.69668 36.83997 54.68467

Figure 24: Table of y-direction cantilever modes with details of resonant frequency, amplitude, width, quality factor, and displacement at quadrant.

The data shown in Figures 23 and 24 were found by recording the driving data as seen in figure z, fitting the output, and using the voltage-to-distance ratio. By fitting a Lorentz peak to the in-phase output, this fitting found the center of the peak with error, the width of the peak with error, and lastly the amplitude. The sensitivity for each peak is a record of the amplification of the lock-in amplifier. The lock-in linearly scales the sensitivity voltage or current to a linear function between zero and ten volts as its new output. Adjusting for the lock-in amplification accordingly, the amplitude, lock-in voltage along with the respective voltage-to-distance ratio corresponds to a maximum displacement at the quadrant. The quality factor is found by taking the center frequency and diving it by its width.

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Figure 25: Cantilever data analyzed for driving-cantilever properties. By fitting a Lorentz peak, we find the center frequency, the width, the Area of the peak, and the Amplitude.

Recalling equation 7, the multiplicative factors from figure 9 for higher resonance modes may be compared to the experimental data from figures 23 and 24. Furthermore, the theoretical frequencies may be compared to the experimental frequencies.

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Frequency Error kHz 1.88E-04 0.00114 0.00162 9.24E-04 6.80E-04

Suggested Theoretical Frequency

Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;3rd

Frequency kHz 1.99781 12.53974 19.54923 23.47623 34.1927

Torsionalâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st

39.23324

1.147415676

42.114

Suggestive Mode Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;2nd ?

Lateralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st

kHz 2.22782 13.9616 N/A 29.704 39.0932

Figure 26: Y-data of cantilever resonant frequencies compared to theoretical.

Suggestive Resonanceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Mode number Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;2nd ?

Lateralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st Flexuralâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;3rd Torsionalâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;1st

Frequency KHz 1.99507 12.52152 19.54273 23.67036 34.22056 39.26911

Frequency Error KHz 7.02E-05 4.06E-04 0.00147 0.00274 0.00152 0.00263

Suggested Theoretical Frequency

kHz 2.22782 13.9616 N/A 29.704 39.0932 42.114

Figure 27: X-data of cantilever resonant frequencies compared to theoretical.

The difference in suggested theoretical frequency when compared to the experimental data makes physical sense, especially when the cantilever is made of silicon. Depending on the fabrication of the silicon, its Elastic Modulus may vary, so the theoretical frequency varies as well [15]. Also, notice the deviation from the suggested theoretical frequency from the first to the third flexural mode; the deviation as the modes increase become larger.

The difference between each flexural, lateral, and torsional mode can also help confirm that the resonant mode is in fact flexural, lateral, or torsional. While the modes might not exactly match the suggested theoretical frequencies in figure 27, the multiplicative factor between each mode should be similar. đ??šđ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122; (đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; + 1) đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; đ??šđ?&#x2018;&#x2122;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x2122; đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2019; N=1 N=2

X-data modes Y-data modes 6.2762 6.2767 2.7329 2.7267

Theoretical Multiplicative factors 6.2669 2.8000

Figure 28: Comparison of flexural, X and Y, experimental to theoretical multiplicative factors.

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JOSE VALENCIA While there is not enough data to compare multiple lateral or torsional modes, the flexural, experimental multiplicative factors are similar to theoretical multiplicative factors for both X and Y datasets, confirming the flexural resonance and modes.

Taking the data in figure 23 and equation 18, the first-order resonance displacement amplitude of the cantilever can be found for the X and Y motions at ~2 kHz . As well, because of the information gained from figure 23, it is possible to backtrack and use equation 2 to find the theoretical displacement at the cantilever.

First-mode harmonic ~2kHz

Displacement at cantilever

X-Motion Y-Motion

172.3 nm -42.86 pm

Theoretical displacement at cantilever.

2.982 um 0 um

Figure 29: Displacement at cantilever vs theoretical displacement at cantilever The x-displacement for the tip of the cantilever is off by a factor of approximately 13 from the theoretical value assuming a 60 um electrode separation. However this formula has assumed that the effective area of the capacitor is the entire size of the cantilever beam, and that the effective spring constant is for a force applied at the end of the beam. Since however the electrostatic force is distributed over the length of the cantilever, and since the tip of the cantilever actually extends past the bottom electrode by approximately 1mm, we expect the true amplitude to be reduced. If the effective length of the beam were reduced by ½ for example we would expect the displacement to decrease by a factor of 8. A more careful analysis of the geometry could more precisely determine the expected reduction factor due to these effects. Also the displacement varies as the inverse square of the separation distance, thus uncertainty in this distance could also strongly influence the predicted displacement value.

Furthermore, Equation 4 is validated for đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś >> đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś since there should be a linear relationship between the peak amplitude and applied đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś , as seen in figure 30. If 4đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??ˇđ??ś =đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś , we would have to had seen resonance data at twice the driven frequency and a squared relationship with đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ??´đ??ś as noted in equation 3. However, for the data collected with the lock-in amplifier we would only see signals at the applied frequency due to filtering. The data was collected by changing the function generator AC amplitude voltage and recording change of the peak amplitude at different resonant frequencies.

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Figure 30: Amplitude at quadrant graphed over different applied AC voltages, showing AC and DC voltage regime for capacitive driving.

PIEZO CALIBRATION The piezoelectric transducer was calibrated by finding its displacement on the quadrant when applied a DC voltage. Piezoelectric transducers should expand unilaterally when applied with a voltage; thus, the piezo would create an offset which would affect the beam displacement and propagate through equation 14. This assumes, however, that the piezo does not change angle while it expands, so đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;? will be zero while đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? is non-zero (same meaning as before with đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;? and đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? ). đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; .65 .45 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? .65 .45 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? = = â&#x2020;&#x2019; đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x17E; đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;?

0 â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5 0 â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5 0 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = .65 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? â&#x2020;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;? = .65 đ?&#x153;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x17E; = â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2.5 đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;?

Equation 19: Beam dependence between quadrant and piezo displacement

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Figure 31: Piezo displacing beam from quadrant detector when applied a voltage. The piezo has a linear dependence with the x-direction, showing its expansion is mostly in the x-direction. The Ydirection has minimal effect.

Using the X-direction voltage-to-distance ratio with equation 19 and Figure 31, the total expansion distance of the piezo can be found. First, the piezo expansion must be quantified on the quadrant detector. This can be done by using figure 31 and the voltage-to-distance ratio. â&#x2C6;&#x2019;30 đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; = â&#x2C6;&#x2019;57.045 đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161; = đ?&#x2018;&#x201E;đ??ˇ .5259đ?&#x2018;&#x161;đ?&#x2018;&#x2030; đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161; Now, with equation 19, the piezo expansion can be found. â&#x2C6;&#x2019;57.045 đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161; = đ?&#x2018;&#x201E;đ??ˇ â&#x2020;&#x2019; â&#x2C6;&#x2019;87.7 đ?&#x2018;˘đ?&#x2018;&#x161; = đ?&#x2018;&#x201E;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;

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JOSE VALENCIA Therefore, the piezo has expanded to 87.7 um, which is unlikely since the piezo that is in use only has a 12 um stroke. The calibration of the piezoelectric transducer was inconclusive. The data shows that the piezo expanded 87.7 um, but the piezo can only expand by a 12 um stroke, so this must be an error on the experimental setup or piezo function. As already shown in equation 16, any angular deviation completely dominates any offset in regards to the optical axis. Thus, it is possible that the piezo is expanding at some angular rate, and the geometric susceptibility amplifies this effect dwarfing any contribution from the 12 um stroke.

CONCLUSIONS The goal for ~2kHz oscillation was achieved with the following cantilever dimensions: t = 30 um L = 4mm, w = 400um.As for the driven flexural amplitude of 2.6 um there is a possibility to meet this goal because the driving voltage for this experiment is at 10 V rather than our limit of 170 V and the DC voltage is at 30 V rather than the possible 200 V. Because the flexural amplitude, equation 2, is dependent on the product of these two, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possible to amplify the 172.3 nm amplitude by 113 to ~19 um amplitude if the voltage sources were maxed out.

While there might be arcing problems with the power supplies in room pressure, it is possible to obviate this problem by having the cantilever in vacuum like the setup originally intended. A warning is that the power supplies must be turned off while the pressure is pumping down since arcing may occur because of Paschenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law, equation 4, depends on the product of pressure and distance, but at constant room pressure 760 torr, it is possible to use the 170 V AC and 200 V DC power supplies to drive the cantilever since the breakdown voltages for the driven cantilever are: 415, 551, 864 V for 30 um, 50 um, and 100 um, respectively. The power supplies, however, cannot be on while the pressure is in the few Torr range or else arcing will occur. We do not expect this constraint to be a problem in the experiment since the force measurements will ultimately take place at high vaccum, where the vacuum breakdown is less likely than at atmospheric pressure.

FUTURE WORK AND IMPROVEMENTS The source mass is a vital component of the experiment. Driving the cantilever with the mass is a must. It is expected that the fundamental, resonant, BE frequency of the cantilever will lower due to the extra mass. Planning ahead to fabricate cantilevers with a fundament resonant frequency around ~3 kHz, so once the mass is placed, the cantilever and mass will oscillate around ~2 kHz. The optical trap frequency in the experiment can be adjusted as necessary in this range to coincide with the required frequency to drive the trapped particle on resonance through the density modulation of the source mass.

An improved analysis could be done to better quantify the expected values of keff and Aeff in

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JOSE VALENCIA order to make a closer comparision between theory and experiment for the expected amplitude of motion for given driving voltages. The amplitude of the cantilever could be better estimated by taking into account the actual fundamental flexural mode shape rather than the arc approximation used in this thesis.

For this experiment, a major improvement would be to setup the experiment on a floating table, so data collection will be less prone to vibrational noise. Vibrational noise can perturb the measurement of the voltage-to-distance ratio, the zeroing process, and effectively diminish the reliability of the experiment.

As well, using a fiber interferometer will allow sensitive measurements for the amplitude of the cantilever, where the interferometer measures the amplitude of the cantilever directly, scaling the amplitude against the wavelength of light [16].

REFERENCES [1] N. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopoulos and G. Dvali, Phys. Lett. B 429, 263-272, (1998).

[2] A. A. Geraci, S. B. Papp and J. Kitching, Phys. Rev. Lett. 102, 101101, (2010).

[3] S. Dimopoulos and A. A. Geraci, Phys. Rev. D 68, 124021, (2003).

[4] J. Chiaverini, S. J. Smullin, A. A. Geraci, D. M. Weld and A. Kapitulnik, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 151101, (2003).

[5] A. Ashkin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 24, 156, (1970).

[6] D. E. Chang, C. A. Regal, S. Papp, D. J. Wilson, J. Ye, O. Painter, H. J. Kimble and P. Zoller, Proc.

Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 1005, (2010).

[7] Z.-q. Yin, A. A. Geraci and T. Li, Optomechanics of Levitated Dielectric Particles, Phys. B27, 1330018 , 2013.

[8] W. T. Thomson, Theory of Vibration with Applications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981.

[9] J. J. Thomsen, Vibrations and Stability: Advanced Theory, Analysis, and Tools, Berlin: Springer, 2003.

[10] M. S. Naidu and V. Kamaraju, High Voltage Engineering, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.

[11] Volterra, Enrico and E. C. Zachmanoglou, Dynamics of Vibrations, Columbus, OH: C.E. Merrill, 1965.

[12] J. R. Banerjee, Journal of Sound and Vibration 224 (2), 267-281, (1999).

[13] E. Hecht, Optics., Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 2002.

[14] L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitď¸ s︥, Theory of Elasticity, London: Pergamon, 1959.

[15] M. A. Hopcroft, W. D. Nix and T. W. Kenny, "What is the Young's Modulus of Silicon?", IEEE Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 19, Issue 2, pp. 229-238,, 2010 .

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JOSE VALENCIA APPENDIX: Cantilever Apparatus Recipe Items needed to make cantilever apparatus: Assembly items: Copper stack Metal stage Glass stack â&#x20AC;Ś (Techtron sucks with 353 ND connections to metal) Cantilever Gold wire Screws and washers for stacks Kapton film Gluing items: 353ND epoxy Loctite Epoxy-patch Silver/Conductive Epoxy Hot Plate Heat Lamp Light Bulb Thermistor Mounting and aligning items: Brass mounting stage Microscope Copper Helper Toothpicks Additional items: Ethanol Acetone Chem-Wipes X-acto Knife Flat copper slate Toothpicks Aluminum foil Gloves Tweezers

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Use gloves for all procedures and replace gloves if glues or any contaminates are spilled on gloves during any procedure.

Cleaning: Wipe and clean the brass mounting stage with ethanol or acetone and chem-wipes before use, cleaning the entire stage, especially areas in contact with the cantilever apparatus. Clean all stacks as well. Clean on aluminum foil for clean surfaces.

Place Brass mounting stage on the hot plate, and remove top weight to a foil of aluminum to ensure clean surfaces.

353ND Making: Warning: 353ND only has a 10 minute lifetime before it starts curing. Read all gluing procedures to be familiarized before being time limited, so gluing lifetime is optimized.

Make 353ND with a 10:1 ratio of material. Go to chemistry lab xxx to use a digital scale to measure the 10:1 ratio to 3 decimal places. 353ND should be mostly translucent with a tinge of yellow once fully mixed.

After making and mixing 353ND and before using it, replace gloves.

Gluing and aligning Copper and Glass stacks: Place a drop of 353ND with a toothpick on the copper stack. Then, place the glass stack on top of the copper stack, and use the copper helper to align faces to ensure parallel faces.

Place the brass mount weight (top portion of brass stage) on top of the glass stack slowly, and be sure to recheck faces for parallel alignment. If not parallel, try lightly lifting the weight of the brass stack and use the copper helper to realign, and slowly lower the brass weight onto the glass stack.

Repeat until satisfied.

Curing the glue and firming alignment for Copper and Glass stacks: Once the copper stack and glass stack are parallel and the brass weight is weighing on the stacks for a firm connection, turn on the hot plate to 120 Degrees Celsius. Turn on the heat lamp too and shine it on the top portion of the brass stage.

Wait 3-5 minutes and measure the temperature of the bottom and top of the brass stage with the thermistor. Take the average and make sure it is above 80 degrees Celsius. If the average is not McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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above 80 degrees, raise the temperature of the hot plate by 10 degrees and repeat measurements until the average is above 80 degrees.

The curing time for 80 degrees Celsius is 30 minutes but give 40 minutes since the measurement of the temperature is not at the gluing stacks but its surroundings (don’t touch the gluing stacks since it may affect the parallel structure).

Afterwards, turn off the hot plate and heat lamp for 5-10 minutes to cool off the brass stage. Use aluminum foil to avoid burns to take off the brass top portion.

Gluing and Aligning Copper + Glass combination with metal stage: Follow the same procedure underlined in “Gluing and aligning Copper and Glass stacks“ but with the copper+glass combination and metal stage instead of the copper and glass stacks.

Curing the glue and firming alignment Copper + Glass combination with metal stacks: Follow the same procedure underlined in “Curing the glue and firming alignment for Copper and Glass stacks“ but with the copper+glass combination and metal stage instead of the copper and glass stacks.

Making Kapton Spacers: Clean the X-acto knife, the flat copper slate, and tweezers with acetone or ethanol and chemwipes.

Place the kapton film on the copper block and extract a small ¼ by ¼ inch square of kapton film by using the X-acto knife against the copper slate. Save and store any unused kapton film and proceed to cut two rectangular 3 by 1 mm spacers out of the ¼ by ¼ inch kapton square.

Gluing the cantilever on the apparatus: Warning: The Loctite epoxy-patch has two parts, one of which is corrosive (the grey epoxy), so please use gloves. Also, the epoxy has a xxx lifetime so read ahead to plan the lifetime.

Make the Loctite epoxy by creating two equal lines of epoxy provided by the Loctite epoxy-patch set. Make small lines, less than an inch, because not much will be used.

Clean the tweezers with ethanol or acetone and chem-wipes, and with the tweezers place the kapton spacers on the top of the metal stage apparatus. Approximate the separation distance accordingly to the length of the cantilever base. With a sharpened toothpick, place a dot of Loctite in between the two spacers on the top of the metal stage.

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Then, place the cantilever, the gold filmed face, in contact with the Loctite and kapton film spacers.

Use the microscope and its placers to align the cantilever parallel to the metal stage, so it is not crooked or at a slight angle. Also, with the placers, firmly press down on the cantilever to shorten its separation distance from the metal stage so capacitive driving is effective.

Gluing the gold wire connections: Warning: The gold wire is glued with a conductive epoxy, so any spurious connections can result in electrical shorting.

Pliers should be cleaned with ethanol or acetone and chem-wipes. Then, one gold wire, about an inch, should be cut and made with pliers.

One end of the wire is glued to the copper block. This is so capacitive driving can take place. Glue advantageously, so the wire can be easily fixed to the underside of the cantilever. After curing the wire to the copper block, glue the other end of the wire to the underside of the cantilever.

Wire connections to the stage: By using the washers, screws, and wires, screw down a wire with a washer to the copper stack and metal stage. These wires will go to the voltage proxy box and cause the capacitive driving.

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Disparities in Infant Mortality Rates Among Races in Nevada

Brandon Woudhuysen Major: Mathematics / Statistics Mentor: Dr. Anna Panorska Graduated: 2015 Enrolled: Masters Program Mathematics, University of Nevada, Reno

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Infant death is a troubling event happening all over the world. Even in the most developed countries, such as the United States of America, there is a significant rate of infant mortality, with 24,000 infant deaths in the U.S. in 2011. This study displays the inconsistencies in infant mortality rates among different races in Nevada in years 2011-2013.

Our data came from the birth and infant death data set from the Nevada Department of Public and Behavioral Health. The data in this study were analyzed using logistic regression models. The models tested for variables that were associated with infant mortality. The results were compared to national findings as posted by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for infant death in years 2010 to 2012. Infant mortality rates for Nevada are found to be approximately 4.6 deaths per 1,000 infants. However, the average infant mortality rate for Blacks in years 2010-2012 was 7.9 compared to 4.0 among Whites, 4.5 for Hispanics, and 2.4 for Asian/Pacific Islanders. Thus, this study found that race contributes to disparities in infant mortality rates.

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Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank the faculty of the University of Nevada, Reno and the honors program for providing me with the tools necessary to complete my thesis and finish my degree in mathematics. Second, I would like to thank my place of employment, the Nevada Division of Public and Behavioral Health, for providing me with the data sets for Nevada and assisting me in merging the data. I would like to thank Dr. Anna Panorska for assisting me throughout my entire college career. She has been a great support during my thesis and guiding me in the right direction every step of the way. Also, I would like to thank, Dr. Tomasz J. Kozubowski for his assistance with my thesis. Third, I would like to thank Dr. Tamara Valentine for ensuring that I finish my thesis on time and aiding me in graduating within the honors program. I am also very grateful that I was awarded the Honors Undergraduate Research Award, which assisted me in funding my research project, and allowed me to complete this thesis.

List of Figures Figure 1: U.S. Infant Mortality Rates, 2008-2010........................................................................

Figure 2: Infant Mortality: Nevada 1990-2014............................................................................

Figure 3: Disparity trends from years 1935 to 2007.....................................................................

List of Tables Table 1: Infant mortality rates by state........................................................................................

Table 2: Infant mortality by race..................................................................................................

Table 3: Infant deaths by year, 2010-2012 ................................................................................

Table 4: Infant gender in cases of infant death, 2010-2012.......................................................

Table 5: Infant mortality rate by county, 2012..........................................................................

Table 6: Mother's level of education in cases of infant death, 2010-2012.................................

Table 7: Gestation weeks in cases of infant death, 2010-2012..................................................

Table 8: Mothers' tobacco use in cases of infant death, 2010-2012...........................................

Table 9: Prenatal birth defects in cases of infant death, 2010-2012...........................................

Table 10: Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2010............................................................................

Table 11: Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2011.............................................................................

Table 12: Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2012.............................................................................

Table 13: Infant mortality rates by race per 1,000 infants, years 2010-2012..............................

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Introduction/Literature Review Infant mortality, which is defined as the death of an individual under the age of one year, is a long standing problem in the United States (Kessner, 1973). In fact, "the U.S. infant mortality rate remains higher than most other developed countries" (MacDorman and Mathews, 2014). Infant mortality rate (IMR) is defined as the number of infant deaths in a year per 1,000 live births. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP, 2014) reported that in 2011 there were approximately 24,000 infant deaths in the U.S. Infant mortality is said to have declined throughout the world at an average of 68.8 percent from 1950 to 1994 (Rosano et al. 2000). From 2005 to 2011 the U.S. infant mortality rate declined by 12 percent to 6.05 percent in 2011 (MacDorman et al. 2013).

Below in Table 1, are the U.S. infant mortality rates by state, territories, and capital for years 2008 to 2010 (Mathews and MacDorman, 2013). This list excludes American Samoa and the Northern Mariana Islands. For the Nevada study we used data including 2011-2013 infant deaths. Note that the births of these children may have happened during 2010-2012.

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN [Table 1]. Infant mortality rates by state. The data show infant mortality rates in the U.S. in years 2008-2010 listed by place of residence. These rates by state are listed by death records.

(Source: Infant mortality statistics from the 2010 period linked birth/infant death dataset.)

The infant mortality rate (IMR), is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year, multiplied by 1,000. We use the year of death as the reference year. For example a 5.6 IMR in 2008-2010 accounts for all deaths during 2008-2010. The data in Table 1 show the rate of infant deaths of children less than one year of age per 1000 live births. Nevada, with an IMR of 5.6, is less than the national average of 6.4. The states on the west coast have lower rates of infant mortality with California, Washington, and Oregon all having rates of 5.0 or lower. A visual representation of the IMR for the nation is shown below in figure 1.

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[Figure 1]. U.S. Infant Mortality Rates, 2008-2010. Infant mortality rates in the nation by state for years 2008-2010.

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health) Figure 1 shows that infant mortality is more frequent in the southeastern part of the U.S. Infant mortality rates range from 4.24 in New Hampshire to 9.89 in Mississippi. The states with the highest IMR are in region 4, the southeastern part of the United States and the lowest IMR's are more frequent in the northwestern part of the United States.

In Nevada IMR is shown to be decreasing over time from approximately 9 in 1990 to approximately 5 in 2014, see Figure 2 below.

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[Figure 2]. Infant Mortality: Nevada 1990-2014. Infant mortality rates in Nevada for years 1990 to 2014.

(Source: America's Health Rankings website.)

Figure 2 shows that in the recent 25 years the IMR for Nevada has been decreasing from roughly 8.0 in early 1993 to approximately 5.5 in 2014. This decrease is occurring nationally, as reported by the America's Health Rankings. Despite the overall decrease of infant deaths, there are still differences in mortality rates among races, such as Native American, Asians, Black, Hispanic, and White (Rossen and Schoendorf, 2014).

Table 2, found on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/vitalstats.html), displays infant mortality rates for different ethnic groups. African American infants are shown to have about doubled the mortality rates of other ethnic groups in time period 2007-2011 which leads to the question: why do particular ethnic groups have higher infant mortality rates than other groups. More specifically, what factors are contributing to this disparity? Table 2 summarized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics across the nation for 2007 to 2011 data.

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It is important to note, race groups represented in Table 2 are not mutually exclusive, which means that bi-racial infants are reported in only one category and not as bi-racial. This category for the race is determined by what the mother identifies herself as. The data show that Black infants have a high rate, roughly double that of White and Hispanic ethnic groups, of infant mortality. American Indian infants also show high rates of infant death, 8.7 in 2007. However, the number of cases is extraordinarily small, approximately 15 per 1,000 cases of all infant deaths. From the table it can be observed that Blacks and American Indians with infant mortality rates of 11.5 and 7.8 in year 2011 have a significantly larger IMR than the groups Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and White with rates of 3.5, 5.3, and 5.1, respectively. It is important to note that although the infant mortality rate has declined, but the Black/White ratio is still over 2 to 1.

[Table 2]. Infant mortality by race. The U.S. infant deaths occurring to infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in years: 2007-2011. The data are reported by race.

(Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website) This disparity among races has been observed as far back as 1935, and still remains a focus for research studies, as shown in Figure 3, (Singh and van Dyck, 2011). Saebz's (2007) observes,

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"Blacks have consistently had higher infant mortality rates compared with other racial/ethnic groups in the United States. This gap continues. Blacks had the highest infant mortality rate during the 2002-2004 period (a three-year period yields greater statistical stability), when nearly 14 black infants died for every 1,000 births."

[Figure 3]. Disparity trends from years 1935 to 2007. Infant Mortality Rate by Race, United States, 1935-2007.

(Source: Singh and van Dyck, 2011) The Black/White ratio is very high, which means that a disparity does exist between the two groups. Despite a decrease in the overall infant mortality rate, the proportion of Black infant deaths is approximately 2.4 times higher than Whites in 2005. Compared to all other races Blacks continue to have higher rates of infant death. It is shown that infant death has overall decreased, but the Black/White ratio has increased.

These trends are projected to persist in future years (Singh and Yu, 1995). A study done by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2002, (CDC, 2002) discusses the need to decrease infant mortality in Blacks. It is of high importance to identify the specific factors that contribute to variation in infant mortality rates among races. Several different hypotheses have been formed as to the possible factors determining variation in IMR among ethnicities/races. One idea proposed by the CDCP is that infant mortality rates differed "primarily due to the higher levels of preterm births and preterm-related causes of death." Mathews and MacDorman (2013) conclude that the infant mortality deaths are correlated with congenital malformations and low birth weight.

Another study suggests that levels of education and wealth status are highly correlated with health, and so socioeconomic status explains variability in the mortality rates (Wilkinson and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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Pickett, 2008). This conclusion was also independently made by Singh and Kogan (2007) where they found that lower levels of education and income in African American communities led to higher infant mortality rates for their infants.

However, there are still no definitive answers as to what are the specific contributors to high infant mortality in African Americans. One study in particular, that took place in Nevada 2012, finds that "long-term trends in U.S. infant mortality decline have not been uniform for various socioeconomic and demographic subgroups of the population and causes of infant death, but differences in income and access to health care among racial/ethnic groups may also contribute to differences in infant mortality" (Garner et al. 2012). Despite the fact that several different explanations have been formed, there is still no definitive answer to why disparities among racial groups exist.

The focus of this project is on the Nevada population in years 2010-2012. The goal is a comparison of infant mortality rates between different racial groups and with the national rates. Using statistical models for the infant mortality rates in Nevada, this study investigates the association between the mortality rates and variables/factors such as race, geography, parents' levels of education, and cause of death. The results gathered for Nevada are then compared to the findings of national level studies. Future work can assess the variables that were found to be significant in this work, and determine if these variables are correlated with the same socioeconomic factors as found in the other studies.

Methodology In an effort to discover the risk factors for variability in infant mortality rates among races, my research examined different predictor variables in statistical models for infant death. I used information collected at the Nevada Division of Public and Behavioral Health (NDPBH), which consists of two data sets: (1) births and (2) infant deaths in Nevada for years 2010 to 2012. These data sets were created from information collected from birth and death certificates, as found in Appendices B and C. Using the statistical software Statistical Analysis System (SAS), I merged the death and birth files into one data set containing all infant deaths from 2010 to 2012.. The dataset contains 312 different variables including: birth/death date, time of death (if applicable), mother/father race, gender, level of education, and more. (Refer to list in Appendix A for a complete list of variables used). There are some superfluous variables in the data that were removed after initial analysis such as mother's zip code, facility hospital, and data related to father.

Before any analyses, the data set was properly scored to allow predictive modeling. Performing the re-scoring of variables required coding/labeling of the data in a new format, so that all variables had a consistent format. The data were properly analyzed using the statistical software

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packages R and SAS. The framework of this methodology closely followed the methods used in a similar study in Nevada (Garner et al. 2012), where disparities in infant mortality were studied. The Connecticut Department of Public Health (CDPH) annual registration report in 2010 follows similar methods in analyzing infant mortality (Stone et al. 2013). Connecticut in 2010 was found to have an identical IMR as Nevada so it is a qualified comparable study for analyzing the IMR of Nevada.

For my analysis I first summarized the data by finding the counts for different observations of each particular variable. Then I grouped infant deaths in the NDPBH data set in order to make tables displaying counts for each variable used. After making tables, I calculated rates, made data summaries, and found percentages for the variables in R and SAS (see Tables 3-12).

Furthermore, I used multiple logistic regression analysis of the data. A regression model allows assessment if change in a predictor variable is associated with change in the mean of the response variable. Multiple logistic regression determines if change in one or more predictor variables is associated with change in the mean of the response variable. The response variable that was the focus of this study was infant mortality. The logistic regression was used as follows:

Further, the natural log (ln) refers to a natural logarithm function, and B0 + B1x +........+ Bnxn is a linear equation for the regression line. The regression line models expected log of the odds ratio of infant death is defined as ln(pĚ&#x201A; /1-pĚ&#x201A; ). Multiple predictor variables xi, such as gender or mother's race, (see Appendix A, for a list of all explanatory variables used) were used in the regression model and the model showed which of the predictors were associated with the outcome of infant death. Regression model coefficients, B0, ....., Bn, were estimated from the data using least squares estimation performed by SAS and R. After multiple linear regression analysis, two-way ANOVA analyses (analysis of variance) were ran for the associations found in regression analysis. ANOVA tests differences in the means between different explanatory variables and helps determine which variables were related to infant mortality rates. Upon completion of ANOVA testing, we were able to conduct graphical and McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

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quantitative description of the mortality rates per race in Nevada with each predictor variable.

These methods provided scientific models and analytical tools that allowed forming conclusions about IMR and the association of IMR with predictor variables. Further, we used these multiple logistic regression models for a comparison of the Nevada risk factors, such as socioeconomic status and race, to those found in the national population.

Results From the methodology, I created eleven tables (Tables 3-13) which summarize the variables from the NDPBH data set.

[Table 3.]Infant deaths by year, 2010-2012. The table displays the total number of births in Nevada for years 2010-2012, and the number of infant deaths that occurred in the same birth population.

Year

Total Births

Total Infant Deaths

2010 2011 2012 Total

35,688 35,175 34,501 105,364

191 163 152 506

(Source: Nevada Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Table 3 displays the total number of deaths and births for Nevada. The total infant deaths and births decreased over this time period.

Table 4.] Infant gender in cases of infant death, 2010-2012. The table displays the total number of deaths in Nevada for years 2010-2012 by gender.

Gender

Year 2010

Year 2011

Year 2012

Female Male Total

81 110 191

70 93 163

72 80 152

42.4% 57.6%

42.9% 57.0%

47.4% 52.6%

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Table 4 displays the gender of infants in the cases of infant death, and it shows consistently higher percentages of male than female infant deaths.

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[Table 5.] Infant mortality rate by county, 2012. The table displays the infant mortality rates for Nevada in year 2012 by race. The counties included in the Rural and Frontier Counties are: Churchill County, Douglas County, Elko County, Esmeralda County, Eureka County, Humboldt County, Lander County, Lincoln County, Lyon County, Mineral County, Nye County, Pershing County, Storey County, and White Pine County.

Race

Washoe

African American Asian/Pacific Islander Hispanic Native American White Average Rate for All Races

7.3 2.8 5.7 5.4 5.2 5.2

Clark 8.4 3.4 4.9 5.9 4.7 5.5

Carson 7.2 1.0 5.7 3.2 5.2 4.5

Rural and Frontier Counties 6.2 0.0 5.4 0.0 5.8 3.5

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Table 5 displays the infant deaths by county. It is to be noted that Clark County has high infant mortality because it is the most populous county, and so is Washoe. These Urban counties make up more than 90% of the total infant deaths of Nevada. Rural counties make up less than 5% of the infant deaths each year.

[Table 6.] Mother's level of education in cases of infant death, 2010-2012. The table displays mother's level of education in Nevada where an infant death occurred in years 2010-2012. In cases of infant death, the proportion of mother's level of education among total cases of infant death is provided.

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(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Mother's level of education, described in Table 6, appears to have significant impact on rates of infant death. When a mother completed 9th thru 12th grade with no diploma, is a high school graduate/GED, or attended some college the infant death rates are highest. Mothers with higher degrees, such as masters or doctorate degrees, tend to have low rates of infant mortality, approximately 3-5%.

[Table 7.] Gestation weeks in cases of infant death, 2010-2012. The total number of gestation weeks for the mother when there was a case of infant death in years 2010-2012. The proportions for each gestation group are provided with each given year.

Gestation weeks

Total deaths in 2010

Total deaths in 2011

Total deaths in 2012

16-19

2

1.0%

10

6.1%

4

2.6%

20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 Unknown

64 28 27 54 10 6

33.5% 14.7% 14.1% 28.3% 5.2% 3.1%

46 19 21 57 9 1

28.2% 11.7% 12.9% 35.0% 5.5% 0.6%

45 26 20 51 5 1

29.6% 17.1% 13.2% 33.6% 3.3% 0.7%

Total

191

163

152

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Gestation, the process of carrying an embryo/fetus, is listed by groups for years 2010 to 2012, see Table 7. The groups are divided by around five weeks, where 40 weeks/280 days is commonly known to be the average amount of gestation for normal pregnancy. However, in Table 7, it is observed that a majority of infant deaths are premature births under the average of 40 weeks of gestation.

[Table 8.] Mother's tobacco use in case of infant death, 2010-2012. The table follows mothers in the case of infant death. The question asked if mother smoked in years 2010-2012. Also, the proportion of mothers in each classification is calculated.

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Classification

Total deaths in 2010

Total deaths in 2011

Total deaths in 2012

Yes No Unknown Total

26 162 3 191

23 134 6 163

20 127 5 152

13.6% 84.8% 1.6%

14.1% 82.2% 3.7%

13.2% 83.6% 3.3%

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Table 8 displays the amount of mothers who smoked in the case of infant death. Fortunately, most mothers didn't smoke. However there is an average of 13.6% of mothers who smoked in years 2010-2012, when their infant death occurred.

[Table 9.] Prenatal birth defects in cases of infant death, 2010-2012. The table follows mothers in the case of infant death. The number of cases and appropriate proportion of prenatal birth defects are displayed for years 2010-2012.

Classification

Total deaths in 2010

Total deaths in 2011

Total deaths in 2012

Yes No Unknown Total

152 29 10 191

133 24 6 163

119 24 9 152

79.6% 15.2% 5.2%

81.6% 14.7% 3.7%

78.3% 15.8% 5.9%

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

Table 9 displays the amount of prenatal birth defects in the case of infant death. It has been found that prenatal birth defects, as well as drug defects, can be determined within the first three months of pregnancy (Goldman, 1977). In the case of Nevada, it appears that about 80% of infant deaths were associated with birth defects. The following three tables show the top causes of death in years 2010-2012.

[Table 10.] Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2010. The top 6 causes of infant death in year 2010.

Causes of death, such as prematurity, include all cases from extreme to mild.

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Cause of Death

Total Deaths in 2010

1. Prematurity 2. Respiratory failure 3. Cardiopulmonary arrest 4. Asphyxiation 5. Sepsis 6. Congenital heart disease Total

38 22 7

19.9% 11.5% 3.7%

6 5 5

3.1% 2.6% 2.6%

Total Deaths in 2010

83

191

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

[Table 11.] Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2011. The top 6 causes of infant death in year 2010.

Causes of death, such as prematurity, include all cases from extreme to mild.

Cause of Death

Total Deaths 2011

1. Prematurity 2. Cardio respiratory arrest 3. Asphyxiation 4. Respiratory failure 5. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 6. Non-viability( not capable of growing)

31 16 12 10 7

Total

81

5

19.0% 9.8% 7.4% 6.1% 4.3% 3.1%

Total Deaths in 2011 163

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

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[Table 12.] Top 6 Causes of infant death, 2012. The top 6 causes of infant death in year 2010.

Causes of death, such as prematurity, include all cases from extreme to mild.

Cause of Death

Total Deaths 2012

1. Congenital anomalies 2. Asphyxiation 3. Cardio respiratory failure 4. Trisomy 18 5. Renal failure 6. Prematurity 6. Cardio respiratory arrest 6. Severe respiratory distress

19 16 13

Total

80

12.5% 10.5% 8.6%

9 8 5 5

5.9% 5.3% 3.3% 3.3%

5

3.3%

Total Deaths in 2012 152

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

For Tables 10-12, we observe the top six causes of death per year in years 2010-2012. Prematurity is a large contributor to infant death in years 2010 and 2012, but isn't as significantly high in 2012.

For the most part, the top causes of death in infants are respiratory failure, asphyxiation/suffocation, and prematurity. However, there are many distinct cases as found in Appendix D. [Table 13.] Infant mortality rates by race per 1,000 infants, years 2010-2012. This table shows infant deaths occurring to infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in years: 2010-2012. The table is showing the results obtained from the collected data at the Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data.

Races

Rate in 2010

Rate in 2011

Rate in 2012

African American

9.42

8.87

7.78

Asian/Pacific Islander Native American Hispanic White Average Rate for Nevada

3.38

2.05

4.88 4.72 4.78 5.4

7.45 5.24 5.10 5.7

3.88 6.73 3.72 4.13 5.2

(Source: Division of Public and Behavioral Health- Birth and Death data, 2010-2012.)

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN From Table 13, it is observed that African Americans have approximately two times the infant mortality as any other race. Native American infants are also showing high rates of infant death.

However, the number of cases is very small, and so one additional Native American death influences the rate a lot.

Our analyses show that African American infants had higher infant mortality rates than all other races. As shown in several studies, like Saebz (2007) and Singh and Yu (1995), mortality rates of African American infants have been approximately twice as high in comparison to all other races.

There is sufficient evidence in the data to support the claim of high disparity between African Americans and other races in Nevada. If further work was to be done, I would find a sociologist to analyze the variables that I had found to be significantly correlated with the infant death rates.

Discussion Many studies, such as Zakir and Wunnava (1997), investigated the factors affecting infant mortality rates. Disparities between infant mortality rates among different ethnic and racial groups have been analyzed by several authors, yet there still isn't a universally accepted explanation of these disparities. Reasons for the disparities discussed on the national scale included preterm births, low birth weight and socio-economic status. I focused on investigating the factors related to infant mortality rates in Nevada, using the most current data. My analysis of factors impacting infant mortality in Nevada agreed with existing conclusions at the national level.

Specific factors that were found to lead to more infant death in general were: gestation weeks and level of education. Prematurity was found to be highly associated with death in infants. Thus, if gestation is below the normal pregnancy of 40 weeks, there is a larger likelihood for infant mortality. Also, levels of education had a significant trend with infant mortality. The lower levels of education were associated with higher counts of infant death and so obtaining a higher education leads to less infant deaths. There was also a significant difference between the amounts of male infant deaths than to female infant deaths.

As for disparities among races, there definitely exists one between Blacks versus other races.

Blacks have been shown to have higher IMR in comparison to any other group and in fact often double other races. These phenomena may attribute to possible lower levels of education in some Black communities. However, a sociologist would be needed in order to identify how the variables level of education and gestation weeks contribute to the large disparity seen in Table 13.

The variables that I have found significant were very similar to those found in Mathews and Macdorman paper, " Infant mortality statistics from the 2010 period linked birth/infant death dataset." and CDCP findings. Thus, the significant predictors for IMR in Nevada are similar to those in national level studies.

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN References America's Health Rankings. (2014). Infant Mortality: Nevada 1990-2014.

Retrieved March 13, 2015, from http://www.americashealthrankings.org/NV/IMR/2013 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Racial and ethnic disparities in infant mortality rates--60 largest US cities, 1995-1998. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

51(15), 329.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Infant Mortality.

Retrieved October 16, 2014, http://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/infantmortality.htm

from

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. (2014). Infant Mortality by Race. 2014. 2007-2011 data: Population Reference Bureau, analysis of data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.

Retrieved February 2, 2015, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/vitalstats.htm.

Kessner, D.M. (1973). Infant death: an analysis by maternal risk and health care. Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences. (Vol. 1) Garner, D. L., Cleveland, R., Samuels, A. D., & Tyler, T. G. (2012). Prenatal Care and Infant Mortality in Nevada. The Social Health of Nevada. 11.

Goldman, A. S. (1977). Birth defects and drugs in pregnancy. American Journal of Human Genetics, 29(5), 546.

MacDorman, M. F., Hoyert, D. L., & Mathews, T. J. (2013). Recent declines in infant mortality the United States, 2005-2011. National Center for Health Statistics, 120(1), 1-8.

in

MacDorman M.F. & Mathews, T. (2014). International Comparisons of Infant Mortality and Related Factors: United States and Europe, 2010. National Vital Statistics Reports, 63(5), 1-6.

Mathews, T., & MacDorman, M.F. (2013). Infant mortality statistics from the 2010 period linked birth/infant death dataset. National Vital Statistics Reports, 62(8), 25-26.

Rosano, A., Botto, L. D., Botting, B., & Mastroiacovo, P. (2000). Infant mortality and congenital anomalies from 1950 to 1994: an international perspective. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 54(9), 660-666.

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Rossen, L., & Schoendorf, K. (2014). Trends in Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Infant Mortality Rates in the United States, 1989â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2006. American Journal of Public Health, 104(8), 15491556.

Saebz, R. (2007). The Growing Color Divide in U.S. Infant Mortality. Retrieved November 30, 2014, from http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2007/ColorDivideinInfantMortality.

Singh G.K. and Kogan MD. (2007). Persistent socioeconomic disparities in infant, neonatal, and postneonatal mortality in the United States, 1969-2001. Pediatrics; 119(4), 928-939.

Singh, G. K., & van Dyck, P. C. (2011). Infant Mortality in the United States, 1935-2007. Health Resources and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from http://www.hrsa.gov/healthit/images/mchb_infantmortality_pub.pdf Singh, G., & Yu, S. (1995). Infant Mortality in the United States: Trends, Differentials, and Projections, 1950 through 2010. American Journal of Public Health, 85(7), 957-964.

Stone C.L., Mueller L.M., Amadeo F.A., & Backus. K. (2013) Registration Report for the Year.

Connecticut Department of Public Health. Retrieved April 1, 2015 from http://www.ct.gov/dph/RegistrationReport.

Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2008). Income Inequality and Socioeconomic Gradients in American Journal of Public Health, 98(4), 699-704.

Mortality.

Zakir, M., & Wunnava, P. (1997). Factors affecting infant mortality rates: Evidence from sectional data. Applied Economics Letters, 6(5), 271-273.

cross-

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Appendix A. List of Variables Used Variable names for years 2010-2012

Explanation of variable

EVENT_YEAR

The year that the birth occurred

PLURALITY

How many births occurred at a time (twins, triplets)

BIRTH_ORDER

Order in which the individual was born

FAC_NAME

Name of the facility in which birth occurred

FAC_COUNTY_NAME

County where birth occurred

MOTHER_BIRTH_COUNTRY

The country the mother was born in

MOTHER_RES_COUNTY

The county that the mother resides in

MOTHER_OCCUPATION

The mother's occupation at the time

GESTATION_WEEKS

Number of weeks of gestation

BIRTH_WEIGHT_GRAMS

Birth weight of newborn in grams

DEATH_OCCURRED

If death occurred within one year of newborn

MOTHER_ETHNIC_YESNO

If the mother identifies herself as Hispanic

MOTHER_RACE_WHITE

If the mother identifies herself as White

MOTHER_RACE_BLACK

If the mother identifies herself as Black

MOTHER_RACE_AM_INDIAN

If the mother identifies herself as American Indian

MOTHER_RACE_ASIAN

If the mother identifies herself as Asian

MOTHER_RACE_HAWAIIAN

If the mother identifies herself as Hawaiian

MOTHER_RACE_GUAM

If the mother identifies herself as Guam

MOTHER_RACE_SAMOAN

If the mother identifies herself as Samoan

TOBACCO_USE

If the mother is a current smoker

MOTHER_PRE_PREG_WT

The mother's weight before pregnancy

MOTHER_AGE

The mother's age

MOTHER_WT_AT_DELIV

The mother's weight at delivery

MOTHER_ED

Mother's level of education

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PRENATAL_YESNO

Whether a prenatal birth occurred

DEATH_EVENT

If death occurred in newborn within a year

AGE

Age, when death occurred

RACE

Race of dead infant

IMMED_CAUSE_DEATH

Cause of death for infant

MANNER_DEATH

The manner in which the infant died

RACE_WHITE

If the infant's mother identifies as White

RACE_BLACK

If the infant's mother identifies as Black

RACE_AM_INDIAN

If the infant's mother identifies as American Indian

RACE_ASIAN

If the infant's mother identifies as Asian

RACE_HAWAIIAN

If the infant's mother identifies as Hawaiian

RACE_GUAM

If the infant's mother identifies as Guam

RACE_SAMOAN

If the infant's mother identifies as Samoan

ETHNIC_YESNO

If the infant's mother identifies as Hispanic

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Appendix B. Nevada Birth Certificate U.S. STANDARD CERTIFICATE OF LIVE BIRTH C H I L D

1. CHILD’S NAME (First, Middle, Last, Suffix)

2. TIME OF BIRTH (24 hr)

5. FACILITY NAME (If not institution, give street and number)

M O THER

4. DATE OF BIRTH (Mo/Day/Yr)

3. SEX

6. CITY, TOWN, OR LOCATION OF BIRTH

7. COUNTY OF BIRTH

8a. MOTHER’S CURRENT LEGAL NAME (First, Middle, Last, Suffix)

8b. DATE OF BIRTH (Mo/Day/Yr)

8c. MOTHER’S NAME PRIOR TO FIRST MARRIAGE (First, Middle, Last, Suffix)

8d. BIRTHPLACE (State, Territory, or Foreign Country)

9a. RESIDENCE OF MOTHER-STATE

9b. COUNTY

9c. CITY, TOWN, OR LOCATION

9d. STREET AND NUMBER

9e. APT. NO.

9g. INSIDE CITY LIMITS?

9f. ZIP CODE

□ Yes □ No

F A T H E R

10a. FATHER’S CURRENT LEGAL NAME (First, Middle, Last, Suffix)

CERTIFIER

11. CERTIFIER’S NAME: TITLE: □ MD

10b. DATE OF BIRTH (Mo/Day/Yr)

12. DATE CERTIFIED

□ DO □ HOSPITAL ADMIN. □ CNM/CM □ OTHER MIDWIFE

_/

□ OTHER (Specify)

MOTHER

14. MOTHER’S MAILING ADDRESS:

10c. BIRTHPLACE (State, Territory, or Foreign Country)

MM

9 Same as residence, or:

State:

DD

_/ YYYY

MM

/ DD

YYYY

City, Town, or Location:

Street & Number:

Apartment No.:

15. MOTHER MARRIED? (At birth, conception, or any time between) □ Yes IF NO, HAS PATERNITY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BEEN SIGNED IN THE HOSPITAL? □ Yes 18. MOTHER’S SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER:

13. DATE FILED BY REGISTRAR

/

□ No □ No

Zip Code:

16. SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER REQUESTED 17. FACILITY ID. (NPI) FOR CHILD? □ Yes □ No

19. FATHER’S SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER:

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MOTHER

20. MOTHER’S EDUCATION (Check the box that best describes the highest degree or level of school completed at the time of delivery)

21. MOTHER OF HISPANIC ORIGIN? (Check the box that best describes whether the mother is Spanish/Hispanic/Latina. Check the “No” box if mother is not Spanish/Hispanic/Latina)

□ No, not Spanish/Hispanic/Latina

□ 8th grade or less

□ Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicana

□ 9th - 12th grade, no diploma

□ Yes, Puerto Rican

□ High school graduate or GED completed

□ Yes, Cuban

□ Some college credit but no degree

□ Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic/Latina

□ Associate degree (e.g., AA, AS)

(Specify)

□ Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA, AB, BS) □ Master’s degree (e.g., MA, MS, MEng, MEd, MSW, MBA)

□ Doctorate (e.g., PhD, EdD) or Professional degree (e.g., MD, DDS, DVM, LLB, JD)

FATHER

23. FATHER’S EDUCATION (Check the box that best describes the highest degree or level of school completed at the time of delivery)

24. FATHER OF HISPANIC ORIGIN? (Check the box that best describes whether the father is Spanish/Hispanic/Latino. Check the “No” box if father is not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino)

□ 8th grade or less □ 9th - 12th grade, no diploma □ High school graduate or GED completed

□ Some college credit but no degree □ Associate degree (e.g., AA, AS) □ Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA, AB, BS)

□ No, not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino □ Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano □ Yes, Cuban □ Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino (Specify)

MEng, MEd, MSW, MBA)

□ Doctorate (e.g., PhD, EdD) or Professional degree (e.g., MD, DDS, DVM, LLB, JD)

□ □ □ □

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Freestanding birthing center Home Birth: Planned to deliver at home? 9 Yes 9 No Clinic/Doctor’s office

25. FATHER’S RACE (Check one or more races to indicate what the father considers himself to be)

□ White □ Black or African American □ American Indian or Alaska Native (Name of the enrolled or principal tribe)

□ Asian Indian □ Chinese □ Filipino □ Japanese □ Korean □ Vietnamese □ Other Asian (Specify) □ Native Hawaiian □ Guamanian or Chamorro □ Samoan □ Other Pacific Islander (Specify) □ Other (Specify)

□ Yes, Puerto Rican

□ Master’s degree (e.g., MA, MS,

26. PLACE WHERE BIRTH OCCURRED (Check one) □ Hospital

22. MOTHER’S RACE (Check one or more races to indicate what the mother considers herself to be) □ White □ Black or African American □ American Indian or Alaska Native (Name of the enrolled or principal tribe) □ Asian Indian □ Chinese □ Filipino □ Japanese □ Korean □ Vietnamese □ Other Asian (Specify) □ Native Hawaiian □ Guamanian or Chamorro □ Samoan □ Other Pacific Islander (Specify) □ Other (Specify)

27. ATTENDANT’S NAME, TITLE, AND NPI NAME:

NPI:

TITLE: □ MD □ DO □ CNM/CM □ OTHER MIDWIFE

28. MOTHER TRANSFERRED FOR MATERNAL MEDICAL OR FETAL INDICATIONS FOR DELIVERY? □ Yes □ No IF YES, ENTER NAME OF FACILITY MOTHER TRANSFERRED FROM:

□ OTHER (Specify)

Other (Specify)

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MOTHER

29a. DATE OF FIRSTPRENATAL CARE VISIT / / □ No Prenatal Care MM DD YYYY

30. TOTAL NUMBER OF PRENATAL VISITS FOR THIS PREGNANCY (If none, enter A0".)

31. MOTHER’S HEIGHT (feet/inches)

32. MOTHER’S PREPREGNANCY WEIGHT 33. MOTHER’S WEIGHT AT DELIVERY 34. DID MOTHER GET WIC FOOD FOR HERSELF (pounds) (pounds) DURING THIS PREGNANCY? □ Yes □ No

35. NUMBER OF PREVIOUS LIVE BIRTHS (Do not include this child)

36. NUMBER OF OTHER 37. CIGARETTE SMOKING BEFORE AND DURING PREGNANCY 38. PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF PREGNANCY OUTCOMES For each time period, enter either the number of cigarettes or the PAYMENT FOR THIS (spontaneous or induced DELIVERY number of packs of cigarettes smoked. IF NONE, ENTER A0". losses or ectopic pregnancies) Average number of cigarettes or packs of cigarettes smoked per day. □ Private Insurance 36a. Other Outcomes # of cigarettes # of packs □ Medicaid Number Three Months Before Pregnancy OR □ Self-pay First Three Months of Pregnancy OR □ Other Second Three Months of Pregnancy OR □ None (Specify) Third Trimester of Pregnancy OR

35a. Now Living

35b. Now Dead

Number

Number

□ None

□ None

35c. DATE OF LAST LIVE BIRTH /_ MM YYYY

MEDICAL AND HEALTH INFORMATION

29b. DATE OF LAST PRENATAL CARE VISIT /_ / MM DD YYYY

36b. DATE OF LAST OTHER PREGNANCY OUTCOME /_ MM YYYY

41. RISK FACTORS IN THIS PREGNANCY (Check all that apply) Diabetes □ Prepregnancy (Diagnosis prior to this pregnancy) □ Gestational (Diagnosis in this pregnancy)

39. DATE LAST NORMAL MENSES BEGAN /_ / MM DD YYYY

43. OBSTETRIC PROCEDURES (Check all that apply)

□ Cervical cerclage □ Tocolysis External cephalic version: □ Successful □ Failed

Hypertension □ Prepregnancy (Chronic) □ Gestational (PIH, preeclampsia) □ Eclampsia

□ None of the above

□ Previous preterm birth

44. ONSET OF LABOR (Check all that apply)

□ Other previous poor pregnancy outcome (Includes

□ Premature Rupture of the Membranes (prolonged, ∃12 hrs.)

perinatal death, small-for-gestational age/intrauterine growth restricted birth)

□ Pregnancy resulted from infertility treatment-If yes, check all that apply:

□ Fertility-enhancing drugs, Artificial insemination or Intrauterine insemination

□ Precipitous Labor (<3 hrs.) □ Prolonged Labor (∃ 20 hrs.) □ None of the above

□ Assisted reproductive technology (e.g., in vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT))

□ Mother had a previous cesarean delivery If yes, how many

□ None of the above 42. INFECTIONS PRESENT AND/OR TREATED DURING THIS PREGNANCY (Check all that apply)

□ □ □ □ □ □

Gonorrhea Syphilis Chlamydia Hepatitis B Hepatitis C None of the above

45. CHARACTERISTICS OF LABOR AND DELIVERY (Check all that apply)

□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □

Induction of labor Augmentation of labor Non-vertex presentation Steroids (glucocorticoids) for fetal lung maturation received by the mother prior to delivery Antibiotics received by the mother during labor Clinical chorioamnionitis diagnosed during labor or maternal temperature >38°C (100.4°F) Moderate/heavy meconium staining of the amniotic fluid Fetal intolerance of labor such that one or more of the following actions was taken: in-utero resuscitative measures, further fetal assessment, or operative delivery Epidural or spinal anesthesia during labor None of the above

40. MOTHER’S MEDICAL RECORD NUMBER

46. METHOD OF DELIVERY A. Was delivery with forceps attempted but unsuccessful? □ Yes □ No B. Was delivery with vacuum extraction attempted but unsuccessful? □ Yes □ No C. Fetal presentation at birth □ Cephalic □ Breech □ Other D. Final route and method of delivery (Check one) □ Vaginal/Spontaneous □ Vaginal/Forceps □ Vaginal/Vacuum □ Cesarean If cesarean, was a trial of labor attempted? □ Yes □ No 47. MATERNAL MORBIDITY (Check all that apply) (Complications associated with labor and delivery) □ Maternal transfusion □ Third or fourth degree perineal laceration □ Ruptured uterus □ Unplanned hysterectomy □ Admission to intensive care unit □ Unplanned operating room procedure following delivery □ None of the above

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NEWBORN

48. NEWBORN MEDICAL RECORD NUMBER 49. BIRTHWEIGHT (grams preferred, specify unit) 9 grams

9 lb/oz

54. ABNORMAL CONDITIONS OF THE NEWBORN (Check all that apply)

□ Assisted ventilation required immediately following delivery

□ Assisted ventilation required for more than 50. OBSTETRIC ESTIMATE OF GESTATION: (completed weeks)

six hours

□ NICU admission □ Newborn given surfactant replacement

51. APGAR SCORE: Score at 5 minutes:_ If 5 minute score is less than 6,

therapy

□ Antibiotics received by the newborn for suspected neonatal sepsis

Score at 10 minutes:

□ Seizure or serious neurologic dysfunction

52. PLURALITY - Single, Twin, Triplet, etc.

□ Significant birth injury (skeletal fracture(s), peripheral

(Specify)

nerve injury, and/or soft tissue/solid organ hemorrhage which requires intervention)

55. CONGENITAL ANOMALIES OF THE NEWBORN (Check all that apply) □ Anencephaly □ Meningomyelocele/Spina bifida □ Cyanotic congenital heart disease □ Congenital diaphragmatic hernia □ Omphalocele □ Gastroschisis □ Limb reduction defect (excluding congenital amputation and dwarfing syndromes) □ Cleft Lip with or without Cleft Palate □ Cleft Palate alone □ Down Syndrome □ Karyotype confirmed □ Karyotype pending □ Suspected chromosomal disorder □ Karyotype confirmed □ Karyotype pending □ Hypospadias □ None of the anomalies listed above

53. IF NOT SINGLE BIRTH - Born First, Second, Third, etc. (Specify)

9 None of the above

56. WAS INFANT TRANSFERRED WITHIN 24 HOURS OF DELIVERY? 9 Yes 9 No IF YES, NAME OF FACILITY INFANT TRANSFERRED TO:

57. IS INFANT LIVING AT TIME OF REPORT? 58. IS THE INFANT BEING BREASTFED AT DISCHARGE? □ Yes □ No □ Infant transferred, status unknown □ Yes □ No

Rev. 11/2003 NOTE: This recommended standard birth certificate is the result of an extensive evaluation process. Information on the process and resulting recommendations as well as plans for future activities is available on the Internet at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/vital_certs_rev.htm.

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Appendix C. Nevada Death Certificate 1. DECEDENT’S LEGAL NAME (Include AKA’s if any) (First, Middle, Last)

4a. AGE-Last Birthday (Years)

4b. UNDER 1 YEAR

4c. UNDER 1 DAY

Months

Hours

Days

7a. RESIDENCE-STATE

To Be Completed/ Verified By: FUNERAL DIRECTOR:

5. DATE OF BIRTH (Mo/Day/Yr) 6. BIRTHPLACE (City and State or Foreign Country)

7b. COUNTY

7c. CITY OR TOWN

7e. APT. NO.

8. EVER IN US ARMED FORCES? □ Yes □ No

7f. ZIP CODE

9. MARITAL STATUS AT TIME OF DEATH □ Married □ Married, but separated □ Widowed □ Divorced □ Never Married □ Unknown

7g. INSIDE CITY LIMITS?

□ Yes □ No

10. SURVIVING SPOUSE’S NAME (If wife, give name prior to first marriage)

FATHER’S NAME (First, Middle, Last)

13a. INFORMANT’S NAME

3. SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER

Minutes

7d. STREET AND NUMBER

11.

2. SEX

12. MOTHER’S NAME PRIOR TO FIRST MARRIAGE (First, Middle, Last)

13b. RELATIONSHIP TO DECEDENT

13c. MAILING ADDRESS (Street and Number, City, State, Zip Code)

14. PLACE OF DEATH (Check only one: see instructions) IF DEATH OCCURRED SOMEWHERE OTHER THAN A HOSPITAL: □ Hospice facility □ Nursing home/Long term care facility □ Decedent’s home 15. FACILITY NAME (If not institution, give street & number) 16. CITY OR TOWN , STATE, AND ZIP CODE IF DEATH OCCURRED IN A HOSPITAL:

□ Inpatient □ Emergency Room/Outpatient □ Dead on Arrival

18. METHOD OF DISPOSITION: □ Burial □ Cremation □ Donation □ Entombment □ Removal from State □ Other (Specify): 20. LOCATION-CITY, TOWN, AND STATE

19.

21.

17. COUNTY OF DEATH

PLACE OF DISPOSITION (Name of cemetery, crematory, other place)

NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS OF FUNERAL FACILITY

22. SIGNATURE OF FUNERAL SERVICE LICENSEE OR OTHER AGENT

23.

LICENSE NUMBER (Of Licensee)

24. DATE PRONOUNCED DEAD (Mo/Day/Yr)

ITEMS 24-28 MUST BE COMPLETED BY PERSON WHO PRONOUNCES OR CERTIFIES DEATH

26. SIGNATURE OF PERSON PRONOUNCING DEATH (Only when applicable)

29. ACTUAL OR PRESUMED DATE OF DEATH (Mo/Day/Yr) (Spell Month)

□ Other (Specify):

25. TIME PRONOUNCED DEAD

27. LICENSE NUMBER

30. ACTUAL OR PRESUMED TIME OF DEATH

28. DATE SIGNED (Mo/Day/Yr)

31. WAS MEDICAL EXAMINER OR CORONER CONTACTED? □ Yes

CAUSE OF DEATH (See instructions and examples) 32. PART I. Enter the chain of events--diseases, injuries, or complications--that directly caused the death. DO NOT enter terminal events such as cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, or ventricular fibrillation without showing the etiology. DO NOT ABBREVIATE. Enter only one cause on a line. Add additional lines if necessary.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE (Final disease or condition ---------> resulting in death)

□ No

Approximate interval: Onset to death

a._ Due to (or as a consequence of):

Sequentially list conditions, if any, leading to the cause listed on line a. Enter the UNDERLYING CAUSE (disease or injury that initiated the events resulting in death) LAST

b.

Due to (or as a consequence of): c._ Due to (or as a consequence of): d._

PART II. Enter other significant conditions contributing to death but not resulting in the underlying cause given in PART I

To Be Completed By: MEDICAL CERTIFIER

35.

DID TOBACCO USE CONTRIBUTE TO DEATH?

33. WAS AN AUTOPSY PERFORMED? □ Yes □ No 34. WERE AUTOPSY FINDINGS AVAILABLE TO COMPLETE THE CAUSE OF DEATH? □ Yes □ No 37. MANNER OF DEATH

36. IF FEMALE: □ Not pregnant within past year

□ Yes □ Probably

□ Pregnant at time of death

□ No □ Unknown

□ Not pregnant, but pregnant within 42 days of death □ Not pregnant, but pregnant 43 days to 1 year before death

□ Natural

□ Homicide

□ Accident

□ Pending Investigation

□ Suicide

□ Could not be determined

□ Unknown if pregnant within the past year 38. DATE OF INJURY (Mo/Day/Yr) (Spell Month)

42. LOCATION OF INJURY:

39. TIME OF INJURY

40. PLACE OF INJURY (e.g., Decedent’s home; construction site; restaurant; wooded area)

State:

41. INJURY AT WORK? □ Yes □ No

City or Town:

Street & Number: 43. DESCRIBE HOW INJURY OCCURRED:

Apartment No.:

Zip Code: 44. IF TRANSPORTATION INJURY, SPECIFY: □ Driver/Operator □ Passenger □ Pedestrian □ Other (Specify)

45. CERTIFIER (Check only one): □ Certifying physician-To the best of my knowledge, death occurred due to the cause(s) and manner stated. □ Pronouncing & Certifying physician-To the best of my knowledge, death occurred at the time, date, and place, and due to the cause(s) and manner stated. □ Medical Examiner/Coroner-On the basis of examination, and/or investigation, in my opinion, death occurred at the time, date, and place, and due to the cause(s) and manner stated.

Signature of certifier: 46. NAME, ADDRESS, AND ZIP CODE OF PERSON COMPLETING CAUSE OF DEATH (Item 32)

47. TITLE OF CERTIFIER

48. LICENSE NUMBER

51. DECEDENT’S EDUCATION-Check the box that best describes the highest degree or level of school completed at the time of death.

□ 8th grade or less

To Be Completed By: FUNERAL DIRECTOR

□ 9th - 12th grade; no diploma □ High school graduate or GED completed □ Some college credit, but no degree □ Associate degree (e.g., AA, AS)

49. DATE CERTIFIED (Mo/Day/Yr)

53. DECEDENT’S RACE (Check one or more races to indicate what the decedent considered himself or herself to be)

□ No, not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino

□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □

□ Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano □ Yes, Puerto Rican

□ Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA, AB, BS)

□ Yes, Cuban

□ Master’s degree (e.g., MA, MS, MEng,

□ Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino

MEd, MSW, MBA)

(Specify)

□ Doctorate (e.g., PhD, EdD) or

50. FOR REGISTRAR ONLY- DATE FILED (Mo/Day/Yr)

52. DECEDENT OF HISPANIC ORIGIN? Check the box that best describes whether the decedent is Spanish/Hispanic/Latino. Check the “No” box if decedent is not Spanish/Hispanic/Latino.

□ White □ Black or African American □ American Indian or Alaska Native

(Name of the enrolled or principal tribe) Asian Indian Chinese Filipino Japanese Korean Vietnamese Other Asian (Specify) Native Hawaiian Guamanian or Chamorro Samoan Other Pacific Islander (Specify) Other (Specify)

Professional degree (e.g., MD, DDS, DVM, LLB, JD) 54. DECEDENT’S USUAL OCCUPATION (Indicate type of work done during most of working life. DO NOT USE RETIRED).

55. KIND OF BUSINESS/INDUSTRY

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Cause-of-death – Background, Examples, and Common Problems Accurate cause of death information is important •to the public health community in evaluating and improving the health of all citizens, and •often to the family, now and in the future, and to the person settling the decedent’s estate.

The cause-of-death section consists of two parts. Part I is for reporting a chain of events leading directly to death, with the immediate cause of death (the final disease, injury, or complication directly causing death) on line a and the underlying cause of death (the disease or injury that initiated the chain of events that led directly and inevitably to death) on the lowest used line. Part II is for reporting all other significant diseases, conditions, or injuries that contributed to death but which did not result in the underlying cause of death given in Part I. The cause-of-death information should be YOUR best medical OPINION. A condition can be listed as “probable” even if it has not been definitively diagnosed.

CAUSE OF DEATH (See instructions and examples) 32. PART I. Enter the chain of events--diseases, injuries, or complications--that directly caused the death. DO NOT enter terminal events such as cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, or ventricular fibrillation without showing the etiology. DO NOT ABBREVIATE. Enter only one cause on a line. Add additional lines if necessary.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE (Final disease or condition ---------> resulting in death) Sequentially list conditions, if any, leading to the cause listed on line a. Enter the UNDERLYING CAUSE (disease or injury that initiated the events resulting in death) LAST

a.

Minutes

Rupture of myocardium Due to (or as a consequence of):

b.

6 days

Acute myocardial infarction Due to (or as a consequence of):

c.

5 years

Coronary artery thrombosis Due to (or as a consequence of):

d.

Diabetes, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, smoking DID TOBACCO USE CONTRIBUTE TO DEATH? ■

Yes

Probably

No

Unknown

7 years

Atherosclerotic coronary artery disease

PART II. Enter other significant conditions contributing to death but not resulting in the underlying cause given in PART I

35.

36. IF FEMALE: ■ Not pregnant within past year Pregnant at time of death Not pregnant, but pregnant within 42 days of death Not pregnant, but pregnant 43 days to 1 year before death Unknown if pregnant within the past year

33. WAS AN AUTOPSY PERFORMED? ■ Yes No 34. WERE AUTOPSY FINDINGS AVAILABLE TO COMPLETE THE CAUSE OF DEATH? ■ Yes No 37. MANNER OF DEATH ■ Natural Accident Suicide

Homicide Pending Investigation Could not be determined

CAUSE OF DEATH (See instructions and examples) 32. PART I. Enter the chain of events--diseases, injuries, or complications--that directly caused the death. DO NOT enter terminal events such as cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, or ventricular fibrillation without showing the etiology. DO NOT ABBREVIATE. Enter only one cause on a line. Add additional lines if necessary.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE (Final disease or condition ---------> resulting in death) Sequentially list conditions, if any, leading to the cause listed on line a. Enter the UNDERLYING CAUSE (disease or injury that initiated the events resulting in death) LAST

a.

2 Days

Aspiration pneumonia

b.

7 weeks

Complications of coma Due to (or as a consequence of):

c.

7 weeks

Blunt force injuries Due to (or as a consequence of):

d.

Motor vehicle accident

DID TOBACCO USE CONTRIBUTE TO DEATH? Yes ■ No

Probably Unknown

38. DATE OF INJURY (Mo/Day/Yr) (Spell Month)

7 weeks

39. TIME OF INJURY

33. WAS AN AUTOPSY PERFORMED? ■ Yes No 34. WERE AUTOPSY FINDINGS AVAILABLE TO COMPLETE THE CAUSE OF DEATH? ■ Yes No 37. MANNER OF DEATH

36. IF FEMALE: Not pregnant within past year Natural Homicide Pregnant at time of death ■ Accident Pending Investigation Not pregnant, but pregnant within 42 days of death Suicide Could not be determined Not pregnant, but pregnant 43 days to 1 year before death Unknown if pregnant within the past year 40. PLACE OF INJURY (e.g., Decedent’s home; construction site; restaurant; wooded area) 41. INJURY AT WORK?

Approx. 2320

road side near state highway

Yes ■ No

August 15, 2003 42. LOCATION OF INJURY:

State: Missouri

Street & Number: mile marker 17 on state route 46a 43. DESCRIBE HOW INJURY OCCURRED:

Decedent driver of van, ran off road into tree

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Approximate interval: Onset to death

Due to (or as a consequence of):

PART II. Enter other significant conditions contributing to death but not resulting in the underlying cause given in PART I

35.

Approximate interval: Onset to death

City or Town: near Alexandria Apartment No.:

Zip Code: 44. IF TRANSPORTATION INJURY, SPECIFY: ■ Driver/Operator Passenger Pedestrian Other (Specify)

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BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Appendix D. Causes of Death in Nevada, years 2010-2012 Year 2011

Number of Cases

Year 2010

Acute Pancreatitis

Acute cardiovascular/pulmonary collapse

1

Acute Myeloid Leukemia

1

Acute pneumonia

1

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

1

Anencephalus

1

Asphyxia

3

Bilateral grade IV intraventricular hemorrhage

1

Bowel perforation

1

Bradycardia & hypotension

1

Cardiac anomaly

1

Cardiac arrest

1

Number of Cases 1

Year 2012 Acute cardiorespiratory arrest

1

1

Acute placental abruption

1

Anencephaly

2

Alagille syndrome

1

Anoxic brain injury

1

Alobar holoprosencephaly

1

Anoxic Encephalopathy

1

Anencephaly

1

Apnea

1

Arrhythmia

1

Anoxic brain injury due to choking on toy

1

Asphyxia

8

Arrhythmia

1

Asystole

1

Asphyxia

4

Bilateral renal agenesis

1

Blunt Force Injuries

1

Bronchopneumonia

1

Bohring-Opitz Syndrome

1

Cardiopulmonary arrest

3

Bronchopneumon ia

Cardiopulmonary failure

3

1

Cardio respiratory arrest

5

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia

1

Cardio respiratory failure

12

Cardiac arrest

4

Cardiovascular collapse

2

Cardiogenic shock

1

Chorioamnionitis and funisitis

1 1

Acute renal failure

Cardiac failure

1

Cardiopulmonary arrest

7

Cardiopulmonary decompensation

1

Cardiorespiratory arrest

7

Cardiopulmonary Arrest

4

Chromosomal abnormality

Cardiorespiratory failure

1

Cardiopulmonary failure

1

Chronic lung disease

Chorioamnionitis

1

Cardiorespiratory arrest

16

Chronic lung disease

1

Cardiorespiratory failure

4

Circulatory collapse

1

Cardio-Respiratory Insufficiency

Coarctation of aorta, severe and

1

Complete heart block

1

Complex cyanotic congenital heart disease

1

Complications of miller-dicksen syndrome

1

Complications of prematurity

1

Congenital brain malformation

1 17 1

1

Extreme prematurity

1

Cardiovascular collapse

1

Fetal hydrops

2

Congenital anomalies

1

Fetal trisomy 18

3

Congenital cardiopulmonary defects

1

Holoprosencephaly

1

Hypotension

1

Hypoxia

1

Hypoxic encephalopathy

1

Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy

1

Immature lungs-pregnancy 20 weeks

1

Infectious (staphylococcus aureus) pneumonitis

1

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia

1

1

1

Congenital heart disease

5

Extensive bowel necrosis

1

Drowning

1

Extreme pre maturity

Enterococcus peritonitis

1

Hemorrhagic shock

1

Holoprosencepha ly

1

18

Congenital anomalies Escherichia coli pneumonia

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

Extreme prematurity

Number of Cases

21

Fetal anomalies incompatible with life

1

1

1

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy

Mechanical asphyxia

Fetal hydrops

1

Meconium aspiration

1

Fulminant hepatic failure

1

Immaturity

2

Multiorgan failure

1

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Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN Year 2010

Number of Cases

Year 2011

Hemorrhage

1

Incompetent cervix

1

Heterotaxy syndrome

1

Intractable hypotension

1

Hydrocephalus

1

Irreversible hypoxemia

1

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome

2

Irreversible lymphangiectasia with anasarca

1

Hypotensive/hypoxic brain injury

1

Hypoxic brain injury - non-traumatic

1

Large syrinx of cervical spine to T1

1

Multiorgan system failure

1

Number of Cases

Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy

1

Multiple congenital anomalies

2

Inherent genetic disorder (Trisomy 13)

1

Multiple congenital malformation

1

Intraventricular hemorrhage

1

Non-viability

5

Ischemic encephalopathy

1

Positional Asphyxia

2

IUGR - intrauterine growth restriction

1

Potters syndrome

1

Left diaphragmatic hernia

1

Premature birth

7

Mechanical asphyxia

1

Previable delivery

1

Most likely due to severe diabetes during pregnancy

Probable Cardiac Dysrhythmia

1

1

Pulmonary failure

1

Multiple Fetal Anomalies

1

Myocardial failure

2

Pulmonary hypoplasia

4

Nasopharyngela Influenza

1

Respiratory arrest

1 2

Necrotizing enterocolitis

3

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Non-Accidental Head Injuries

1

Respiratory failure

9

Non-immune hydrops

1

Respiratory insufficiency

1

Overwhelming sepsis

1

Severe prematurity

1

Oxycodone intoxication

1

Spinal muscular atrophy type I

2

Periventricular leukoencephalopathy

1

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

7 2

Year 2012

Number of Cases

Multiple congenital anomalies Multisystem organ failure Necrotizing enterocolitis

2 1 1

Osteogenesis imperfecta type II

4

Placental abruption

1

Positional asphyxia Positional suffocation Potters syndrome Prematurity Pre-term labor Previable fetus

1 9 2 1 1 1

Probable pontocerebellar hypoplasia Pulmonary hemorrhage Pulmonary hypertension Pulmonary hypoplasia Pulmonary immaturity Pulmonary insufficiency Renal failure Respiratory arrest

2 2 1 1 1 1 8 1

Respiratory failure

1

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection Ruptured membranes Seizure Disorder Sepsis Septic shock Severe arthrogryposis Severe hydrops fetalis

1 2 2 1 1 1 1

Persistent hypoxemia

1

Suffocation

Pneumonia

1

Term infant, LGA, male

1

Severe hypoxemia

3

Positional asphyxia

2

Potter syndrome

1

Term, SGA (small for gestational age), female

1

Severe intracranial hemorrhage (non-traumatic)

1

Termination elective

1

Trisomy 13

2

Severe prematurity

1

Trisomy 18

3

Severe pulmonary hypertension Severe respiratory distress

1 5

Sudden Unexplained Infant Death Suffocation Trisomy 13 Trisomy 18

2 1 1 6

Unbalanced atrioventricular septal defect Undetermined

1 1

Premature delivery - unknown etiology

2

Premature rupture of membranes 17 weeks

1

Prematurity

9

Undetermined

Preterm 28 weeks female

2

Viral bronchopneumonitis

Previable 23+ weeks

1

Profound acidosis

1

Pulmonary cardio arrest

1

Pulmonary hemorrhage

1

Pulmonary hypertension

3

Pulmonary vascular congestion and edema

1

Refractory hypotension

1

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McNair Scholars Research Journal * Volume 6 * University of Nevada, Reno * Division of Student Services

Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program

BRANDON WOUDHUYSEN

Year 2010

Number of Cases

Remote prematurity

1

Renal agenesis

1

Respiratory arrest

3

Respiratory failure

19

Respiratory insufficiency

1

Sepsis

3

Septic shock

2

Severe bilateral intraventricular hemorrhage

2

Severe congenital abnormalities

1

Severe immaturity

1

Severe intracranial hemorrhage - spontaneous

2

Severe myocardial infarction

1

Severe necrotizing enterocolitis

1

Severe prematurity

3

Severe pulmonary hypertension

1

Severe respiratory distress syndrome

2

Severe respiratory failure

1

Severe traumatic brain injury

1

Shock

1

Sleep apnea

1

Spontaneous abortion

1

Status epilepticus

1

Sudden infant death syndrome

1

Suspected sepsis

1

Term, appropriate for gestational age, female

1

Trisomy 18

2

Uncontrollable intra-abdominal bleeding

1

Undetermined

7

Very-Long-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase (VLCAD) Deficiency

1

Year 2011

Number of Cases

Year 2012

Number of Cases

Vascular collapse Zellweger syndrome

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