restorative aesthetics
Designing for stress reduction with Fractal Geometries and soft fascination
Maria Tatum, M.A. Interior Design, Non-thesis, S’19 Interior Design, School of Design and Construction Voiland College of Engineering and Architecture Washington State University, Pullman, WA
Committee Members
Matt Melcher, M. Arch, Chair Judy Theodorson, M. Arch Bob Krikac, M.S., Design
Acknowledgment I am graciously indebted to my committee whose insights and inspirations guided me through this process. Infinite thanks to my domestic support system. Your boundless encouragement and support made his possible.
Contents
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................i
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................iii LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................iv RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................................................v KEY TERMS....................................................................................................................vi CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................1
Background | 1.1 ................................................................................1
Purpose | 1.2 .......................................................................................2
Literature Review | 1.3 ......................................................................3
Stress and the Built Environment .....................................3
Attention and Well-being.....................................................4
Nature and Restoration .......................................................5
Theoretical Framework ........................................................6 Effects of Nature......................................................................9 Fractal Geometries................................................................11
Preference for Mid-range Fractals..................................17
The Neurological Perspective...........................................21 Preference and Aesthetics.................................................23 Responsive design...............................................................25 Implications.............................................................................26
2. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.............................................................27
Fractal Analysis | 2.1 .......................................................................27
Design | 2.2 ........................................................................................33
Fabrication | 2.3 ................................................................................43
Installation | 2.4 .................................................................................45
Future Research | 2.5 .....................................................................51
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................53
Abstract
Stress is known to have a profound impact on human health and well-being from cardiovascular disease to depression (APA, 2015). In 2017, 75% of American adults experienced one or more sources of stress within a given month (APA, 2017). Researchers in the fields of psychology and design often look to nature as an antidote to physiological and psychological stress with large bodies of literature in support of its benefits. With 90% of time spent indoors, the question of how to translate the restorative benefits of nature into the built environment represents a problem especially suited to those who design them (U.S. EPA, 1987). The theory that perhaps the benefits of nature can be attributed to underlying properties in nature represents an opportunity for design exploration. Two elements of nature, selected for their restorative effect, are examined: soft fascination and fractal geometries. Strategies for adapting these to the built environment to evoke stress reduction is explored.
i
Motion study, cumulus clouds
LIST OF TABLES
1. Key terms.........................................................................vii 2. Nature and restoration literatture.............................12
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1, Theoretical framework....................................5 Figure 2, Nervous system................................................7 Figure 3, Iterated Function System.............................11 Figure 4, Spiral fractal.....................................................12 Figure 5, Dragon curve..................................................12 Figure 6, Strange attractors...........................................15 Figure 7, Fractal dimension..........................................16 Figure 8, Historical fractals............................................20
iv
Research Questions
• What role does motion play in soft fascination? • Can soft fascination be created in order to direct attention to restorative stimuli? • Can fractal aesthetics provide a method for empirically guided design of restorative interior environments? • Can fascinating stimuli be designed using the characteristics of fractal geometries for improved restoration? • Do fascinating stimuli inherently possess fractal dimension? • Does the characteristic of motion in design elements heighten the effect of restoration?
v
Key terms Attention
The capacity to sustain focus on a task (Kaplan, 1992).
Direct attention
The purposeful use of attentional resources required for focus (Kaplan, 1992).
Fractals
Complex patterns that demonstrate the same or similar patterns at varying scales (Mandlebrot, 1983).
Fractal dimension
“A measure of the extent to which a structure exceeds its base dimension to fill the next dimension” (Hagerhall, 2004).
Indirect attention
Characterized by effortless engagement, it requires no cognitive direction and is sustained automatically (Kaplan, 1992).
Restoration
Marked by “numerous positive changes in psychological states, in levels of activity in physiological systems, and often in behaviors or functioning, including cognitive functioning or performance (Ulrich, 1991).”
Soft fascination
Elements that occupies attention effortlessly (i.e. involuntary attention), enabling restoration (Kaplan, 1992).
Stress
A discrepancy between external demands and the mental facilities available to execute them, namely attentional capacity (Kaplan, 1992).
vi
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Purpose 1.3 Literature Review
1.1 | Background
Stress in modern society is a familiar blight. Our ultra connected world continues to put increasing demands on our time and attention. Disparity between these environmental demands and the cognitive resources used to respond to them can result in stress. When considering stress in terms of environmental demands, it is pertinent to examine the state of daily life. Americans spend upwards of 90% of time indoors (U.S. EPA, 1987). At home, work, or in a car, we live in built environments. As research continues to mount in support of nature’s restorative benefits, the case for implementing it into the built environment continues to rise. The aspects of nature that are responsible for the stress reduction is still unclear but existing research does illuminate intriguing possibilities. This study aims to explore characteristics of soft fascination and fractal geometries in order to design for restoration within the built environment. 1
1
1.2 | Purpose
Reducing stress within the built environment directly translates into increased occupant health and well-being. The purpose of this investigation is to explore the potential of fractal geometries and soft fascination as design elements for stress reduction. An exploration of the characteristics of both in relation to restoration theories serves as a guide for the design development of stress reducing interior applications.
2
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Purpose 1.3 Literature Review
1.3 | INTRO: Stress + The Built Environment
The impact of stress on psychological and physiological health is undisputed. It is linked to high blood-pressure, elevated heart rate, irritability, and a seemingly endless list of other effects (Ulrich, 1991). Stress is defined as a discrepancy between external demands and the mental facilities available to execute them, namely attentional capacity (Kaplan, 1992; Evans & McCoy, 1998). The first question to arise from an interior design perspective when considering these facts is: can built environments mediate stress? Specifically, can they alleviate stress by mediating environmental demands or 3
the human resources used to cope? In the context of built environments, stress occurs when demands generated by the environment outweigh the resources it provides to meet them. For example, an individual might experience stress if a given task requires focused attention but the surrounding environment is filled with distracting noise.
+
=
Attention is the primary cognitive resource responsible for human effectiveness and can be defined as the capacity to sustain focus on a task (Kaplan, 1992; Berto, 2011).
to fatigue. Direct attention fatigue and often in behaviors or Attention + Well-being (DAF) is linked to decreased functioning, including cognitive
“The attention is aroused and the mind is occupied without purpose.” -Frederick Law Olmsted Two types of attention have been identified: direct and indirect (James, 1920; Kaplan, 1989). Direct attention, also called voluntary attention, is characterized by the purposeful use of the attentional resources required for focus (Kaplan, 1992). While attention is key to human effectiveness and task completion, it is also a finite cognitive resource susceptible
patience, inhibition, endurance, and cognitive processing. (Kaplan, 1995; Korpela & Hartig,1996). The second type of attention, indirect attention, or involuntary attention, is characterized by effortless engagement. It requires no cognitive direction and is sustained automatically (Kaplan, 1992). Indirect attention’s ability to effortlessly engage gives the higher cognitive functions used by direct attention an opportunity to rest and recuperate (Kaplan, 1992). Restoration is marked by “numerous positive changes in psychological states, in levels of activity in physiological systems,
functioning or performance (Ulrich et al., 1991).” It can be understood as the process of recovering from stress and has long been linked to experiences in nature. Frederick Law Olmsted recognized the pivotal role of nature in well-being. His observation of nature’s effects illustrate the properties of indirect attention. He wrote, “The attention is aroused and the mind is occupied without purpose.” It is the “without purpose” that allows the higher cognitive functions utilized during direct attention to rest and restore, allowing restoration to take place. 4
Nature + Restoration
Attention Restoration Theory
Stress Reduction Theory S.F.
>>>fatigued attention>>>>>> >>>>>>> soft fascination>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>restoration
Biophilia
FIG. 1 The concept of soft fascination is a central to the theoretical framework
In recent decades, the restorative effects of nature have been studied extensively. The seminal theories, attention restoration theory (ART) and stress reduction theory (SRT) have served as frameworks for the inquiries of environmental psychologists, landscape architects, and neurologists in their quest to understand the impact of nature on well-being. A third related theory, Biophilia, has garnered attention more directly in the design fields with publications such as Terrapin Bright Green’s 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design providing design guidelines. 5
Present within each of these theories is the concept of soft fascination. Soft fascination is characteristic of many natural environments. It is the element that occupies attention effortlessly (i.e. involuntary attention), enabling restoration (Kaplan, 1992). Moving clouds, dappled light, fire, and running water illustrate just a few of the infinite instances of soft fascination found in nature. These stimuli have the innate ability to mesmerize and intrance, holding attention without cognitive effort and allowing the mind to wander.
Theoretical FrameWork: Attention Restoration Theory
Attention Restoration Theory
Stress Reduction Theory
Biophilia
The ideas put forth by psychologists turned landscape architects Stephen and Rachel Kaplan in their 1995 attention restoration theory (ART) posits that the finite human resource of direct attention can be replenished through exposure to nature, a process they call restoration. This theory frames stress and restoration as cognitive processes that occur exclusively in response to environmental stimuli. ART identifies soft fascination as a central characteristic of restorative experiences. Mentioned previously, soft fascination is marked by the ability of
a stimuli to engage and hold attention automatically and without cognitive effort. The Kaplans, describing soft fascination, write:
“Clouds, sunsets, snow patterns, the motion of the leaves in a breeze-- these readily hold the attention, but in an undramatic fashion. Attending to these patterns is effortless…” (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1992)
It is often understood as the most important aspect of restoration (Berto, 2011). Three requirements of fascination have been identified: (1) posses attentional bias (2) requires little cognitive effort, and (3) evokes positive affect (Joye et al., 2013)
Qualifications of Soft Fascination S o f t 1. Intriguing F a s c i - 2. Inherently understood n a t i o n 3. Pleasing
ART outlines three other elements that contribute to restorative experiences: extent, being away, and compatibility. Since these pertain to the appraisal of the overall environment, whereas soft fascination can be attributed to a single source or stimuli, they are not included within the scope of this study. 6
Theoretical FrameWork: Stress Reduction Theory
Stress Reduction Theory
Attention Restoration Theory
Biophilia
Stress reduction theory (SRT), pioneered by Roger Ulrich in 1991, states that nature’s restorative effects come from it’s role as an initiator of the parasympathetic nervous system. This psychofunctionalist theory states that when stress is experienced, the sympathetic nervous system, known for it’s fight-or-flight response, is triggered (Berto, 2014). The focus of this theory is primarily on physiological stress. SRT references the evolutionary link between humans and nature, 7
claiming that through a complex evolutionary history with nature, humankind is programmed to respond with positive affect to nonthreatening natural stimuli. It follows that humans respond positively to stimuli supportive of survival (Berto, 2014). When encountering non-threatening natural stimuli during a stress state (sympathetic nervous system), we undergo a reaction which triggers the parasympathetic nervous system. This nervous system, opposite of the sympathetic nervous system, is commonly understood by the phrase “rest and digest.” Automatic Nervous System Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Stress reaction
Stress Recovery
FIG. 2, Automatic nervous system functions
Ulrich states that “recuperation from excessive arousal or stress should occur more rapidly in settings with low levels of arousal increasing properties such as complexity, intensity and movement,” a statement that illustrates the overload perspective (Ulrich et al., 1991). But as long as stimuli possess a non-threatening quality, it is assumed that stress recovery will occur.
Theoretical FrameWork: Biophilia
Stress Reduction Theory
Attention Restoration Theory
Biophilia
The concept of biophilia was introduced by E. O. Wilson in 1982. An expansion of the idea and it’s wide reaching implications culminated in the book The Biophilia Hypothesis which brought together a collection of essays and studies that provided empirical support for the theory. Biophilia is rooted in the evolutionary construction of human response to nature. The central tenant of biophilia is that because humans evolved within nature, we have a biological need for contact with it.
“ I have suggested that the urge to affiliate with other forms of life is to some degree innate, hence deserves to be called biophilia.” -Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia
This evolutionary perspective also holds that humans respond positively to supportive environments for survival purposes. This idea accounts for such phenomena as the attractiveness of running water or preference for easy to read savanna landscapes, a separate theory generated by Jay Appleton (Appleton, 1975; Falk and Ballin, 2010; Wilson, 1984). Process is a large aspect of biophilia. Since we are organic beings, like all other life on earth, we are subject to the process of birth, life, and death. The marking of time by daylight and changing foliage are linked to processes within ourselves such as circadian rhythm. Including biophilic elements within the built environment such as natural elements and nature analogues has been shown to benefit occupants by reducing physiological and psychological stress symptoms such as blood pressure and heart rate and increasing attentional capacity and performance (Taylor, 2007; Ulrich et al, 1991). 8
Effects of Nature
Research focusing on the restorative benefits of nature have largely been guided by ART, SRT, and Biophilia. Consistent findings indicate that viewing nature produces restorative effects. Stimuli as varied as plants within the built environment, nature views from windows, and immersion in forest environments lend restorative benefit (Lee et al., 2015; Ulrich et al., 1991; R. Kaplan, 1993). Interventions as simple as incorporating a plant within a room have proven to increase attentional capacity and reduce fatigue as well as increase psychological comfort while performing cognitively taxing tasks (Raanaas, et al., 2011; Aries et al., 2010). Natural stimuli as rudimentary and brief as trees glimpsed through a window have been shown to produce positive affect (R. Kaplan, 1992; Ulrich, 1984; Lee et al., 2015). Lee et al., 2015 found that viewing a green roof for as little as forty seconds, a 9
time frame termed micro-breaks, increased attentional capacity as measured by memory and reaction tests (Korpela, et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2015). Additionally, viewing pictures of natural scenes increases stress recovery, demonstrating that representational stimuli are also effective (Hagerhall, et al., 2001; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Ulrich et al., 1991). This effect is also evident in viewing abstract art and fractal stimuli that have no contextual connection to nature (Hagerhall et al., 2004, Taylor, 2006; Spehar & Taylor, 2013). Virtual natural environments have also been investigated. One study tested virtual environments depicting natural scenes (Kjellgren & Buhrkall, 2010.) Findings showed the virtual environment to be as effective at reducing stress as the physical. The variety of stimuli that evoke restoration beg the question of whether there are underlying characteristics responsible for the response?
Nature and Restoration Literature Study
Findings
Ulrich, 1984
Nature views decrease recovery time and pain medication use after surgery.
Ulrich, 1991
Viewing nature images decreases physical arousal and increases attention.
S. Kaplan, 1992
Participating in restorative activity 2-3 times per week improves focus.
R. Kaplan, 1993
Window views support restoration in the workplace.
Kjellgren & Buhrkall, 2010 Viewing natural images produces the same response as physical presence. Raanaas, et al., 2011
Indoor plants increase cognitive performance.
Joye et al., 2013
Viewing nature images increases accuracy performance.
Lee, et al., 2015
Nature views improve attentional capacity.
Korpela, et al., 2017
Time spent outdoors positively correlates with reported vitality and creativity.
Song, et al., 2017
Forest walks maintain decreased blood pressure for up to five days.
10
Fractal Geometries
function system (IFS), a mathematical operation which repeats a shape under a set of scaling and translation rules. In the case of a tree, the scaling rule repeatedly sizes the branching structure down while a translation rule rotates and/or moves new iterations into place. Church and Semwal describe it as follows: “An Iterated Function System, or IFS for short, is any system which recursively iterates a function or a collection of arbitrary functions on some base object. (Church & Semwal, 2008).” The theory of fractal geometries emerged in the Other types of mathematically generated fractals include L-systems, short for Lindenmayer systems 1960’s when mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot Identified a unifying link in natural scenes. What he and spiral IFS. saw were underlying geometric shapes characterized by self-similarity at varying scales. Fractals can be defined as complex patterns that demonstrate the same or similar patterns at varying scales (Mandlebrot, 1983). A classic example is the bifurcation of a tree. The style of connection between the trunk and major branches is mimicked down to the joints between the smallest twigs. This FIG. 3, Illustration of iterated function system fractal found in nature branching growth pattern is an example of an iterative 11
Shape
Rule 1
Rule 1
FIG. 4, Spiral fractal defined by translations rules
FIG. 5, Dragon curve, drawn using an L-system
12
The Mandlebrot Set, zn+1 = zn2 + c. Zoom iterations1-9
Strange attractors
FIG. 6, Strange attractor, Peter de Jung
15
Madelbrot’s articulation of the mathematical structures underlying fractal geometries enabled the possibility for computer generated fractals. These type of fractals, called exact fractals, are precise and possess no irregularities. IFS and L-system fractals fall into this category. A second category of fractals, those found in nature, are called statistical fractals because their self-similarity is only statistically accurate. An interesting aspect of computer generated fractals is their ability to display movement. Built as a sequence and put to motion via GIF file format, these types of fractals are called “strange attractors.� A common example can be found in screen savers used on Apple computers. The entrancing nature of strange attractors has been explored for restorative potential (Taylor & Sprott, 2008).
Measuring Fractals D=1
D=1.3
process the number of boxes within the grid are compared to the number of boxes occupied. The relationship is plotted onto a graph with the slope indicating the fractal dimension. A variety of computer programs exist that perform various dimensional analysis (Patuano, 2018). This study uses FracLac which employs the BCM.
D=2 FIG. 7, Fractal dimensions exist between 1 and 2
One advantage of using fractals as restorative stimuli is that, like other geometry, they can be measured. Fractal dimension indicates the complexity of a scene. It is represented by numbers between 1 and 2. One can be understood as a flat line within a space while 2 is that space filled. Taylor (2006) describes it as the measure that quantifies the “fractal scaling relationship.� Many methods exist for measuring fractal dimension. The most common analogue method is called the Box Counting Method (BCM). It is based on a power law. A grid of boxes is placed over top of an image. The boxes containing the fractal object for measure are counted. The process is repeated with successively smaller boxes. At the end of this
2 2
1
3
Self similar------infinite scale D= XX
Measure of exponential growth
16
Preference for mid-range fractals
Studies assessing preference for fractal environments over their non-fractal counterparts have shown a clear preference for fractal stimuli (Hagerhall et al., 2008; Taylor, 2006). Furthermore, findings relay a preference for fractal scenes within a specific fractal dimension. Scenes demonstrating a fractal dimension between D=1.3-1.5 have consistently been shown to be preferred over scenes of higher or lower fractal dimension (Hagerhall, et al., 2004 and 2008; Patuano, 2018; Taylor, 2006; Wise & Taylor, 2002). This is the most prevalent fractal dimension found in nature (Taylor, 2006). They are observed in clouds, savanna scenes, and tree-lines (Taylor, 2006). Clouds, for example, typically have a fractal dimension of D=1.3 (Taylor, 2006). Many natural scenes which correspond to the mid-range fractal dimension are also understood to evoke soft fascination. Clouds in the sky, dappled light, dancing fire, and running water are just a few (Berto, 2011). The correlation between preference of nature and preference of midrange fractals may support the idea that fractals are the underlying characteristic of preferred scenes responsible for restoration.
17
Research into the topic of mid-range fractal preference has aimed to explore whether fractal geometries might be the underlying driver of preference and restoration. Tests of the preferred dimensions and their stress reducing properties have been promising. Fractal art within the range of D=1.3-1.5 has been shown to produce parasympathetic responses and are characteristic of high alpha brain wave frequencies which demonstrate a state of wakeful relaxation associated with restoration (Taylor, 2006). Hagerhall et al. (2008) found that alpha and beta waves were activated simultaneously while viewing natural stimuli within the preferred dimension The beta wave indicates passive attention, a component of soft fascination, and spatial processing. The implications of these findings suggest that preferred fractal dimensions can be utilized to promote restoration. Within the built environment, this means the design of spaces and elements characterized by midrange fractals. Richard Taylor states that in order to design for restoration “naturalness is not enough to induce physiological responses,� specific D values are required (Taylor, 2006).
18
It has been postulated that the correlation between fractal preference and restorative effect illuminates an underlying mechanism developed through evolution which encourages approach behavior. For example, a savanna landscape represents an environment that is easy to scan for predators while still supplying nourishment and refuge, all functions of survival (Orians & Herwageen, 1992; Wilson, 1984). The evolutionary connection to fractal geometries extends beyond scene preference. Fractal growth patterns are present in the brain, lungs and other bodily and natural systems (Taylor, 2006; Mandelbrot,1982). Animals have been shown to use fractal patterns in tracking, covering large to small areas in a sequence of smaller scales using similar movement patterns (Taylor & Spehar, 2016). Human eye movements have also been shown to saccade in fractal patterns (Taylor & Spehar, 2016). There is a sizable body of research focused on the perceptual processes of the brain while viewing fractals (Hagerhall et al., 2004 and 2008; Purcell, 2001; Taylor, 2006). Fractals within the mid-range are visually processed with ease and instinctually understood. Taylor and Spehar speculate this may be due to the neural design of the brain itself (Taylor & Spehar, 2016). This ease of comprehension paired with dimensional complexity meet the criteria for soft fascination. The question of how to translate the knowledge to the built environment remains. 19
Fractals aesthetics have been used throughout history. From city planning to ancient architecture, these underlying mathematical properties of nature have intuitively been used in design as practical planning methods and decorative elements (Salingros, 2012; Joye, 2007).
Kotoko, Cameroon
Great Wave, Okusai
Kandariya Mahadeva
FIG. 8, Fractals in city planning, art, and architecture
Section image of 3D Mandelbrot set generated using Mandlebulb 3D
Assessing aesthetic value of natural scenes from a fractal perspective is a valuable tool for combating the vagueness associated with the term “naturalness.� It offers a quantifiable approach for measuring the characteristics of natural and restorative scenes. Used in conjunction with hard data from biosensing technologies, it is possible to begin to empirically understand the restorative impact of fractal stimuli. 20
Alpha
8-12 CPS (Cycles per Second)
Wakeful relaxation
Beta
13-30CPS (Cycles per second)
Consciously attentive
Relevant Brain waves THE NEUROLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The theoretical framework used in this paper focuses on the functions of perception in relation to stress recovery. While perception is a psychological function of the brain, understanding the neurological processes that take place during restoration offer a deeper insight into understanding the impact of certain stimuli. Brain activity has been monitored in many studies related to restoration. Roger Ulrich found that natural scenes held attention more efficiently than urban scenes. Participants viewing a slide-show of both submitted self reports which corresponded with the observations of researchers analyzing their brain activity (Ulrich et al., 1991). The alpha frequency, characteristic of a state of wakeful relaxation, is closely associated with restoration. Other studies have assessed brain 21
activity via fMRI technologies. One landscape study found that mountain and water scenes activate very different regions than forest and urban scenes (Tang et al., 2017). Activation of the Brodmann area 31, thought to “influence the focus of attention by adjusting whole-brain metastability,” indicated an increase in effort for processing forest and urban environments (Tang et al., 2017). The neural result from this study lead to the conclusion that “viewing natural landscapes may enable the rest of the attention system” (Tang et al., 2017). Findings from the field of neuroscience contribute valuable empirical evidence in support of the crucial role both nature and fractal geometries play in restoration.
Fractal Geometries
•Restoration •Preference •Evolution
Soft Fascination
Restoration | Fractal geometries and soft fascination have been proven to promote restorative effects both psychologically and physiologically.
Preference | When compared to their counterparts (i.e. non-fractal or urban/ non-natural) both natural geometries and natural scenes are preferred. Evolution
| Both fractal geometries and soft fascination are linked to evolutionary mechanisms related to survival.
22
Preference and Aesthetics
“If aesthetics is not an expression of some basic and underlying aspect of the human mind, then it is hard to see why it is of more than passing significance.� -Stephen Kaplan,1979
The concept of niche-making posits that humans seek out environments conducive to their immediate needs (Nordh et al., 2011; Staats et al., 2016). This idea speaks to an evolutionary perspective but also supports findings that scenes containing natural stimuli are preferred over those without such as highly Euclidean urban scenes (Hagerhall et al., 2004; Laumann et al., 2001; Purcell et al., 2001). If natural environments and stimuli provide stress reduction, under the concept of nichemaking, it follows that humans would seek them, especially during times of stress. Can built restorative environments become a niche for stress reduction when access to nature is limited?
23
Responsive Design
Within the design fields, the discipline of responsive architecture aims to mediate environmental stress. It is embodied by “physical response to changes in the environment through specific building elements” (Meagher, 2015). These changes can be understood as adaptations made in response to environmental or user input. Responsive environments not only offer the potential for optimizing a building’s functionality from an operations standpoint but impart the prospect of empathetic environments designed to respond to human emotion. The most relevant sensor technology capable of transmitting real-time human emotional data is the electroencephalograph (EEG). The EEG is a biosensor that reads brain waves, the energy frequencies generated by the firing of neurons in the brain. Neuroscientist have correlated particular brainwaves with particular psychological states. This technology is relevant for interior design because it provides a bridge between occupant psychological state and environmental response via cognitive data. Further development of this study will utilize data to generate an environmental response meant to induce restoration. Mobile EEG technology is in the beginning stages of facilitating dynamic interactions between users and environments. One example of this progress is demonstrated through the MIT project, Mediated Environments. Users wearing EEG headsets, seated 25
in front of a digital screen, experience environmental scenery programmed to respond to the users psychological state as interpreted through brain wave activity. Users with low levels of stimulation are invigorated by city scenes while those experiencing stress may be shown a babbling brook to evoke restorative response.
Penhouse | Atmosphere, EEG responsive light installation
Other examples include the light art installation by artist Penhouse. The Atmosphere installation employed a continuous feedback loop between the installation and visitor. EEG monitors gathered brainwave data to interpret the visitor’s reaction in real-time, enabling a programmed response from the lights.
Implications
The research outlined in this paper supports the intentional use of fractal geometries and soft fascination for stress reduction within the built environment. Understanding the characteristics and potential of fractal and restorative aesthetics allows designers to optimize restorative stimuli for increased well-being using evidencebased design. The next section provides an example of how this understanding can be applied to the built environment. Integrating these strategies with technologically advanced designs such as responsive architecture can provide another dimension to restorative stimuli for future exploration. Future iterations would incorporate technologies which read emotional states through brain analysis or other biosensing technologies that can be programmed to adapt interior applications to user needs. 26
CHAPTER TWO Research Design & mETHODOLOGY 2.1 Fractal Analysis 2.2 Design 2.3 Fabrication 2.4 Installation 2.5 Future Research
THE PROCESS
Phase 1 FRACTAL ANALYSIS
Phase 2 DIGITAL EXPLORATION
Based on the dimensional analysis, a selection of images were chosen for digital abstraction and fabrication.
Phase 3 MODEL TESTING
A primary image was selected for further exploration through models. Based on the outcomes, one was chosen for fabrication.
Phase 4 | FABRICATION
After assessing the optimal materiality for the purposes of this project, a window screen was fabricated on a CNC machine.
Phase 5 TEST & DEVELOP
Fractal analysis | 2.1
The design process began with a fractal analysis of natural scenes intuitively understood as restorative. Three typologies were selected: forest outline, pine canopy, and clouds. The images were analyzed using the computer software FracLac to assess whether they fell within the restorative mid-range fractal dimension. The first analysis was an assessment of the original images.
27
A series of natural image scenes were compiled and analyzed to assess their fractal dimension.
Future development will include formalized testing of restorative properties and further design iterations.
The second, an assessment of the images in a binary condition. The third assessment was conducted on the resulting figure outline. Fractal dimension was found to be dependent on the complexity of dominant lines in the images. There was little fluctuation except with the forest outline image which varied significantly from the binary to outline condition.
D=1.7
D=1.7
D=1.5
D=1.7
D=1.8
D=1.7
D=1.3
D=1.8
D=1.5
OUTLINE
Clouds
Silhou-
Pine Canopy
IMAGE
Forest Outline
28
Cloud exploration
Based on the results from the initial fractal analysis, next steps consisted of a deeper analysis of clouds. Clouds consistently possess a midrange fractal dimension (Taylor, 2006). This makes cloud scenes an optimal choice for the translation of natural mid-range imagery into restorative stimuli for application within the built environment. Clouds are also understood to possess soft fascination which is inherently linked to movement. Their airy quality coupled with the environmental cues they provide about weather conditions and their graceful movement through the sky produce a mesmerizing effect. In addition to collecting a series of cloud scenes for analysis, a motion study was conducted to assess the manner in which clouds move. The movement was observed to be linear and, for non-threatening skies, slow.
Motion study sample, six frames overlaid at 30% opacity to illustrate motion
The analysis results aligned with the literature. A representative sample is shown to the right in which ten of twelve images were found to have a mid-range fractal dimension. The outliers are obvious. One outlying image is of an empty sky while the second is a single cloud accompanied by power lines. A frame from the motion study was selected for development and methods for designing soft fascination were then explored. 29
D=1.4 D=1.3 D=1.4
D=1.3
D=1.4
D=1.3
D=1.4
D=1.2
D=1.3
D=1.4
D=1.5
D=1.3
LIGHT AS SOFT FASCINATION •DAPPLED LIGHT •DANCING LIGHT •LIGHT IN MOTION Natural light has a unique propensity for acting as soft fascination not only because we as humans are innately attracted to it but also because it is demonstrative of Herclitean motion, a state of constant movement characteristic of nature. Since its illumination is subject to the rotation of Earth, it is in constant flux. The movement of natural light closely resembles that of clouds moving through a calm sky. Natural light is a dynamic source of light changing with the time of day and season of year. Visualizing natural light in the built environment also provides a connection to natural process through the passing of time. Invisible energies can also be seen through natural light due to variations in clouds blocking sun rays intermittently in accordance with wind patterns. Natural light can be utilized in the built environment as an analogue method for designing soft fascination. Window screens present an optimal option for merging the restorative benefits of midrange fractal imagery and natural light. 31
Natural light & Herclitean motion • Constant movement in rotation with Earth • Visualize the passing of time • Connection to natural processes
32
Design | 2.2 QUESTION:
How do soft fascination and fractal geometries merge to provide restorative outcomes within the built environment?
After the image analysis, the question of how to combine fractal stimuli with soft fascination still stood. The decision was made to bring these two elements of the study together using a window screen. The design of a window screen allows for retainment of midrange fractal patterns while relaying a source of soft fascination as provided by the illumination of natural light. Based upon the knowledge gained through the literature review, this study proposes that the combination of these two stimuli, which have proven to be restorative, should theoretically elicit a restorative response which can be quantified through its fractal properties and measured using biosensors for the collection of empirical data. Image of a Jali screen
Fractal
aesthetics +
soft
fascination
Restorative outcomes
Window Screen Pattern retaining Mid-range fractal Dimension
Natural light= Light + Herclitean motion
Future studies of self reporting and EEG Monitoring
34
Digital development
In order to design the fractal screen, an image from the fractal analysis phase was selected. The criteria were that it possess a fractal dimension within the D=1.3-1.5 range and could be abstracted while maintaining that dimension. Based on these factors and an intuitive preference, image 1, shown to the right, was selected. The image was modified in a varietty of ways to extract its essential outtline form. The grey scale method was expanded upon in the computer program Grasshopper by assigning shapes in varying scales dependent on each distinct grey scale. Outcomes from the digital exploration are shown on the facing page. The first two images were further developed in the modeling stage. The following three outcomes were decided against for this specific exploration due to constrains and purpose. First, a voronoi pattern was mapped to the image. The first result came from the use of rectangular shapes assigned to the varying grey scales. A second iteration was created with a variety of polygon shapes assigned to respective grey scales. The third iteration is the result of combining the two previous approaches. 35
1. Original image
2. Grey scale
3. Outline
The designs were decided against for fabrication because of the complexity of their line-work which would not only detract from the light passing through but also present complications for fabrication using MDF and CNC methods. The design would be better suited to a different materiality for fabrication and perhaps method such as a fabric cut by a fabric cutter or construction using weaving methods.
Fractal outline
Circle gradient
Voronoi 1
Voronoi 2
Voronoi combo
36
Original image
Screen model 1
Grey scale
The first screen model was achieved by extracting the outline of the cloud image and using it as a void within the screen. This not only would allow light to pass through but would also maintain the required fractal dimension within the screen. The starkness of the light would theoretically also maintain 37
Outline
Screen design
the fractal dimension. Although visually intriguing, the outcomes from the model study proved to have a dominant effect within the space, a characteristic not in sync with soft fascination. Further iterations of the screen pattern were explored.
OUTLINE SUBTRACTION
FORM SUBTRACTION
OUTLINE ADDITION
MODEL SHADOW 38
Screen Model 2
Original image
39
Grasshopper path
Grey scale
GRASSHOPPER
D=1.5
A second exploration taken to the model stage was a perforation pattern consisting of circular perforations assigned to varying scales dependent on their grey scale assignment which were spread evenly across the screen. This solution allowed for
less distracting illumination while maintaining the mid-range fractal dimension and visualization of time. Pictured above is a daylight model of the design pictured from 10am to 5 pm. This design solution was chosen for fabrication at full scale. 40
Grey scale to diameter .125’’
Perforation by value
.25’’
To achieve the perforation-by-value effect, each grey scale was assigned a perforation size. The darkest layer was assigned the smallest hole, increasing in size until the lightest scale was reached. The size of the largest hole was equal to just under 1’’. By utilizing this method, the overall image maintained the integrity of its composition, therefore maintaining the fractal dimension. After the design was developed,
41
.5’’
.75’’
1’’
the screen pattern was then tested to reassess its fractal dimension. The screen’s fractal dimension was D=1.48, ensuring that the dimensional requirement was met. After the pattern was solidified, an exploration of materiality was conducted. Explorations of depth and materiality led to the decision to use 1/8’’ MDF for its light weight, ease of milling, and cost effectiveness.
Fabric
Acrylic
Levels of opacity
Combo
1/4’’ MDF
1/4’’ Plywood
Levels of depth
42
Fabrication | 2.3
8’-10
’’
’’
2’-9.5
43
Fabrication of the 33.5’’ x 96’’ window screen was conducted on a CNC machine. The large scale, number of holes, and variety of their sizes required the screen to be milled using three different drill bits. The pattern was broken into three layers according to the perforation dimension. A corresponding drill bit was used for each to optimize fabrication time. Two panels were fabricated with the intention of one panel slightly moving behind the other for a dancing light effect that was achieved during the modeling phase. The devices necessary for this portion of the exploration are programmed and ready for testing but because of time constraints, this development is reserved for future study.
Layer 1 .125’’ - .25’’ 790 holes 1 hr 45 min
Layer 2 .26’’ - .5’’ 1,159 holes 1 hr 30 min
Layer 3 .51’’ - 1’’ 872 holes 1 hr 00 min 44
w N
s e Daylight projection determined by sun position
Projection pattern Shift Position of sun Weather conditions • Season Forms within space • Time of day
Installation | 2.4
45
Installation of the window screen took place on the first floor of Carpenter Hall on the Washington State University campus in Pullman, WA in the early April, 2019. A pillar was employed to track the movement of the light projection throughout the space and study the light effect. The projection pattern changes dependent on the season, time of day, weather condition and forms within the space.
46
Distance | Sharpness and integrity of shape
Further observations from the installation included the gradient of light intensity and shape. As light moves further from the source, the integrity of the shape and intensity of light is lost. This result in unexpected shapes and patterns that morph depending on the position of the sun as well as the forms which the light is projected onto. The changes represent another aspect of the screen installation to be studied and analyzed in the future. 47
48
Outcomes D e s i g n Outcomes
Interior Functionality •Connection to Natural process •Privacy •Acoustic control •Capturing of Invisible energies •Solar control •Visual Interest
Installation revealed outcomes both predicted and not. Retention of mid-range fractal dimension was apparent before fabrication but daylight modeling only demonstrated a portion of the full light effect. Upon installation, natural light projecting through the screen provided a sense of soft fascination as predicted. This was evidenced through the element of motion accompanying the light and confirmed through many first account testimonies. Other practical outcomes from and interior design perspective included privacy, acoustical and solar control, and visual interest. It is predicted that when used within high stress environments, the screen would have the desired effect of restoration; a hypothesis for future testing.
Design Guidelines
Geometry
Mid-range Fractal Dimension Statistically fractal Ratio solid to void: 50%+
Perforation
Size variation Even distribution
Dynamics
Movement
Designing fascinating effect using fractal patterns The design process, derived from the literature review and deep exploration, resulted in a set of design guidelines as listed above. Conceivably, these guidelines could be used for future design of restorative window screens with varying constraints and inputs. These guidelines are applicable to window filters but could be synthesized and adapted for the design of various restorative stimuli. The initial scope of the project reached from singular restorative desktop objects to large-scale wall installations. Due to practical constraints, the scope was narrowed. Outcomes from the design process, namely the guidelines, could be adapted for the formulation of various other products with mutual intent.
What is made evident by this study is the importance of motion in soft fascination, the necessity of a passive as opposed to dominant stimuli, and adherence to mid-range fractal dimension. These essential principles, in conjunction with the guidelines, represent the cumulation of knowledge attained through this thesis project and hold the potential for vast application and exploration for objects within the built environment. Implications from this study suggest that this tactic could be applied effectively throughout stressful environments for stress reduction. The use of artificial light and other means of fascination and motion are of particular interest for further exploration. 50
The future | 2.5 Development
Research
Further Research Questions
Does the window screen intervention elicit a restorative effect?
How does the manipulation of given design guidelines impact outcome?
Can the incorporation of responsiveness improve the restorative outcomes?
At what scales is this methodology applicable?
Dynamic interaction -Stress Responsive
Application
Formalized studies of -Office restorative -Educational effect of -Health care various designs
Future design development will assess the viability of the window screen application at a commercial scale as well as the generalizablility of the design guidelines for future designs and applications. Possibilities for applications include but are not limited to privacy and acoustical panels, feature wall applications, the incorporation of artificial light and responsiveness, lighting fixtures and textiles including wallpaper and flooring. Implications from the literature review and 51
Material
-Transparency -Reflectivity -Depth
Pattern
-Starting Images -Level of Perforation -Essential Shape
design indicate that the application of restorative aesthetics using this design process can provide stress reduction within the built environment. Further considerations would include acclimation to the restorative stimuli and privacy concerns surrounding any responsive or interactive elements. Research questions moving forward will focus on the effectiveness of this methodology and resulting designs as well as the formalized study of occupant outcomes.
Solar Study, 9am to 4pm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Psychological Association. (2017). Stress in america: The state of our nation. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2017/state-nation.pdf. American Psychological Association. (2015). Stress in america: Paying with our health. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2014/stress-report.pdf. Appleton, J. (1975). The Experience of Landscape. London: Wiley. Basu, A., Duvall, J. and Kaplan, R. (2018) Attention restoration theory: Exploring the role of soft fascination and mental bandwidth. Environment and Behavior, 1-27. https://doi.org.10.1177/0013916518774400. Berto, R. (2011). The attentional vantage offered by perceiving fascinating patterns in the environment. Advances in Environmental Research, 6.
Berto, R. (2014) The role of nature in coping with psycho-physiological stress: A literature review on restorativeness. Behavioral Sciences, 4, 394-401. E. M., Church & Semwal, S. K. (2008). Simulating trees using fractals and L-systems. Evans, G. W. & McCoy, J. M. (1998). When Buildings Don’t Work: The Role of Architecture in Human Health. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18, 85-94.
Falk, J. H. & Ballin, J. D. (2010). Evolutionary influence on human landscape preference. Environment and Behavior, 42(4), 479-493. Hagerhall, C. M., Purcell, T., & Taylor, R. (2004). Fractal dimensions of landscape silhouette outlines as a predictor of landscape preference. Journal of environmental psychology, 24, 27-255. Hagerhall, C. M., Laikeo, T., Taylor, R., Kuller, M., & Martin, T. P. (2008). Investigations of human EEG response to viewing fractal patterns. Perception, 37, 1488-1494. Katcher, A. & Wilkins, G. (1993). Dialogue with animals: Its nature and culture. In Kellert, S. R. & Wilson, E.O. (Eds.), The biophilia hypothesis (173-197). Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Korpela, K., & Hartig, T. (1996). Restorative qualities of favorite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16(3), 221-233. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jevp.
Joye, Y. (2007). Architectural lessons from environmental psychology: The case of biophilic architecture. Review of General Psychology, 11(4), 305-328. Joye, Y., Roos, P., Steg, L., & Evans, B. L. (2013). New methods for assessing the fascinating nature of natural experience. PLoS ONE 8(7): e65332.Don:10.1371/journal.one.0065332. Joye, Y and Dewitt, S. (2018). Nature’s broken path to restoration. A critical look at attention restoration theory. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 59, 1-8.
Kaplan, R. (1993). The role of nature in the context of the workplace. Landscape and Urban Planning, 26 (1-4), 193-201. Kaplan, S. (1992). The restorative environment: Nature and human experience. In Relf, D. (Ed.), The role of horticulture in human well-being and social development (134-142). Portland, OR: Timber Press. Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward and integrative framework. Journal of Environment and Psychology,15, 169-182. Kjellgren, A. & Buhrkall, H. (2010). A comparison of the restorative effect of a natural environment with that of a simulated natural environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 464-472. Korpela, K., De Bloom, J., Sianoja, M., Pasanen, T. Kinnunen, U. (2017). Nature at home and at work: Naturally good? Links between window views, indoor plants, outdoor activities and employee well-being over one year. Landscape and Urban Planning, 160, 38-47. Lee, K.E., Williams, K. J. H., Sargent, L.D., Williams N. S. G., & Johnson, K.A. (2015). 40 second green roof views sustain attention: The role of micro-breaks in attention restoration. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 42, 182-189. Mandelbrot, B. (1983). The fractal geometry of nature (Updated and augmented ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. Meagher, M. (2015). Design for change: The poetical potential of responsive architecture. Frontiers of Architectural Research, 4, 159-165. Nordh, H., Alalouch, C., & Hartig, T. (2011). Assessing restorative components of small urban parks using conjoint methodology. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 10, 95-103. Heerwagen, J. H.& Orians, G. H. (1986). Adaptations to windowlessness: A study of the use of visual decor in windowed and windowless offices. Environment and Behavior, 18(5), 623-639. Patuano, A. (2018). Measuring Naturalness and Complexity Using the Fractal Dimensions of Landscape Photographs, 328–335. https://doi.org/10.14627/537642035. Purcell, T., Peron, E., & Berto, R. (2001). Why do preferences differ between scene types? Environment and Behavior, 33(1), 93-106. Raanaas, R.K., Evensen, Rich, D., Sjøstrøm, G., K.H., & Patil, G.( 2011). Benefits of indoor plants on attention capacity in an office setting. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31, 99-105. Salingros, N. A. (2012). Fractal art and architecture reduce physiological stress. Journal of Biourbanism, 2(11).
Spehar, B., and Taylor, R. P. (2013). “Fractals in art and nature: why do we like them?” in IS&T/ SPIE Electronic Imaging, 865118–865118. International Society for Optics and Photonics. Song, C., Ikei, H., & Miyazaki, Y. (2017). Sustained effects of a forest therapy program on the blood pressure of office workers. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 27, 246-252. Staats, H., Jahncke, H., Herzog, T.R., & Hartig, T. (2016). Urban options for psychological restoration: Common strategies in everyday situations. PLOS ONE. DOI: 10.1371. Tang, I. C., Tsai, Y. P., Lin, Y. J., Chen, J. H., Hsieh, C. H., Hung, S. H., Sullivan, W. C., Tang, H. F., & Chang, C. Y. (2017). Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to analyze brain region activity when viewing landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 162, 137-144. Taylor, R. P. (2006). Reduction of physiological stress using fractal art and architecture. Leonardo, 39(3), 245-251. Taylor, R. P. (2007). The search for stress-reducing fractal art: from Jackson Pollock to Frank Gehry. In Shuman, W., Mathmatics and Culture. New York: Springer. Taylor, R.P. and Sprott, J. C. (2008) Biophilic fractals and the visual journey of organic screen-savers. Psychology and Life Sciences, 12(1), 117-129. Taylor, R. P. and Spehar, B. (2016). Fractal fluency: An intimate relationship between the brain and processing of fractal stimuli. In A. Di Leva (Ed.) The fractal geometry of the brain (485-497). New York: Springer Science + Business Media. Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Wise, J. A. and Taylor, R. P. (2002). Fractal design strategies for enhancement of knowledge work environments. Paper presented at The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224(4647), 420-421. Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201-230. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1987). The total exposure assessment methodology (TEAM) study: Summary and analysis. (EPA Publication No. 600/6-87/002a). Washington, DC.
Š Maria Tatum, 2019