Galleries and Works of the MIHO MUSEUM South Wing Inagaki Hajime
Creating the Entrance of the Miho Shangri-La 　Entrance Hall
Stories from the Creation of the Museum
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The presence of a work of modern sculpture is a kind
grace the foyer. Her remark that, “like the Winged Victory
of signature to buildings designed by I. M. Pei, as is
of Samothrace that stands as the symbol of the Louvre
Henry Moore’s abstract bronze at the National Gallery
Museum, this statue of the mother of the deity Horus—
of Arts East Building, Washington. The Miho Museum
she symbolized the house of Horus, or a building itself—
project was to be no exception, with a modern sculpture
will make a fitting symbol of the museum,” made the
placed in its entrance hall. After two initial proposals for
ancient statue a powerful candidate for the entrance hall.
sculptures were turned down, the client (Koyama Mihoko)
A simulation was carried out to test the placement of the
suggested something ancient, not modern for that space:
statue, using a life-size silhouette combining front and side
the Hellenistic-era statue of Queen Arsinoe II.
views set at a ninety-degree angle. Observing the black lines
In life, Queen Arsinoe II was worshipped as Aphrodite,
of the standing figure, Pei requested that a slanting pine be
and after her death, her husband, Ptolemy II, enshrined her
planted outside the window to pair with the straight lines
as the goddess Isis. In a message written at the time, Mrs.
of the statue. A countrywide search was launched for a
Koyama expressed her confidence that the statue, a product
suitable tree. The tree that was finally found is a 180-year-
of the cultural exchange of ancient times embodying love,
old leaning pine, transported from the Kanto region, and
beauty, and abundance would be eminently suitable to
it was combined with two other vertically standing pines.
The pines were planted, but in the meantime, it was
screen. Pei was delighted that such a fine “Chinese garden”
discovered that natural light flooding in from the
had been created, but the fact that the top of the Bell
large, west-facing window produced a backlighting
Tower he had designed as his first commission in Japan
effect, leaving the statue only visible in silhouette.
was visible in the distance undoubtedly counted as an
I t wa s j u d ge d u n fo r t u n a t e t h a t v i s i t o r s wo u l d
important element of the background scene. It is true that
view the statue only in silhouette upon entering;
there is something sculptural about this garden.
in the end the Arsinoe II statue was moved to the Egyptian gallery where it could be viewed properly. The entrance hall is a majestic, soaring space that presents a stunning welcoming tableau—a panorama of the Konan Alps in the distance and the three pines rising in the foreground to create what garden designer Nakamura Yoshiaki calls the “Garden in the Sky” (Tenkū no Niwa). The six vertical panes of the window present the landscape as if captured on a traditional folding
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A story behind the “Garden in the Sky.” Soon after the museum opened, a group from the Chinese State Administration of Cultural Heritage visited. One of the visitors remarked that the pines had a classical appearance, a sentiment shared by the rest of the group. At the time, I did not understand the significance of the person’s remark, and although the link is tenuous, I thought it might be connected with Huangshan Mountain in China’s Anhui province, one of Pei’s favorite locales. I researched the matter further and discovered that a “welcoming pine” stands at a hermit retreat at the entrance to Huangshan Mountain. That tree, with branches spreading out from its vertical trunk like arms outstretched in a gesture of welcome, is reputed to be 800 years old and is revered by Chinese. Then there is the episode very similar to the “Peach Blossom Spring” story recorded in the Southern Liang dynasty (502–587) Yudizhi geography of an actual place in the vicinity of the Huangshan mountains. I have no idea whether it was a conscious decision on Pei’s part, but the pines outside the entrance hall certainly convey an evocative ambience, and given the museum’s “Shangri-la” concept, they are a perfect complement to the idea embodied by this space
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Pei’s “Modern Sculpture” for the Miho Master carpenter Nakamura Sotoji had originally
had been trimmed on four sides, and agreed that it was a
suggested to Koyama Mihoko the use of a 300-year-old
fine specimen that they would like to use in the museum.
keyaki (zelkova) log in the construction of the museum.
They felt that it should be only minimally milled, in order
Sadly, Sotoji died before the museum opened but his son
to highlight the life force of the great tree to maximum
Yoshiaki invited Mrs. Koyama and Mr. Pei to view his
effect. The only instruction that Pei gave was that the
timber storehouse. There they saw the zelkova piece, which
outside edges should be planed along the grain, and it was
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decided to fashion the plank into a bench to be
But after some time, a question arose in my mind: this
placed in the southwest corner of the entrance hall.
may be a bench, but is it not also a “modern sculpture”?
Benches are usually designed for sitting. They
While not art for the sake of art, did not Pei intend
rest on stable legs and offer a modicum of seating comfort.
it to be a work of art, with a practical use? Ten years
But this massive log of zelkova, nearly 6 meters long, 1
passed without an answer to this question, and when
meter wide, and 25 cm thick, possesses few bench-like
Pei visited the museum on its tenth anniversary, I
attributes except that the edges have been smoothed for
seized the opportunity to ask him. He unhesitatingly
more comfortable sitting. Three hollows were made on the
answered: “Yes!” So the bench was indeed a work of art.
underside of the log to fit over three rounded limestone
blocks each 60 cm across and 20 cm high. There is nothing
after all. Architects are people who create practical art to
to actually indicate that this object is in fact a bench, but
begin with, and if the bench is a modern sculpture with
the sense of stability emanating from its embodiment
a practical use, it means that Pei had indeed placed a
of three centuries of time and the warmth of its wood
piece of contemporary art—of his own making—in the
texture must be attractive. Many visitors have been pausing
museum’s entrance hall as initially planned. It is a practical
there to sit down since the opening of the museum. Many
modern sculpture that honors its surroundings; it suggests
of them have also looked upon the bench with a fresh
a connection with the museum’s art treasures that reach
eye and expressed a renewed appreciation for its beauty.
back into antiquity.
It may not have been necessary to ask him
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Light:The Key Element Egypt and West Asia Galleries
Galleries with natural light
Pei created the basic design for the North Wing housing
He said we could not have the window blocked; unless it
Japanese art but left the details up to a Japanese architect.
was left as is, there was no point in having a window at all.
Being of Chinese background, Pei agreed that the subtleties
involved would be best understood by someone with
allowed that blocking outside light would be a very easy and
Japanese sensibilities. On the other hand, he took charge of
highly effective way of adjusting the lighting for temporary
both the basic design and the details of the South Wing,
installations like special exhibits. “But it is a different
which would exhibit art from areas other than Japan.
story when it comes to the permanent exhibits,” Pei said
Given Pei’s predilection for geometric shapes,
to the curators. “The galleries should exude a refined
as exemplified by the diamond-shaped gallery spaces at
atmosphere and for this it is important that the natural
the National Gallery of Arts East Building, his hexagonal
light change according to the hour of the day.” We curators
motif used in the South Wing was not a surprise. The
knew, of course, that light was the key to Pei’s architectural
main parts of the Egypt and West Asia galleries, six-sided
concepts and that he would not yield on this point.
rooms atop each other on the ground floor and the lower
Accordingly, the light issue took some time to resolve.
level, were linked by a large window running the height of
both floors, directly opposite the rooms’ entrances, and
came from the works themselves. The South Wing was
the final plan called for a ceiling open to the story above.
primarily for displaying the permanent collection. Each
The opposing corners of a square space, each side 20
gallery highlighted one particular object, and therefore
meters long, were cut off 9 meters wide into a hexagonal
installation was an important element of the design. In
room, where a window 6.5 meters wide running the
the Egypt gallery, for example, one of the main figures
height of two floors made a strong statement. We curators
is a silver statue of Horus, the cult figure of a falcon-
had quite a discussion about this plan because we were
headed deity. Made of solid silver overlaid with gold and
concerned that light flooding in from the window would
standing 41.9 cm high, it was the main statue of sun
be overpowering and detract from the objects exhibited.
worship in the inner sanctum of a temple for over one
At Pei’s request we submitted a proposal of what artifacts
thousand and several hundred years from the time of
we planned to display and in what manner at the time
Egypt’s New Kingdom. Including a now-lost crown, the
of the opening of the museum. We suggested erecting
figure would have measured one royal cubit (approximately
a large wall in front of the window in order to diffuse
52.5 cm) high, and there are no other extant examples
the light coming in. Taking a look at our proposal, made
of a god figure of this size. Given the figure’s status as a
on the assumption that the exhibits would be changed
deity, careful thought was needed as to how it would be
from time to time, Pei remarked that although he wasn’t a
displayed.
psychologist, he could tell that we didn’t like his window.
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Once the gallery building frame was up, Pei
The solution that presented itself ultimately
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Pei’s solution was to build a pedestal and a three-sided wall extending to ceiling height in the center of the room. The central wall of this enclosure, made of dark Italian sandstone called pietra serena and open at a 135° angle on both corners, reproduced the solemn atmosphere of a temple interior. This structure would surely stimulate reverence among the visitors admiring the statue. The wall also helped offset the brightness which might be distracting as they entered the room, and thus the display method helped resolve the difficulties posed by the wall of light.
The work to be displayed in the West Asia
gallery on the lower level, below the Egyptian gallery, also strongly influenced the room’s design. This artifact, a 3,000-year-old relief from the palace of Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II depicting a purification rite, had been fortuitously acquired by the museum only three years before its opening. The plan was to install the relief so that it was visible when visitors looked back once they had reached the middle of the room. Naturally, a sturdy wall was necessary for this, and again, light flooding in was a problem that demanded a solution. In order to allow sufficient space for visitors to stand back and look at the relief, and also to create flow toward the other exhibits in the room, a hexagonal space floored with local Shigaraki ceramic tiles was created. Great pains were taken to match the colors of the tiles with the relief. In these two galleries, walls had been erected to display the works therein, but no solution to the light from the window had been found.
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If it was sufficient to merely hint at the changes in the
A Small but Powerful Space
light due to the time of day, a translucent material like
The life-size statue of Arsinoe II that had been considered
onyx or alabaster traditionally used since the days of
for display in the museum’s entrance hall now needed to
Greek and Roman architecture might have been acceptable.
be accommodated in the Egypt gallery. Its delicate beauty,
But in this case we felt that there was no point in having a
size, and symbolic importance made it eminently suited
window if the outdoor scenery was totally obscured. After
for display against the room’s center wall, and we believed
pondering the matter for a few years, we finally settled
that the falcon-headed Horus deity should be shown in
on a double construction of a scrim and a blind punched
a serene space deeper inside the room. It was therefore
throughout with small holes to diffuse the natural light
decided that a smaller, six-meter square chamber attached
entering the galleries.
to the hexagonal gallery would be this serene space, thus
Galleries without Spotlights
providing a calm setting for the statue. This space had
The ceilings of the usual art galleries inevitably dangle
a stone floor, setting it apart from the gallery’s wooden
spotlights, but Pei made it clear from the beginning of the
(later carpeted) floor, and Pei had earlier declared that the
design stage that he will not to have any dangle spot light
room, although small, exerted a powerful feeling that made
in the galleries of lower ceilings, because “it is busy.” This
it ideal for such a special artifact. And true to his words,
was a particularly a perplexing issue for the ceiling of the
this small space exuded an atmosphere like that of the
West Asia gallery, which was low at only 3.5 meters. In
inner sanctum of an ancient Egyptian temple. The magny
a building 80 percent of which is sunk into the earth, it
doré limestone framing the entrance to the room also
is the inside spaces that are the main forms designed by
contributes to this impression. The back wall against which
the architect, so in the enveloping interior shapes, ceiling
this heavenly deity sits is covered in the color of indigo
included, protruding light fixtures were eyesores indeed.
dye ,with which Pei had become so fascinated in Kyoto. He
Pei’s solution was swiveling downlights embedded in the
may have envisioned in its deep hues the darkness of the
ceilings. But, of course it was clear that they would not
heavens.
always be where they needed to be to illuminate the works. Pei’s very point of departure was that we would not be just creating boxes; in other words, what he was doing was creating modern sculpture within whose spaces (the galleries) ancient art would be exhibited. The place where a work would be displayed was its own sacred space, so by nature it would be limited.
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Ancient Egypt The Fertility of the Cycles of Heaven and Earth
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In the southwestern corner of the ancient Orient lay
The king was a god, and only the king, who was the
Egypt, which flourished thanks to an extraordinary
descendant of the gods, could stand on the same horizon
abundance afforded by nature’s annual cycle. The lands
as the gods. For the king of Egypt, returning to the
along the great Nile river were fertilized by the large-scale
primeval moment symbolized by the appearance of new
floods that took place regularly every year, producing
soil following the flooding of the Nile was the epitome
abundant harvests. People knew when the floods would
of divinity. This figure of the king was not the hero
come each year by observing the stars: before daybreak just
pitted against nature that appears in the ancient myths
before the flood season, the star Sirius of the Canis Major
of Mesopotamia, but who was part of the order of the
constellation would rise up in the eastern sky. In the skies
cosmos.
in that season the constellation of Orion and Venus would
also rise in the east before daybreak. Then the flooding
linked with a primeval hill that appears in Egypt’s creation
along the Nile would begin. When the waters receded,
myth and was reflected in the shape of the pyramids and
the land was reborn, and the new season for planting
the structure of the temples as well. In large temples from
and cultivation would begin. Orion was considered the
the time of the New Kingdoms onward, courtyards and
deity Osiris, king of the underworld, Sirius was Isis, the
grand halls were built to connect gates with the inner
wife of Osiris. Venus was the arisen king to the heaven,
sanctuary, and with each division of the space between the
who steered the boat carrying the sun god Ra as it moved
courtyard and the sanctuary the number of those who were
through the daytime skies.
specially privileged and could proceed would grow smaller,
The image of the new, resuscitated soil was
the ceilings would become lower, the floor higher, and the
forecourt would have had access. And even then, if the
space darker. The pillars of the temple featured designs of
doors of the small shrine might have been kept closed,
plants like the papyrus that grew in the primeval swamps
they would not have been able to worship the image
and the ceilings of the halls were decorated with pictures
directly. Ordinary people entrusted their prayers to the
of the stars and the sun god passing through the heavens.
copied deity images constructed at the entrance to the
The innermost sanctuary was at the highest point and
temple to both protect it and prevent it from collapsing.
believed to be the “primeval hill,” and an image of the god
was enshrined there. The image was not the deity itself but
“living” deities survive. A Temple of Horus was built in
believed to be its double or “ka.” Each morning the king
Edfu in Upper Egypt in the Greek and Roman period
or his officiating priest would cleanse the image, which
after the style of ancient temples, and the inner walls of
was considered a living god, dress it in fine clothing, burn
the temple are carved with inventories of deity images
incense to purify the sanctuary, and present offerings of
of the Horus temple and those of the Hathor Temple in
food.
the Dendera temple complex. It is said that most of the Within the temple, on specific festival days
only, the image of the deity would be placed in a small
Almost none of these images considered to be
images were made with costly materials such as gold and lapis lazuli.
shrine set on a sacred boat and carried out into the forecourt of the temple into view of the people gathered there. But only those who had gained admittance to that
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A Greek Queen Who Became an Egyptian Goddess
Traditional Forms As we enter the Egyptian Gallery, the first work we encounter is a statue of a goddess. Standing straight and still, she directs her gentle, smiling gaze forward, towards us. Her right arm and hand are pressed to her side, her fingers straight. In her left hand, she holds to her chest a curved scepter in the shape of a water lily branch. The petals clustered on the lily are slightly open and droop downward along the curve of her left shoulder, in an arc that suggests, to Japanese visitors, the horsehair whisk carried by Shinto priests.
Since the water lily opens in the morning and
closes in the evening, the flower is associated with the rising sun and is a symbol of rebirth. Goddesses who carry a water lily include Isis and the fertility goddesses Satis and Anika. However, the remains of a rectangular crown on top of the head suggest the jade throne-shaped crown associated with Isis. The wig is divided into three parts, a sheer garment covers the body from wrists to ankles, and the left foot extends forward. All are features that make this work an utterly classic example of Egyptian statues of women. This statue of a goddess is permeated with an atmosphere that belongs to a long history that dates back to the Old Kingdom. A Distinctive Diadem Especially noteworthy here is the diadem that crosses the forehead, encircling the head. Some examples of this type of headband-like crown, denoting royalty or divinity, date back to the Old Kingdom. Usually the band is tied in a bow knot, which forms loops. In this case, however, the knot is a plain reef knot, without loops, instead. The diadem symbolizing of royalty emerged first in Old Kingdom Egypt and is found throughout the ancient Mediterranean world. In Ancient Greece. Those worn by heroes and royalty customarily had a “Hercules knot,” i.e., a reef knot. Trace of a crown（above） Hercules knot （right）
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002 Statue of a goddess 3rd century BC Granodiorite H.：159.5 cm W.：50 cm
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It is believed that the use of this knot had a special significance
It has been suggested that, besides being consistent with
for the Macedonian royal family, who claimed Hercules as
Egyptian tradition, their marriage, despite a Greek aversion
one of their ancestors. This association is confirmed by knots
to unions between siblings, was a way to solidify political
without loops seen on diadems depicted on coins and other
authority. Following the queen’s death, the king ordered that
Macedonian artifacts. A further unusual feature of this statue
her statues be placed and worshipped in all temples. He also
is that, while there is no signature on the polygonal column
had steles installed that stated that the supreme deity Amun-Ra
carved into the back of the statue, the column extends from the
had proclaimed, “You are the goddess who rules over all earthly
soles of the feet to the bottom of the wig, a characteristic of
gods.” Thus, the queen came to be worshipped as the Egyptian
statues from the Ptolemaic period (3rd or 1st century BCE).
goddess Isis. That identification of the late queen with Isis
Heirs to the Pharaohs
could be considered a political move during the early days of
While this statue possesses many traditional features,, the
the Kingdom amidst difficulties in ruling a mixed population
symbol of Macedonian royalty that appears on the diadem
of Egyptians and Greeks. Arsinoe II, proclaimed to be an
makes it highly probable that this is a statue depicting the
avatar of Aphrodite, a goddess widely worshipped throughout
Ptolemaic Queen Arsinoe II as a goddess. In the fourth century
the Mediterranean, thus came to be worshipped in Egypt as
BCE, Alexander the Great “liberated” Egypt from Persian
the national mother goddess and attracted avid worshippers
control. Following Alexander’s death, however, Ptolemy, one
throughout the Ptolemaic period. She is an example of the
of his generals, declared himself the heir of the Pharaohs
syncretism by which Greeks turned their own gods into those
who had ruled Egypt for thousands of years and founded
of other peoples. In this way, the deification of a foreign royal
the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Queen Arsinoe II was the sister
family was set in stone, a phenomenon that did not occur when
and wife of Ptolemy II, who had proclaimed her an avatar
Egypt was ruled by Persia.
of the Greek goddess Aphrodite even before her death.
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003 Cult Figure of a Falcon-Headed Deity Dynasty 19, 1295 - 1213 BC Silver, gold, lapis lazuli, rock crystal H.：41.9 cm
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A Shape of Living God
The Discovery Before the Discovery of the Pharaoh’s Tomb
In the letter, he suggests that the statue dates to the Ptolemaic
This cult figure, which has survived through the millenia
era (400-300 BCE). Since the hieroglyphic tiles on the façade
to reach our times, is believed to be a “living” deity once
of the shrine where the deity was found were believed to be of
enshrined in the inner sanctum of a temple.
the Ptolemaic period, there was perhaps an assumption that the
We know that Howard Carter, an English archaeologist and
statue held within the shrine dated to the same period. It is,
protégé of Lord Carnarvon, saw this figure at the home of an
however, possible that the shrine was dedicated to a much older
antique dealer in Cairo in April 1922 ahead of his discovery
deity.
of the tomb of Tutankhamen in November of the same year.
Later research has dated this statue to the New Kingdom
At the time, the figure had the appearance of a lump of grey
(ca. 1539 to 1075 BCE). It is not likely that it was created
metal covered in thick rust, but Carter had a discerning eye,
before the New Kingdom, since silver had been a very scarce
and the statue caught his interest. He made notes in his diary
and expensive material until then. Even when trade with West
on April 6, stating that it was a seated figure of Horus in solid
Asia prospered during the New Kingdom, silver was still worth
silver, height 40 cm=16 inches. Gold overlay. Partly damaged.
half as much as gold. With the exception of a very few bronzes,
Need to remove corrosion? Damage to right arm and left knee.
most of the figures from the Hellenistic (Ptolemaic) period
Hair inlaid with lapis lazuli. Rock crystal eyes. Satisfactory
listed in the inventory at the Temple of Edfu are gold, and
condition where the silver is showing through.
there are no records of silver figures.
In January 1922, a few months before Carter, Charles K.
Bones of Silver, Flesh of Gold, and Hair of Real Lapis Lazuli
Wilkinson of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the United
Only a few silver deities are known today. The statue of Amun
States was also shown the statue, describing it in a letter dated
in the British Museum is one; another is the falcon deity at
January 20.
the State Museum of Egyptian Art in Munich. The British
Tano showed me in great secrecy a Ptolemaic statue in silver
Museum’s Amun is solid silver and stands 23 centimeters high.
overlaid with sheet of gold weighing about 15 kg and 42 cm
The crown, collar necklace, and kilt are overlaid with gold leaf.
high seated; it is apparently solid silver and the metal where
The statue is believed to date to the New Kingdom and to have
it has been cleaned is in remarkable condition. Elsewhere it is
come from the Karnak Temple Complex; its lack of muscle
encrusted with an oxide which can probably be removed. The
definition is a characteristic shared with the falcon-headed
Arabs have stripped some of the gold off but where this remains it is about as thick as a postcard. The wig is inlaid with lapis of which about one-half remains. The eyes are of garnet. It is really a remarkable piece and one of the very few actual cult statues in existence. Evidently it was the statue of some shrine and not
deity at the Miho Museum. The falcon deity in Munich is a hollow silver statue, 26.9 centimeters high. The crown, the head, the chest, and the wings are inlaid with electrum (a gold and silver alloy), and niello (a black metallic alloy of sulfur) has
the usual votive that we generally see nowadays. Tano, says that
been applied to the legs. The use of quite advanced metalwork
the hieroglyphic faience tiles which Lord Carnarvon got and of
techniques similar to the ones used in West Asia suggests that
which we have two were sold by him. They came from around
the statue dates to the period when the Achaemenid Dynasty
the front of niche in a wall in which this statue sat.
of Persia ruled Egypt (27th Dynasty, 600-400 BCE).
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While their historical period and techniques differ, these
fragments embedded in the back of the right arm and in the
statues were produced according to traditional Egyptian
right calf. Casting such a large object in silver was probably
measurements. The Amun figure is about twelve widths
extremely rare. Once the body of the deity was finished,
of a digit (three palms), while the falcon deity is about
grooves were cut from the armpit to the bottom of the kilt,
fourteen digits (three palms and two digits). The inventory
from the base of the neck to below the armpit, and from the
of deities at Dendera lists statues of the same size.
calf to the heel. A sheet of gold was then attached by crimping
its edges into the grooves, to cover the statue with gold.
The crown that once adorned the falcon-headed
deity has been lost, but the cylindrical tenon to which it
At the temple of Khons, which was built during the
was attached still protrudes from the head. The shape of
New Kingdom and stood in the forecourt of the Temple of
the cylinder is nearly round, which would suggest either the
Luxor, and at the temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty pharaoh
double crown of Horus or the crown flanked with ostrich
Amenhotep III, inscriptions state that Ramses II of the
plumes worn by Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. It is possible that the
Nineteenth Dynasty erected a statue of the female deity Mut
crown was made of precious metals and other expensive
in the form of a bird of prey and a statue of the deity Khons
materials. Based on the proportions of other seated figures
of electrum, real lapis lazuli, and precious stones. Those
from the New Kingdom, the height to the tip of the crown
inscriptions describe figures that are similar to the images
would have been about 53 centimeters, or 28 digits (seven
of deities in the myths of that period. Those myths can ben
palms). Considering that most of the deities listed in
seen in royal tombs dating to the Nineteenth and Twentieth
the inventory of Dendera are this size, it is possible that
Dynasties. In light of the description of the ancient sun god
some hidden meaning was ascribed to this measurement.
Ra as having “bones of silver, flesh of gold, and hair of real
With the exception of a part of the kilt, the
lapis lazuli,� it is possible that the use of electrum at Luxor
surface corrosion has been removed from the statue and the
signifies an object covered in silver and gold. After all, deities
damaged areas have been repaired. It would appear that the
had to be made from pure silver and gold.
damage was caused by casting the body, a solid piece of silver,
Horus with the Red Eyes
not once but several times. The square holes in the left arm
There are certainly overlaps between the deities of the New
and leg suggest long-ago attempts to repair the flaws in the
Kingdom and this figure, but one mystery remains. In his
casting. When it is melted down, silver remains viscous, so
letter, Wilkinson writes that the eyes are garnets. In other
that air bubbles form easily during casting, especially of solid
words, the statue used to have red eyes. In 1979, when the
silver cast pieces. It is likely that the surface of this statue was
statue was restored at the Landesmuseum WĂźrttemberg in
pocked with large and small holes immediately after casting
Stuttgart, Germany, the eyes were hemispherical rock crystals
was completed. Traces indicate that the holes were cut into
inserted into eye sockets lined with gold, but a reddish-
rectangles and filled in with silver pieces of the same shape.
brown pigment was sandwiched between the gold and the
Hollow castings of similar objects show traces of rectangular
rock crystal. The pupils were indicated by drilling a hole into
supports to maintain the space between the core and the
each piece of rock crystal from the back and filling it with
exterior mold, but this is not the case here. There are still silver
a black substance. The reddish-brown pigment behind the
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rock crystal may originally have been a deep crimson, which
ruled Egypt for a short period, and with Baal, the weather god
would have given the eyes the deep red effect of garnets.
of Syria and Palestine. In Egypt, Seth became the god of chaos
As the color of the desert, red was perceived as inauspicious
and the god of storms, but he was also the companion of
and dangerous. Since Horus was the god of the sky, it was
the sun god Ra. A guardian deity, he accompanied Ra on his
imagined as having a blue body or blue eyes. However,
nightly boat journey through the realm of the dead. Protecting
originally, Horus’s image was more complex. A passage in the
Ra, he traveled in the prow of the boat and slew Apopsis, the
pyramid texts for the pharaoh Unas of the Old Kingdom reads,
enemy of Ra. Since the “god of red eyes” also denoted one of the gods that protected Osiris, red was strongly associated with
He comes against you, Horus with blue eyes. Beware of the Horus with
protection and overwhelming power, rather than ill omens. The image of a powerful king, the “Horus of the red
red eyes, whose anger is evil, whose power one cannot withstand!
eyes,” was needed in the Nineteenth Dynasty, when Egypt The passage may indicate the dual aspects of the sky god
expanded to the eastern Nile Delta. At his coronation, the
Horus among the assembly of gods that welcome the pharaoh
king became one with the immortal ka of kingship passed
as he ascends to the heavens after death. Here, the color red
down from king to king. Ascending to the throne of the living
signifies a dangerous power.
Horus, he became “the resurrected Horus,” the legitimate king
of Egypt.
Red was often associated with Seth, the god of
chaos and conflict. It is also related to the myth of how Horus,
the son of Osiris, ascended to the throne after exacting his
with Horus and considered a dwelling worthy of the ka. The
revenge on Seth, the brother of Osiris, who had plotted to
figure would have had fiery red eyes and would have held an
inherit the throne by murdering Osiris. To Horus, the king,
ankh, the hieroglyphic sign of life, in his right hand and the
Seth was his adversary. Incidentally, during the Nineteenth
was, the scepter of authority, in his left.
Dynasty, the resurrected and reborn Osiris became a deity of the afterlife who enabled renewal in the realm of the dead, while Seth was worshipped as the state god. The Nineteenth Dynasty, a period of vigorous expansionism, began with Ramses who had served as co-regent to the last king of the Eighteenth Dynasty, a period when prosperity declined due to the chaos of religious reforms. The second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty was named Seti, meaning “of Seth,” which indicates that he was consecrated to Seth. The origins of the god Seth lie with the Hyksos, of the eastern Nile Delta, who
32
In that period, this statue may have been identified
004 "Beautiful West" Relief with Hieroglyphics Fifth Dynasty 2454 - 2311 BC Limestone H.：39.4 cm W.：80.8 cm
Goddess of the Eternally Beautiful West In ancient Egypt, the homes of the living, including the
What is truly surprising is that they indicate the “everlasting
Pharaohs, were made of sun-dried brick; but the temples and
land,” the paradise in which ancient Egyptians hoped to live
the tombs where they would reside forever were made of stone.
after death. The falcon standing on the flagpole on the right
Temples were built in the centers of communities; but tombs,
is the hieroglyph for “west.” The spoon to its left combines
the residences of the dead, were located to the west, on the
the heart and trachea and is the hieroglyph for “beautiful.”
West Bank of the Nile, in the direction that the sun set. There,
Combined, these hieroglyphs stand for “beautiful west,” which
in the “Beautiful West,” was the paradise in which Egyptians
may also refer to a beautiful woman, the goddess who would
hoped to live forever. In ancient Egypt, when the Sun God Ra
greet the dead and feed them when they arrived in paradise.
sank into the west at the end of each day, he became Osiris, the
god of the dead. Then every morning he would be reborn and
carvings and murals. Those forms, as sacred symbols, were
rise above the mountains in the east. The gods were conceived
regarded as the abodes of souls. That style of hieroglyphs
in a way in which life and death were clearly distinguished by
persisted fundamentally unchanged for thousands of years.
day and night. Mummies were enshrined in rooms beneath the
Even after more than a thousand years, the design of the
tombs, over which small structures were erected. Later such
shallow relief carving of the falcon’s eyes and beak accurately
tombs would come to be called mastaba, but already, starting in
reflects the concept of the living divine image. The shaping of
the Old Kingdom, their inner walls were covered with prayers
this important element leads us to imagine that it was based
for the dead to safely reach paradise, where they could live
on innumerable sketches. The modeling accurately captures
forever in bliss.
the natural form in which a god dwelt. It was, as the characters
What we see here is believed to be a fragment of an Old
The same style of hieroglyphs appear in both
suggest, truly an abode for a soul.
Kingdom prayer. Only two hieroglyphics remain complete.
33
005 Statue of Nakht Egypt Middle Kingdom 12th Dynasty 1960- 1916BC Acacia H.：152 cm
34
He who was revered by Osiris In the chapel inside the mastaba was a door, usually a false
ochre mixed glue made from animal bones. C14 dating of the
door, that separated the worlds of the dead and the living.
pigment indicates that it is about four thousand years old.
Behind it, deeper inside, stood a statue of the deceased, or
The structure of this statue, specifically the wood of which
more properly his ka or “double.” In many cases, the false door
it is composed, is very interesting. It appears to have been cut
was carved into the wall and, because it could not be opened,
in half at the waist in modern times. But when the two halves
was purely symbolic. It was, however, there that offerings were
are put back together, the tree rings match almost perfectly. The
presented to the ka. The statue of the ka represented the
toes and the two arms were made of separate pieces of wood
mummy buried in the underground chamber. Made of strong,
and attached. The rest of the body, from the top of the head
durable materials, this statue was the abode of the deceased’s ka.
and chest to the heels of the feet were made from one piece of
Egyptians believed that whenever someone was born, their ka
wood. Moreover, comparing the grain of the wood in the left
or double was also born. The ka lived on after the individual’s
and right legs, we see that this was once a single tree with two
death and required offerings. The ka was also believed to be
branches. It has been turned upside down so that the branches
the source of the life force that enabled that person to live.
form the two legs. The left arm, which holds the staff, is bent
This statue, of a man named Nakht, is from the
at about a 90-degree angle. Examining within the crevices on
Middle Kingdom and made of wood. The left foot steps
its sides reveals the grain running along the upper arm and
forward. The right hand holds a scepter in the form of a ladle,
also along the forearm. That is, the wood used for the left arm
a symbol of sovereignty, while the left hand holds a staff that
was a single piece originally bent at a 90-degree angle. We can
indicates that Nakht was of high rank. Together they present
thus infer that around four thousand years ago, an Egyptian
the traditional appearance of a high official. We know that
craftsman looked for wood preformed in ways suitable for the
during the Middle Kingdom, in most cases, such statues were
body and arm of the statue of Nakht. That choice of materials
made in Asyut, a city and cultural center located on the West
may have had important religious significance.
Bank of the Middle Nile. From the inscription on the base
of this statue, which reads “Nakht, blessed by Osiris,” we can
dwarves. These are believed to confirm the thesis that the ka
infer that it is the statue for the ka of a high official named
was an accurate reproduction of the deceased. In contrast,
Nakht. Because the statue was placed in a serdab, a sealed
this statue of Nakht is an idealized youth. During the Old
room behind the false door, it has remained in such excellent
Kingdom, only individuals with royal patrons were allowed to
condition that some have questioned its authenticity. The
enter the paradise in the Beautiful West and only close relatives
cracks in the wood are small, and there has been only minimal
of the Pharaoh had their ka statues buried near his tomb. By
deterioration of the surface. To confirm its authenticity, it was,
the Middle Kingdom, local high officials were also granted this
thus, necessary to know the age of the acacia wood from which
privilege.
the statue was made. Because this wood is an organic material,
it was possible to use C14 dating to confirm that the wood
they were found worthy by Osiris, the ruler of the underworld.
was several thousand years old. Critics could still point out,
This belief may be connected with the custom from the 12th
however, that it could have been made by a present-day sculptor
Dynasty onward of making regular offerings to the ka. Later
using old materials. A second analysis examined the pigment
materials suggest that the ka may have been regarded as a
used to paint the statue’s surface. The pigment was made of
guardian spirit while the deceased was being judged.
Old Kingdom statues of ka include fat people and
They might enter the Beautiful West, but only if
35
My heart, my mother. My heart, my mother. … Let none stand up to oppose me at my judgment. …Thou art my Ka , that dwelleth in my body; the god Khnemu who knitteth
He who was revered
together and strengthened my limbs. Mayest thou come forth into the place of happiness whither we go. May the Shenit officers … Let not that which is false be uttered against me before the Great God, the Lord of Amentet (i.e. Osiris). … (Book of the Dead XXXB) When the deceased stands before Osiris awaiting his judgment, his words “my heart, my mother” are an appeal for the ka’s protection, to ensure that the officers of the court bear true
by Osiris
witness, ensuring that the deceased will enjoy eternity in paradise. It is, we believe, for this reason that the deceased aristocrat required a young and beautiful ka whose worship would not be neglected. This statue is made of acacia wood;, the ancient Egyptian word for “acacia,” sent-t, is nearly a
Nakht
homonym for sent, which refers to the heart of Osiris, the ruler of the underworld. While one might regard that as mere wordplay, to Egyptians, who believed that spirits lodged in
（ a man ）
names, the similarity of the words for acacia and Osiris’s heart may have been why they chose that material for ka
Inscription on the base
statues. Further, the act of creating the statue following the form in which the acacia tree had grown could itself have been of major significance. Such examples are extremely rare, but we might refer to the wooden statue of monkeys now in the Egyptian collection of the State Museum of Egyptian Art in Munich. This statue is carved from a single branch of natural wood in a manner that distorts the monkeys’ forms. Note, too, that this statue employs techniques that bring together ancient wisdom. Directly below the extended right forearm, we see a wooden peg inserted horizontally. Similar pegs can be found near the shins of the two legs and another protruding from the left buttock. The presence of these pegs, which prevent cracking due to drying and aging, has been confirmed by X-rays.
Wooden nail penetrating the right arm
36
37
West Asia From
the Despair of Heroes to the Aspiration to Paradise
The people of ancient West Asia learned about the cycles of the stars corresponding to the cycles of the seasons and from that discovered the best-suited times for starting cultivating and planting seeds. In Mesopotamia, they tackled the challenges of their natural environment head-on, and from early times built wealth by developing irrigation-based farming. And in this region tales of powerful rulers and heroes were born. The legendary Sumerian account Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta tells how Enmerkar, king of Uruk, sought to form trade relations with the mountainous region of Aratta because while Uruk had plenty of food, it lacked mineral resources which Aratta had in plentiful supply, and invented a writing system for that purpose. The Elamite civilization flourished in the southwestern part of Iran at the same time as Sumerians but the proto-Elamite writing system there was replaced with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Cuneiform script eventually proved superior, as it was practically suited to calculations and transmission of information. Not expressed in such script, important emblems
38
or symbols have been preserved in seals and on ritual vessels. These emblems and symbols relate to the cycles of the cosmos and other profound knowledge of the world and they are most often found in the heritage of Elam and the so-called BMAC civilization (the ancient Bactria and Margiana complex in what is now Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan), which had close relations with Elam and was rich in gold, silver, lapis lazuli and mineral resources. The center of that civilization, also called the Oxus civilization, was the valley of the Amu (or Oxus) river running through the heart of the southwest part of Central Asia. This trade in mineral resources developed greatly by around 3,000 BC and expanded into long-distance trade routes linked to the Indus [valley], Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt that were widely known as the Lapis Lazuli Road. The region centering on the eastern Iran/Kerman region was the link in this trade and also the supplier of manufactured goods; from there, beads made of precious gems, vessels made of chlorite stone gorgeously
inlaid with precious stones were exported throughout the ancient Orient. These expensive luxury items were used for ceremonial and similar purposes and represented a kind of “intercultural style” that straddled multiple cultures. But in the latter half of the second millennium BC, these trade routes went into decline. The causes must have stemmed from multiple factors including the decline of precious stone production areas due to climatic or other factors and the rise of the Elamite kingdom and its intervention along the trade routes. Mesopotamian commerce rapidly tilted westward to the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Amid the development and change going on in Mesopotamia, Assyria established a network of trading colonies. It had its ups and downs, but continued to actively expand in the region until, by the seventh century BC, it covered a territory from Egypt to Iran and boasted of ruling the “world.” Assyria boasted of ample material wealth, but the spiritual world that had been fostered in Mesopotamia is symbolized by the
epic of the superhuman Gilgamesh. The heroic leader develops cedar forests and defends his people against heaven; resisting the limitations of his own destiny, he seeks immortality, but ultimately despairs. The height of Assyrian wisdom was the family solidarity they so highly prized and full enjoyment of life in this world. The prosperity of the Assyrians lasting until the seventh-century BC was destroyed by the Iranian peoples who had settled in the highland areas of Iran from the second millennium BC. The Iranians had set their sights on righteous prosperity of life on this earth and the eternal paradise that transcended it. This was a major turning point in West Asia. The vast Achaemenid empire of Persia that they later created incorporated the characteristics of the peoples of the countries within its reach and its capitals were built by gathering together excellent materials and talented people from throughout the empire. Its king proudly had the details of that story carved onto the walls and foundation stones of his palaces.
39
006 Statuette of a mouflon Proto-Elamite 3000 - 2800 BC Silver H.：9.8 cm W.：5.1 cm L.：11cm
Aries Pendant This small statue of a mouflon dates back about 5000 years
The use of this combination of stars and mouflon in Proto-
and is the oldest piece in our collection. The huge curved horns
Elamite seal design more than five millennia ago suggests a
and the ruff jutting from the chest are characteristic of the
symbolic connection with a heavenly body. The designs of seals
mouflon wild sheep that inhabit the mountains of West Asia.
unearthed in Susa often combine the ram, the four-rayed stars,
The silver body is made up of at least 15 parts that have been
and a tree shape. If viewed from directly in front, the shape
soldered together. The curving nasal ridge, smiling eyes, and
of the mouflon’s triangular awl-shaped ruff resembles the tree
gentle mouth exude a relaxed atmosphere. The three hollowed-
form found in seal icons. Since the tree form is said to be a
out four-rayed stars on the left flank were probably for inlays
symbol of the sun rising above the mountains in the east, we
of precious stones or other materials. The ring attached to the
can infer that this pendant symbolizes the rising sun as well as
middle of the back suggests the possibility that this pendant
the constellation Aries.
hung from the neck with the left side facing outward in rituals.
The Elamite culture in what is now Southwestern Iran,
interpreted as heralding the start of a new year. This ancient
flourished around the same time as ancient Mesopotamia.
new year was the season of rebirth when sunshine returned,
This mouflon with its amiable expression is one example of
vegetation began to bud, and sheep, goats, and cattle gave birth.
anthropomorphized animals, which are also found on seals as well
It was, in other words, what we now think of as spring. This
as in small images. Anthropomorphized lions and bulls can be seen
small statue symbolizing Aries and the rising sun is likely to
on cylindrical seals excavated in the ancient Elamite capital of Susa.
have been worn on the chest by priests conducting rituals to
It appears that these two animals represented the constellations
welcome the new year. As a powerful symbol of rebirth, it may
Leo and Taurus, symbolizing the forces whose strengthening and
also have functioned as an amulet warding off evil spirits.
weakening were expressed in the changing seasons.
40
In the ancient Middle East, heliacal rising Aries was
007 Cylindrical Cup with Animal Motifs Western Central Asia Late 3rd ー early 2nd millennium BC Silver H.：11 cm Diam.：9.5 cm
Vessel Celebrating Rebirth On the body of this vessel, a leopard is depicted sprinting toward three
From ancient times, there were also two additional constellations, the
wild ibexes seated on the ground. Between the leopard and the ibexes,
Leopard (today’s Lyre, Cygnus, and Cepheus constellations) and the Ibex
we see engravings of tree form and circular designs suggesting heavenly
(now Aquarius and Capricorn). Immediately before dawn at the Spring
bodies. Some of the circles are incorporated into the tree. While, at first
Equinox, the Leopard would be at the zenith and the Ibex due south.
glance, the leopard appears to be pursuing the ibexes, its gentle expression
This combination was also, very likely, a symbol of rebirth and the start
and the fact that the ibexes are seated indicate that this is not a scene of
of a new year. In this case, however, there was no change in the balance
life and death struggle. In ancient West Asia, designs combining predators
of power between the Leopard and the Ibex, and no development of
and cloven-hoofed ungulates can be seen on Elamite seals dating back
conflict-filled motifs as between Leo and Taurus. At least in seals from
more than four thousand years. Common pairings include lions and oxen
West Asia dating from the fourth through the first millennium BCE, we
as well as leopards and ibexes, without, however, any definitive elements
see no designs of leopards attacking cloven-hoofed ungulates.
of conflict.
On this vessel, the leopard’s body is covered with small
The combination of the lion and bull symbolize the
round motifs, a pattern suggested by the way that the ancient Leopard
constellations Leo and Taurus. Leo appearing at the zenith just after
constellation always overlapped the Milky Way, itself seen as guarding
sunset and Taurus sinking into the west were important symbols of the
the entrance to the world of the dead. The leopard’s body filled with
arrival of spring, a new year, and rebirth. Here as the seasons shift from
stars connects to images of the Milky Way. The tree form carved above
winter to spring, the lion can be seen as gaining power relative to the
the animals is also found on Elamite cylindrical seals dating back to the
bull. Thus, we can imagine how a design of the lion attacking the bull
early fourth to the early third millennium BCE. It, too, is believed to be a
had appeared on West Asian cylindrical seals from the latter half of the
symbol of the dawn at the beginning of spring.
fourth millennium BCE.
Entire compositin
41
008 Weight in the form of a standing bull Southwestern Central Asia Late 3rd - Early 2nd millennium BC Lead H.：26 cm W.：32.4 cm
A Standard Weight on the Lapis Lazuli Road The use of disc-shaped lead weights is characteristic of the
Bactria was rich in silver and produced many silver vessels. The
Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex ( BMAC), especially
silver was usually found in veins of ores that also contained
the ancient Bactrian culture. This weight’s solid, three-
lead, and the lead used in weights is thought to have been
dimensional form makes it extremely rare. A functional handle
produced as a by-product of smelting silver. Since lead is a soft
is attached to the back of this downward facing bull, whose
metal, it was easy to adjust its weight. Frequent use produced
dewlap and the way his muscles are portrayed are very natural.
wearing; but in this case, there is less wear on the handle than
The distinctive scale pattern that extends from the front half
on the feet. This fact, together with the rarity of its form,
of the body to the middle of the face is a feature shared with
suggests that this weight was not for practical use. It may have
disc-shaped weights and with bulls carved on cylindrical cups.
been a symbol of Bactria’s preeminence in producing minerals
This bull weighs 10.43 kilograms, which, given a local measure
or have been employed in rituals.
of weight equal to approximately 0.86 grams, makes its weight in local terms some 12,000 units.
42
009 Cylindrical Cup with Agricultural and Ceremonial Scenes Southwestern Central Asia Late 3rd - Early 2nd millennium BC Silver H.：12.6 cm Diam：9.9cm
Bactrian Society on Display The images on this silver cup are divided into upper and lower
The eight individuals in the upper layer of this cup form a
layers. Eight seated human figures are depicted on the upper layer.
procession. The one who faces left toward the others wears what
In the lower layer, we see an agricultural scene, with oxen pulling
appears to be spindle-shaped striped beads, possibly of onyx, on
plows. Besides this silver cup, three other similar cups thought to
his head, neck and wrists. The individual at the front of the seven
be related are housed, respectively, in the Metropolitan Museum of
facing to the right is making what appears to be a salute with his
Art, the Musée du Louvre, and a private collection. On those cups
right hand. He alone also wears a spindle-shaped agate bead on his
we see hunting scenes, both hunting with dogs and returning in ox-
head. His salute seems to be not a gesture of worship but a greeting.
drawn carriages from the hunt. One feature that all these cups share
The man second from the last has turned his body to the right
is that some of the human figures wear spindle-shaped jewels on
toward the last man in line, and the two appear to be raising their
their heads or on necklaces, marking a difference between them and
right hands to their heads to make respectful gestures to each other.
those who do not wear jewelry.
Entire compositin
43
What we see here are clear differences in status. In front of the left-
the early second millennium before the common era include giant
facing individual are baskets filled with offerings of food. Only he
forts, with temples within them. It seems likely that theirs was a society
drinks from a cup, which he holds in his right hand, he is the only
with a military leader who was also the high priest, ruling over several
individual whose mouth is visible in this depiction. No one else,
distinct social classes. During this period, Bactrians used oxen to plow
including those in the lower layer, farming, is depicted with a mouth.
their fields and pull their hunting chariots. In addition to hunting,
The figure in the upper layer who holds a large basket appears to be
they raised domestic animals. The scenes depicted on the silver cups
not a participant in the banquet, but instead is reporting the harvest
discussed here suggest that hunting may have been ritualized. This was,
and presenting the first fruits to the highest ranked individual.
in any case, an advanced civilization that emerged from the Eurasian
Summing up the decorations on this series of silver cups, what
steppes and may have been the precursor of the Indo-Iranian tribes
we see is an organized society with a division of labor and strict
who would eventually unify the West Asian world. They may have been
boundaries between social classes. We should also note, however, the
its ancestors , i.e. Indo-European tribes.
presence of fashion. The hair styles are identical, but each individual
seems to be enjoying dressing in a variety of manners. That freedom
weight described above. The distinctive pattern of the hair that covers
to indulge in fashion may have emerged because, in addition to trading
the front half of the body and the depiction of the muscles in the
in minerals, Bactria was an affluent agricultural society with fertile
feet are clearly typical of this period. They illustrate the stylization of
fields watered by the Amu (Oxus) River.
outstanding realistic depictions.
The oxen carved on the cup resemble the bull-shaped
Bactrian ruins that date from the end of the third millennium through
The last two men on the procession The first two men on the procession Bulls on the lower register
44
010 Seated Goddess Southwestern Central Asia, late 3rd millennium - early 2nd millennium BC Chlorite, limestone, bitumen H.：22.5 cm W.：22.0cm Dip.：16.5cm
A Margian Goddess The body of this goddess, who wears a sheepskin garment called a
patterns may also signify the warding off of demons. Margian female
kaunakes, is made of green chlorite. Her white head is carved from
figures have been excavated from niches amongst cemeteries, together
limestone, which has a gentle warmth. Several examples of this kind
with sets of bronze ritual implements. It appears, then, that this
of statue have been excavated from third to second millennium BCE
goddess, both as a symbol of rebirth and expeller of demons, was
Margiana culture ruins. Their shared features include an asymmetry
invoked in some sort of ritual performed before funerals.
due to the jutting out of the lower right side of the body, with
horizontal openings for the feet that indicate she was sitting with her
strand, including the whorls at the back, individually carved. The use
legs to one side. In this example, the feet have been lost, leaving only
of this material suggests a connection with Mesopotamia, as does
two small rectangular openings.
the technique of carving out and inserting the eyes from inside. The
Several similar images of women in a sideways sitting
modeling of the perfectly upright head is also consistent with materials
position, with their legs out to one side, have been discovered on
from Margian sites and from others along the eastern Mediterranean
cylindrical seals from Margiana and Southeastern Iran. The patterns
dating from the same period. These elements suggest the existence of a
that radiate from her body represent grain, indicating that she is a
long-distance trade in materials as early as the fourth millennium BCE.
The goddess’s hair is made of black bitumen with each
goddess of vegetation, fertility, and the renewal of the life force. Those
45
011 Vase with Divine Figures Eastern Iran, end of 3rd millennium - early 2nd millennium BCE Chlorite Scist H.：23.5cm Diam : rim/ 8.6cm / bottom：12.9cm
Sacred Mountain Connects Heaven and Earth
46
The surface of this vase, made of schist, is covered with carvings of
Examples of artifacts with these enigmatic deities and other forms
deities and many animals. The carvings are divided into two layers
are uncommon, but similar motifs can be found on stone vessels and
with a total of six elements. In the upper layer we see (1) a bird of
cylindrical seals produced primarily during the mid-third millennium
prey gripping a snake with its two claws and a young deer and (2) a
BCE in southeastern Iran. That period overlaps with the end of the
horned deity kneeling on two bulls and grasping surging waters in its
first Mesopotamian kingdom and the appearance of the Akkadian
two hands, and (3) a horned deity kneeling on two bulls and grasping
Empire, a time in which trade flourished and tied together territories
snakes in its hands. In the lower layer we see (4) a third horned deity
separated by the Persian Gulf and Straits of Oman. Mineral-poor
kneeling on two bulls and holding snakes in its hands, (5) a fourth
Mesopotamia owed much to the states formed in the neighboring
horned deity kneeling on two leopards and holding two bulls in its
mountainous regions. Vessels inlayed with precious stones produced in
two hands, and (6) a long, wriggling snake with an M-shaped door
southeastern Iran were exported and have been found in a broad region
before it.
that includes the upper Euphrates in the west, around the Arabian Gulf
in the south, Bactria in Western Central Asia to the north, and the
glimpses of trade. At this time, there were already cities like Jiroft in
Indus Valley to the east. As exemplified by vessel fragments excavated
southeastern Iran, where crafts had become an industry. The designs
from the Inanna Temple in Nippur in southern Mesopotamia, the
carved into its products are believed to reflect a spiritual world
destinations for these gorgeous vessels were temples and other religious
shared by the diverse cultures of that era, in what is described as the
facilities. They are believed to have been traded for grain.
“intercultural” style. The four deities all have bull’s horns jutting from
In the Sumerian epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, we catch
the tops of their heads. Crowns cone-shaped on both sides, to which
glimpses of trade. At this time, there were already cities like Jiroft in
bull’s horns are attached, had taken root as a symbol of divinity in
southeastern Iran, where crafts had become an industry. The designs
Mesopotamia since the early third millennium BCE. The horns on
carved into its products are believed to reflect a spiritual world
these deities can be seen as a variant of the Mesopotamian pattern. All
shared by the diverse cultures of that era, in what is described as the
four deities hold something in their hands, a feature shared throughout
“intercultural” style. The four deities all have bull’s horns jutting from
West and West-Central Asia; their grasp signifies control. Here a
the tops of their heads.
variety of different elements are combined in a complex pattern; but
In the Sumerian epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, we catch
①
②
their symbolism can be read from ancient Babylonian constellations.
③
④
⑤ ⑥
Rendering of entire composition of the vase
47
48
In scene (1), on the front, the bird of prey with its great wings spread
In scene (4) in the lower layer, we see the deity who grasps the snake,
carries the dead to the realm of the dead in the sky; the snake held
which here, like the bull, is a symbol of fertility. Scene (5) presents the
in its two claws represents death. The deer on the right above the
controller master of life and death who holds the bull in his hands
bird and looking back to the right signify rebirth. The bird itself is a
and sits on the leopard. The bull’s calf appears beside the leopard. In
constellation that symbolizes the winter solstice and winter storms,
scene (6) we see the large snake that may bridge heaven and earth with
which closely follows the path of the deer constellation. This group
“gate” in front of it. In ancient Babylonian astronomy the constellation
symbolizes the death and rebirth of animals. The same combination
Serpens, the snake, makes heliacal rising around the summer solstice
can be seen on cylindrical seals from southern Mesopotamia from the
and the season of death draw near. Next to it comes Cancer, the crab,
third millennium BCE. In scene（2) we see the deity that controls the
symbolizing the gate dividing realms of life and death. The three
weather, who sits on his companion, the bull. In scene (3), the deity
combinations in the lower layer probably all symbolize the fruits of the
who holds the snake and sits above the bull and leopard constellation
earth and domestic animals who come to earth through the door to
controls fertility. The leopard symbolizes the rebirth of life at the
the realm of the dead.
spring equinox, while the bull symbolizes the harvest in early summer.
The leopard is the older constellation and appears at zenith behind
same shape that have been excavated from a number of Bactria–Margiana
the Milky Way just before daybreak at the spring equinox. Leopards
Archaeological Complex cemetery sites. The sides gently narrow as they
frequently appear on stone vessels from southeastern Iran, often as
rise from the base, creating a form that evokes the symbolism of the
symbols of rebirth, fighting with snakes that symbolize death. The
sacred mountain. Nippur’s most sacred temple was called E-Kur, which
three sets of deities who appear in the upper layer thus can be read as
means “Temple of the Mountain,” a phrase that refers to Enlil, Nippur’s
celestial gods who have control over the death and rebirth of vegetation
most revered god. The gods are believed to assemble on this mountain
and the weather. The bull, half of which appears in (2) and the other
where they decide the fates of men. In sum, this vase appears to embody
half in (3), seems to represent the constellation Taurus.
a detailed mental image of that sacred mountain.
The shape of this vessel reminds us those small pillars of the
012 Cup with Raptors and Gazelles Northwestern Iran; 12th – 11th century BC Gold H.：13.7cm Diam.：12cm
Vessel for Purifying Souls Sent to Heaven A thick ridge circles the base of this cup, and three pairs of animals are
purification rituals. We can see, then, that from ancient times, birds of
engraved on its sides. In each, a raptor or bird of prey is treading on the
prey were agents who purified the dead.
supine body of a gazelle. The protruding heads of the birds were made
separately and attached to the sides with rivets. Similar vessels with
was buried with the dead as a prayer for removing the pollution of death,
three-dimensional animal heads protruding from the sides have been
that is, exorcising evil spirits, and carrying the soul to heaven. The upper
found in aristocratic grave sites near the Caspian Sea at Marlik; those
and lower rivets used to secure the birds’ heads to the vessel are visible
sites date from the end of the second millennium through the early
from inside the vessel. On the outside, however, their heads have been
first millennium BCE. This repeated use of figures of large birds of
flattened and incorporated using delicate techniques into the engraved
prey has a different meaning from the designs featuring battles between
feathers that connect the heads to the bodies, rendering them invisible
animals found throughout ancient West Asia. These birds are not
without careful inspection. The care with which it was created makes us
attacking the gazelles, but standing on their supine dead bodies. This
imagine, then, that this vessel was an important ritual implement.
design signifies that the birds will cleanse the souls of the pollution of
death and carry them to heaven. Vessels with similar scenes have been
religion, including fire altars and vessels for drinking soma, a ritual drink.
unearthed from Marlik sites on the southern banks of the Caspian
It is believed that this vessel is an example of grave goods, an object
Sea. In the Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism, birds of prey,
buried with the dead that signified the exorcism of the evil spirits that
which tear at corpses, and dogs both have roles to play in funerary
could reach the Marlik spiritual world.
It is likely then that this vessel, as part of the funeral ritual,
The graves at Marlik contain evidence of Indo-Iranian
49
013 Guardian spirit and Attendant Northeastern Iraq; 883 – 859 BCE Limestone H.：110.5cm W.：183cm
Twice-Excavated Ancient Mesopotamian Palace
50
At the end of the tenth century BCE, the Neo Assyrian Empire
he moved his capital to Kalhu (Nimrud), which had been the capital
launched a series of expeditions to recover territories outside Assyria
under Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BCE) but was later abandoned.
proper over which control had been lost in an earlier period. Under
There, in addition to building temples to a variety of gods, he built his
Ashurnasirpal II, the territory under Assyrian control was expanded
Northwest Palace. From the first quarter of the ninth century BCE,
from the border of Babylon to the Mediterranean Sea and the
when the capital was moved, to until the fourth quarter of the eighth
northern mountains in what is now southeastern Turkey and the
century BCE, when Sargon II moved the capital to Dur-Sharrukin,
eastern mountains. Details of these expeditions and the booties
the temples and palaces of Ashurnasirpal II’s capital were steadily
are available in records from the tenth century BCE founding of
enlarged by him and his successors. During the last years of his reign,
the Neo Assyrian Empire to its destruction in the seventh century
Ashurnasirpal II had a stone monument carved from sandstone and
BCE. Through these expeditions, Assyria became materially stronger
erected beside the northeast door closest to his throne in the throne
and also won access to the new materials and technologies used by
room of his Northwest Palace. The monument was carved in relief
Ashurnasirpal II to build his lavish capital city.
with a scene of the king standing in front of a symbol of an important
When Ashurnasirpal II assumed power, his first task was
guardian deity and, around its circumference and on its lower part,
to suppress the rebellions that had broken out throughout the empire.
the details of the architectural plans for the rebuilding of Kalhu. The
Once he had quelled them, he was able to begin building his capital.
inscriptions also included, most notably, the complete menu for the
First, he built palaces in the historic capitals of Assur and Nineveh and
lavish, ten-day banquet held to celebrate the completion of the palace,
made maintenance of their temples. Then, to increase his own prestige,
together with a detailed breakdown of the participants. We can see
how immensely proud the king was of this construction project from
In the lower part of these carvings, a cuneiform inscription
the fact that details of this banquet were to be preserved forever for
in the Assyrian language overlays the images of the guardian
future generations.
spirits and attendants. This text, composed in the standard
This relief (013) continues along the lower part of the
form for Assyrian inscriptions, praises the origins and
west wall of the Northwest Palace throne room, the wall that the king
architectural plans of the palace and the king’s expeditions and
faced directly when he sat on his throne and looked straight ahead
other works, and proclaims him, with the devoted protection
through the west door. The images on this wall are believed to depict
of the all-powerful gods, the mightiest king in the world.
the ritual performed at the end of the royal hunt. According to the
excavator of the palace, Austen Henry Layard, in these carvings the
of the dead, regardless of their status while alive, descended to
king is facing right. To the king’s left are a beardless attendant (possibly
the underworld, where they were covered with dust and had only
a eunuch) who carries the king’s staff and bow and has a quiver of
dust to eat. It was a dark world, neither heaven nor hell, where the
arrows suspended from his shoulder. Behind the attendant we see a
powerless dead resided for eternity. Guardian spirits would watch
winged deity who carries a cone in his right hand and a small bucket
over only the living; the fate of the dead meant that it was all-
in his left hand. On the king’s right, we see another attendant carrying
important to polish and exercise wisdom and power to the greatest
the king’s whisk and staff and another winged deity carrying a cone
extent possible while alive and to seek the aid of the gods in pursuit
and small bucket. At present the image of the king and the scene to
of glory. Mortal heroes might possess the power to resist the gods
his right are in another museum’s collection, and the carvings from the
of heaven, but despite their searching everywhere for immortality, at
lower half are missing. Eunuchs were attendants who expressed the
the end their hopes were dashed. That was the world described in the
king’s authority, while the horned miters worn by the winged deities
Epic of Gilgamesh, in which such spiritual realm is developed fully.
signal their divinity . This scene is remarkable, even in a palace in which
the king is depicted as a hunter, warrior, priest, and governor. That
another set of carved panels now in the collection of the British
combination of royal authority and divinity is confined to the throne
Museum, they were donated to Canford Manor (later the Canford
room area suggests that these carvings were particularly important.
School) in Dorset, England, thanks to Layard’s having received support
The four-winged deities are the guardian spirits called
from relatives who owned the manor. There they were displayed, along
apkallu in Assyrian. The small buckets in their left hands are containers
with other carvings, in the specially built Assyria House. After several
for holy water. The cones are dipped into the holy water and then it
generations, however, the manor became a private school, and Assyria
is sprinkled, in an act of purification. In the Mesopotamian myth
House became the school’s tuck shop (store selling snacks and other
Inanna (Ishtar) Descends into the Underworld, it is the “water of
foods). Plaster of Paris replicas of the lower part of the carved panels
life” that brings back to life the goddess of love and war. The idea that
had been made and the extant panels themselves were covered with
water gives life, combined with its bringing about abundant crops,
plaster of Paris, so that the entire artifact appeared to be a replica.
also accounts for its use to ward off death and exorcise demons —
In 1992, however, an American art historian conducting research on
primordial perceptions derived from primitive religions. Many figurines
Assyrian carvings scattered around the world “re-excavated” the panels,
with such four wings as apotropaic images have been unearthed from
having discovered the temperature difference between the original and
Assyrian sites. The king was guarded both by his powerful attendants
the replicas of the lower part.
In the spirit world of Mesopotamian civilization, all
These carvings were excavated in 1845-47, but, unlike
and by guardian deities.
51
014 King Ashurbanipal’s Beaker Assyria and Pre-Achaemenid Period Iran; 7th century BC Silver gilt H.：24.5cm Diam.：21cm
A Witness to the Peak and the End of Mesopotamian Civilization
52
At first glance, this artifact is a simple beaker. But the fine lines incised
Together these images depict Ashurbanipal at the height of his power.
on its sides depict historic scenes. On it we see a royal chariot, soldiers,
He had already brought Urartu and Egypt under his control when he
and musicians. These scenes resemble those in the friezes from King
brought Elam under his sway in about 640 BCE. This beaker depicts
Ashurbanipal’s North Palace in Nineveh, now in the British Museum;
the brief historic period when the Greeks hailed him as Sardanapalus,
those friezes also show us how this Assyrian king (668-627 BCE)
King of the Orient. The text carved on the rim directly above the
recorded his achievements.
triumphant king and shown as pouring out of the mouth of a roaring
On this beaker, a figure wearing a circular crown appears in
lion reads, in Assyrian: “[Made in] the palace built by the grandson
four scenes recording the submission of Humban-haltash, the virtual
of Sennacherib, son of Esarhaddon, Ruler of the World, Assyria’s
last King of Elam, in what is now southwestern Iran. The surface
almighty King Ashurbanipal.”
of beaker is divided into two layers. In the lower layer, the captured
In the triumphal procession advancing toward the upper left
Elamite king is shown being walked off, then kneeling in front of
is a group of nineteen musicians, the largest such musical ensemble
the Assyrian king’s royal chariot and accepting his commands. The
seen in extant Assyrian depictions. The ninth and tenth musicians, in
effect is similar to that in a Japanese picture scroll in which different
the middle of the group, are playing horizontal harps with vertical
moments are depicted in the same painting. The upper layer illustrates
column in the shape of right hand. One is beardless, a eunuch. The
a procession of soldiers and musicians comprising many different
other wears the fishtail crown of a priest. This depiction resembles that
peoples who accompany the Assyrian king on his triumphal return.
in the frieze along the road to the temple of Ishtar in the Southwest
At the tail of the procession is the Elamite king, who appears dazed.
Palace in Nineveh, constructed during the reign of Sennacherib,
suggesting that the triumphal procession evokes the presence of Ishtar.
the rim we find engraved a text in Neo-Elamite that reads, “Ampirish,
In both layers, the not quite five-millimeter wide fan-shaped pieces
King of Samati, son of Dabala.” There is only one other known
of tack on the horses drawing the king’s chariot are decorated by an
example of a silver vessel bearing inscriptions from both the King
image of the goddess Ishtar riding on two lions with the king beside
of Assyria and the King of Samati, a silver-gilt amphora in the Al-
her, worshipping her. That is an abbreviated version of carvings found
Sabah collection in Kuwait. In that case, however, the Assyrian king is
elsewhere in Assyrian palaces, simplified to conceptual contours on this
Esarhaddon. There are no written records documenting the kingdom
beaker. A display of respect for the goddess was apparently regarded
of Samati, but it appears to have been a member of the alliance
as necessary. Before the expedition to Elam, Ishtar, the goddess of war,
including Babylonia, Media, and other states on the Iranian Plateau
had appeared to the king in a vision, where to encourage the troops she
that attacked Assyria and sacked Nineveh in 612 BCE.
said, “I will lead Ashurbanipal’s advance.” It was, thus, required that the
victory be attributed to the goddess.
engravings and the coarse manufacture and repairs to damage, the
This large cup is more than a record of glorious
authenticity of the images on this large cup has been called into
achievements. It also bears the marks of misfortunes as well. Above the
question. The content of the images might provide the answer, if they
victory scenes are areas to which a gilding has been applied, to restore
include elements difficult to interpret for people not of that time? One
them where the incision has been worn off and corrosion has caused
is the combination of images found in the lower layer of an attendant
holes to develop. X-ray and visual inspection reveal holes for four rivets
carrying a whisk and another attendant carrying a staff, positioned
in the bottom edge of the body. One is broken. Because the shape of
behind King Ashurbanipal. A similar scene may possibly be found in
this vessel and the use of rivets to attach the bottom are characteristics
the “Banquet Scene” relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal
of vessels produced on the Iranian Plateau, it seems likely that this
(Room S) now in the British Museum (BM124920). As a result of
beaker was either a tribute or a spoil of war. It appears to have been
an improper restoration, behind the attendant holding a whisk who
used for many years after the scenes displaying Assyrian victories
stands behind the king in the British Museum artifact is a date palm
were engraved on it. Subsequent damage led to the replacement of
from which a hand grasping a long staff protrudes. According to
the bottom and the application of a gilding that covers entire images
R.D. Barnett’s sketch made prior to the restoration, however, there is
including the worn parts of the body. The thickness of the original
no connection between the date palm and the hand. It is thus highly
metal is not uniform. The rim, the body, and the area beneath the rim
likely that the hand belonged, originally, to another attendant carrying
on which a crenelated pattern is inscribed are progressively thinner.
a staff. It could be that while the whisk was used to ward off flies and
Because parts of the crenelated pattern and inscription were damaged,
other flying insects, the staff was used to chase away birds. When the
it has been repaired with a patchwork of sheets of electrum and silver
“King of the World” was outdoors, care was taken to be sure that bird
inserted from the inside. In this instance, part of the Assyrian king’s
droppings did not accidentally fall on him.
Because of the mismatch between the finely detailed
inscription has been concealed. In addition, around the inner side of
Attendants on 014（left） Part of the relief BM124920（middle） Sketch by Barnett （right）
53
Frieze above - top register: Deployment of the Assyrian army, soldiers with wreaths and courtiers followed by defeated enemies and hostages. (96) Courtier with cloth (97) Courtier with club-stick (98) Soldier leading a horse (99-101) Three archers from Elam of Ellipi (102-104) Three archers from Syria (105-107) Three archers from Babylon (108-111) Four spear wielding soldiers with woven tower shields from northern Syria (112-114) Three spear wielding soldiers with metal tower shields that have face centered circular impressions (115-117) Three spear wielding soldiers with convex round shields (118-121) Four soldiers without weapons, wearing wreaths (122-126) Five courtiers in long garments, wearing wreaths (127-129) Three men in frayed toga (130) Elamite king wearing a balloon shaped cp extending his arms outwards
Frieze above - lower register: Abuduction of a man by chariot and musicians playing (61-62) Ostlers in front of the chariot horses of Assur banipal (63) Assurbanipal's chariot driver (64) Assurbanipal (65) Parasol bearer (66) Soldier besides a chariot wheel (67-68) Two courtiers with fly swatters (69)Courtier with cloth (70)Weapon bearer of Assurbanipal (71)Soldier leading a horse (72) Chariot driver (73) Man being carried away and turning with raised arms (74)Soldier with a club-stick (75)Musician playing the double-flute (76) Musician playing a lyre (77)Player of the lyle with curved yokearms (78) Lute player
Frieze below - bottom register: Subjugation of the Elamites under Assurbanipal (1) Elamite chariot driver in his chariot (2-7) Six Elamites throwing themselves to the ground before the Assyrian king (8) Courtier with stave (9) Elamite king wearing a balloon shaped cap throwing himself to the ground before the Assyrian king (10) Courtier with staff (11) Court official indicating to something (12-15) Four Elamite beggars (16) Courtier with staff (17) Pleading Elamite king wearing a balloon shaped cap (18-19) Two courtiers with staves (20) Guard with a spear / lance and a round shield (21-22) Two ostlers with whips (23) Elamite king kneeling pleadingly in front of Assurbanipal (24) Chariot driver of Assurbanipal (25) Assurbanipal (26) Parasol bearer of Assurbanipal (27) Soldier beside the wheel of Assurbanipal (28-29) Two bodyguards of Assurbanipal with fly swatters (30-31) Two courtiers with long staves (32) Weapon holder of the Assyrian king
54
(79) Musician playing the double-flute (80) Musician beating the kettle drum (81) Musician playing the vertical angular harp (82-83) Two men playing angular harps, the string throats of which end in anthromorphed hand (83) A priest with a fish tail shaped cap (84) Musician with a double-flute (85) Lute player (86) Drum player (87-88) Two musicians with vertical angular harps (89) Player of the undecorated mobile lyre (90) Double-flute player (91) Player f the lyre with curved yoke arms (92) Drum player (93) Player of the vertical angular harp (94-95) Two soldiers with club-sticks
(33-35) Three archers from Elam or Ellipi (36-38) Three archers from Syria, mercenaries in the Assyrian army (39-40) Two archers from Babylon (41-43) Three spear fighters with woven tower shields from Babylon (44-46) Three spear fighters with tower shields having a woven design from Babylon (47-49) Three spear fighters with convex round shields from central Assyria (50-53) Four Assyrian officers without weapons; each one has his hands clasped (54-57) Four high ranking courtiers with hands clasped (58) Guard with a spear and a round shield (59-60) Courtiers belonging to the bodyguard of Assurbanipal
55
Vessels Announcing Changes in the Spirit World
In about 2000 BCE, proto-Indo-Iranian peoples began moving
The Iranians, who made this vessel, had a very different perspective.
southward from the Eurasian steppes and absorbed the Bactria–
In their view, those who kept their promises to Mithra, the god who
Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) spiritual culture that
controlled the world, would receive the god’s vast protection. This
had spread through Southwest Central Asia. The Iranians eventually
vessel appears to embody that faith in Mithra. It is filled with the hope
split off from the other peoples spread throughout the Iranian
that only the pious could share.
Plateau. Iranian peoples, including the Medes and the Persians, are
Heaven’s Bull Becomes a Demon
first mentioned in Assyrian records from the latter half of the ninth
The hero’s left hand is pressing against the base of the left wing of the
century BCE. Strongly influenced by Assyria, the Iranians undoubtedly
winged beast with a human face, and his left foot is thrusting against
stood in opposition to the spiritual world of ancient Mesopotamian
the back of the beast’s left rear leg. In his right hand, the hero holds a
civilizations. The vessels 015, 016 are likely to be products of that
scimitar. In the beast’s chest is a hole that functions as a spout. There is
cultural friction.
another hole in the top of the hero’s head. Both the hero and the beast
A Vessel Filled with a Hero’s Unfulfilled Dearest Wish
are hollow; the hero’s left foot and the beast’s left leg connect the two
The basic shape of this vessel is that of an oval, round-bottomed
bodies into a single vessel.
boat. There is a handle at one end of the oval, a spout at the other. A
leg is attached at the center of the boat’s bottom. At the rim a metal
between wild and domesticated beasts can be found as early as the
cover with a large rectangular hole in the center is fitted. Engravings of
fourth millennium BCE. In the third millennium BCE, a human figure,
four fish and two ravens have been made on both sides of the cover.
the hero, is added. The powerful hero wielding a scimitar and capturing
These are allusions to the myth of the Great Flood recounted in
a beast is frequently seen on Babylonian cylindrical seals from the first
the Mesopotamian poem the Epic of Gilgamesh. The gods sent the
half of the first millennium BCE. There are also, for example, vessels
flood to exterminate humanity, but the god of the waters Ea (Enki)
similar to this one in which the hero’s hand grips and thrusts against
took pity on the pious Utnapishtim and told him to build the boat
the rear leg of a winged wild sheep that has a human face. Given that
that saved him. The fish are symbols of Ea’s waters, the crows are the
cylindrical seals were used as talismans, the hero’s figure represented
birds who bring the news that the flood has receded. On Sumerian
the power to exorcise demons. In West Asian traditions, we find, as
cylinder seals from the latter half of the third millennium BCE we find
in scenes from the Epic of Gilgamesh, a similar image of the hero
images of Ea, from whom water and fish are spouting, accompanied
grappling with the winged bull that afflicts humanity with disasters.
by the bird. Utnapishtim was granted the immortality of the gods,
This type of vessel, with the struggle of hero and beast incorporated
but immortality was denied to the hero Gilgamesh, who sought it but
into its design, is, however, extremely rare in ancient West Asia, but its
failed to pass the test required to receive it.
form doubtless conveys something of great significance. The body of
Several gold images of mouflon, the Asiatic wild sheep, are
this winged beast with a human face is that of the ox, but its horns are
attached to the boat. The three date palms sandwiched between pairs
those of a mouflon, the Asiatic wild sheep. This beast is a composite
of mouflon indicate that this vessel is filled with the life force required
ungulate monster (chimera), strongly reminiscent of the demon, i.e.,
for rebirth and great wealth. One mouflon stands on the bow of the
deva, who later appears in the Zoroastrian religion. It is possible that
boat, facing straight ahead. The spout is the forward half of another
the hero who confronts the beast was later reinterpreted as Mithra. If
mouflon, whose body juts from the bow. Just one lion, as a mere
that is the case, then what we have here may be a cosmic, spiritual battle
guardian animal, stands guard like a watchdog on the handle at the
between the powers of good and evil. Later, during the Persian era, the
stern.
hero is replaced by a winged demigod.
In the Mesopotamian spiritual world, considerably gloomy,
pessimistic views governed both this world and the world after death.
56
Among conflict motifs on seals from West Asia, battles
Surely the holy liquid poured from this vessel was filled
with the power to dispel the most powerful of demons.
015 Boat-shaped Vessel with Sacred Trees Pre-Achaemenid period, 7th – 6th BC Silver, gold H.：25.5cm W.：12.5cm L.：32.8cm
016 Vessel in the Shape of a Hero and a Winged Bull Pre-Achaemenid period, 7th – 6th BC Silver, gold H.：27.5cm W.：22.2cm
57
A Sacred Vessel Evoking Cosmic Order
An Uncommon Bull
A lion’s head made of electrum is attached to the tip of this horn-
In the vessel 017 a lion is biting into the back of this gigantic bull.
shaped, curved silver vessel 019. Vessels with lions’ heads attached to
At the top of the bull’s head is a rectangular opening. Holes have also
their bases flourished in Anatolia, part of West Asia, starting in the
been opened in the nostrils. The lion may have been sized relatively
first millennium BCE. The lineage of these vessels continues with the
small to fit the oval base, but it remains surprising that the rather large
straight animal-shaped rhyton that developed during the Achaemenid
bull is showing no distress over the lion’s biting him. Instead, it reacts
Persia, but the rhyton can be clearly distinguished from the older
with undisturbed fortitude. The tips of the bull’s imposing horns are
curved, horn-shaped vessels.
capped with gold cap, indicating that it is a most uncommon bull. In
What makes this vessel special is the attachment of a lion’s
the Avesta, a bull with golden horns appears as a divine avatar. The lion
head to a curved body shaped like a bull’s horn. Horn-shaped cups
of the afterlife and the bull with the golden horns pull the chariot of
had been widespread from ancient times, but examples made of metal
the moon, creating a mental image linked to the moon.
were a relatively late development. The oldest known examples of
curved, metal, horn-shaped cups have been found around the Black Sea
decorated with a lion’s head. It, too, appears to symbolize Mithra and
coast; they are dated seventh to eighth century BCE and are believed
Apam Napat, fire and water, and the cosmic order controlled by their
to combine both West Asian and Scythian elements. According to
interactions. It seems likely that in ritual the sacred liquid was poured
Scythian mythology, a cup that descended from heaven is a divine gift
into the vessel through the opening in the bull’s head and sprinkled
that a chieftain should possess. An important element in such cups’
through its nostrils. Its composition closely resembles that found in
design was the theme that the man would present it before the goddess
the design depicting a battle between a lion and a bull carved into the
or drink from it. That theme expressed the horned cup’s sacred
Persepolis Apadana Staircase, where we also see such similar details
character. Because this vessel is extremely difficult to use, it is almost
as the bull extending one of its forelimbs, the string of beads around
certainly one with a strong ritual character.
its neck, the fold in the upper eyelids, and two small hemispheres
The combination of the lion and bull is an ancient
protruding from the lion’s forehead. It is also worth considering the
motif in West Asian tradition. Since the fourth millennium BCE, it
interpretation of this carving as symbolizing the primitive spiritual
developed from symbols of the movement of astronomical bodies and
world of ancient Iran.
the changing seasons into designs incorporating animal combat. In the
Bringing Light to Dispel Demons
third millennium BCE, the combat design evolved into a symbol of the
This vessel is shaped like a rooster. Its spout is the rooster's beak.
absolute authority of the powerful persons ruling nation-states. In the
Lifting the comb on its head reveals a square opening. The rooster
Indo-Iranian sacred world, the lion and bull design came to symbolize
had long been regarded as a sacred animal whose crowing heralds the
the cosmic order visible in the sun and moon, fire and water, day and
arrival of dawn. In ancient Iran, its crow announced the arrival of light
night. The principles that governed this cosmic order were embodied
to dispel the demon-filled darkness and awaken the soul, transforming
in the deities Mithra and Apam Napat, and individuals swore oaths (i.e.,
evil thoughts and deeds into good ones. In the Zoroastrian religion,
entered into a type of contract) to maintain that order. Their priests
the rooster was the bird associated with Sraosha, who was one of the
compiled many such oaths and sacred maxims in the Rig Veda and
three deities who guided souls across the bridge of judgment and led
Avesta. Sometimes they are described as accompanied with sacrifices,
them to heaven. It seems likely that a liquid poured from this vessel was
under the heading “to consecrate sacrifices.” The original meaning of
believed to be filled with powerful, demon-exorcising energy.
this behavior was to “render sacred.” The cosmic order symbolized by the union of the lion and bull in this vessel suggests that it was used in rituals and that the liquid it contained was sacred.
58
This vessel is connected with 019, the horn-shaped cup
017 Vessel in the Form of a Lion and Bull Pre-Achaemenid period, 7th – 6th century BC Silver, gold; H.:14.7 cm W.: 24.5 cm Dep.: 9.5 cm
018 Vessel in the Form of a Rooster
019 Cup with a Lion Head
Pre-Achaemenid period, 7th – 6th century BC Silver, gold H.：23.5cm W.：9cm Dep.：27.2cm
Pre-Achaemenid period, 7th – 6th century BC Silver, gold H.：29.7cm W.：27.0cm Diam.：14.5cm
59
beautiful proportions, large, magnificent bodies, and speed were famous, making them sought after by Greeks and Scythians. Moreover, during the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wudi also desired these horses. It is well known that acquiring a route to west Central Asia in search of these horses was the stimulus that started the Silk Road trade across a broad expanse of Eastern and Western Eurasia.
In Persia, white Nisean horses held a special
position as the horses of only Mithra or the king. The two horses in this relief from the royal palace are pulling the king’s chariot. The fragment to the left of this one, which shows the chariot and the charioteer holding the reins, is now in the collection of the British Museum. Both were taken from a spot near the west staircase of the immense Apadana or audience room in Persepolis. They were excavated at the same time by the Sir Gore Ouseley expedition. The mane trimmed short above the bridle and the topknot on the forehead are features seen on other horses bound at sites from this period, but the boar’s-tusk-shaped metal harness element on the bridle is unique to these horses.
Persepolis, whose construction was begun in the
sixth century BCE by Darius is, in one respect, different from 020 Relief with Two Horses Achaemenid period, 6th - 5th century BC Limestone H.：37.7cm Dep.：9cm W.：38.1cm
Horses Connecting East and West
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Persia’s other capitals, Ecbatana and Susa. Strangely enough, until it fell to the Macedonian Alexander the Great, there is no mention of it in the Greek classics or historical records. It is also a great puzzle why Alexander left the other capitals intact
This relief once adorned a palace staircase in Persepolis, one of
but had Persepolis burned and razed after living there only
Achaemenid Persia’s capital cities. The noses of these two horses racing
three months. This relief was then buried under the debris,
toward the right are gently curved, a distinctive feature of Nisean
where it would remain concealed and avoid weathering for
horses, which are frequently described as having sheeplike heads. These
more than two thousand years.
horses originated in the Nisean Plains, the homeland of the Medes,
near the Median capital Ecbatana, which was located near present
the Persepolis terrace reads, “[The nations] are united under
day Hamadan. Records of eighth century BCE Assyrian expeditions
the protection of Ahura Mazda.” Until then, the Persians had
reporting the spoils of war include the number of horses only if they
no tradition of building large cities of stone. According to
were Median horses. During the reign of the third Persian king, Darius
an inscription on the stone foundation of the palace at Susa,
I, this breed’s range expanded; they were raised from the coast of the
“The stonework was done by Ionians and Lydians.” Given that
Black Sea in southeastern Armenia to Sogdiana in western Central
history, it is likely that this relief with horses was, along with
Asia. In an inscription on the south terrace wall in Persepolis, the king
other carvings found in Persepolis, carved by stonemasons
tells us that “Persia is blessed with many excellent horses.”These horses’
from Anatolia, including Ionian Greeks.
An inscription by Darius on the south wall of
How Persian Beakers Wound Up in Egyptian and Greek Hands The forepart of a lion-griffin is attached to the bottom of a hornshaped cup covered with horizontal ridges. A small cylindrical spout juts out between the monster’s shortened front legs. Called a Persian rhyton, this type of vessel combines Median animal-form ornamentation with a spout. In Ancient Greek, rhyton means a beaker, a vessel used to pour liquids. The word is thought to be derived from rheo, which means to flow or pour. The description “Persian rhyton” was applied to wine vessels among the Greek spoils from the second Persian war (from 480 BCE on). Functional, animalshaped, and animal head-shaped beakers had flourished around the Eastern Mediterranean since the second millennium BCE. But this combination of a curved, horn-shaped beaker with an animal form was new. Starting in the second millennium BCE, the “Persian rhyton” combining a horn-shaped beaker with Median-style animal ornamentation and an animal-shaped spout from which liquid was poured, which had originated in northwest Iran, spread through Asia Minor. The sacred powers embodied in bull horns and animal forms
021 Rhyton with a Lion-Griffin Protome Achmaemenid period, 4th century BC Silver with vitreous paste (frit) inlays H.：17.5cm Diam.：10cm W.：5.2cm
were united in a single vessel from which the holiest of holy liquids were poured. In this vessel, the animal that functions as the spout is a
We can see how this type of rhyton was used in a frieze carved for
lion-griffon with the horns and ears of an Asiatic wild sheep. From
the fourth century BCE grave of the Persian satrap Albinus [?] in the
the back of the head to the breast it is covered with feathers. It has
city of Xanthos in Asia Minor. In this frieze, the person buried in the
no wings but the “pear and apple” form of the shoulders appears to
tomb is shown reclining on a couch with his upper body raised. In his
express the muscularity typical of the Achmaemenid Empire (550
right hand, he holds a winged-griffon rhyton, in his left hand, a wine
– 330 BCE). In Egypt, a scene of something that seems to depict
cup. He is pouring wine from the rhyton into the cup. The frieze is
the manufacture of this type of rhyton was carved in the fourth
presenting him, after death, participating in a banquet in paradise. In
century BCE on the north wall of the pronaos (portico) of the grave
Greece in the same period we see similar scenes of a banquet in the
of Petosiris, the high priest of Toth. Petosiris lived during the 31st
afterworld paradise in which the human is transformed into the god
Kingdom, when Egypt was for a second time under Persian rule
Dionysius drinking the nectar of the gods in Elysium. It is believed
and the carving was produced by Egyptian and Greek metalworkers
that this rhyton, a beaker from which a liquid is poured into a cup, was
and woodworkers. In that carving, we see Egyptian and Greek
part of a set of seven pieces, including one large cup inside of which
metalworking and woodworking craftsmen; a Greek craftsman is
is carved the inscription, “From the workshop of Artaxerses.” If that
engraving the details of the rhyton and an Egyptian craftsman is
was Artaxerxes III (343-338 BCE) from the 31st kingdom, the timing
polishing it. It also includes a scene in which such deluxe metal goods
coincides with that of the frieze at the grave of Petosiris. In that frieze,
are being placed in a chest to be buried with the deceased. We thus
we can see being manufactured not only the rhyton but also other cups
assume that those objects were made on his behalf.
and phiale.
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The Brilliance of the Oriental World
62
Achaemenid Persian treasures crystallize designs that span a long
Figures of this design appear most often as representations of Ahura
history of craft and spiritual development. What is most likely to catch
Mazda, the supreme deity of the Zoroastrian religion, even though
our eye are exquisitely detailed cast, sculpted forms in which inlays
there is no mention of such a figure in the Avesta. The proposition that
are clearly separated and delicate inlays separated by thin gold bands.
the birds represent khvarenah, the winged symbol of Zoroastrianism,
The inlays include lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate, turquoise, glass, mosaic
is plausible. The khvarenah represents the good fortune or glory that
glass, and other materials arranged so that their colors reverberate
the god grants to a righteous person. The sun’s radiance also carries
against each other. These works are believed to draw on historic trends,
the implications of a type of guardian deity. In the usual khvarenah
including the sturdy, stiff inlay techniques that developed in eighth
imagery, the god’s upper body emerges from a circle in the center of
century BCE Assyria and the finely detailed inlay techniques that
the wings, but on circular seals and other small images, the circle is
developed in Egypt from the nineteenth century BCE on.
often abbreviated and a shape that is half man and half bird is seen,
Persian Treasures in Greek Hands
as in this pendant. The circular image of a man in the moon is often
The torque 023 displays several distinctive features. The collar or
combined with this icon. There it signifies that moonlight also spreads
rear part of the torque features a series of men in the moon motifs.
the radiance of khvarenah. Here we see that symbol applied in the
The pectoral portion, worn on the chest, includes a band of linked
colored part of the torque and around the periphery of the pendant.
images of men on horseback inside rectangular frames, double lotus
In Egypt, the water birds on both sides of the bird-shaped khvarenah
petals, lozenges inside arcs. The rectangular pendant is connected to
were traditional symbols of overcoming evil and of fertility and rebirth.
the torque by a hinge and shows a man riding a horse, surrounded by
circles in which we see more men in the moon. Even smaller pendants
and infantry pursuing Scythian cavalry and infantry. On both sides, the
hang from the eight circles along the lower edge of the rectangle. A
horses’ heads are depicted in detail using mosaic glass inlays, but the
West Asian crenellated pattern are combined with the double lotus
heads of the horses, Nisean on the Persian side, Arab on the Scythian
petals. The men in the moon are shown as detailed, stippled engraved,
side, have different shapes. Such scenes of battle are often the work of
silhouettes, in a manner consistent with Assyrian treasures. At the ends
Greek engravers who lived in Asia Minor while it was controlled by
of the collar portion of the torque are the heads of two domestic
the Persians in the fourth and fifth century BCE. The way in which the
ducks, holding the ends of the pectoral portions in their beaks. These
Scythian riders raise their arms and the overlapping of the foreleg of
forms are extremely rare, but a similar example can be seen engraved
the pursuing horse with the hind leg of the horse being pursued are a
on a bust (now in the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Florence,
fixed pattern. This pursuit scene is repeated in the innermost band of
Italy) of a high official from 27th Dynasty Egypt (535-404 BCE),
the pectoral part of the torque, with the heads of the Nisean horses
which was under Achaemenid control. In addition, there are few
and Arabian horses differentiated as they are here.
examples of torques with pendants of this type. One example similar
in shape to this torque, however, can be seen on a statue of a treasury
can infer that it embodies strong desires to ward off evil and
official (now in the collection of the Brooklyn Museum) from the
achieve lasting military success. It was probably produced around
31st Dynasty (343-332 BCE), when Egypt came under Achaemenid
the fourth century BCE by craftsmen from Egypt or Asia Minor.
control for a second time. The official wears a torque under which he
Particularly noteworthy is the Greek inscription on the back of
also wears a rectangular Egyptian pendant.
the pendant [MN : A : Δ Ρ： 匚 ], where
The lower section of the pendant shows Persian cavalry
From this torque’s structure of motifs and style, we
匚 is digamma, a
The pendant shown here is divided into upper and lower
variant form of F used as the numeral 6. The inscription as a whole
sections. In the upper section a human figure with double wings and a
reads, “1 mina, 6 drachma.” That would be equivalent to 457.8
tail faces toward the right. To the figure’s left and right are water birds.
grams. The artifact currently weighs 422.5 grams; if missing inlays
022 Pendant in the Form of a Winged Spirit Achaemenid Persia, 4th century BC Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian H.：8cm W.：7.6cm 023 Torque with a Pendant Achaemenid Persia, 4th century BC Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, glass H.：26cm W.：25.7cm
Pendant：Overse（farmost above）；Reverse（above）
63
64
and the eight small pendants that had been suspended from the main
Just below the ears are the two projecting ear-like feathers of the bird
pendant are included, it may well have originally equaled that stated
of prey thought to have originated in the Assyrian griffon and lion
weight. The person who commissioned this torque was probably
demon. In the ancient Orient, at least since the kingdom of Mitanni
Persian, but its weight was apparently carved into it after it found its
in Mesopotamia in the latter half of the second millennium BCE,
way into the collection of a Greek after Alexander the Great’s conquest
there was a long tradition of representing spirits has having double
of Persia. On the back of the pectoral portion of the torque, traces
pairs of wings. Iran inherited this element from the period when the
of cloth can be seen, suggesting that its appeal transcended tribe and
Neo Assyrian Empire flourished. We see in the guardian spirits or
culture, leading to its being an offering in a grave.
khvarenah at the seventh century BCE Median gravesite of Cyaxares
The Most Powerful Pan-Oriental Talisman
and at Pasaragadae, the sixth century BCE capital of the Achaemenid
The pendant on the upper part of the previous page calls to mind a
Dynasty. This pendant is thus a talisman combining these traditional
falcon-shaped pectoral, with the bird holding in its claws two shen,
West Asian and Egyptian images.
Egyptian hieroglyphics that signify “eternal” and “protection.” The
head, however, is the head of an Achaemenid horned lion-griffin,
the bracelets 024, with lapis lazuli on the exterior and turquoise on
there are two pairs of wings, and each shen its claws grip is only a
the interior. The torso is covered with horizontal rows of inlays, their
circle; the straight line that is the other part of the hieroglyphic is
colors changing with each role. As a whole this pendant was, we can
lacking. In an Egyptian blue ceramic plaque, which was unearthed in
imagine, glittering and gorgeous. The upper wings are attached with a
Persepolis, Persia, the falcon faces straight ahead to hold a circular plate
tightly woven pattern of loop-in-loop chains, with a loop made on one
representing the sun on its head, a motif originating in Egypt. In that
tip and a hemispherical rosette button attached to the top of the other.
case, too, what its claws grasp are only circles. That plaque may thus
These chain and button patterns are from the same period. These
present an earlier version of the falcon and shen design seen in this
wings closely resemble those on the winged sun disc in the so-called
pendant. In Egypt, the falcon was the protector of the pharaoh. It is
Lydian Hoard at the Usak Museum in Turkey. This pectoral pendant
likely that in Persia, it also represented a guardian spirit.
also has the same exquisitely detailed inlays and is believed to have been
made by Greeks under the rule of the Achaemenid Dynasty.
In West Asia, nature’s two most typical feared beasts, those
The inlays on the wings are of the same type as those on
whose images were used as talismans to ward off evil, were the lion
Personal Accessories Full of Life
and the raptor or bird of prey. By the fourth millennium BCE, half
The pair of bracelets 024 are decorated with exquisite lapis lazuli,
wild animal, half wild bird chimeras were already part of the Elamite
carnelian, turquoise, and polished glass. Originally, both ends of each
culture located in what is now southwestern Iran. The anzû, a bird
were decorated with winged ibex. Now one of the ibex decorations
with the head of a lion, appeared in Mesopotamian myth. Lions with
and most of the inlays are missing from each bracelet, and the bracelets
the horns of wild sheep attached to their heads appear in Uratu in
themselves have been bent and deformed. Still, however, the fine inlays
northern Mesopotamia in the seventh century BCE. By the time of
of precious stones separated with narrow bands of gold draw our
the Achaemenid Dynasty (700 – 330 BCE), these forms were firmly
attention. Possibly because of limited supplies of materials, it became
established. In these chimeras, half wild animal and half wild bird, the
customary, starting in the New Kingdom in Egypt, to combine lapis
power of rebirth was combined with the power to ward off evil.
lazuli on the outside of the wings with turquoise on the inside. In the
This basic framework had long been established when the
Achaemenid style, the molding makes clearly visible the muscles of
ninth century BCE Assyrian anzû bird and the sixth to fifth century
the body. The arcs that define the buttocks are round, the thighs are
BCE the tile from Susa decorated with a lion-griffin appeared. Wild
teardrop shaped, the belly is round, and the forefeet shaped like pen
sheep’s ears grow out of the head just below the wild sheep’s horns.
tips. The molding is similar to that on the bracelets decorated with
024 Bracelets Decorated with Winged Ibex Achaemenid Persia, 4th century BC Gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian H.：11.2cm W.：11.1cm 幅：9cm 奥行：27.2cm
lion-griffons from the same period now in the collections of the British
itself represented a sacred animal. Wings appear in the second
Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum. The feet on the front legs
millennium BCE in Kassite Babylonia and scattered examples can be
are carnelian. Turquoise remains on the arcs that define the buttocks.
found on Neo-Assyrian cylindrical seals from the first millennium
Red pigment remains in the center circle on the buttocks; it is likely
BCE. At the beginning of the Achaemenid Empire, mixed Persian and
that a red pigment was inserted under a transparent gem to add that
Greek forms appear on handles of silver vessels, cylindrical seals, and
color. The surface of the bracelets have a linked series of silhouettes of
stamps made of precious stones. Ibexes had long symbolized rebirth
flying winged wild sheep in rectangular frames. Their details have been
and fertility in West Asia. When they began to be made by craftsmen
expressed through point and line engraving. Three types of precious
from the Mediterranean region, the preference for winged figures may
stones were inlayed into this background, causing each shape to float
have increased. As the ancient orient became a single, unified world,
to the surface.
these beautiful ornaments came to signify not only rebirth but also the
exorcism of evil.
Ibexes had long been associated with the image of the sun
rising over the eastern mountains around the spring equinox. The form
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Greece The Eastern Shift of Images of Paradise
Rich in mineral resources, the eastern region of the Mediterranean Sea had been engaged in trade from very early times and by the time of the Early Minoan civilization of the third millennium BC colonies had been established on the Balkan peninsula and islands in the periphery in search of more such resources. This was a time when Crete, which lay roughly in the center of the eastern Mediterranean region, achieved great economic growth linked to its metalworking technology; its trade network eventually extended to Cyprus, Egypt, and as far west as Libya. By the latter half of the second millennium BC contacts had been established among almost all the important regions of the eastern Mediterranean and West Asia, and the intellectual and social interchange of what was essentially an “international age,� just as that of commercial activities, tied together the Mediterranean region with the Hittite, Egyptian, and Mesopotamian empires. In the Syrian region, it was the Ugarit kingdom that flourished as mainly a commercial center. The mythology of the Ugarits features deities endowed with both human virtues and faults and the idea of immortality;
it had many elements linked to the world of the Greek myths that later emerged in this region. It was as the Ionians of the western part of the Anatolian peninsula and the islands off its shores that the Greeks were first recognized by the Persians from the east. The Anatolian Greeks in Persian territory were allowed a certain degree of self-government but on the Greek mainland, Athens supported rebellion among the Ionians as a check against Persia. This triggered a Persian drive at the beginning of the fifth century BC to conquer Greece that plunged it into a 40-plus-year conflict known as the Persian Wars. Peace was finally established when the Greek city-states emerged victorious around the middle of the century, but after that the struggles for hegemony among the city-states plunged the peninsula into the Peloponnesian War, resulting in extreme chaos and weakening of Greek power. The next big upheaval took place in fourth century BC Macedonia, a state founded around the seventh century BC in the northeastern part of the Balkan peninsula. The Macedonians were a people who spoke a dialect
of Greek and some of them migrated southward to the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor and became the Dorian-speaking Greeks. From the viewpoint of Greeks, Macedonia had bee considered a barbarian kingdom, but eventually it ended up bringing together all of Greece against the forces of Persia and forming the League of Corinth uniting the Greek city-states. After Alexander III (the Great) of Macedonia defeated the Persian army in the north of Asia Minor, he pressed onward toward the Persian homeland, and the king (Darius) fled. In due course, Alexander entered Babylon, and it is said that from that time he was aiming to become king of all Asia. After Alexander died, his generals struggled for hegemony of his dominions for several dozen years until they were ultimately divided into three parts. Seleucus I ruled West Asia, settling numerous Greeks from Asia Minor in the central Asia in order to hold back the nomads invading from the northern borders. From the archaeological site at Ai-Khanoum in the northeastern part of Afghanistan, we can find traces indicating that in what must have seemed to be the end of the world these Greeks
worked hard to pass down their culture and traditions to their successors. At the Temple of Oxus on the TakhtiSangin site in southwestern Tajikistan we can observe the merging of the cultures of the local traditional culture and the Greek settlers. These sites are located in the Oxus Valley, where irrigation farming flourished and mineral resources were in abundant supply. In the third century BC, a Greco-Bactrian kingdom ruled by a Greek king became independent and extended its territories as far as northwest India. T he images of paradise after death and predisposition to giving physical form to the sacred from Greek tradition took hold in Central Asia during those centuries. They later became a driving force shaping the spiritual culture and formative arts that spread eastward in Eurasia in the era of nomadic tribes.
025・026 Male and Female Figurines Eastern Mediterranean, mid 2nd millennium BC Bronze H.：19cm (L) 13.5cm(R)
Always in the Presence of the Gods
68
Small bronze statues like this were offerings presented at temples in
These figurines stood for high-ranking worshippers in charge of
caverns or on mountain peaks in the middle and late Minoan period
rituals, standing in temples before their gods and forever engaged in
in the second millennium BCE. The sash that encircles the waist of the
prayer. In the Minoan culture, worshippers sought visions of the gods.
female figure makes it look like she is wearing modern Western dress,
It is believed that drugs made from poppy seeds were used to induce
but the male figure’s clothing is similar to the garb depicted in murals
these visions. The use of these drugs declined along with Minoan
from this period. Both are looking upward with their right hands
civilization, but the tradition was carried on through the use of wine
shading their eyes. This gesture, in which the worshipper looks up to a
by Greek believers in Dionysus who saw drunkenness as sacred ecstasy
shining god, is also found on seals from this period.
and thus sought to become as drunk as possible.
Guardian of Gold Peoples living in the Eastern Mediterranean region had the custom of offering large cauldrons to temples. According to Herodotus, the people of Samos, an island off the western tip of Anatolia, discovered a new terriroty in which it opened what became immensely profitable trade. They then applied tithe of their profits to make a 7-cubit (3.7 meter) bronze cauldron that sat on a pedestal dedicated to a temple of Hera. The rim was decorated with protruding griffin protomes. (A protome is an ornament in the shape of a full frontal human or animal head or bust.)
This bronze griffin head is believed to have once been a
protome decorating the rim of such a bronze cauldron. The design of this griffin is comparatively clean and simple. Believed to be from the seventh century BCE, it is of the Samian type that typically lacks decorative elements except for the bird’s body. It is thought that each of these griffins were unique, not only in overall form but in their detail, with alterations made to the molds at each casting. While the semicircular plumage or scales covering the body, made with a punch, are a feature shared with many other examples, the scales on each are not exactly the same. The eye sockets were once inlaid with another material, not bronze. The fringe at the base of the neck is believed to have been used to attach it to the exterior of a cauldron’s rim.
In Greece, the griffin was said to protect gold. Herodotus
reports the legend of incomparable amounts of gold found in Northern Europe, where the one-eyed Arimaspoi lived beyond the land of the Scythian Issedones and still further north lived flocks of
027 Griffin Protome Eastern Mediterranean region, 7th century BC Bronze H.：21.7cm
griffins that protected gold. The griffin who guards gold, treasure, seems similar to the guardian deity mounted on a copper pole who protected the copper industry in Cyprus.
These three-legged cauldrons were originally used for mixing wine
Cauldrons as ritual vessels originated in West Asia and were
or to make offerings of wine to the gods. At the famous Temple
likely transmitted from Urartu, in what is now northwest Iran, which is
of Delphi, there was a divine throne from which the god provided
known to have traded with Greece and Etruria (present-day northern
oracular messages; in historic times, it was a female medium who
Italy) during the first millennium BCE. West Asian cauldrons were
occupied that throne. It is said that the first deity to come to the
decorated with the heads of bulls, who were regarded as messengers of
medium was Dionysus, the god of wine. According to Herodotus,
the weather god. Using griffins, protectors of wealth, instead of bulls
Dionysus was introduced to the Grecian mainland by the Phoenician
reflected Greek sensibilities, in particular those of the mineral-seeking
Cadmus. Dionysus’s festivals featured an atmosphere of ecstasy and
colonists who built these ancient temples.
madness but their roots included elements of Minoan-period religion.
69
028 Fulcrum attachment in the Shape of a Horse Eastern Mediterranean 2nd - 1st century BC Bronze H.：20cm Dep.：16cm W.：8.2cm
Drunken Horse This protome of a horse decorated an ancient Greek’s couch.
Dionysus, the god of wine, would be draped with leopard skin. Since
Drinking and eating while reclining on couches was, as depicted
here the leopard skin is draped over the horse, we realize that this horse
in Assyrian friezes, a privilege of royalty. In Greece, aristocrats also
Is associated with Dionysus.
adopted this custom. Participants in the banquets called symposia
wore crowns of flowers and began their festivities with offerings
in temple carvings starting around the fifth century BCE. The usual
of wine and prayers. Then, reclining on their couches, they would
theme was “the banquet of the heroes.” In these banquet scenes,
debate philosophy and enjoy music. Usually they would recline
we often see snakes and trees, which are temple symbols, together
on cushions and, if right-handed, would lift themselves with their
with horses and shields implying that the participants are heroes.
left arms, while raising their cups in their right hands. In front
There are also examples in which Dionysus, the god of wine, invites
of the elevated part of the couch was an S-shaped ornament
the heroes to the Elysium. This decorative horse is believed to be
on which to rest the legs. The top of this part of the couch was
the horse of a hero and connected with the god of wine. It has
often decorated with a horse’s or donkey’s head. Here the mane is
also been suggested that beloved war horses were invited to join
disordered, the eyes hollow, the ears pointed in different directions:
these banquets in paradise, along with the heroes who rode them.
what we see here is a drunken horse. Frequently worshippers of
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Greek banquet scenes with couches flourished as themes
These are young deer filled with growing vital energy. The way the smooth body flows seamlessly into the upper part of this horn-shaped cup testifies to rare sculptural sensibility and superb craftsmanship.
A mosaic unearthed in Pella, the capital of
Macedonia, depict two men hunting roe deer with thick antlers like those shown here. In the mosaic, the deer’s eyes are turned to the left, but its expression resembles that of our bronze deer. The way in which the front feet of the deer on this rhyton are extended is consistent with the iconic treatment of deer who are hunted or offered as sacrifices. It follows that these deer are also icons for the goddess Artemis the Huntress or Dionysus, the god of wine. This rhyton may also have been related to belief in these gods. In the scene in the mosaic from Pella, the immense size to which the buck deer’s antlers have grown signals the arrival of spring. It also evokes the master of wild beasts, the embodiment of the life force, who is part of the deep fabric of Greek culture. The double axe waved by the man also hint at offerings to Dionysus, the god of death and rebirth.
The antlers on the deer on this rhyton spring from
a single spot on the top of its head, then divide at a point nearly on a level with the tips of the ears. Since the range of the roe 029 Rhyton with a Stag Western shore of Black Sea, 4th – 2nd century Brnze H.：37cm Diam.：12cm W.：25.5cm
deer covered all of Eurasia, the artist was doubtless familiar with them; this representation of the antlers is not a result of misunderstanding. The antlers are better understood as shaped
No Ordinary Deer
in a way that conveys an important symbolic meaning. Their structure evokes vegetation, itself a symbol of the vital energy
Wine poured in through the top of this cup is poured out through the
that returns each year in the spring. Here the deer’s antlers are
spout inserted in the chest of the stag whose forefront forms its base. The
merged in a single mental image with the tree of life. The hunting
thicker antlers and their complex branching tell us that this is a roe deer.
scene in the Pella mosaic is surrounded by a border of acanthus.
It is believed that the pupils of the eyes were inlayed with stone or glass.
Here, too, we see life spreading luxuriantly from a single stem.
Both eyes are turned toward the right. Around the trumpet-shaped rim
The origins of this pattern can be traced to the ancient Orient’s
of the rhyton we see a darts-and-egg pattern with holes. Here it seems is
palmetto pattern. Also worthy of note is the way in which the
where artificial vines or other decorations were attached. Similar patterns
interior of the mouth of this rhyton is coated with plaster to
showing the ivy used to make intoxicating wine appear around the rims
which a red coloring has been applied. That treatment suggests
of Greek pottery vessels. There are also metal rhytons from West Asia
that this rhyton was not designed as a drinking vessel but may
during the Thracian and Hellenistic periods on which the leaves or fruit
instead have been an offering to be buried with the dead, whose
of ivy are used as decorations carved around the rim. In the body of this
image suggested that it was full of wine. It expressed the hope
deer, in contrast to the Achaemenid style, the muscles are invisible. In this
that the vital energy of the sacred tree would ward off evil and
respect, this deer shares the typical features of small bronze statues of deer
the dead would enjoy an afterlife banqueting in Elysium.
produced as votive offerings during the fifth to fourth centuries BCE.
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attention, without stylization or emulation, would have been directed at anyone but an individual possessing great authority and wealth. The detailed and superb modeling provides a figure barely twenty centimeters tall with the impact of a lifesize image. The head, however, is rather small—a little over oneseventh of the overall height. Conversely, the four extremities are huge, with hands large enough to cover the whole face. This figure, as described by Pliny, has the “extreme delicacy of execution even in the smallest details” that can be found in the works of Lysippus, sculptor to Alexander the Great.
The superiority of Greek art is the result of an
outstanding realism and authenticity that had developed by 500 BCE. Just as traders and mercenary soldiers did, Greek craftsmen had traveled back and forth between the Mediterranean and the Orient since ancient times, competing on points of universal visual expression rather than adhering to fixed patterns based on any particular philosophy. These developments were 030 Hercules Greek 4th – 3rd century BC Bronze H.：20cm
certainly promoted in the period of the Achaemenid Empire. Representations that simply copied their subjects were criticized for being mere imitations (of the surface) that did not represent
A Young Man Brimming with Abition
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the true nature of their subjects. What the artist creates through his perceptions of the subject and expressions, unbound by
This small statue shows Hercules with a lion-head skin draped from his
existing conventions, contains truths that go beyond a simple
head and the forepaws of the lion tied across his chest. The end of the
copy of the surface. This statuette, for example, is not the bearded
lion skin covers his left arm, and his right hand holds a club. This pose
man in his prime depicted in many Greek sculptures but the
is the classical representation of Hercules as he appears in Greek myths.
young Hercules brimming with ambition. The statue also bears
The realistic workmanship that has rendered the soft texture of the
a close resemblance to the image of the young king Alexander.
lion's fur, the balanced musculature without excess, the copper inlays
that form the nipples, the inlaid glass eyes, and the subtle detail of the
Achaemenid Empire in less than six years and was crowned king
hair and finger tips, however, gives this small statue its unique quality.
of Persia, were more than sufficient for that king to be treated as
The royal family of Macedonia claimed descent from the heroic
an heroic figure and even deified. He caused the cultures of East
Hercules and its coins were stamped with his profile, representing the
and West to collide and merge at great speed and on a large scale,
king. Here, where the forepaws of the lion skin are knotted across
breathing life into new forms of creation in Asia. Above all, with the
the chest of the statue, there is evidence of astounding attention to
introduction of the image of paradise after death (Elysium) and the
detail and demonstrated powers of observation in the way the right
representation of idols, the artistic field expanded to expressions of
paw is reversed when knotted. It is difficult to imagine that such
the sublime realms.
The achievements of Alexander, who laid waste to the
031 Kotyle with Mythical Figures Bactria 4th - 2nd century BC Silver gilt H.：13.2cm Diam.：15.5cm
A Cup for Worshiping the Oxus River God This kotyle is one of the works our museum’s collection designated Following Alexander the Great’s conquest of Asia Minor, Iran
“Treasures of Ancient Bactria.” These are associated with the Greco-
and parts of India and Central Asia, many Greeks emigrated to
Bactrian kingdom founded by Greeks in the third century BCE.
southwestern Central Asia, as well as the region along the Indus. Greek
Among these silver vessels, this example is relatively well preserved,
culture was transplanted to those regions, interacting and blending
making it possible for us to see that the inner silver was cast, not
with the local cultures. The Greeks were accommodating and willing
beaten, and inserted to the outer vessel hammered and plated with
to accept foreign gods as manifestations, in other forms, of their own
thick gold foil. That could be interpreted as a process to strictly adhere
deities. This vessel is thought to be from southwestern Central Asia;
to the vessel’s intended capacity, suggesting that this vessel was destined
it seems either to have been a treasure brought from farther west or to
to play an important role in rituals. The design of three bull skulls and
have been made in that location by Greek craftsmen. Like the British
three scallops engraved in the bottom remain a puzzle. In Greece, bull
Museum’s Oxus Treasure, it was probably intended as an offering
skulls were often used to decorate temples, as symbols of offerings to
to a temple. This vessel’s five-millimeter-thick walls converge at the
gods. The images of scallops suggest an association with the sea. On
bottom of the cylindrical body to form a hemisphere. In Greek, this
coins, the Greco-Bactrian king is depicted as Poseidon, the god of the
type of cup is called a kotyle. The capacity of the vessel is some 1,363
sea, victorious over invaders on the Oxus River. The scallops appear to
milliliters or 5 cotyla (1 Greek cotyla= 272.8 milliliters). On the sides
symbolize the river and, in combination with the bulls’ skulls, suggest
of this vessel we notice Dionysus, the god of wine, Artemis, Aphrodite,
that this vessel was used in making offerings to the river god at the
possibly Demeter, and Pan, together with the hero Hercules.
temple of Oxus.
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Prayers from East and West to the Gods of Central Asia The Bactrian Treasures include gold plaques believed to have been
The figure in the plaque 034 is wearing what is known as
offerings to temples. Some are coarse and others more refined, their
“Median” dress, with wide sleeves like those worn by royalty and titled
style revealing the conditions under which the plaques were made.
nobility in the friezes at Persepolis. He carries flowers in both hands.
The names of the donors are not engraved on them, but we know
The plaque 035 is framed by what appears to be a shrine
that some were commissioned by specific wealthy individuals from
surrounded by a design of flower petals. The Greek-style figure is
experienced craftsmen. In the great majority of cases, however, they
wearing the chiton and himation (tunic and mantle) and is crowned
were made in large numbers for ordinary people. Their quality appears
with a floral coronet. He has his right arm pressed to his chest and is
to have depended on the financial standing of those who ordered
making a gesture of worship with his left. He differs from the figures
them. Moreover, the coarser examples may have been made by the
in the plaques to the right in the precise quality of the engraving.
donors themselves or by other amateurs.
On the plaque 036 we see a figure whose himation has been
As can also be seen in the British Museum’s Oxus Treasure, the
undone from his right shoulder. He is grasping a spear in his right
overwhelming majority of the figures engraved on these plaques are
hand. This young Greek soldier is a powerful figure with well-defined
male. In most cases, they are wearing the traditional tunic worn in
muscles.
western Iran. This type of clothing is also frequently seen in reliefs in
The large gold plaque 032 is engraved and impressed with
Persepolis and in Achmaemenid sculpture. Their headgear was made
the figure of a woman and a structure that appears to be a fortress.
of soft felt, and the most frequent form was not the hemispherical
The building has two stories and sits on top of a three-tiered stone
cap but, as seen in the images here, boat-shaped. A hood known as a
foundation. The front wall is divided into five sections, with a door in
kyrbasia or bashlik, its dangling earpieces covered the chin or, if turned
the center, on the first floor. In the upper part of each wall section we
back, revealed the lower part of the face.
see an abbreviated engraving of a bird of prey with its wings spread.
The priest in the plaque 033 is also wearing a kandys overgarment
Except for the center section with the door, the first floor wall sections
with long, narrow sleeves on his shoulders; he has not passed his arms
are all decorated with classic Central Asian arrow -shaped openings.
through the sleeves. In his left hand, he holds the barsom bundle, a
These are all distinctive features of Zoroastrian structures; the building
ritual implement usually carried by priests; he has flowers in his right
was probably a temple. Famous examples of ruins of Greco-Bactrian
hand.
temples include those of Ai-Khanoum in northeast Afghanistan and the Takhti-Sangin ruins in southwest Tajikistan. Both are located near what was, in ancient times, called the Oxus River (now the Panj and Am River). The Ai-Khanoum temples were built on a three-tiered foundation, with the four external walls each divided into five sections. The Takhti-Sangin temples also have a front wall divided into five 032 Offering Plaque with a Temple
033 Offering Plaque with
3rd – 2nd centuries BC Gold H.：8.9cm W.：6.6cm
an Image of a Priest 5th century BC Gold H.：12.8cm W.：6.7cm
034 Offering Plaque with an Image
035 Offering Plaque with an
036 Offering Plaque with an Image
Image of a Man in a Shrine 3rd - 2nd century BC Gold H.：10.9cm W.：5.1cm
of a Man 5th century BC Gold H.：9.3cm W.：4.6cm
sections. In the image on this gold plaque, we are shown the upper bodies of seven women with straight nose bridges, Greek style female forms, on the roof of what appears to be a Central Asian temple. These gold plaques thus give us a sense of how Central Asian Zoroastrian temples attracted worshippers from both the native peoples of Central Asia and Greeks who had settled there.
of a Man 3rd - 2nd century BC Gold H.：7.4cm W.：3.8cm
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A Gandhara Temple at the Museum South Asia Gallery
The first "museum piece" Aside from the Japanese art, the 250-cm-tall standing
section, but Pei believed that it was important to delve
Gandhara Buddha was one of the most important objects
into how the statue would have stood in its original
to be displayed. It was considered the museum’s very first
setting. Reflecting the early Gandhara style, the body,
“museum piece” and one to which Pei devoted special
except for the slightly lowered head, is flat except for the
attention right from the planning stage for the building.
front, which has been shaped into a rounded form. It is in
In the plan, the museum consisted of a North Wing,
effect a relief-like carving, and one can picture the statue
mainly for Japanese art, and a South Wing, for art from
originally standing against a back wall. There being no
other cultural traditions. Therefore, the Buddha would go
extant examples of early Gandhara temple architecture
to the South Wing. It was assumed that Japanese visitors
and no clues remaining as to what such temples were like,
would be unfamiliar with the art objects displayed in the
it seemed necessary to adhere to the basic structure of
South Wing, and the original plan called for an audiovisual
a short nave at the end of which the statue would have
room on the ground level to show videos on world
stood. The final plan consisted of this layout, combined
cultures. This room was directly above the South Asia
with a vaulted laternendecke ceiling in the Gandhara
gallery, which had a planned ceiling height of 2.9 meters,
architectural tradition. Composed of slats disposed at
leaving insufficient head room for properly displaying the
45° angles to each other, this traditional feature was
Buddha. We had also been advised by the Metropolitan
reinterpreted in modern fashion to incorporate a skylight
Museum of Art that a Buddhist statue cannot be exhibited
illuminating the statue from above. In the morning on
simply standing on the floor; a pedestal is required. So we
clear days, natural light creates beams of light shining
resolved to speak to Mr. Pei about that straightforwardly.
on the walls around the statue, and the hour-to-hour
At Mrs. Koyama’s request regarding the ceiling for the
changing light contributes to the room’s overall ambience.
statue, the plan for the audiovisual room was scrapped and
Once the structure of the galleries was determined, the
the ceiling height of the gallery below was raised to four
next question from Mr. Pei was “what color shall we make
meters.
the background?” The curators suggested a quiet red color
Next came the issue of this gallery’s display concept. Plans were to display the Buddha in a room at the rear of the gallery in a pentagonal shape like a shogi piece in cross
78
to harmonize with the gray with a greenish cast of the statue, and this was duly adopted.
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A Temple Symbolically Linking East and West During the time the opening exhibition plan was in progress, the Kobe earthquake hit western Japan. The structure of the still under-construction building was not damaged, but the need to make the displays seismically resilient, especially for the standing Buddha, became an important task; we had to build seismic isolation devices into the pedestals for the works. The use of seismic isolators in display of artworks was not very widespread in Japan at the time, so we traveled with some specialists to the U.S. West Coast to an institute for study of repair and conservation of cultural properties and also visited museums that have introduced seismic isolation equipment. Back then, we had to actually develop various anti-earthquake devices that are now quite widely used, but we were able to adapt them for use with all the major works in the displays.
In his address at the museum’s grand opening
ceremony in 1997, first Miho Museum director Umehara Takeshi said that Gandhara statues were the first “international” works of art and that Gandhara was where East and West encountered each other for the first time. He commented that from now on, human history and culture needed to be viewed from a comprehensive historical perspective and that the museum’s Gandhara Buddha perfectly embodied this concept. What is decidedly different about this hall is that the shape of the gallery itself was designed as a symbolic temple to enshrine this very first of the Miho’s “museum pieces.” And so solemn is that space that many people who visit it, find themselves quite naturally bending their heads in prayer.
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81
South Asia The Rise of Nomadic Power and the Birth of World Religions
The Clashing of Migrating Peoples and the Conquest of Central Asia In the region between Dunhuang and the Qilian mountains (Tian Shan) once lived nomads called the Yuezhi, but as the Xiongnu, a confederation of nomadic peoples of the north, pressed upon them, most Yuezhi left their ancestral territory; they were later called the Da (Great) Yuezhi. In the Yili area, north of Tian Shan, the Yuezhi engaged the Saka people of the area in battle and drove the Saka far to the south. Then the Wusun people, allied with the Xiongnu, exerted pressure on the Da Yuezhi, seeking to drive them from the Yili area. The Da Yuezhi moved beyond [Gobi desert] and the Fergana range and attacked Bactria, placing it under their rule and establishing a royal court north of the Oxus river. It was around that time that the Saka (the Scythians) frequently invaded Parthia and Bactria. The Saka had destroyed Ai-
Khanoum, a Greek city in the northeastern edge of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, but they were pushed out by the southern advance of the Da Yuezhi and moved from Afghanistan to northwestern India. The Da Yuezhi soon overthrew the last Greco-Bactrian puppet king Heliocles.　 The Prosperity of the Kushans and the Birth of World Religion The Da Yuezhi, which had been divided into five major tribes, were unified as the Kushan empire by the first century BC, and the Saka in northwestern India belonged to the empire. The people of Kushan inherited the religious faith and tolerant attitude toward other religions of Bactria and printed the images of Greek, Iranian, Indian and Kushan deities on their coins. It was a great era of internationalization. The trade routes of the Western Regions opened up by Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty and the trade routes opened up by Alexander
the Great converged in Central Asia, bringing into being the Silk Road trade network connecting Rome with China over both land and sea. Kushan traders, acting as agents for China, Rome, and India, dealt in silk, gems, spices, furs and other goods. Their cities were bustling with Scythians, Bactrians, Chinese, and others, and bazaars, street performances, restaurants, and the like were prosperous. Kushan territory was at its largest under the rule of King Kanishka, extending from northern India to Khotan in the Tarim Basin. The Kushanians monopolized the key centers of trade in the Central Asia and thrived while their kings promoted Buddhism and the copying and adaption of Buddhist scriptures. Two major changes occurred during the Kushan period, the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism and the emergence of images of Buddha that had never been imagined or expressed before. Buddhist statues are said to have begun
being produced in the Gandhara region centering on the Kushan capital of Taxila and in the Mathura region, the winter capital of the Kushans, almost at the same time. Ancient India was the birthplace of Brahmanism and Hinduism, religions that centered on worship of the primal life force and the search for a better rebirth, fertility, and fecundity. In Gandhara, meanwhile, the idea of the salvation and rebirth of the soul, originating in the cult of Dionysus from Greece and Rome, had become firmly rooted. People yearned for paradise, “the Other Shore,� seen as the opposite of This World. Buddhism, originating in India, passed through Central Asia, acquiring the character of a more universalistic path for salvation as it spread into East Asia. It flexibly accepted and fused with elements of the indigenous and animist beliefs of the various regions along the way.
037 Silver Reliquary Gandhara end of 1st century BC Silver H.：28.8cm Diam：12cm
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May All Beings Attain Nirvana
The custom of making and worshipping images of Buddhas began in
Of particular interest are two inscriptions engraved upside down
the first or second century of the Common era. Until then the focus
around the rim of the lid. From them we learn that what is now a
of worship had been reliquaries containing relics of Shakyamuni,
lid originally belonged to the Info-Scythian King Kharaostra. It later
housed in stupas. As described in the conversations between the
became the property of the Apraca prince Indravarman. The Apraca
Buddhist sage Nagasena and Milinda, the ruler of an Indo-Greek
had formed an alliance with the Indo-Scythian King Azes, from whom
kingdom recorded in The Questions of King Milinda, Nagasena
it had probably been handed down. The inscription on this lid is
recommended to devout royalty and titled aristocrats for whom leaving
upside down because, as revealed when it is inverted, it was originally
home to become priests was difficult that they use reliquaries when
a wine cup. It is likely that the use of this cup as a reliquary lid was
performing memorial services for those who should be remembered
ordered by Prince Indravarman, as the inscription says. That was when
(the Buddhas) and pray for their rebirth in heaven instead of here
the foot on what became the top of the lid was replaced by the ibex
on earth. Thus, following Shakyamuni’s teachings, they built stupas
knob. Ibex motifs had long been used by Scythians to decorate the lids
and housed reliquaries in them. The image of the heaven alluded to
of vessels used in funerals and also frequently used on the headdresses
here, as expressed in early Gandhara carvings, resembles the paradise
worn by chiefs. Here it is likely to have been an emblem signifying that
imagined by believers in Dionysius, i.e., as resembling Elysium. A
Prince Indravarman was the chief of his tribe.
group of carvings from this period taken from Buddhist ruins in the
It may also be that this “repurposing” of the wine cup was a
Buner District of northwest Pakistan and now in the collection of the
sign of the prince’s commitment to restraint in drinking alcohol and
Peshawar Museum exemplify this Elysian style. In one, the members of
devotion to Buddhism. In the third century BCE, King Ashoka, in
the group holding the memorial service are each holding a Gandhara-
whose veins Greek blood was said to flow, sent Buddhist missionaries
style wine cup and performing a ritual consisting of drinking wine. In
to Greek cities surrounding the distant Mediterranean Sea. That effort
the other group, the wine cups have been replaced by flowers.
to propagate Buddhism was unsuccessful, but during the Scythian,
This reliquary, made during the same period, takes
Yuehchi, and Kushan eras, Buddhism grew into a world religion,
the form of a wine cup with a lid whose knob is an ibex depicted
spreading from Central Asia to East Asia. That growth may have
in a Scythian style. Near the rim where the lid meets the cup is an
occurred because many were attracted to the idea of accumulating
inscription that includes the following words: “Prince Indravarman,
merit without becoming priests and achieving salvation in a form in
son of Commander Vishpavarman, together with his wife installs these
which heaven and Nirvana were synthesized.
relics in his own stupa.” It ends with the statement that his family and tribe will all venerate these relics and ends with the prayer, “May all beings be enabled to attain Nirvana.”
Inscription around the rim of lower vessel
85
The Shape of a Human Who Transcended Humanity
86
This image of the Buddha, standing 2.5 meters tall, is one of the
aura of light . only fragments remain behind right shoulder; (6) seven
largest Gandhara-style statues of the Buddha extant. It rivals, in size, the
rounded body parts .soles, palms, shoulders, and crown of head well-
standing Buddha excavated at Sahr-i-Bahlol and now in the collection
rounded; (7) body erect and upright . stands big, straight and tall; (8)
of the Peshawar Museum, which, including the halo, stands 2.64
full shoulders . well-developed broad shoulders; (9) topknot.ushnisha,
meters tall. In contrast, however, to the Peshawar Museum Buddha’s
the fleshy protuberance on top of the head; (10) a white whorl hair
strongly Hellenistic form, this Buddha is more geometric in style.
between the eyebrows . the urna.
The hair does not spring up luxuriantly from the hairline but appears
In this statue, the right forearm, which projected from the body
to have been applied from above, and the curls are more stylized. In
at a 90° angle, has been lost. It is believed that the fingers were raised
contrast to the Peshawar Museum Buddha’s topknot, which is more
in the mudra of protection. This mudra is the oldest used in Buddhist
natural and consistent with the style of Parthian and Kushan royalty,
sculpture and is frequently seen as a gesture of worship in Hellenistic
here we see a strongly hemispherical mass, representing the ushnisha,
sculpture. During the Parthian Era, sculptures of the royal family often
the fleshy protuberance on top of the head that is one of the Buddha’s
displayed this gesture, which was called “Brothers of the Sun and
characteristics. The placement of the urna between the eyebrows,
Moon.”The left hand’s grasping the edge of the robe is another feature
represented as a whorl of white hair, is consistent with the standard
frequently found in Parthian sculpture inherited from Hellenistic
Gandhara style described by Yamamoto Chikyo, with its location
sculpture. It is not at all strange that this Parthian pattern took root
above the line that would connect the upper parts of the eyebrows.
in Gandhara during the Indo-Parthian period (first century). In the
The mustache is minimal. The drapery has also been simplified and
Guimet Museum’s collection of Gandhara sculpture, we see this
the fingers and toes are straight, with no narrower areas. In sum, while
gesture in statues of the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, and
this statue continues the tradition of Hellenistic sculpture, here we can
Maitreya, the future Buddha. Its collection also includes a standing
discern an attempt to express something that transcends representation
statue of a Kushan devotee holding a palm leaf in the Parthian style.
of the human figure. The marked way in which the upper and lower
It is believed that Greek craftsmen developed this style of
eyelids jut out could not occur in Hellenistic sculpture, and the gaze
sculpture following the establishment of Indo-Greek kingdoms in
and overall atmosphere convey an indescribable mystery.
what are now Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Western origins of the
In this statue, some of the thirty-two physical signs of the Buddha
skills and powers of expression displayed in statues of the Buddha have
later described in The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom
often been remarked upon. On the other hand, the demand for the
are already visible. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom is
expression of a savior that transcends the mortal world was stronger
itself a distillation of material compiled over several centuries and is
in the East. The Miho Museum’s standing Buddha is erect and tall,
the source of practices in the representation of the Buddha that are
but his head is not held straight up. The Buddha appears to be, ever
based on tradition. Details include the following: (1) level feet .the
so subtly, tilting his head downward, as if showing his compassionate
soles of the feet are flat; (2) toes and fingers finely webbed.here we see
heart to his followers. The same compassion is expressed through
a membrane connecting the thumb and forefinger of the left hand;
display of the protection mudra, which removes all fear, and the gentle
(3) arched insteps . the insteps are high and thick; (4) hands reaching
smile. All of these elements contribute to an overall atmosphere of
below the knees . the fingertips reach the knees when standing erect; (5)
compassionate acceptance.
038 Standing Buddha Gandhara Latter half of 2nd century Schist H.：250cm
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Tales that Absorbed the Deities of Other Faiths
The principal figure in this group of images is not Shakyamuni, the
assurance are combined. To the right of the main image we see two
historical Buddha, but Dipankara, the Lamp Bearer, a Buddha who
figures. One is the girl Pakriti, who holds her lotus blossoms, the other
had attained enlightenment eons ago, before Shakyamuni achieved
is Sumedha, with his ewer in his left hand and his purse in his right
enlightenment. While Dipankara is mentioned in the Jataka Tales,
hand. To the left of the main image’s head, we again see Sumedha,
stories of Shakyamuni’s earlier lives, no image of him exists in India.
who has received assurance of his becoming a Buddha, floating in
There are, however, many images of Dipankara among statues in
the air and bowing toward Dipankara. Opposite Sumedha is Indra,
Gandhara. One hypothesis is that the Dipankara legend was born in
who carries the vajra, a symbol combining properties of the diamond
Gandhara; when, in the era of Ashoka, Buddhism was transmitted to
(indestructibility) and the thunderbolt (irresistible force), who will
the West and mingled with Mithraism, which was widespread. That is,
protect Sumedha on his quest for enlightenment. These small images
the tale may have been that Mithra, the god of light, recognized that
are included as context for the main theme, the assurance of becoming
Shakyamuni will achieve enlightenment.
a Buddha. Facing the main image and slightly offset to the right is what
Summaries of collections of Buddhist sutras compiled
is clearly the future Shakyamuni, the weight of whose image reflects its
between the second century BCE and the fourth century CE
importance rather than the overall balance of the composition. We also
describe Shakyamuni’s encounter with Dipankara in the following
see Sumedha, bowing and spreading his (deer hide) robe, an incident
terms. In a previous life, Shakyamuni was a Brahman monk named
not found in the original text but found in later sutras and other
Sumedha in the time of the Buddha Dipankara. Sumedha was on his
Buddhist materials. Since, however, the robe is insufficient to cover the
way to the royal city Dipavati to visit his father King Archimat when
mud, Sumedha unbound and spread his hair. Gandharan carvings of
he encountered Dipankara. Both the king and Sumedha wished to
Dipankara’s assurance include some with the robe and some without.
offer Dipankara a warm welcome, but Sumedha had only an ewer and
The image unearthed in Shotorak and now in the collection of the
an umbrella. Then, however, he met a Brahman girl named Prakriti
Kabul Museum shows Dipankara stepping only on Sumedha’s hair,
who was carrying seven lotus flowers. He purchased five of the lotuses
while the robe is for Sumedha himself. This was, perhaps, a gesture of
and scattered them before Dipankara. When he did so, the flowers
respect by the engravers to the future Shakyamuni; it is not described
were suspended in midair by Dipankara’s aureole. hen, when Dipankara
in later sutras or other materials.
was about to step into a muddy spot in the road, Sumedha loosened
In ancient India, there were many other tales about Shakyamuni’s
his hair and spread it over the mud for the Buddha and his disciples to
earlier lives in addition to the one in which he receives Dipankara’s
walk on. In that instant, he knew in his heart that in the future he would
assurance. In Buddhist images, scenes are frequently taken from the
become a Buddha himself. Delighted by Sumedha’s devotion,
Jataka, a compilation of tales about Shakyamuni’s previous incarnations.
Dipankara lightened the burden of the immeasurable kalpas through
In Gandharan images, however, there are few allusions to the Jataka but
which Sumedha would have to suffer as a human being before
many presentations of Buddhist tradition and scenes in which
achieving enlightenment and prophesied that the future Shakyamuni
Shakyamuni appears. In Gandhara, interest had shifted from
Buddha would be born in Kapilvastu (in the country of the Shakya
the Buddha’s previous lives to his future lives, from the world of
tribe).
Brahmanism and Hinduism in which reincarnation is central to a
In this group of images, to the left of the main image, that of
world strongly oriented to salvation and reaching heaven. It was in that
Dipankara, we see Sumedha holding an ewer in his left hand and
context that images directly depicting the Buddha himself appeared.
appearing to toss the lotus flower in his right hand toward Dipankara.
These carvings, including those based on the Jataka, were created to
At Dipankara’s feet, we see Sumedha kneeling and spreading his hair
promote belief in Shakyamuni. This carving of Dipankara’s assurance
over the mud. This grouping of three figures in which Dipankara steps
is no exception. Here the future Shakyamuni, who appears four times,
on Sumedha’s hair with his right foot is the most dramatic moment in
is clearly the central figure.
the images in this relief. In this scene, commemoration, devotion, and
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039 Relief with Dipankara Jataka Gandhara 3rd - 5th century Schist H.：69.3cm
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Jewel Box of Eurasia China and the Western Regions Gallery
Connecting China and Persia In the initial stage, it was planned that the Chinese art collection would be shown together with art from South Asia. But acquisitions of Chinese art continued and the collection became too large to house together with South Asian art, so an exhibition hall was created from the space set aside for a restroom facility for large groups of visitors. There was also another group of objects—a collection of items from Persia during the Sassanid dynasty and under Islam—for which no display space had been assigned. Islamic art, in particular, stems from an entirely different cultural tradition, and because of its different character we were advised that it should have its own exhibition space. To create an additional room beyond the wall of the Chinese art gallery, the mountainside site would have to be further excavated, necessitating a review of the basic plan and the facilities plan and application for new building permits. This would have added years to the construction timeline, but the museum’s opening could not be delayed and it became necessary to accommodate Chinese and Persian art together in the same room.
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The Great Flowering of East-West Exchange The Silk Road was the ideal theme for linking the art of China and of Persia, but we wondered whether other museums had a permanent collection similarly linking Eastern and Western cultures. We discovered that the Sackler Gallery in Washington had just such a collection, so we embarked with confidence on our plan to do the same. The Chinese art collection consisted of numerous small items. The gallery’s planned ceiling height was 6 meters maximum, but the height of the walls at the corners would only be 3 meters, with the wall structure above curving inward to create a dome with its highest point at the center of the room. Pei likened this space to a jewel box, but the plan made it impossible to display a Sanguszko carpet, a Persian carpet measuring 6 meters by 3 meters. Displaying the carpet on its side was considered as an option but it needed to stand vertically for its qualities to be properly appreciated. To get around this problem, the ceiling in the back of the room was raised to gain the needed height and this carpet, the fruit of cultural exchange on the Eurasian continent, could finally be admired in all its glory. Let me just add in closing that, with due attention to the wish of the curators for flexible use of exhibition galleries, Mr. Pei said, “Let’s do it this way for the Grand Opening; it can be freely changed after that.”
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Ancient China The
Lineage of Divine Beasts
Once considered a myth, the Xia dynasty has suddenly begun to be recognized as China’s first dynasty. Recent discoveries of its palace ruins and traces of the catastrophic flooding along the Yellow River testify to the story of its founding of the dynasty. One theory holds that the Xia dynasty originated along the Yangtze river, where the Yangtze civilization flourished several thousand years prior to the Yellow River civilization. In ancient China emperors were heroic figures. Yu the Great, who established the Xia dynasty, contributed greatly to flood control of the Yellow River and, according to legend, took the form of a half-man, half-dragon. The same was true of the half-human, half-snake god and goddess Fu Xi and Nuwa, who were believed to have survived a great flood in Chinese mythology. The oldest extant image of a phoenix, a symbol of sun worship, has been found at a historic site along the Yangtze that dates back to the Neolithic era.
In ancient times, there existed the idea that divine beasts—such as the dragon and phoenix—acted as intermediaries between the ruler of the heavens and the world of humans. These beasts frequently appeared in creation myths. The traditions of that spiritual world were lucidly expressed on bronze ceremonial implements since the Xia dynasty, and during the subsequent Shang dynasty that style came to maturity and spread to neighboring regions. The Zhou dynasty was established in the Central Plain by people from the west who had overthrown the Shang dynasty. The design motif of a dragon fighting with a phoenix was likely a tradition originating in the Ancient Orient brought over by nomads via the Xiron— the “barbarians to the west.” This motif was never seen before or after that time. In the Han dynasty founded by Liu Bang, who was of Yangtze origin, the tradition that the emperor was symbolized by the dragon and the empress by
the phoenix was begun, and the motif of fighting between such divine beasts disappeared in China. In order to defend against the frequent invasions of the confederation of nomad peoples Xiongnu from the north, the Han dynasty actively advanced into Central Asia, searching for allies and good horses. In this quest, the Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian visited Bactria by order of Emperor Wu of the Han in the mid-120s BC. It was not long after the Da Yuezhi (the Great Yuezhi), a former nomad people of Central Asia who had fled the Xiongnu attacks, seized Bactria and settled there. By then the Da Yuezhi were enjoying the fertile soil of the area and were living peacefully without worries of invasion, and no longer had thoughts of retaliating against the Xiongnu. Chinese contact with the so-called Western Regions, which had already started in the Zhou dynasty by way of outlying nomad peoples, grew increasingly active and
direct. Good horses from Central Asia, which Emperor Wu called “heavenly horses,” were also much sought after in the world of the ancient Orient. Many burial goods in forms reminiscent of this breed of horse, which were of the Nisean horse lineage, have been discovered in Later Han tomb sites. It may be that these horses were regarded as a manifestation of a kind of divine beast that served the role once played by the dragon as the intermediary between heaven and the human world. People living along the Oxus river in those days are recorded in the classic Chinese history Shiji as those “with deep-sunk eyes, often wearing a beard; good at trading, vying for small profits.” This depiction reminds one of the Sogds, an Iranian people in Sogdia, who would later perform the central role in the Silk Road trade. That was the beginning of a long-distance trade connecting the East and West of the Eurasian continent.
040 Plaque China, Erlitou culture, 1700-1500 BC Bronze with turquoise inlay and traces of wood H.：15cm W.：8.5cm
Progeny of the Yangtze Civilization
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Distinctive for its green coloring and large eyes, this plaque is inlaid
Likened to the ancient god of thunder or the kui dragon, the toad is
with turquoise chips in a bronze frame backed with wood. Commonly
also a dragon symbol. In fact, dragons were often modeled on animals
found in excavations dating to the Erlitou culture (2000-1600 BCE)
until the Western Zhou dynasty. In 2002, an object thought to be a
in Henan province, examples of such burial goods have all been
staff in the shape of a large dragon inlaid with turquoise, 64.5 cm
found beside the waist or hips of the occupant of the tomb. Their
long, was found in a tomb at an Erlitou burial site. The rectangular
oblong, rounded shape suggests that such plaques were worn on the
head features upturned eyes flanking a long snout and a tail that curls
arm. The designs used on them are collectively referred to as animal
around the body in the manner of a snake. The association strongly
masks, but they can be divided into dragon, toad (or frog), and beast
suggests that this plaque represents a dragon.
motifs. Thought to ward off evil, the green and verdigris colors of
the turquoise probably symbolize the life force underlying human
legendary Xia dynasty. Based on recent surveys that have uncovered
sensibilities. The eyes, with their piercing gaze, also had the power to
traces of major floods that occurred several centuries apart in the
ward off evil, in the ancient cultures of both the East and West,
lower reaches of the Yangtze and in the Yellow River basin about four
The plaque features a pair of upturned piercing
thousand years ago, there is some suggestion that the origins of the
eyes flanking a long snout and a body patterned with scales,
flood controls built by the legendary ruler Yu may date back to the
possibly representing a sacred animal with the body of a dragon.
great floods of the Yangtze basin during the Xia dynasty.
Erlitou archeological sites are often identified with the
041 Wine Vessel: You China, late Shang period, 1200-1050 BC Bronze H.：32cm Dep.：22cm W.：25.1cm
Eyes Out of the Past The Shang dynasty followed the Xia after the overthrow of King
dynasty can be gleaned from the Shang myth that describes how Xie’s
Jie, the last Xia ruler, by Tang of the Shang. During the Xia period,
mother became pregnant with him after swallowing an egg dropped by
Xie, the ancestor of the Shang dynasty and ruler of early Shang, had
a black bird.
assisted Yu with the flood controls and had been granted the territory of Shang, which was then under Xia control.
The eyes of the monster masks (taotie) on the lid and the body are striking, yet the overall shape of this you is functional. Dragon
Ritual bronze vessels grew sophisticated in the Shang period, when
designs adorn the rim as well as the sides of the lid and the ring foot.
vessels with animal motifs were common. This you vessel is modeled
The handle spanning the short axis of the vessel forms the body of
on two owls with rounded body. You vessels found at Yinxu near
a dragon, its head attached to the vessel. This you is also noted for its
Anyang in Henan province range from four-legged vessels adorned
expressive, large eyes, a reflection of the realistic owls of the earlier you
with pairs of realistic owls to the abstract shape and ring foot type seen
that were the prototype for this one. Possibly a flange from the casting
here. The abstract beaks projecting from the sides of the long axis of
process, the bridge of the snout that runs through the center of the
the lid are vestiges of the realistic owls of earlier you. The importance
largest animal mask on the body of the vessel is reminiscent of animal
of the image of the black bird (bird of prey) and the owl to the Shang
designs that developed after the Xia dynasty.
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Bell Sounds to Evoke the Gods Broadly speaking, bells in ancient China were either zhong or bo bells
and the numerous warts on his back symbolize the power of these
suspended from a rack, or nao bells held by the shank when struck
nature gods. Bronze plaques symbolizing kui dragons disappeared
and played. For bronzes produced at Anyang in the Shang period,
from the Central Plain after the Xia period, but the whorls seen on
this shanked bell is on the small side and may have been used during
jade plaques in the state of Shu during the Warring States clearly drew
combat. Larger bells, mounted by the shank with the mouth upwards,
on earlier auspicious patterns such as the raised gu pattern, the nipple
were developed by the cultures that flourished in the Yangtze river
nail pattern, and the gou lian interlocking pattern. No examples of similar large bronze bells have been found at
basin at the same time as the Shang further north. In other words, the picture of the bell 042 is not upside down.
Anyang, where vessels for setting out food and drink were more
The animal mask designs on the surface of the small Anyang bell
important than bells, which, in Anyang, were relatively small. The
developed distinctively on this bell made in the Yangtze river basin.
opposite was true in the Yangtze basin where large drums, bells, and
On this bell, the motifs decorate the arch-shaped rim at the top (yu),
other bronze instruments played a major role. These instruments
the striking area (gu), and the shank (yong). The round eyes of the
are rarely found in the graves of the ruling classes as is the case with
Anyang masks have been omitted from the striking area and the mask
instruments in the Shang territory. Rather, they are often unearthed
design continues lengthwise in a repeating pattern down the center
from buried caches on the summits or slopes of mountains some
of the bell. Below the bulging horizontal ring (xuán) around the
distance from human habitation. That is, the instruments were not
shank, the lengthwise design is flanked by the modified eyes of animal
intended to entertain the ancestral gods descended from the creator
masks. Nine knobs protruding on either side of the body are framed
as was the case in the Yellow River Basin civilization; rather, they
by a hooked pattern. The outward projecting eyes on the knobs are
were probably used in ritual worship of the mountains or the natural
similar to the eyes on Erlitou and Anyang masks, but it is also possible
environment in the Yangtze basin. That contrast is perhaps a reflection
that the eyes on the knobs have developed independently. There is a
of the differences between the rice-growing culture in southern China,
strong association with the spiral patterns of knobs and hooks that
and the cereal and cattle culture in northern China. In the Yangtze
were popular in South China as seen in the “bird bell (bo)” at the
basin region, the nature gods descended when the large nao bell
Smithsonian’s museums of Asian arts in Washington D.C.
mounted on a podium was struck.
This spiral pattern is similar to the warts on the stone toad found
In the Zhou period, a suspension ring was attached to the xuán
at Sanxingdui in Szechuan, and the clay toad found at Erlitou in
to suspend the nao bells upside down, and a musical scale was
Henan. These archeological remains are symbols of the Xia culture and
developed for sets of bells. With that development, the function of the
the Yangtze civilization where the culture is thought to have originated.
protruding knobs, once decorated with patterns of whorls, was to tune
The toad is associated with the god of thunder or the kui dragon,
bell.
042 Shanked bell: Nao China, southern regional Bronze Age culture, about 1400-1000 BC Bronze H.：73.4cm Dep.：35cm W.：50cm
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043 Bronze Stand China, Eastern Zhou period, 5th century BC Bronze H.：21.4cm Dep.：39cm W.：34.3cm
The Animals Fighting Motif Arrives
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The Zhou, who originated in the West, built the Zhou dynasty in
tigers. Between the two dragons hangs a bird (a fenghuang or phoenix)
1100 BCE on the Central Plain, after overthrowing the Shang. The
attached by its outspread wings. The dragons’ bodies with protruding
Zhou dynasty had closer ties with the ethnic groups on the frontier
backbones are cut in half just behind the forelegs, terminating in a
than the Shang had, but when King You was overthrown by the Xirong
rectangular mortise. The other half of that figure, probably rising in
(the Western Barbarians), the capital was moved eastward, marking
the shape of an S, may have been attached to the mortise and used as a
the start of the Eastern Zhou. The state of Jin, which sat on the
stand for an object of some sort.
western borders of the weakened and loosely centralized dynasty, was
According to the Winter Offices in the Rites of Zhou, stands for
instrumental in bringing elements from further west to the Central
supporting instruments were decorated with shapes resembling the
Plain. The large-scale bronze workshops that then operated in Jin
five great beasts in the world (cows or sheep, pigs, tigers or leopards,
(now Houma in Shanxi province) appear to have accepted orders from
birds, and dragons or snakes) while images of tigers, birds (phoenixes),
several states in the surrounding area. The style of their bronzes share
or dragons decorated stands for instruments used in ceremonies at
elements with the animal designs developed on the Eurasian steppes.
ancestral shrines. Designs of animals fighting, including animals biting,
This stand is very similar to the Houma style. At the bottom, two
are conspicuous on bronzes dating from the late Spring and Autumn
tigers stand with flexed legs, their backs surmounted by two chilong
period (700 . 403 BCE) of the Eastern Zhou to the Warring States
(hornless dragons) with rolled-up snouts biting into the backs of the
period (403 . 221 BCE).
044 Belt Hook China, Eastern Zhou period, 3rd century BC Bronze with gold and silver foil and turquoise inlays H.：15.2cm
Fighting Dragon and Phoenix The complex, intertwined design of this belt hook features magnificent
every respect.
inlays of gold, silver, and turquoise in bronze. Upon discovering that
Such depictions of conflict were often seen in the Spring and
the hook at the top is the head of a beast and that the head of the bird
Autumn period (700 - 403 BCE) and the Warring States period (403
of prey beneath it is staring straight up at the best, the life and death
– 221 BCE), but the dragon and phoenix design is not associated
struggle playing out comes into focus. The shoulders of the beast are
with the earlier Shang and Western Zhou periods. From the Han
ornamented with small wings, there is a pattern of birds on its front
dynasty (206 BCE – 220) on, the dragon and phoenix evolved into
and rear limbs, and the body is loosely curled in the shape of an S,
an auspicious sign or a symbol of marriage. Above all, the design
ending in a split tail. These are the characteristics of a dragon. Here,
symbolized the emperor and empress, never indicating any form of
the dragon is using its front right limb to grip and pull at the long
strife. That transformation is perhaps an indication of how transient
crest on the bird’s head, the rear right limb to grab the bird’s long tail,
Warring States period trends were. Perhaps the design symbolizes the
and the left rear limb to clutch the bird’s neck while resting the front
exuberantly chaotic period, brimming with energy, which began with
left limb on its own back, suggesting a sense of ease. Based on the crest
the emergence of the Zhou whose ancestral mythologies themselves
and the tail feathers, the bird is probably a phoenix. Although its claws
differed from those of the Shang, the Qin, and the Han. As suggested
are digging into the body of the dragon, the bird’s head is facing up,
in the Shiji historical records penned in the Former Han (206 BCE - 9),
its body twisted sharply in the shape of an S, and both its wings are at
the seven turquoise cabochons may refer to the seven stars of ancient
the mercy of the dragon. The dragon seems to have the upper hand in
China, which were associated with protection and peace.
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The Advent of the Griffin In The Histories, Herodotus records that the nomadic Cimmerians
remains on the western shore of the Black Sea, or the griffins on
were driven from Asia (Minor). The sudden emergence of a culture
Scythian gold ceremonial implements from a group of ancient tombs
influenced by Asia Minor and Central Asia in Altai, southern Siberia,
in the northeast coastal region of the Black Sea.
around 700 BCE may indicate that the expelled nomadic tribe had
A Monster in the Palm of the Hand (Bixie)
arrived in East Asia. Artifacts discovered at the Berel and Pazyryk
The winged “dragon” on clay models discovered at a foundry dating to
archeological sites in the Altai that are ornamented with designs of
the Eastern Zhou period in Houma, Shanxi province, or the “dragon”
powerfully built griffins and horned lion-griffins tell of the influence
inscribed on bronze ware of the same period found in a tomb in
of the Achaemenid Empire through Scythian intermediaries.
Gushi, Henan province, are four-legged beasts with horizontal curled
Ornamental plaques with silhouetted griffins or beasts with wavy
horns and features that closely resemble the beasts depicted in Xirong
horns or manes, bearing a very close resemblance to the Pazyryk
tombs. That is a style of “dragon” representation not seen earlier and
artifacts, have been found in Xirong graves from the Eastern Zhou
is associated with the bixie or tianlu, auspicious mythical animals that
period recently discovered in Tianshui, Gansu province.
appeared in the Han period. Inscriptions reading bixie or tianlu appear
Vessel Guarded by a Foreign Monster (Bixie Lid)
on a pair of stone carvings positioned on either side of the spirit road
The bronze lid inlaid with silver and gold 045 dates from the Eastern
leading to a late Han tomb; their designs have been found on jade and
Zhou period (1046 – 256 BCE). The design is complex, but the
bronze burial accessories dating to the Former Han. Since the time of
image comes into focus as a whole as soon as you spot the triangular
Emperor Wu, the Han had had direct contact with Central Asia; thus,
eye of an animal head turned to the right at top center. That horned
influences from trade embarked upon in the western regions of China
creature is a bixie, an imaginary animal, its body arching as it clutches
are likely.
the writhing body of a snake with its sharp claws. The mouth of the
snake is wide open as it tries to bite down on the bixie. Traces of wood
gold and silver. The creature stands firmly on its feet, the head tilted
in a trench on the underside of the lid suggest that it once was the lid
upward as if about to roar. A golden curled horn crowns its head, and
for a lacquered vessel. Reminiscent of the griffin of the ancient Near
starting from the chest, a golden cloud streams toward the rear, ending
East, the bixie protected the mouth of the vessel against evil spirits.
in a qilin tail like shape. The golden cloud curved around the shoulder
The gold and silver inlays around the edge are also seen on carved
joint suggests modified wings. Small wings protrude at the elbows,
lacquer screens dating to the Warring States period (403 – 221 BCE).
and the tail is flat and broad like that of a deer. The figure shares the
The pattern of scales on the snake, the bixie’s horns and the feather
striated pattern adorning the tips of the ears and the line of a beard
ornamentation closely resemble those on a bronze pedestal found
with Western Asian lions, but the shape of the horn points to the
in the tomb of the King of Zhongshan dating to the same period.
Persian griffin as the forefather of this auspicious beast. The posture
These horned beasts were adapted to Chinese traditions when they
and the silver inlays on the front limbs, flanks, and hind legs suggest
arrived from the border regions to the west and north in the late Zhou
a beast contracted like a spring, ready to pounce and to use its sharp
period. The remote ancestors of this mythical horned animal can
claws and fangs to attack any evil spirit. Despite its diminutive size,
be traced back to the lion-griffin on the handle of a silver amphora
there is no doubt that a beast modeled with such precision would have
manufactured in the fifth century BCE and found among historical
more than sufficient power to protect a tomb.
The small figure 046 is a bronze lion form inlaid with
045 Bixie Lid China, Eastern Zhou 4th – 3rd century BC Bronze with gold and silver foil inlays H.：3.6cm Diam.：13cm 046 Bixie China, Western Han 2nd century BC Bronze with gold and silver foil inlays H.：7cm W.：7.2cm
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047 Golden Horse Western Han 2nd century Gold H.：25.4cm Dep.：6.3cm W.：30.9cm
A Golden Horse and a Bronze Horse
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Muscles simply delineated, the golden horse stands erect, the mane
Descendants of the Famous Horses of the Ancient Orient
standing up between ears pointing backward. The mane is shorn, with
During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220), the state was in urgent
the exception of one long section halfway down the neck where the
need of excellent horses to repel frequent incursions by nomadic
rider would have held on when mounting the horse. The tail rises up
peoples at the northern frontier. According to the Shiji history, horses
from the thrusting hindquarters, describing an arc before dipping down
from Wusun in the western regions were so fine that they were referred
in a style unique to the western Han. The dark reddish-brown color
to as tianma (heavenly steeds). When more powerful horses of the
on the right foreleg is caused by oxidized silk attached there. The statue
Dayuan (Ferghana) breed, further to the southwest, were acquired, the
is pure gold and weighs about seven kilograms. The workmanship is
Wusun horses were renamed xijima (horses from the western regions)
similar to that of a gilt bronze horse discovered at Maoling in Shaanxi
and the designation “heavenly steeds” was applied to the Dayuan
province and dated to the time of Emperor Wu of the Western Han
horses. When the emperor heard that the Dayuan were breeding horses
(reigned 141–87 BCE), but the proportions of the bronze horse
at their capital, Ershi, he dispatched emissaries with a large amount of
indicate a different breed with a shorter neck and longer legs. Weights
money and golden horses, but the Dayuan treasured the horses from
inscribed on several bronze vessels found with that bronze horse reveal
Ershi and did not give any to the Han emissary. This golden horse may
that one jin was between 235 and 237 grams. Thus, the weight of
have been a form of currency or a means of exchange.
the golden horse corresponds to around thirty jin. According to the
Autumn Offices in the Rites of Zhou, thirty jin is one jun. The pots,
with their long legs and short necks, but, assuming it dates to the time
jars, and other bronze ceremonial vessels excavated at Maoling were
of Emperor Wu of the Western Han, it may be one of the golden
weighed and inscribed after casting, but the use of precious gold and
horses described in the Shiji records. It is possible that the gilt bronze
the golden horse’s precise weight of one jun suggest that it may have
horse found at Maoling is a heavenly steed, as its stature rivals that of
been cast for use as currency.
the Wusun horses, but if we look at the head and the bridge of the
This golden horse does not look like the “heavenly steeds,”
048 Tomb Figure: Horse Eastern Han Bronze with traces of Horse H.：124cm W.：28.5cm L.：113cm
nose, it is clear that both horses are the descendants of the famous
together. There are traces of red and white pigment from the harness
horses from Nisaia of Media in the highlands of Iran, considered the
on the abdomen and hindquarters. The bridge of the nose clearly
finest horses in the West Asian world since the time of the Assyrians.
indicates that the horse is modeled on a “heavenly steed.” The gait is
This horse is the link between eastern and western Eurasia.
that of a trained horse raising both legs on one side to move smoothly.
Leading the Way to Heaven (Bronze Horse)
All unnecessary details have been omitted from the horse’s face
In China, it was an ancient custom to include horses harnessed to
producing its keen atmosphere including pointed ears.
carriages in tombs. In the Han period, grave goods intended for
Engraved images on stones in Han tombs depict journeys by
tombs of the nobility often included many figures of soldiers, but it is
horse carriage as well as masterless horses. The spirit of the deceased
clear that this bronze horse was particularly important because it was
would ride in the carriage or mount the horse to reach heaven. Further
interred separately from the soldiers. Many such bronze horses pulled
back in time, transporting the dead to heaven had been the role of
carriages, and there are known examples of their burial with carriages.
the dragon. Perhaps some of the qualities of the dragon reside in this
The bronze horse 048 was cast in eleven parts that were then riveted
bronze horse.
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Western Regions The
Flowering of Eurasian Civilization
The Beginning of Sasanian Silver Vessels The Sasanian empire rose in the first half of the third century as people of Persis (Persia) in southern Iran, seeking the revival of Persia, rebelled against the rule of the Parthian empire. From early on the Sasanian empire made Zoroastrianism its state religion, also successive kings were tolerant of other religions. Early in its history the empire sent expeditions to the west and to the east and managed to re-conquer the [vast] territory of the Achaemenid empire from Rome in the west to Kushan in the east. The Bactria and Gandhara areas it took back from the Kushan dynasty formed the crucial front line against the nomadic peoples of the steppes and embraced key centers of the long-distance trade. It is in this KushanoSasanian kingdom that many early silver vessels were made. To its annual ritual ceremonies, the kingdom invited guests from its Iranian and non-Iranian neighbors. Holding banquets and bestowing gifts were an indispensable part of these events, and the silver vessels produced for those purposes spread wide its majesty and splendor, both inside and outside the kingdom, and confirmed the status of Zoroastrianism as its official religion. Ancient Iranian legends and myths were often used as themes of the
artwork of such gifts, and the most favored motif was scenes of hunting by the “king of kings.� In many cases such silver vessels were gifts either presented to Rome or bestowed by the king. In particular, vessels with a hunting king motif represented the honor bestowed by the divine upon the king. Spread to China It was the Sogd people of Central Asia who spread to China the custom of giving silver vessels as gifts. As caravan traders they built trade networks, and their villages dotted the Silk Road linking Central Asia with China. By the fourth century they had settled in the areas centering on Dunhuang, and while farming they worked mainly as traveling merchants, going as far as Luoyang, then the capital of China. It is known that they even paid taxes to the authorities. Not purely Zoroastrian, they believed in the more indigenous, Central Asian worship of fire, and when conducting funerals they used a stone funeral couch introduced from China’s Northern Dynasties to keep the corpse from defiling fire, water, and earth. On the walls of it they carved motifs based on the spiritual world of their fire worship traditions that differed from the Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist worlds of the Northern Dynasties.
During the Tang dynasty of China, the silver-vessel gift-giving custom further developed and production of distinctive Chinese silver vessels began. Although brought from the Western Regions, the designs and motifs used had little to do with religion and were refined and elaborate. After the An Lushan Rebellion of 755–763, the Tang dynasty lost control of the Western Regions but maintained its court culture based on the productive farming culture of southern China. A lithe, dynamic, and elegant style was developed for the designs of silver vessels; the style was linked with the important principle of painting, qiyu shengdong (Jp. kiin seidō), or “spiritual resonance and lifelike motion.” It was Tubo, or the Tibetan empire, that expanded its influence to the Western Regions at that time, and placed under its control most of the Silk Road including Dunhuang. The silver vessels of the early history of Tubo display the influence of the older cultural traditions it received from surrounding areas. The Great Flowering of Eurasia Around the middle of the eighth century, Islam established control over the western half of the Silk Road and built a trade network including Asia. Very active along this trade network were charismatic teachers called Sufis, who
advocated a kind of mysticism by which they sought to be connected with God through individual mystical experiences. This movement was often linked with elements of indigenous natural religion. The Iran-Central Asia region was a world of diverse religions; they were so tolerant of one another that there were many cases of syncretistic fusion among them. Islamic arts in this region achieved highly refined modes of expression. Furthermore, due to the globalism of the Mongol empire that expanded its territory from China to Europe in the thirteenth century, the distinctive style featuring the Chinese principle of art of “spiritual resonance and lifelike motion” was incorporated into the Islamic arts. It expressed the spiritual world of Islam, and during the Age of Discovery in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the arts of Safavid empire flowered gorgeously, embracing both the eastern and western civilizations of Eurasia
050 Plate with a Banquet Scene Sasanian period, 5th-6th centuries Silver gilt H.：4.7cm Diam.：21.7cm
Vessels of Myth and Tradition Heaven on a Plate The Iranian or Persian view of the world, originating in myths that
heads. At the top of the tree, two musicians are playing the lute and
have been cultivated since the Neolithic period, is that: “In the center
pan flute. They are essential elements in expressing the heaven called
of the world is lofty Mount Hara; water springs from its summit and
in Zoroastrianism, the House of Song. The rooster on the left branch
becomes rivers, which flow into the sea called Vourukasha.” In the
of the tree is an avatar of Sraosha, a guardian deity that drives out the
center of that sea is Harvisptokhm, the sacred tree that contains the
darkness and informs us of the arrival of the light (daybreak). The
seeds of all plants in the world. The water and the sacred tree combine
rooster is the guardian of this heaven.
to form an image of paradise.
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The three-dimensional limbs of the sacred tree, the fruit, the bird,
This silver plate calls to mind that mythological landscape. The sea
the faces of the two human figures, and their arms and legs were
is brimming with fish and water fowl preying on them. From the shore,
formed separately, in silver, and applied to the dish. At special banquets
where the waves are choppy, a tree, divided into two large branches,
in the royal palace to which high-ranking people were invited, it was
grows. The branches are bent under the weight of heavy, ripe clusters
customary for the king to present his guests with cups and flowers.
of grapes, acorns, and pomegranates. The man, wearing a crown,
The cups are said to have signified water, meaning perfection, and
seated on the left under the tree is holding a cup in his right hand. The
the flowers, eternal life. Similarly, the cup and flower that the two
woman seated on the right is holding what may be a flower in both
figures seated beneath the tree on this plate are holding carry the same
hands. A thin layer of gold emphasizes the halos around both their
symbolic meaning
051 Large Plate with a Prince Holding a Mare Sasanian Period, 4th-5th Century Silver gilt Diam.：30cm
An Epic Poem Told by a Plate The epic poem Shahnameh (The Book of Kings) was first compiled
On the plate shown above, Rostam, a giant of a man, his head reaching
by the poet Ferdowsi in the tenth century, but its history, both orally
to heaven, has his arms around the neck of a golden colt without bridle
transmitted and recorded in prose, goes much further back. The hero
or saddle. That is not a scene depicting his affectionately embracing his
Rostam, who appears in this epic as the savior of Iran, was born by
horse. He is firmly gripping his left wrist with his right hand to place
caesarian section to his mother Rudaba, a beautiful woman “who
a tight hold on the base of the colt’s neck, and his feet are braced, to
glowed like the moon on a cypress tree.” Rostam was exceptionally
control the animal. His crown topped with a crescent moon differs
tall from early childhood and, as a child, slew with one blow a war
from those worn by successive Iranian kings and indicates that its
elephant, much as the infant Hercules killed serpents. When it was
wearer is a prince or perhaps a legendary character. The scene depicted
time for him to choose the horse he would ride in battle, he gave each
here calls to mind the passage in the epic poem in which Rostam
one a single punch to the head before choosing the stalwart steed that
chooses his steed. The head of the horse and the head and arms of
did not blink at his attack. That was how he met his beloved stallion
Rostam and other key points have been formed separately and inlaid,
Rakhsh, whose coat is described as like “rose petals scattered upon a
a technique that is consistent with a characteristic of silver vessels from
saffron ground.”
the early Sasanian period.
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052 Plate with a King Hunting Animals Sasanian Period/ Early Islamic Period, 7th Century Silver gilt Diam.：19.7cm
Vessels Communicating Kingly Glory Inspired by the King of Kings
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Scenes from the royal hunt were a major type of design on silver
force. The fluttering ribbon signifies the powerful wind associated with
vessels at the court from about the fourth century to the end of the
the god Mazda. According to a hymn (Yasht 18:2-5) in the Avesta
Sasanian dynasty. This theme carries critically important meanings: it
(the primary collection of Zoroastrian religious texts), the Havrenah,
communicates, within the kingdom, the legitimacy of the sovereign
incorporating both, indicates the most powerful of forces. Apam
rule of the king over the various other kings and demonstrates, with
Napat originally meant “the grandson of water”; the Zoroastrians
respect to Rome, the his sublime power in foreign relations. The
viewed the form of the Greco-Roman god Eros (Cupid) as the
animals that the king is attacking in these depictions tended to increase
manifestation of Apam Napat.
in number and species over time. Here we see, by the king, the lion he
Sacred Paradise Inside a Jar (Boar Motif Jar)
has already killed, a boar that has fiercely charged him, at the moment
The body of the jar shown on the right is decorated, in metal chasing,
it is stopped by his spear, and an Indian war elephant approaching,
with three boars, strutting through a reed plain, and a pair of birds
straight towards him. Even the fierce elephant seems to lose confidence
facing each other between the ears of the reeds. This design closely
when faced with the warlike expression of the horse-clad king. In the
resembles the royal hunting scene carved into a rock face at the sixth to
sky above, a winged deity, in the form of a child, is in flight, holding a
seventh century Taqi Bustan site in western Iran (northeast of Bagdad).
breast ornament on a fluttering ribbon. At first glance, it might appear
The scene at that site has the emperor, in a boat, hunting boars with
to be a Roman angel celebrating victory, but to the Sasanian kings, it is
bow and arrow; the boars have been chased into the marshy reed plain
Apam Napat, who protects the Havrenah, the kingly glory. The breast
by an elephant, within a hunting ground surrounded by an enclosure.
ornament (which is equivalent to the Havrenah) has three pendants
It symbolizes the king’s being divinely bestowed the kingly glory. The
attached; they symbolize Tistrya, god of the rain-star, who grants life
Persian or Iranian king was the king of kings, and the sacredness of his
053 Vase with Boars Sasanian Period, 6th–7th centur Silver gilt H.：17.7cm
kingly glory was often expressed in monuments. The boar was regarded
The inscription in Pahlavi, an ancient Persian language, on
as an avatar of the most powerful Zoroastrian god Verethraghna, which
the side of the vertically upright base states that this was a treasure
defeated the evil deity symbolized by darkness. Verethraghna was thus
owned by a person named Humban and that there were originally
associated with Mithra, god of light, who fights the darkness. (Both
a pair of jars. Presenting silver vessels carved with auspicious
Mithra and Verthraghna were ancient gods that had been worshipped
motifs, such as this one, as gifts was a custom that already existed
in Iran prior to the emergence of Zoroastrianism.) The sacredness of
in ancient Persia some centuries before the Common Era. This
the king is thus the connotation embedded in the boar-hunting theme.
custom from western Asia was brought to China in the early
Middle Ages by the Iranian Sogdian traders who were then very
A waterside scene has been rendered on the lower part of
the body of this jar; there we see, mingled with fish and waterfowl, a Simorgh, an auspicious bird with the head of a dog. In Zoroastrianism, the Simorgh is a mystic bird that connects heaven and earth and brings bountiful harvests. The grape motif on the convex band around the neck of the jar also symbolizes abundance, while the birds on the body symbolize good fortune. Thus, this jar is filled with auspicious meanings. The designs on it may have also been used to decorate textiles from the same period, for they can be seen on the garments worn by the king and others in the rock reliefs at Taqi Bustan.
シムルヴ（水中の中央）
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Tying China to the Mediterranean
A Bowl Clad in the World Order The exterior of the elliptical bowl 054 on the right has a vine pattern growing out from the medallion in the center. Acanthus stems spreading in straight lines towards both sides of the longer axis draw the eye; what appear to be a pair of trees, on the left and right, are not the central axis but compose symmetrical vine motifs. The branches repeatedly bifurcate into subbranches, and their tips describe spirals, with grape leaves, acanthus flowers and leaves, grape clusters, and acorns on them. These motifs cover the entire surface of the bowls, symbolizing the world. On the four sides of the medallion are placed creatures that frolic in that world of botanical motifs: a fox, jackal, hunting dog, and bird. This vine pattern is appropriate for a drinking bowl; we can imagine the influence of designs related to Dionysus, the god of wine in Greco-Roman culture, but here the vine is composed with greater consciousness of symmetry. Moreover, the medallion situated in the center of this world is, above all, a critical element. The guinea fowl sculpted into it rarely damages plants’ new buds and stems by eating them; rather, it is a useful bird, treasured for
054 Elliptical Bowl with a Vine Scroll Sasanian Period, 6th-7th Centuries Silver gilt H.：5.7cm L.：13.3cm W.：4.8cm
getting rid of harmful insects, snakes, and small animals. The bird medallion is an element used extensively in Sasanian art. It is said to signify Ahura Mazda’s creation of the good to counter evil. This medallion thus may have been placed here to symbolize that good is in control of the world.
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Iran, and then silver vessels in the Sasanian style were modeled on
The elliptical, boat-shaped bowl, which appeared in
them. The tomb of Fenghetu, a Northern Wei tomb from the early
the Sasanian period, was a new drinking bowl shape not
sixth century in Xiaozhan village, west of the city of Datong, Shanxi
seen in the history of the Orient until then. It is argued
Province, has yielded fragments of a silver dish and footed bowl from
that elliptical eared bowls were transmitted from the
the Kushano-Sasanian period, sculpted in a hunting design, as well as
Northern Wei or the Chinese cultural zone in Central
a silver eared cup of unknown origins. It seems certain it was in this
Asia, in the course of Silk Road commerce, to Sasanian
period that the elliptical bowl type was transmitted to western Asia.
055 Oblong Eight-lobed Cup Sasanian Period, 5th-7th century Silver gilt L.：28.5cm W.：13.0cm
A Vessel Shaped by Eastern and Western Traditions The elliptical bowl 054 is arguably the base form from which the
Sasanian eight-lobed silver cups with figurative motifs show a range of
cup 055 evolved. An eight-lobed silver cup has also been unearthed
regional qualities, from Central Asian to Northwestern Indian. The
from the site of Pingcheng, the Northern Wei capital, south of
Hildesheim collection of Roman silver in Berlin’s Vorderasiatisches
today’s Datong in Shanxi Province. That artifact is more decorative
Museum includes a bowl with a human bust emblem in its center that
in form than the cup shown here; its design suggests stylistic features
may have influenced early Sasanian silver and a twelve-lobed floral-
characteristic of the Indian Gupta Empire, including an image of a
shaped bowl with decorative motifs. These bowls’ styles were also
Makara, a sea creature in Indian mythology, on the inside of the bowl.
transmitted to Central Asia; examples include a sixth-century twelve-
The exterior of that cup has inscribed, in Bactrian script, the name of
lobed silver bowl excavated in Suixi County, Guandong Province,
a king, from the latter half of the fifth century, of the Hephthalites, a
China, and the Freer Gallery’s sixth- or seventh-century twelve- lobed
nomadic people. In the middle of the fifth century, the Hephthalites,
silver bowl, said to have been excavated at Luoyang. The latter is
who had risen in northeastern Afghanistan, brought tribute to the
Sogdian silver. The design evolution in which an elliptical vessel was
Northern Wei, in China, and took control of trade on the Silk Road.
turned into an eight-lobed cup or bowl may have been influenced by
By the end of the century, the Hephthalites had become an empire,
the tradition of Roman silver vessels transmitted to Central Asia and
its might extending from Gandhara to the Tarim Basin; at that time,
Northwest India. Here elements from the East and West of Eurasia
Sasanian silver vessels were transmitted to the northern dynasties
are unified in a vessel.
during China’s Northern and Southern dynasties period.
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The Life of a Silk Road Trader Having established themselves in China proper through their Silk Road trading activities, community heads (sartpau) and other high-ranking members of the Sogdian communities adapted the funeral system of stone funerary couches that was current in the Northern Dynasties. Instead of coffins, however, they laid their dead directly on stone funerary couches surrounded by stone panels decorated in a distinctive manner that originated in the spiritual world of Central Asian Zoroastrianism. In this work, eleven stone reliefs arranged in a U-shape border the funerary couch on which the corpse rested, and gateposts in front delineate a symbolic monumental entry. Correct Funerary Rites and Conscientious Rituals The panels are arranged so that panel 6, which shows a banquet in paradise after death, is at the center, and on one side is panel 5, which is the funeral itself, and, on the other is panel 7, displaying rites for the guardian deity. Doubtless these three scenes were the most important to the clan of the deceased. In order to get to paradise after death, the funeral had to be carried out carefully and correctly. In panel 5, a Zoroastrian priest wearing a mouth cover (pad.m) carries out the burial rite before a fire altar. At his feet, a talismanic dog fends off evil spirits. Behind the priest, in a Central Asian mourning custom, four men slash their own faces
⑤
with knives. The handrail at the end of a bridge is visible in front of the priest, and one can make out the flanks of the last camel in a procession of domestic animals that the deceased is leading
worshipping him, and a long-haired Turkic man also leans in reverently.
over the bridge. This is the Chinvat Bridge, also called Bridge of
Alternating images of the sun and moon encircle the border of the
the Requiter, and beneath it in the middle is the gate of hell. For
canopy, symbolizing Mithra’s omnipresent-gaze and protection. At
good people, it is broad and easy to cross, but for evildoers it is
the front, a ritual is being carried out around the fire altar. The man
as thin as the edge of a razor. On the morning of the fourth day
kneeling at the bottom right holds something that might be a holy
after death, the deceased, led by the light of the sun, meets the
scripture. Lay participants chanting hymns may have participated in
god Mithra, the protective deity and the Requiter, on the Chinvat
this ritual along with the priests. The man standing at the lower right is
Bridge. In order to cross safely, he must appeal for Mithra’s
making a distinctive hand gesture and he too may be chanting hymns.
protection.
The correct priestly execution of funeral rites like this and the clan’s
In panel 7, an exceptionally large Mithra is sitting cross-legged beneath a splendid floating canopy. Sogdians on both sides are
careful carrying out of rituals involving the protective deity enabled the person entombed here to travel to paradise.
056 Relief Carving from a Funeral Couch China, Northern Dynasties, latter half of the 6th century White marble
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Panels/ H.：59.1 ～ 61.9cm W.：25.4cm ～ 53.4cm Gateposts/ H.：51.5 ～ 49.5cm W.：53.3 ～ 56 cm
the native land of the Sogdians, was under the sway of the Hephthalites, and from the latter half of the sixth century, both the Hephthalites and the Sogdians were ruled by the Turks. Under the rule of both nomadic peoples, the Sogdians were found very useful in the commerce of the Silk Road because of their multilingualism and their managerial abilities. The scene in panel 3 shows a Turkic domed tent and makes clear that the deceased was on intimate terms with the Turks. Panels 8 and 9 depict the departures of rather high-ranking Turkic and Hephthalite chieftains with parasols held above them. The servants of the Turkic chieftain in panel 8 include a long-haired Turkic man and a Hephthalite wearing a diadem, which suggests the Hephthalite’s superiority in the power relations that obtained after 560 CE when the Hephthalites fell under the sway of the Turks. In panel 9, a Hephthalite chieftain based in India is riding on an elephant. His servants, following behind, are Sogdians. These scenes, which show that the deceased had had cordial relations with these chieftains and nomadic peoples, demonstrate that he was a virtuous person. The left-hand side of panel 10 depicts the deceased and his wife riding happily with a retainer and suggests that he was blessed with a good wife and loyal retainers. The right-hand of the panel is set in heaven, where the West-Central Asian goddess Nana presides over
⑦
two heavenly musicians, and on earth, where a Northern Dynasties The importance of leading a pious life
orchestra and dancer carry out a religious festival. The Zoroastrian
However, no matter how much one appealed to the god for
goddess Nana is a syncretic deity blending the Mesopotamian goddess
protection, one had to have a history of good deeds in one’s own
of love and war and the Iranian mother-goddess Armaiti. Nana was a
life in order to be judged favorably. This would entail, first, being a
protective deity who led human beings to salvation through a virtuous
pious believer in one’s everyday life; second, having good relations
life. In West Central Asia, she was usually depicted, in imitation of the
with other individuals and with one’s own family, community, and
goddess of war of the Kushan dynasty, as many-armed and holding
country; and third, being honest in one’s work.
up the sun and moon, the symbols of eternity, while seated on a lion.
Panels 3 and 4 seem to be scenes of people at work in their
The depiction here is a simplified one, showing her on a pedestal with
occupations. The deceased devoted his life to caravan trade,
lion heads carved on it. This goddess was a protective deity who not
loading goods on camels and going back and forth between
only helped in daily life when one was alive, but also guided one wisely
eastern and western Central Asia. In the scene on panel 4, his
to salvation during funeral rites. During his lifetime, the deceased
guards, long-haired Turkic men and Hephthalites wearing head
sought the protection of this goddess by performing good deeds, thus
scarves, are guarding him. Bandits were rife on the routes taken
becoming an Ashavan, a righteous person, so that he was guaranteed to
by commercial travelers, so firm alliances with guards like these
have a good fate in eternity. We may say that the scenes in panels 3, 4,
must have been essential for the deceased to carry on his calling
8, 9, and 10 show the many contexts in which the deceased proved his
faithfully. From the first half of the fifth century, Sogdiana,
righteousness.
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Adaptation of traditional scenes The hunting theme in panel 1 also appears in engraved stone images in Han dynasty shrines. Since the period prior to the Qin dynasty (221 – 206 BCE), hunting by the emperor and nobles functioned as military training and also had the aim of preparing the necessary sacrifices for religious rituals. The iconography of these ancient Chinese images has elegance and refinement. In contrast, panel 1 shows a hunting expedition by a fierce band of riders in wild pursuit and has a military harshness. The hunters wear diadems and the person of high rank, ribbons fluttering, is a Hephthalite; in the very middle we have a Sogdian, who may be the deceased in his youth. In Iranian culture, royal hunting in an enclosed hunting field was an important element of Pairi Daeza (Paradise), and panel 1 has something of that aspect. It is, however, basically a vivid memory of the deceased, and as such a depiction of life in the mid-sixth century for the Sogdians,
⑩
who were active caravan traders under the dominion of the Hephthalites. The Sogdians maintained good relations with other peoples, no matter who ruled them, and were important conduits
122
for cultural contact. That itself was one of the necessary traits for
(Amu Darya) River flowed within the territories of both Bactria and
being an Ashavan.
Sogdiana. On its banks in Bactria was the Temple of Oxus, in what is
In panel 2, fish are swimming in a pond next to which
now the southern tip of Tajikistan. Recent excavations there have found
stands a riderless horse. Several people behind the animal hold a
the remains of horses dedicated to the god of the Oxus River. Special
parasol over it. Another person kneels, raising a container to the
riderless horses with fluttering ribbons attached to their legs, led by
horse. The riderless horse on Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220)
priests with padam mouth coverings, have also been found in Sogdian
engraved stone images is a symbol that the deceased has arrived
wall paintings in Afrasiyab in Samarkand (now part of Uzbekistan).
in heaven and dismounted, and there are even depictions of a
Such horses can also be interpreted as symbols of the god. In this case,
horse being fed from a bucket. Northern Dynasties (386 – 577)
the priest with the mouth covering would be symbolically standing
tumuli wall paintings carried on the same sort of symbolism,
before the god, and the fluttering ribbons would show him being
sometimes with retainers sheltering the horse with a parasol. Panel
blown by the strong wind of the god Ahura Mazda. On the right side
2 appears to carry on this Northern Dynasties pattern but there
of panel 10, with its deity, and in panel 7 as well, one finds a distinctive
is no precedent for the unique atmosphere created by the horse
floral design that resembles the hōsōge holy flower motif, and, in panel
being respectfully fed next to the shore by the kneeling figure with
2, there are three such designs around the horse. Perhaps this horse
uplifted arms. Beyond that figure and the horse are two horsemen.
was a symbol of the god Oxus, who was a god of fire and water, and
They are wearing Sogidan style hats and fluttering ribbons, but
belonged here as one with the power to purify the life deeds of the
there is a possibility that they are Bactrian. The ancient Oxus
deceased.
A Paradise of Overflowing Vitality Panel 6 shows the deceased, having arrived at last in paradise, in a pavilion where he enjoys a festive meal with wine. Musicians and a dancer provide entertainment. The rounded base of the structure is reminiscent of the Buddha’s death bed in the Nehanzu wall painting in Cave 5 of the Xiangtangshan Caves, which date from the same period. The jeweled crest and eave ornaments attached to the structure’s roof and the tucked-up curtain are also very like the Nehanzu painting. However, the moon and sun ornaments attached to the tops of the pillars that hold up this structure’s roof emphasize that this vision of paradise is Zoroastrian and originates in Central Asia. A number of such features of this structure are also found in the panels of the Anjia Tomb. The deceased, an old man with a typical Iranian mustache and beard, sits cross-legged with his wife, who appears to be of the Xianbei people. Both husband and wife hold their wine ⑥
cups by the stems, between the thumb and forefinger of their left hands. This way of holding the cup, which must have been part of the Sogdian people’s etiquette, can also be seen in Sogdian wall paintings unearthed in
Panel 11 depicts an ox-cart setting forth. Since it is adorned on
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In front of the pavilion ten musicians are playing
both sides with shō, special decorations for coffins, clearly the
on various instruments—harp, flute, five-stringed lute, four-stringed lute,
event is the departure of the deceased after death. This scene of
and a tambourine—a Central Asian orchestra. It is divided into two groups,
the departing ox-cart with shō on it can also be seen in the wall
and in the middle, between them, a man of the western regions (that is,
paintings of the Northern Qi (566 – 577) Tomb of Lou Rui,
Central Asia) performs the bold and uninhibited Huteng dance. One
which date from the same period, and is thought to have been
with the music, he leaps and jumps to a quick, driving beat, pushed into
adopted from funeral customs of the time. But what is unusual
a state of euphoria by wine. The wine jug in front of the dancer and the
here is the birds flying in the sky above and the jutai, or seal cords, as
Sogdian-style ewer to the left of it may be there for the dancer. In contrast
well as the same holy flower motif as in panels 2, 7, and 10. Flying
to this orchestra, the ten-person orchestra on the right side of panel 10
birds and seal cords link to the Zoroastrian khvarenah, divine glory
consists of a flute, a five-stringed biwa, and a four-stringed biwa; in place
or good fortune, which appears in virtuous people. Because of his
of a tambourine, there is a paiban (clapper made from several flat pieces
virtuous deeds during his lifetime, the deceased may depart this
of wood), small cymbals, and a sheng (Chinese panpipes). The sheng is a
world as an Ashavan. The background for this is the spiritual world
traditional instrument that dates back to the Shang dynasty and may also
of the Iranian people which since around 2000 BCE cultivated the
be seen in the wall painting called Couple Presiding Over a Banquet on the
teaching that “Your good deeds and a pious life will raise you to the
north wall of the burial chamber of the Lou Rui Tomb. In the middle of
gods.” The Ashavan is equal to a divine spirit that receives eternal
the orchestra in panel 10, a long-sleeve dance is being performed, so the
life. Uniting with the spirits of the ancestors, the Ashavan becomes
music is most likely slow and refined. This is completely different from
a protective deity for their descendants. Thus, here too, as in panels 2,
the orchestra in panel 6. The Zoroastrian paradise, which was called “The
7, and 10, the holy flower motif is added.
House of Song,” pulsated with life.
123
① ② ③ ④
⑧ ⑨ ⑪
Reconstruction
124
Western Winds Reach the Tang
A Polo and Equestrian Archery Vessel Silver gilt vessels from the seventh to the early eighth centuries were influenced by the silver gilt vessels that were brought to Tang China from Central Asia and West Asia via the Silk Road. Many stem cups with feet, cups with handles, and oblong cups have been unearthed that are decorated with motifs previously unknown in China, including palmettos, grapes, and beads. The Tang period Deeds of An Lushan describes how An Lushan, whose father was a Sogdian and whose mother was Turkic, became a central figure at the imperial court and presented Emperor Xuanzong with many presents, including silver gilt cups. The Sogdians introduced into China the West Asian custom of giving silver gilt vessels with auspicious designs. The earliest known example of an eight-lobed oblong cup introduced to China was excavated from the Tomb of Fenghetu at Xiaozhan village, west of the city of Datong, Shanxi Province. It dates from the Northern Wei dynasty (early sixth century). The name of the late fifth century Hephthalite king Khingila is carved in Bactrian letters on the outer rim of the cup. This tells us first, that the Hephthalites paid tribute to Northern Wei and wielded significant power along the Silk Road trading routes at that time, and second, that this eight-lobed cup was of noble origins. Elliptical multi-lobed cups have also been found in a Sogdian wall painting of the seventh to eighth century that was unearthed at a site in Panjikent, Tajikistan. The multi-lobed cup is thought to have been a kind of special cup in Central Asia, in that case perhaps used by the Panjikent king himself in distinction to other noblemen present at the same occasion. On the outside of the eight-lobed cup shown here we find
057 Oblong Eight-Lobed Cup with Bird, Flower, and Hunting Motifs Tang dynasty, late 7th – mid 8th century Silver gilt H.：4.7cm L.：17.0cm W.：8.5cm
arabesque designs with grape and holy flower motifs on a ground of ring-matting, as well as birds and flowers in the wild, mounted archery, polo, and hunting with a lasso for foxes and wild boars.
of Persian origin and display felicitous designs of promotions for bravery
Hunting on horseback was one of the accomplishments of Persian
and also auspicious flowers and birds. It is possible that it was made to
nobles. The need to defend against the peoples of the steppes who
be presented as a gift. The eight-lobed cup of Central Asia is thought to
habitually invaded northeast Persia made horseback competitions
be a fusion of two styles, that of the elliptical cup whose lineage was the
popular and also led to legends of heroes who were materially
Chinese cup with ear-shaped handles and that of the fluted vessel whose
rewarded for their bravery and cleverness. Polo was probably
lineage was Roman. It can be described as a vessel in which Eurasia’s east
introduced into China after the Han collapse, during the dynasties
and west not only meet but marry. The South Section of Japan’s Shōsōin
of nomadic origin, and reached its peak during the reign of the
Repository includes an undecorated oblong eight-lobed vessel of copper
Tang Emperor Xuanzong. The felicitous designs on this vessel are
gilt, though its place of origin is unknown.
125
058 Bowl with Bird and Flower Motifs Tag period, late 7th – mid 8th century Silver gilt H.：6.8cm Diam.：14.8cm
Vessel with songs of spring This silver bowl is encircled by a protruding ridge line in the middle
which is used as a simile for two people always managing to miss one
portion of the bowl’s belly, and the upper and lower bowl surfaces feature
another, derives from the fact that swallows migrate and geese leave in
designs of birds and flowers. This so-called “waisted bowl,” in which
spring and vice versa in autumn and thus never meet. The fact that both
the upper portion has a larger diameter than the lower, is thought to
birds are displayed on this bowl may have a hidden meaning.
be of the same provenance as bowls originating in the western regions
that have broad friezes on the rim. Prime examples of such bowls are
butterflies playing among the flowers, and that the birds are singing of
the Bactrian silver bowls of the Northern Wei dynasty unearthed at
spring regardless of whether they are coming or going. The swallows and
Datong in Shanxi province. The figures, the ridge line, and the upper
wild birds that symmetrically flank the larger plants make one think of
and lower rims of this bowl all exhibit a high level of workmanship with
the West Asian sacred tree that symbolizes the life force. Here, however,
gilding that distinguishes them from the neatly embossed ground of
we have a Chinese adaptation of a felicitous design celebrating rebirth
ring-matting. The bird and floral motifs include wild plants that grow
and regeneration that originated in Central Asia. The lyricism is original
on meadowlands, flowering branches blown in the wind, long-tailed
to China and the iconography too creates a sense of motion and vivacity,
swallows, long-necked geese, wild birds, and butterflies. The traditional
down to the flowers and other plants.
Chinese saying, “Swallows and geese fly the skies at different times,”
126
There is, however, no doubt that the season is spring, with
059 Four-lobed Bowl with Mandarin Duck Design Tang period, second half of 8th – mid 9th century Silver gilt H.：5.0cm Diam.：21.6cm
Vessel with Grace and Elegance in Motion After the stable periods of Emperor Gaozong (reigned 649–83) and
floral medallion motifs. These new designs born for new types of vessels
then Empress Wu Zetian (684–705), the Sogdian-Turkic general An
had the grace and elegance of paintings and a strong sense of life and
Lushan fomented the An Lushan Rebellion against Emperor Xuanzong,
motion.
following which the Tang dynasty (618–907) lost the western regions
This four-lobed silver gilt bowl shaped like a hollyhock has lotus petal
and its power became significantly weaker. Buoyed by the dramatic
motifs on its rim and mandarin ducks within the bowl on a circular floral
development of the South China agricultural economy, however, the
cluster motif surrounded by four more floral clusters, one for each lobe.
Tang managed to survive for another century and a half. From about the
These designs were chased onto the silver surface, and then, as though
middle of the eighth century to the end of the period, silver gilt vessels
to cover their outlines, they were gilded with a mercury amalgam. The
broke away from the western imitations which had been seen in goods
shape of this bowl and the designs chased on it are typical of Southern
made for official use, and workshops established by regional government
China. The mandarin ducks had no particular religious significance, but
offices and private workshops came to the fore. That change led to the
were a popular secular subject. The motifs of the floral clusters and the
development of an original Chinese style. Production of stem cups
mandarin ducks have a realistic dynamism that makes them seem almost
with feet, cups with handles, and oblong cups waned, as did palmetto
alive. The kind of grace and elegance in motion that they embody shaped
and grape motifs. What emerged in their place were four and five lobed
the history of China’s dignified and refined art.
flower-shaped pieces, holy flower motifs, flowering branch motifs, and
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060 Plate with Winged Beasts Tibet 8th – 9th century Silver gilt H.：3.0cm Diam.：29.2cm
Tibet’s Emergence in the Western Regions In the first half of the seventh century, the first King of Tibet, Songsten
As the Arabs continued to advance into Central Asia, the eastward
Gampo, took a wife from Nepal, and his son King Gungsong
migration of Persian craftspeople and others from Persia as well
Gungsten married a woman from China. Thus, Buddhism was
as Sogdians accelerated, and ties became closer. In the mid-eighth
introduced from India and China to Tibet. In the mid-seventh century,
century, Tibet took possession of Gilgit (now northwest Kashmir)
Tibet used the cultures around them to organize and strengthen their
and Balochistan and achieved control of the route that led to the
country by such means as inviting craftsmen from China and, learning
Indus River valley. Then, taking advantage of the instability of Tang
from India, creating their own original writing system. In the first half
China during the An Lushan Rebellion, Tibet invaded China proper; it
of the eighth century, King Trhide Tsuktsen married a woman from
captured Chang’an and held it for a time and won the Hexi Corridor,
Samarkand. Sogdian writings have been unearthed from the ruins of
which included Dun Huang, and the Four Garrisons of Anxi. Tibet
the Tibetan Tombs at Dulan, Qinghai. It is likely that Sogdians for
thus took the western regions from the Tang and advanced all the way
several centuries brought to Tibet gold vessels and finely made Sogdian
to the region that bordered northwest India. In their early silver vessels
textiles that displayed the string of jewels motif, for in a work by the
may be seen designs that incorporate influences from China, India,
seventh century Tang painter Yan Liben, the robes of an envoy of King
Iranian Central Asia, and elsewhere.
Songtsen Gampo visiting the Tang court are made of just this cloth.
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Vessel with Auspicious Beasts
of this auspicious animal lived on in the west until fourteenth-century
In the concave center of the silver dish to the left is a winged creature,
Byzantium and in the east until seventeenth-century Ming China. It
half-horse, half-human, on a medallion. Surrounding it is a palmetto
may also be identified in four objects in Japan’s Sh.s.in: a silver plate, a
motif border, and then, on the outside perimeter, separated by rich floral
koto (Japanese zither), and an ivory ruler with bachiru decoration, all
ornamentation and holding holy flowers in their mouths, a variety of
from eighth century Tang China, and a piece of Japanese-made clamp
animals—red deer, flower-antlered deer, ibex, and wild sheep—confront
resist dyed silk gauze. Similar works of Tibetan provenance may be
each other in pairs. All the beasts are winged, indicating that they are not
found in the Cleveland Art Museum and in the Jokhang Temple of
only auspicious but also holy. The one in the middle holds grapes in both
Tibet. In China, the seventeenth-century funnel and flower shapes gave
hands. Figures holding offerings in both hands may also be seen in an
way to the mushroom shape of the eighth century, which in turn
eight-lobed silver cup owned by the Hermitage Museum that is thought
transformed into the thirteenth century reishi mushroom of
to date from eighth century Kabul in Afghanistan, and also in a fifth
immortality shape. Deer were widely distributed all over the Eurasian
to sixth century silver plate of Hephthalite origin held by the National
continent, and their antlers, which were shed and reborn every year,
Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan. These works show strong Indian
had been taken as a symbol of the life force since ancient times, but
influence and may have drawn from the tradition of half-horse, half-
the vogue for the flower-antlered deer originated in Tang China.
human creatures who hold pagoda offerings in both hands, as may be
The flower-antlered deer on this silver dish is surely of that line,
seen on the pagoda wall medallions and gate decorations of the ancient
representing a vogue which spread to newly-emerging countries like
Indian kingdom of Andhra. Furthermore, the head of this creature is
Kharlukh, Tibet, and Japan which were in cultural contact at the time.
decorated in a way that resembles the crowns of the Bodhisattvas and
What Form Tells Us
heavenly beings in the wall paintings of a slightly later, ninth century
The granulated ground and arabesque-style plant motifs seen in
Buddhist site, the Bezikelik Grottoes near Turfan, and there are further
the plate as a whole are characteristics similar to those of high Tang
resemblances to the chest decorations and topknots of those figures.
silver vessels, but the shaping with ridges is characteristic of seventh
Auspicious beasts like this creature may possibly overlap with images of
to eighth century Sogdian silver vessels. The plant motifs which are
the half-horse, half-human Kin’nara and the half-horse, half-bird Kin’nari
displayed on the auspicious animals are rather similar to the style of
of Indian myth.
the deer on the eight-lobed cup whose provenance is thought to be
The red deer, ibex, and wild sheep on the perimeter are animals that
Kabul, while the plant motif affixed to the end of the tail of the half-
live in the mountainous regions of Central Asia. Horns are common to
human, half-horse resembles that on silver plates from seventh century
both male and female ibexes and sheep, but as for deer, only the males
northern Iran and Bactria. The plant motifs that grow inward from
have antlers. These pairs of animals, including the flower-antlered deer,
the edge of the center medallion and the tendril design at the base of
were probably not meant to be male-female pairs, but rather a design
the wings are styles seen in post-seventh and eighth century Sogdian
similar to the traditional West Asian representation of two auspicious
silver vessels. Apparently, the metalworker was deeply influenced by
animals standing on either side of a stylized sacred plant. The design
the craft designs of Sogdiana, India, and China, and yet the roughness
of auspicious animal motifs on the perimeter of a plate enclosing a
with which the vessel was shaped and the technique of gilding with
central medallion motif can also be seen in silver plates that are thought
gold leaf, which was not used in Sogdiana or China, suggests that this
to be from eighth and ninth century Sogdiana and the then-emerging
is a regional work. A decorative metal plate of similar style has been
Kharlukh in West and Central Asia, so the form may have been in vogue
unearthed from an eighth to ninth century tomb at the Tibetan Tombs
at the time.
at Dulan, Qinghai. This vessel may have been produced in a Tibetan
The Phenomenon of the Flower-Antler Deer
workshop of that time, and may be deemed one of early Tibetan art’s
The flower-antler deer is an auspicious animal that first emerged and
masterpieces, created by eagerly absorbing the designs and traditional
became a vogue around the seventh century under the Tang, through
techniques of foreign cultures with great power and shaping ability.
cultural contacts between Sogdiana and China. In seventh to ninth
The central motifs of auspicious animals and the fact that the plate
century West Central Asia, its influence was felt in designs of crown
comes from the storehouse of a Tibetan monastery suggest that this
wearing deer, and in eighth to ninth century Tibet and East Central
was a plate for Buddhist services.
Asia in designs of deer with four- petaled flower antlers. The image
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061 Bowl with Seated Figures Flanking a Tree Iran, late 12th – early 13th century Fritware H.：8.3cm Diam.：19.6cm
An Image of Paradise Transcending Era and Creed
Vessel of Serenity
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On the inner surface of the bowl above, the image of two people
The figure sitting on the left of the tree in the center touches it with
beneath a tree is rendered in simple, concise brushstrokes. Within
his or her left hand, and seems to be conversing with it while the figure
the circle of blue-green bead-pattern, a sacred tree, its branches
on the right, a little apart from the tree, watches reverently. The subject
spreading, grows out of a sacred sea. This motif dates back to pre-
of the bowl’s design would seem to be love; it is inviting the viewer to
Zoroastrian times, originating from the sacred tree that grew from
a love for the divine that transcends human love. This profound Sufi
the middle of the sacred sea in ancient Iranian myth. In arid regions,
allegory finds an echo in lines by the thirteenth century Persian poet
it is an especially important combination, for the tree signifies the existence of water, and water is the source of life and fertility. The
Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī: “Love is not the contract that you made nor is it the vows you exchanged. Love is a tree which unfurls its
Quran uses it as an image of Paradise: “On the Day of Judgment
leaves and leaps over time into eternity, a tree which spreads its roots
the righteous will be beneath trees, among shade and springs.”
deep and arrives at eternal life.”
A Vessel in Which the Voice of Heaven Resounds
The gender of the two people sitting across from each
other beneath the tree is unclear, but referring to the image of the
In contrast to the vessel 061, here (062) we have an atmosphere
sacred sea and tree depicted on a silver plate of Sasanian Persia
of compressed intensity in which many people crowded around a
probably of the same origin 050 suggests that the figures are probably
cypress tree are solemnly praying as one. The cypress tree at the center
male and female. The four male and female couples that surround the
towers over water, as in 061; it is a sacred tree growing in the middle
central medallion motif in this bowl are depicted in the same positions,
of a sacred sea. A bird is nesting in the tree, its gaze directed upward,
except for one couple, who are holding hands; the rest are facing each
towards what seem to be heavenly birds at the upper edge of the bowl.
other and seem to be quietly conversing in an atmosphere of serenity.
The cypress tree had many symbolic and the thirteenth century Rumi.
062 Lusterware with Group Scene Iran, 13th century Fritware, Kasahan style H.：14.9cm Diam.：34.9cm
Firdausi expressed someone who was easy to love with the cypress and
fundamental structure of the garden is of course based on the utopian
linked that image to the image of the Prophet Muhammed. Rumi
ideal of a place with trees and water. Looking closely at the cypress
addressed the Prophet directly: “You who are beloved by God, you are
in 062, we can see, in addition to the bird, intersecting feathery lines.
the messenger of the sole Creator . . . you are the cypress that stands in
These are thought to be simplified representations of vines. In Persian
the garden of prophecy at the season when gnostic wisdom begins to
gardens, plants that bear fruit and cypress trees, which do not, were
bloom.” In Sufism, the chirping of the bird who nests in the cypress
planted side by side, and fruit-bearing vines were twined around the
tree is likened to the voice of angels coming down from heaven, and
cypress. That pairing becomes a symbol of the complementary relation
the garden of prophecy often appears as a metaphor for the mosque.
of life and death. However, in Sufism the “death” which the cypress
In the sixteenth century, architects of the Ottoman Empire compared
symbolized was not a fleshly one. It was the symbol of the loss of self
the mosque to “A heavenly garden where congregants gather to
attained through union with the divine.
pray.” Atop the mosque, which invites the congregants to enter this
This utopian symbolism may have been part of the very earliest
heavenly garden, the tall minaret is the cypress tree where birds sing.
mental conceptions of human beings, even before dogma and religion.
These images grew and developed with the history of Islamic temple
No matter what era, people, or religion, before the question “What
architecture.
am I?” there was a longing at the bottom of the heart, a longing that is
Here the image of the garden is also extremely important. The
the fountainhead of all artistic expression, which will never run dry.
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132
The Glorious Flower of Eurasian Culture This pile carpet has a plain weave foundation woven with strong yarns;
Buccleuch’s “Sanguszko” carpet; that collection which is thought by
pile knots of multi-colored wool are tied on the warps, following
some to include “Oriental carpets” made in sixteenth and seventeenth
a preliminary drawing, creating pictures so elegant they could be
century Europe.
paintings. The tradition is said to have its origins in the nomadic
At the corners of the center field of this Medallion and Animal
cultures of West Asia. In the nomadic tent life, carpets served as beds,
Carpet are quarter circles, each containing traditional Iranian scenes of
walls, and at times ceilings, storage for daily necessities, or entrance
hunting via mounted archery, lasso, and sword. The small medallions,
decorations. Within the tent, carpets created what was a virtual paradise
cartouches, and pendants dispersed throughout the design contain
secluded from the forbidding outside world. In the world of Islam,
Islamic winged angels and heavenly musicians that signify that the
there are carpets that are made exclusively for worship; the place on
world of this carpet is Paradise. At first glance, the motifs of animals
which they are laid out becomes sacred. The inscription on the famous
in combat which decorate both the field and the border may seem
sixteenth century Ardabil Carpet in the Victoria and Albert Museum
out of place in Paradise. It is, however, the hunting background most
in London reads:
widely used in Safavid dynasty carpets, an ancient Iranian traditional
Except for thy threshold, there is no refuge for me in all the world.
style of expression dating from the era of Mithraism. These combat
Except for this door, there is no resting-place for my head.
motifs, although they include traditional images such as a lion attacking
That inscription suggests that splendid carpet, with its designs of the
a gazelle, also present variations. We see, in an image of a leopard
mihrab lamps of the mosque, had an allegorical meaning. Carpets also
or tiger attacking an okapi, the okapi biting the neck of its attacker;
often appear in the Quran as an essential element of its ideal world of
and in the image of the lion assaulting a quilin, a mythical Chinese
comfort.
beast, it is not only the quilin who moves the clouds, as is normal for
Carpet 063 passed to the Sanguszko family of Poland as war
that mythical creature, but the attacking lion as well. The lion thus is
booty in 1621, when the Ottoman Turks were defeated at the Battle of
shown to be a heavenly beast too. A variety of animal combat motifs
Chocim by the Austrian and Polish armies. Today it is one of a group
developed through incorporating the Chinese-origin auspicious beasts
of a similar type known as the Sanguszko carpets. In the center of the
that became common in Iranian miniature paintings from the time of
carpet, two dragons entwined in the shape of a six-pointed star, one
the Timurid Empire, which was the successor to the Mongol Empire.
light and one dark, are biting each other’s necks. This symbolic image is
In China, the quilin was an auspicious beast that could not be attacked,
thought to have been a very common motif from the late sixteenth to
while the dragon and the phoenix were symbols of the emperor and
the seventeenth century. It is also present in the round pattern on the
empress and so could never fight each other, but they appear in the
inside bottom of an early seventeenth century Iranian white porcelain
world of the Iranian combat motifs almost denuded of their special
dish in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum in New York. The
statuses. The usual view is that their combats show the victory of good
pattern on the dish may be based on a preliminary drawing that was
over evil. The matter is not, however, that simple. Rather, this very
kept in the workshop that was also involved with the rug. If so, the
world of combat, of life and death, is a manifestation of a powerful
pattern on the rug was reversed for the dish, so that the dragons’ necks
life force, and it is this very life force that has great power to ward off
bend into S-shapes facing away from each other, and they bite each
evil, in the traditional West Asian mindset.
other’s bellies. The plaited cord that ties the pair of dragons together is
When the Mongol Empire arose in the thirteenth century, it
a symbol of cosmic power. Introduced into Islamic art from Central
linked West Asia to China in a forced “globalization.” As stable cultural
Asia, it is thought that it was an essentially noble and dignified design
contacts between East and West were able to mature in that period, the
meant to occupy a central position. A similar, but stiffer and more
glorious flowers of Eurasian culture, including this carpet, bloomed.
two-dimensional design may be seen on the border of the Duke of
063 Medallion and Animal Carpet Safavid 16th - 17th century Wool, cotton L.：594.3cm W.：320cm
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