’ EN S M
NDERWEAR U
DVERTISING A
W ITH SP E CI AL T H AN KS TU TO R V I CT O RI A SAL M O N
’ EN S M
NDERWEAR U
DVERTISING A MICHAEL BROSNAN
Copyright © 2010 design MICHAEL BROSNAN PUBLISHED Michael Brosnan www.michaelbrosnan.com
For this publication:© The Author and the publication Michael Brosnan.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing from the copyright holders and the publisher. ART DIRECTION Michael Brosnan
DESIGN AND LAYOUT Michael Brosnan TYPOGRAPHY Michael Brosnan PRINTING Print Fast
ONTENTS C Foreword. The underwear advertisements Introduction. The questionnaire and statistics. A short history of the undergarment and gender prior to modernization. The masculine gender role. Power and sexual gender. The power of the photo, and the rise of homoeroticism. Psychology and power of advertising. Sports and narcissism. The shopping experience. Conclusion References Bibliography
i
iii 1 35 37 53 55 57 65 71 75 79 81 84 88
OREWARD F A
s a child, it was always a compulsion of mine to wander past the underwear section at the local department store, desiring and searching for underwear that reflected the psychological mysteries of manhood, being enticed into a world of storybook fantasy of masculine adventure. This flimsy cloth covers men’s loins, the source of his sexuality and of his erotic and procreative power. It differentiates the masculine from the feminine and determines man’s masculinity in the sports arena. Man’s behavior in sports and the psychological interaction in the locker-room, differentiates the men from the boys. This determination of who is ‘feminine’ has always threatened men in social environments. Heterosexual men have traditionally reserved their ‘gaze’ for women’s bodies whereas man-on-man ‘gaze’ was regarded as a sign of homosexuality. What a homosexual wore was consequently regarded as ‘feminine’, identifying their sexuality to others and thus marking them for homophobic attacks.
iii
Underwear has evolved beyond its purely utilitarian hygienic function and has become an intrinsic fashion item. Over the last 30 years I have witnessed the incredible change in the direction of men’s ‘gaze’, the masculine gaze has become one of envy and desire. What was regarded as being masculine has been altered by the incredible increase in sport-stars salaries, increasing their ability to consume and thus influencing society’s desire for branded goods. This has given rise to the fashionista who has eagerly accepted their Hollywood celebrity status, lapping up all the benefits of fame, such as corporate endorsements and media pampering, not only for themselves but also for their WAGS who depend on their partner’s status in protecting their vanity.
Although I have recently come out to my father and have come to terms with my own sexuality, I must confess that during my childhood I was conflicted about my idolization of the images of male sexuality and bodily perfection. I was passionate for the photographic, art-fashion image. These images, which incorporated into their compositions, intimacy, the ‘Great Outdoors’ and the relaxed pose of the model, catapulted me into a world of escapism. During
my youth, I worshipped these images and desired to be that man. My desire was so encompassing that I even begged my father to send me to America as an exchange student, so that I could experience American Jock Culture. During this period I completely identified with masculine beauty, buying American GQ Magazine, so that I could cut out the pictures of the men and discretely paste them, both behind my bedroom door and inside my wardrobe.
“During my youth, I worshipped these images and desired to be that man”.
Compounding the development of my burgeoning sexuality, was the then illegality of homosexuality in the state of Queensland, Australia. All medium containing sexual content or sexual imagery had to be bought across the border in more liberal New South Wales. This lack of imagery lead me to frantically search out benign holiday brochures or issues of National Geographic Magazine, which contained depictions of men wearing Speedos leisurely, on the decks of cruise ships or by the seaside.
iv
As I grew older, I was able to gaze discretely at men on the beaches or at public pools, looking liberated, wearing their Speedos. To me, masculine men looked incredible, comfortably flaunting their bodies, wearing only their ‘nylons’.
Speedo was celebrated as the great Aussie Cossie and as our lifestyle was considered to be so unique, an American company eventually bought the rights to a brand that was synonymous with Australian culture.
Jockey was the distinctive men’s underwear of that time. Later, Australia’s own men’s underwear label Bonds, would become the number one men’s underwear brand. Queensland is especially hot and humid in the Summer. Both outdoor sports and swimming are compulsory at school, so undressing with the other boys in the changing room was common practice. We could therefore see what everyone else was wearing next to their naked skin. Even then, men’s underwear ads were common on television. The most memorable, was the advert for Jockey: “One day you’re going to get caught with your pants down”. I came to love Herb Ritz and Bruce Weber’s photography in both
American and European magazines; they celebrated the male physique, worshipping it for its beauty. From this early stage I became truly excited and stimulated by this art form. Thus began a whole new chapter.
“Speedo was celebrated as the great Aussie Cossie and as our lifestyle was considered to be so unique, an American company eventually bought the rights to a brand that was synonymous with Australian culture”.
v
HE T
NDERWEAR U
DVERTISEMENTS A A
presentation of men’s underwear posters and advertisements. These ads define important historical moments in mankind’s psychological and social development. Here we can note the changing acceptance and perception of masculinity on a global scale. These apparel advertisements targeted for men have enhanced their shopping experience that was once regarded as a feminine role. We also find, that through the bombardment of underwear advertisements that the gaze once held for perusing members of the opposite sex, is now enjoyed free of discrimination by all genders.
1
1911 COOPERS Saturday Evening post November 4
J. C. Leyendecker, the legendary Saturday Evening Post artist, painted a series of images for our revolutionary Kenosha Klosed Krotch union suit. (Original Leyendecker oil paintings sell for more than $50,000.
2
1927 COOPERS Country Gentleman June Cooper’s has always appealed to fun and “real people” as illustrated in this ad for their Coopers brand underwear.
3
1935 Jockey Saturday Evening post June 15
Coopers made underwear history by selling the first brief, a revolutionary JOCKEY idea which competitors laughed at until consumer demand drove them to copy it. This also marked the birth of the JOCKEY brand.
4
1946 Jockey Esquire June Legendary sports greats such as Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, Byron Nelson and Red Grange endorsed JOCKEY brand briefs as their underwear of choice.
5
1954 Jockey Sports Illustrated August 16
This JOCKEY ad debuted in this first issue of Sports Illustrated.
6
1967 Jockey GQ March The decade of the groovy and far out: the Beatles, Woodstock and JOCKEY underwear.
7
1973-1974 Jockey Sports Illustrated May 14, 1973
An audacious marketing strategy by Jockey with the introduction of Bikini underwear (Jockey originally invented way back in 1959) which became a phenomena in the 1970s.
8
1977 Jockey Playboy maGazine Above: Jim Hart. From Left to Right: Denis Potvin, Ken Anderson. Jamaal Wilkes, Mike Riordan. Jim Plamer, Steve Calton. Jo Jo White, Peter Rose. Jockey ads inviting the sports stars to play.
9
1978 Jockey Tony Dorsett Marques Johnsons Bob Seagren Jim Palmer Jockey incorporate the paradigm of Eadweard Muybridge photo analytical studies of human and animal motion.
10
1981 Jockey Jim Palmer Jockey reveals a more comfortable looking man. The first time the viewer is invited into a relaxed thigh that is spread wide open.
1981: Jockey captured its first designer license and established a line of men’s underwear for Yves St. Laurent.
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1983 Jockey Jim Palmer Jockey reportedly made a $100 million after launching this campaign on the side of a building in Time Square.
12
1983 Calvin Klein Tom Hintinauss In September Klein Launched his provocative campaign in Time Square, it was reported that he made $70 Million in his first year. The homoerotic image of the Olympic athlete sent peoples pulses running and became the most talked about underwear campaign of all time. Inspired by the 50’s Physique Pictorial imagery of muscular beauty.
13
1984 Fruit of the Loom Commercially enters the market with adds depicting the friendly side of sportsmanship. The ad above was launched in 1988.
14
1988 Jockey Bart Conner Endorses their own home grown Olympian Bart Conner who won 2 gold at Los Angeles Olympic Games
15
1992 Calvin Klein MARK Wahlberg Mark was known for his impressive physique. He first displayed it in the Good Vibrations music video and most prominently in a series of underwear ads for Calvin Klein shot by Herb Ritts, following it with television ads. In 1992 the Calvin Klein billboard in New York’s Times Square featured Wahlberg exclusively.
16
17
1996 Calvin Klein Antonio Saba Jr After starring in “If Looks Could Kill’, Saba Jr. caught the attention of the designer company ‘Calvin Klein.’ It wasn’t long before he signed on as the spokes model for Calvin Klein underwear. After a very successful three years of modeling for Calvin Klein, Antonio’s attention was turned to feature films.
18
19
1993 Ralph Lauren Tyson Beckford Beckford who made history as the first African-American male signed an exclusive deal with a Ralph Lauren, is prohibited by his contract with Polo Ralph Lauren from doing other designers’ shows.
20
1995 Calvin Klein “The fashion designer who specializes in breaking taboos and thereby getting himself public out rage, media coverage, and more bang for his buck. 1n 1995 he bought the federal government down on himself by running a campaign that may have crossed the line into child pornography. The models were awkward, self-conscious. Very young models…. were featured in luscious print and in television commercials designed to mimic child porn…. There was a great deal of protest, which brought the issue into national consciousness but which also gave Klein the publicity and free media coverage he was looking for. He pulled the ads but at the same time his jeans sales would almost double from $115 million to $220 million that year.”34
21
1999 Jockey Jockey速 Sport is introduced with moisture management technology. Jockey速 Sport utilizes advanced technology fabric that is designed to rapidly wick and move moisture away to help cool you better and faster. Jockey launched retail capabilities on Jockey.com速, which helped bring loyal customers to the most modern sales channel of all.
22
2001 Calvin Klein Travis Fimmel Travis one of Calvin Klein’s success story, arriving in LA with only $60 in his pocket and refusing to go to the casting for jocks, was requested by his agent that he definitely must attend. Calvin was capture by the Australian’s free spirit, handsome good looks and natural body. The gym look was over done and need of reinvention.
23
2003 Calvin Klein Freddie Ljungberg Freddie was signed by Arsenal in 1998 for ÂŁ3 million, which at the time was the biggest transfer ever for a Swedish player. He has always loved fashion. Their was a lot of animosity during this campaign as he had no spouse, and the public question him about his sexuality and he did not commit to answering such questions.
24
2001-2005 HOM The French Men’s Undergarment company Hom, have always strived ahead of the rest of the world in men’s lingerie design. French men are more in touch with their feminine side and the understanding of knowledge as power. Hom are more experimental in developing new fabrics and designs that are in the interest of men’s comfort.
25
2006-2007 Jockey 2006: Jockey launches its 3D-Innovations™ garments in most major metropolitan areas across the United States. A successful nationwide launch soon follows. 2007: The 3D-Innovations™ collection is launched around the world.
26
2007 Calvin Klein Djimon Hounsou Said Hounsou, “As a child growing up in Africa, I could have never dreamed that I would be where I am today. Representing such an iconic American brand like Calvin Klein Underwear signifies to me that I have been accepted. This carries more meaning for me than you can imagine. Dreams really do come true.�
27
2008 aussieBum Sean Ashby In 2001, Director Sean Ashby started aussieBum when he couldn’t find the style of swimwear he grew up with. The origins of aussieBum started as a web-site that ran from a suburban lounge room. Since starting out with only AU$20,000, aussieBum is now a multimillion dollar global enterprise.
28
2008 Dolce & Gabbana David Gandi Gandi’s frenzy of appreciation (11 million internet hits and counting, many of them from overexcited females) that has greeted his Dolce appearance suggests that this is not only a gay phenomenon.
29
2008 Calvin Klein Garrett Neff Neff is the tenth man to be featured in a Calvin Klein Underwear campaign. The Fall 2008 campaign will be featured in print and outdoor advertising spanning 17 countries timed to coincide with September 2008 magazine issues. Imagery will be posted at key outdoor sites including those in New York, Los Angeles, Madrid, Barcelona, and Seoul.
30
31
2008 Emporio Armani David Beckham Beckham is the most internationally recognizable sports star in the world, he is the perfect metrosexual model and archetypal sportsman for young men to identify with.
32
33
NTRODUCTION I T
hrough out the last 60 years, the men’s underwear industry has strategically questioned man’s sexual consciousness and social status, comparing it with what the state regards, and accepts as normal. By utilizing new media technologies, society has been able to implement the struggles of humanity over the state, to advance the rights of the individual by publicising awareness in localised magazines that propelled the emancipation of social consciousness and sexual freedoms. Advertisers have implemented the ideologies of what we regard as masculine and feminine, as semiotics in their campaigns by questioning what we regard as the struggles of the subconscious that challenge and question societies’ position in relation to the philosophy of the governing authority. I will also examine Michel Foucault’s philosophy of power and rule, and discuss why Governments no longer see the individual as a threat but have learnt that by empowering the individual with responsibility it can measure power subjectively as a means of commercial success in a post-modern society.
35
I would like to discuss the ideologies that identify with the archetypal model so relevant in underwear campaigns and how we as the mainstream public identify with the social ideologies of “manhood”.
I will also look at the changes in how men reflectively perceive themselves and argue that they are less threatened by sexual condemnation by fellow colleagues if they wish to be in touch with their feminine side, or feel less threatened if they wish to appreciate the male physique. Men, who are influenced by advertising, are perceived as being more liberal and are flexible regarding gender issues. As they are constantly bombarded by new products through modern technologies such as the Internet, which have globalized the commercial markets, making feminine vanity more normal for men. I will also analyse these ads in their context and time frame and discuss their relationship to gender and society. Michel Foucault writes that we are entering a “normalization period”. We have become so bombarded with images that we have become numbed and de-sensitised regarding what has been perceived as shocking or sexual is now normal.
36
By examining men’s underwear advertising, I will determine what has initiated this change in men’s consciousness, and the phenomenon of “Tipping Points”. I will pinpoint the semiotics in the ads that have had an impact on the emasculation of people’s freedoms and gender struggles, which have psychologically driven the customer to purchase products that symbolize social and sexual diversity.
“Men, who are influenced by advertising, are perceived as being more liberal and are flexible regarding gender issues.”
Since underwear has had its reinventions, designer brands have evolved and in parallel with the development of new technological eco -friendly fabrics, have come to terms with improving the male comfort. I will argue that men are no longer threatened by the feminine emasculation of male images and are willing to experiment by going as far as trying new flamboyant colours, looking at the new designer cuts and are now preferring to wearing lingerie fabrics once develop for the comfort of women.
HE T
UESTIONNAIRE Q
ND TATISTICS A S W
hen I initially set out on this project, I did not have a clue about the men’s underwear market and the impulses or thought process that lead the consumer to pick one style over the others on the market. Recently, the number of billboards that have depicted the male physique, clothed in body-conscious underwear, has overwhelmed me. I sensed that something was changing but could not, at first, identify the cultural shift. I had an inclination that the tide had finally turned against the overwhelming importance of the profit ratio and that the long-standing traditions of the retail experience were changing.
37
In my quest of understanding the male undergarment market place, I discovered a previously little-known brand called Aussiebum, from Australia that had exploded onto the scene taking the world by storm. Aussiebum’s bright red logo, embroidered on the white elastic band reflected the hedonistic lifestyle of the sunburnt, Aussie, lifesaving hero wearing only his nylon Cossie. Aussiebum’s website developed all the possibilities of Internet marketing, bringing to the cyber generation, a more desirable experience. We have seen a growing demographic trend of young, single men, no longer suppressed and in fear of harassment or social rejection, if they expressed their personality by wearing symbolic and fashionable colours. Young men have also elevated themselves above the residual discovers of their youthful ‘alter ego’ mirror images as described in Melanie Klein’s psychological studies, in which a new kind of cyber alter ego has now exploded on to the scene. Power and control are no longer in the hands of the corporate retailers, but are still subject to the mercies of government censorship. The Internet has driven a newfound, competitive, freedom that is without boundaries either political
38
We have seen a growing demographic trend of young, single men, no longer suppressed and in fear of harassment or social rejection, if they expressed their personality by wearing symbolic and fashionable colours.
or cultural. True competition now lies in the hands of the individual who can use new technologies and the Internet to apply the experience beyond the tactile and into the psyche of cyber sensation. Since the 1800’s, magazines have solely relied on pictures and text as advertising, but now the media has moved beyond the use of the static image, the evolution of the Internet has, like television, enabled individuals to actively search for an emotional online experience, without condemnation.
With my questionnaire I have attempted to understand the psychology of men’s current attitudes towards underwear, surrounded as they are in an environment with everpresent billboards.
I surveyed 108 men between the ages of 16 to 60. 60% were from white, or Caucasian backgrounds with the remaining 40%from other ethnic minority groups. I interviewed most of them in person, and quickly realised that one’s race was irrelevant as a factor in brand choice, but that socioeconomic class was a greater indicator. Sexuality was also questioned. 67% were heterosexual, 26% were homosexual, and 6% were bisexual. 42% of those questioned were students
3.8% bought new underwear as preparation for a new date.
and the rest came from a variety of professional backgrounds. 51% were in the low-income bracket, 15% were earning over 100 K and the rest were spread out at intervals of 20K with 11% in each wage category.
88% of those questioned bought their own underwear while 6.5 % left it to their parents. The remaining 5.6%, were bought by their partners.
3.2% had 7 pairs or less; 28.7% had 8–12 pairs; 36.2% had 13-18 pairs and 31% had more than 18 pairs. Everyone questioned played some type of sport and were questioned as to the number of times they changed their underwear on the day they played, 36.4% changed them only once; 57.9% changed them twice; 4.7% three times; and 0.9% 4 times a day. In addition, 10.3% wore some form of athletic support. From my research, on average most people replaced their underwear every six months. It was interesting to note that 75.2% bought their underwear as a replacement; 33.3% for the feel good factor; 14.3% because it made them feel sexy; 10.5% bought new underwear by habit; 5.7 were influenced by new advertisements;
From my research, on average most people replaced their underwear every six months.
Regarding the fabrics that are used in the industry: 99% were aware of cotton; 33.3% knew of Spandex (“Spandex or elastane is asynthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more durable than rubber, its major nonsynthetic competitor. It was invented in 1959 by Du Pont chemist Joseph Shivers. When first introduced, it revolutionized many areas of the clothing industry. “Spandex” is a generic name and not derived from the chemical name of the fibre, which most manufactured fibres are, but an anagram of the word expands. “Spandex” is the preferred name inNorth America; elsewhere it is referred to as “elastane”).1 26.5% were aware of microfibre (“Microfibres were first publicised in the early 1990’s inSweden, and saw success as a product in Europe over the course of the decade. Microfibre refers to synthetic fibres that measure less than one denier . The most common types of microfibres are made from polyesters, polyamides (nylon), and or a conjugation of polyester and polyamide. Microfibre is used in the manufacture of non-woven, woven and knitted textiles. The shape, size and combinations of synthetic fibres are selected for specific characteristics, including: softness,
39
Brands and the Number of p eople who have pu rc hased them
To t a l n u m be r of unde r w e a r tha t p e op l e ha ve p ur cha sed
2 - ( x ) ist A n d re w C h r i s ti a n A u s s ie Bu m Bj o r n Bo rg Bo n ds C-IN2 C a l vi n K l ei n D KN Y D o l c e & G a b a n na D ie sel E m po ri o A m a ni Gi n c h & Go nc h Ho m Hu g o Boss J o c key R a l ph La u r en Pa u l S m ith Pu n t o Bl a n c o R u fski n S l oggi T e d Ba ker T o m m y Hi l fi ger U n ic o M u ndo H& M , N e x t , M&S
40
17 4 17 7 8 9 59 9 14 15 10 17 5 9 5 12 5 2 3 4 4 4 2 49
No’s of men’s underwear purchased
Each stack represents 10 pairs of men’s underwear
41
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percent age
percentage
% The percentage for what sports people play
Each stack represen ts 10 percent
The percentage for how much people are prepared to pay for underwear
0
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-£4
+£4
£31
0 -£3 £22
1 -£2 £18
7 -£1 £14
3 -£1 £10
-£1
price
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per centag e
%
Each stack represents 10 percent
43
The percentage for where people buy their underwear
place of transaction
44
H Re igh S ta tr il S ee to t re Bo ut iq ue De pa rt m St ent or e Int er ne t Ca ta log ue Su pe rm ar ke t
per centag e
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advertisements seen in the last 6 months Te
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The percentage for advertisements seen in the last 6 months
45
When asked about what makes an ad memorable, the Image was top at 51.4%, followed by the Model at 50.5%; Sexuality at 29.0%; and 23.4% for the clever Idea. Graph to follow.
durability, absorption, wicking abilities, water repellency, electrodynamics, and filtering capabilities”). 2
6.9% had heard of Micro modal (“For Lenzing 2008 is the Modal year of innovation Micro Modal® is beech wood from sustainably managed forests, 10% elastane. Micro Modal® the softest fibre made by Lenzing is the perfect fibre for lingerie applications. Fabrics of Micro Modal® are feather-light and natural skin huggers. Reputed manufacturers (from Bruno Banani to Calida) use 100% Micro Modal® for their lingerie collections”). 3 And 7.8% knew of Tencel (“TENCEL® in the Active Wear sector. There is a trend towards natural fibres in the Active-Wear sector as well: the natural functions of the cellulose fibre TENCEL® are a persuasive force in the active wear sector, offering perfect solutions as TENCEL® adjusts itself perfectly to the properties of the skin. The natural stayfresh fibre TENCEL® stops formation of bacteria right from the start as moisture is immediately removed from the skin and transferred onto the inside of the fibre: Therefore, no water film on the fibre, which could form the basis of bacterial growth”). 4
46
It was interesting to note that 88.8% had no hang-ups about admiring another man‘s physique and that 80.4% didn’t feel threatened by other men’s gazes of their own body.
The emotional responses stimulated by Men’s underwear advertising were sexiness at 49.5%; 18% had no emotional response; fantasy at 16.8%; envy at 14.0%; excitement at 12.1%; symbolic at 11.2%; freedom and happiness at 9.3%; 8% were annoyed by men’s underwear ads.
One of the most interesting findings was whether the advertising influenced shopping habits: 40% said they had an inherent shopping habit; 25% were persuaded by their subconscious; 20% were subjective to advertisements message; 10% wanted to see what other brands offered before they made a decision and 5% wanted to be the man in the ad. When asked about what influenced their choice when shopping, 49.5% said cut and comfort were important; followed by colour at 44.9%, brand at 35.5%; packaging at 7.5%; 6.5% for the new fashion range and 5.6% for the ads’ ‘popularity.
Whether they had seen other men in underwear? 77.6% said ‘yes’ and the majority had been in men’s locker rooms at sporting facilities. It was interesting to note that 88.8% had no hang-ups about admiring another man‘s physique and that 80.4% didn’t feel threatened by other men’s gazes of their own body; 12% said that they felt threatened while 7.5% felt a little threatened. 89.7% of men did not feel threatened if a man was feminine while only 10.3% were. Regarding the question about the coined word “metrosexual”. Only 39.3% of men knew of a metrosexual, the most common name coined was David Beckham, receiving the majority of the vote at 94%, while George Michael, Jude Law, Orlando Bloom, and Matthew McConaughey, made up the remainder. 21.1% said that metrosexual men inspired them and 18.5%felt no influence. 71.0% said that they were inspired more by men with great physiques but when it came to buying underwear only 34.6% said that they would buy the underwear if the model were not athletic; 35.5% said that the model must be athletic and 29.9% said that it did not matter.
what influenced their choice when shopping, 49.5% said cut and comfort were important; followed by colour at 44.9%, brand at 35.5%; packaging at 7.5%; .... and 5.6% for the ads’ ‘popularity.
Regarding the questions about the Internet, 67% said that they have already purchased goods over the Web. Google scored 97% as the most popular search engine followed by yahoo. 20% of people had actually bought underwear on line. 63.6% said that if the Internet became more user friendly and mentally stimulating they would use it more often to shop on line.
Regarding questions about social network sites and narcissism. Facebook received the most popular vote at 96%; followed by Myspace and Gaydar with 6% each; And Perfect picture and Linkin at 2%.
40.2% like to see what other people are wearing on the web and 8.9% have actually posted a picture of themselves on the web wearing underwear. 16% of people model an iconic pose when posting an image on the web. Regarding questions on shopping habits: 73.8% said that their shopping habits would change with in five years. 51.4% said thought that they would be captured by the on-line experience; 38.3%stated the opposite and 10.3% said that they had already been captured.
47
Regarding the questions about what prevented them shopping on line; 42% enjoyed the tactile shopping experience; 30% were concerned about fraud; 32% said they lack the finances; 8% worried about delivery of goods and 2% felt that the on-line experience was dull.
POPULATION
Quick Stats -- United Kingdom
Â
United Kingdom
Population estimate 2007 Household estimate 2007 Adults 18+ estimate 2007 Adults 15+ estimate 2007
* http://www.demographicsonline.com/OnPackages_Go.srct
48
60,796,178
26,018,847
47,755,246 50,145,609
The population of the United Kingdom in the 2001 census was 58,789,194. This has since risen to 60,587,300 according to mid-2006 estimates by the Office for National Statistics [1]
Part
Population (mid-2006)
England
50,762,900
Scotland
15–64 65+
4.9
1,741,600
United Kingdom
0–14
8.4
2,965,900
Northern Ireland
Age group
83.8
5,116,900
Wales
% (Mid-2006)
2.9
60,587,300
100
Population Male
%
Female
5,560,48 9
5,293,871
18.0
4,027,721
5,458,235
15.7
20,193,876
19,736,516
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_Kingdom
66.3
49
If I were to extrapolate my findings looking at the frequency of new buys and the amount spent, to the general then we can produce an estimate at the potential size of the market.
Of the 20,193,876 males between the ages of 15-64: 24% or 4,725,366 would spend less than £10 on a pair; 31.8% or 6,421,652 would spend £10-£13; 19% or 3,957,999 would spend £14-£17; 13% or 2,625,203 would spend £18-£21 11.2% or 2,261,714 would spend £22-£30; whilst 1% or 201,939 would spend over £40 on a pair of underwear. If new underwear were to be purchased every six months, then I can get a rough estimate as to how much is generated from sales of underwear in the UK. Total amount spent on one pair of underwear in 2006 of males aged between 15-64 Cost of Underwear
Average Spent
£10-£13
£10
£14-£17 £18-£21 £22-£30 £30-£39 £40+
Percentage of = Population
Amount Spent
£11.5
6,421,652
£73,848,998
£19.5
2,625,203
£10 £15.5 £26 £34.5 £40
x
4,725,366
3,957,999 2,261,714 0
201,939
Total amount spent on one pair of underwear
50
=
£47,253,660 £61,348,985 £51,191,458 £58,804,564
£0 or small sales £8,077,560
£241,720,661
Nationally, £241,720,661 could potentially be generated, making it an extremely lucrative business. This is why we are being constantly bombarded by men’s underwear ads.
Another reason why we are being bombarded designer underwear advertisements is due to the increasing competition in the market place and subsequent decline of designer underwear being purchased. With the new technologies of design and with increasing globalization it has become more affordable for retail companies such as H&M, Next, Mark & Spencer etc, to produce the same quality, using similar fabrics at a more reasonable cost. From my research, these retail companies now have a 52% share of the market share in the UK. A Just-style.com report stated that “between 2003-2007, there was a 15.6% increase in the number of units sold but, a decline in value sales to reach £679 million. Consumers have bought a lot more for a lot less money, due to inflation and a very competitive market . Retailers own brands dominate the men’s underwear sector and have further increased market share. The middle market has been more challenged, especially for less differentiated brands, and a key factor has been the increased competition from Primark”. 5
With the new technologies of design and with increasing globalization it has become more affordable for retail companies such as H&M, Next, Mark & Spencer etc, to produce the same quality, using similar fabrics at a more reasonable cost.
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HORT S
A ISTORY H
o f t h e u n d erg a rment a nd ge nde r prio r t o mo de rniz ati o n
M
en’s underwear for years, prior to modernization, had not advanced from its minimalist design, and was regarded as simple apparel whose only function was to protect the outer garment. It is true to say that because of the lack of technologies prior to this era, men were subjected to the same technologies as women. Hygiene was the prime reason for producing such garments. The importance of comfort prior to the modernization period was not in the interest of the bourgeois elite who chose to wear stiff apparel that could identifiable separate themselves from the working class or proletariat. The elite did not question comfort as a priority; stiff linen was used to give support through structure of the undergarment as a sign of power.
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Underwear since the 19th century has been re-invented attempting to improve male comfort, in line with their female counterparts, in a constantly changing market place. Fabrics were produced and redesigned to create class definition. The shirt was regarded as underwear and was also a sign of class distinction.
Changes, over the centuries signified by quality and cut, reflected the changing values of society. The discovery of new fabrics has enabled society at large to relax as one. The majority of studies looking at undergarments were derived from the interpretation of images painted by artists; records of garments themselves were almost nonexistent. Images were catalogued by chronological order and interpreted in a context that researchers could match with the periods of each fabric used. The use of underwear as a garment of fetishism, as reflected by the period that aroused sexual interest, was only highlighted by the introduction of the corset. “Tight’ and ‘stiff’ are words and concepts to which fetishists attributed quasi-magical powers, and which embody ancient hierarchical association with control, duty, morality, rank, etc.” 6 From this early study we can associate that stiff and tight fabrics gave rise
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to the hierarchical association of the ruling class. During this period, men were not regarded as sexual objects thus leaving their female counterparts as the objects of desire.
The underwear one could wear depended on one’s social status in the elitist society. Men in this early stage of history were denied any involvement or understanding of their desires, needs or comfort. Depending on what socio-economic background you were born into, determined how you spent the rest of life caught within the grand hierarchy, a strategy of the ruling class.
It wasn’t until men had more time for leisure, and had extra finances that they were able to indulge into sporting activities, they did not idolize men’s masculinity in a sexual tone as the undergarment cover the entire body, therefore leaving homoeroticism and sexual desire unquestioned. Men denied taking part in appreciating another man’s body, and society never questioned masculinity, the gaze was regarded for the feminine? And men never questioned their role of masculinity as it was defined by the religious gious teachings of the church.
Men denied taking part in appreciating another man’s body, and society never questioned masculinity, the gaze was regarded for the feminine?
HE T
ASCULINE M
ENDER OLE G R I
will examine men’s roles in society and explain why there is now confusion of gender roles that is only now leading into a period of normalization, fusing traditional images of the male Adonis with the economic strength of the feminist movement, which has empowered women to succeed in roles previously dominated by men and the patriarchy of power.
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As society progresses we need to comprehend how men perceive themselves and understand how the upcoming generations are being raised, as this will point to the role models that will become the most attractive for advertising campaigns. In Ian Harris’s book “Messages men hear”, he introduces us to a study of 560 men in the United States that enabled the categorization of 24 dominant gender roles or male messages. He believes that “Male messages express gender role norms that tell men how to behave. The identities of boys, when they are born, are like unshaped balls of clay. Boys are born into a particular class status, cultural group, or race that helps determine how to behave as men”7
He also states that “a man’s gender is to some extent determined by his biology’. Because of his masculine features, he is exposed to a world where the facts of gender are taken at face value.” 8 Therefore, we can derive that men today are able to identify two gender identities; one is represented by their personality, as in face value and the second, illustrated by sexual behavior. During the last 60 years, men through the mass media such as the huge influx
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of men’s fashion magazines have been able to define what is masculine in relation to the feminine. Publishers have permitted the male to experiment with his masculine sexuality without any religious or political condemnation, entrusting what they read and see as truth, even though the truth has been distorted and manipulated towards benefiting the advertisers, thus ensuring their economic survival. Men are constantly seeking inspirational role models, to ensure their recognition of maleness.
The development of the corporation is partly responsible for the emasculation of the father figure, diminishing the influence of this dominant and controlling figurehead in postmodern society.
The development of the corporation is partly responsible for the emasculation of the father figure, diminishing the influence of this dominant and controlling figurehead in post modern society. Just like their female counterparts they look towards magazines to educate themselves about current fashion and social trends, thus influencing the marketplace.
Advertisers take advantage of the fact that males struggle with their own inadequacies as they grow to maturity and seek inspirational roles. Ian Harris states that, “Younger men, faced with standards promulgated in the media, are insecure about their gender identities. Boys are not accepted members of society as males, until they learn the social prescribed roles appropriate for their gender. They live with the innate dread of being inadequate, comparing themselves with males who do better, who are handsome, muscular, rich and successful, and attractive.� 9
Developing males are influenced by their peers as they grow and develop, incorporating into their personalities traits especially of competitive sports stars, that they trust as masculine thus adopting them as part of their public identity. They measure the success of these stars by the luxury sports cars, watches and houses that they possess and by the latest fashions that they follow. These men are regarded as the postmodern archetypal man. Where is male identity heading and have we become caught up in a mine field of greed, capital gains and competitive hostilities initiated by multinational corporations, manipulating the instinctive culture of male gender
identity to benefit commercialism?
The confusion has laid the ground for a new men’s movement that has become vulnerable to capitalism has and questioning the very existence and separateness of their male gender. The role of the father and his energy within the home has been harnessed by the power of the multinational corporations to intrinsically force men to compete against one another, in order for them to succeed and survive.
Advertisers take advantage of the fact that males struggle with their own inadequacies as they grow to maturity and seek inspirational roles.
Distinctions of masculine gender rituals as methods of behavior are visible within corporations and can be regarded as sexist by female counterparts. The male parent is tested by his abilities to bond with and intimidate his rivals, the challenge of ascending the corporate hierarchy and gaining power as a form of residual strength so that success can be rewarded in the form of either monetary and/or political gains. The negative
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side of corporate competitiveness can lead to psychological scaring, lack of personal esteem and lack of confidence regarding future ventures.
“The fact is that during and after Second World War, a process ended in the West. (A process that began in the nineteenth century with the advent of industrialization in Europe), that triggers a sort of anthropological fracture between males and the previous masculine culture. For the past fifty years, and for the first time in history of the male beings, males were no longer being initiated into society and introduced into the world of adults by their fathers; now for the first time, this rite of passage was supervised by the mother, and by a series of female figures…. This has led to an interruption in the transmission of male material and instinctive culture, which the mother could not possess (since she belong to a different gender) and therefore could not communicate even had she desired to.” 10
Therefore, advertisers used products that instinctively appealed to a male’s subconscious, suggesting the attainment of success. However, it is also imperative that advertisers must remember that they have a moral and
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inherent responsibility to amplify and protects the male’s instinct of his own gender identity. In recent times, modes of conduct have changed within the corporations themselves prodded by the Liberal feminism movements that started in the 60’s, and evolved through to the 80’s and 90’s, that “asserted equal rights for men and women through political and legal reform… and, Radical feminism considers the capital hierarchy which it describes as sexist as defining feature of women oppression.” 11
Men are now more conscious of their female counterparts, which have leaded them to question their instinctive masculine behavior.
Men are now more conscious of their female counterparts, which have leaded them to question their instinctive masculine behavior. Claudio Rise writes, “the corporation, that is an institution, is large, indifferent and indeed, hostile to relationships and power through blood ties among its members.”12 The definition of masculinity is again influenced by the mother figure, guiding the development of the child’s viewpoint by a simple show or lack of approval. Through
feminism, man is inevitably weak, although he is regarded as a creature of mankind, the head of an institution that acts in the interest of self-control for the good of mankind, he is finally vulnerable to the laws enacted by woman rights organizations. Ian Harris states that, “In a competitive world, men who feel inadequate often resort to violence and distorted images of power in order to express their mastery upon a world that expect them to lord over others, using force and guns to assert themselves. Some men with low self-esteem bully others to express this aspect of masculinity. Such behavior is acceptable in a dog-eat-dog masculine world, which encourages men to advance their own interests.” 13
This violence is also directed into the home as the father figure questions his own inadequacies as the breadwinner, disrupting the function and structure of the nuclear family, with the spouses inevitably separating in divorce. Claudio Risé believes that “the corporation then goes on to absorb all of the energy of the male parent, leaving the mother…. to see to the education of the boys…. the Great Mother which is unfailingly active in the collective subconscious.” 14
Therefore, the masculine identity is more than ever at risk of becoming weak and distinctive with the possibility of a fusion between what is masculine and what is feminine more likely.
A true masculine role model is one that can send correct inherent instincts changeable with the values of the times, and exemplify this new form of gender as the power of success.
Masculine role models are important in identifying the behavioral requirements that define a man. Success is measured in their ability to apply themselves well at work without neglecting the role of the nuclear family. However, masculinity should also be defined by the ability to love. A true masculine role model is one that can send correct inherent instincts changeable with the values of the times, and exemplify this new form of gender as the power of success.
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OWER P ND A
EXUAL S
ENDER G
H
istorically, images of the male figure in underwear advertising campaigns have been subjected to public scrutiny, as they have challenged the manifestation of social and sexual struggles incepted by political and religious ideologies. The public usually responds instinctively to campaign semiotics and the sexual innuendos, that correlate to the liberation and ‘tipping points’ of social change. Advertisers have struggled with portrayals of sexual orientation in underwear advertising, as they have a social responsibility to not offend the mainstream public fearing condemnation if a campaign does not fit in with the publics’ criteria of ‘manhood’, as this message can infringe upon moral and religious beliefs. However, in the postmodern world we tend to forget that commercialism has consumed our religious and moral objectives by sexualizing the consumer’s point of
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transaction as a feel good factor, playing on our guilt that fulfills our true desire of ‘want’. Commercialism has detached us from the modes of reproduction and morality, which are intrinsic to religious teaching. I will discuss how religion and the State define both masculine and feminine gender roles and how gender roles are still and will always be used as a base that is defined by the patriarchy of power. These patriarchies of power are definable in mainstream advertising and comprehending the importance of these values is intrinsic in deciding whether a man’s existence and his desires question homoeroticism and eroticism in general.
First of all, I will refer to Uta Brandite’s essay that states, “A human being must be either male or female and according to this logic of evident alternation, each gender is given a characteristic and attributes “he” is identified in order to be recognized and summoned. These definitions are so embedded in our social and cultural systems that the constructions “masculine” and Feminine” are consider objective realities and therefore, in a certain sense, they become a sort of “social” nature.” 15
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Throughout modernization, the heterosexual male has been regarded as one identity, and if a male expressed another form of sexual orientation then he would be regarded as nonconformist, non-institutional and therefore non-existent. Manhood could only be regarded as the natural ability to reproduce and as these are the ideologies of most religious institutions, other forms of sexual orientation were seen as non-acceptable. In Uta Brandes essay he states that, “the natural responsibilities of ‘Manhood’ are regarded by the male’s ability to control his sexual desires and arousal for the opposite sex. The institutions of religion believe that ‘The physical action of heterosexual fertilization is the only means of sexual reproductive capability among humans without assisted reproductive technology.” 16
we tend to forget that commercialism has consumed our religious and moral objectives by sexualizing the consumer’s point of transaction as a feel good factor, playing on our guilt that fulfills our true desire of ‘want’.
“The views of religions and religious believers range widely, from holding the belief that sex and the flesh are negative, to the belief that sex is the highest expression of the divine. Views on sexuality may not even be shared among adherents of a particular sect. Some religions distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and at a certain age), and other activities practiced for sexual pleasure as immoral.” 17
These strong, religious views regarding sexuality were implemented by the power of the state and were punishable either by law or shamed upon by society. The implementation of power and authority were regarded as the “natural” hierarchy of the patriarchy of power. By this, we can regard the state as “masculine” due to its stance for power. David Coad states that, “Sexual mythology is therefore a set of beliefs and cultural practices about sexual differentiation, which in Western culture relies on patriarchy. It is through patriarchy that power is attributed to males and with held from females. Maintaining the idea of a “natural” hierarchical
order between the “opposite” sexes, patriarchy grounds itself in the gender myths of masculinity and femininity…”. The gender categories of masculine and feminine are fundamental to the structure of patriarchy power. Pronger then introduces “heterosexual myth,” which is based on heteroeroticism and defined as “an erotic interest in gender different from one’s own. …Like gender itself, the erotic arrangement, which enables the mythical power differentiation between males and females to take place, is another cultural invention. This is evidenced by the orthodox quality generally attributed to heteroeroticism and withheld from homoeroticism.” Pronger defines the latter as “the eroticization of basic gender equality”.18
It is important, that we understand sexual desire and eroticism within the narrative of the image of the male model so that they do not come into conflict with what is regarded as homoeroticism, unless it is purely for the gay market. Issues of sexuality have always been an issue of contention in a successful underwear campaign, due to public unease with the relationship of sexuality as an ideology of ‘manhood’.
Issues of sexuality have always been an issue of contention in a successful underwear campaign, due to public unease with the relationship of sexuality as an ideology of ‘manhood’.
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HE T
OWER P
F O
HE HOTO T P T
he introduction of homoeroticism became prominent in America during the 20th century, but it was not until the production and innovation of the commercialised camera that individuals were able to empower themselves with the reproduction of such images. Most companies such as Kodak, Contax and Rolieflex were established from 1908 onwards. “Nikon Corporation was established in 1917. …During World War II the company grew…. supplying items such as binoculars, lenses, bombsights and periscopes to the Japanese military…. In 1948, the first camera from the Nikon brand was released; the Nikon due to technological innovation was the first camera that was manufactured and affordable to the masses.” 19
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The photograph was engineered as a tool that captured the death of the instance of time and was regarded as a medium of reproduction. “Magazines were the first visual mass medium. Early in the 1800’s, their editors discovered something, which would become a ruling tenet of the 1900s – pictures sell! By the1890’s thanks to rising wages and the shrinking work week, more men had time for sports with some of the men’s magazine covering sport, like bicycling and boxing.” 20
In 1893 the word homosexual was invented by Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing, he took the view that “homosexuality was not activity, but an indelible personal trait.” 21 By, 1908 Bernarr MacFadden launched a monthly magazine called Physical Culture to extol the virtues of exercise and nutrition. The men’s magazine’s sub-category – the sports magazine – now had a sub-category the ‘health fitness magazine.” 22
The magazine Esquire was established in 1933 and flourished throughout the great depression. It was well regarded for it’s great writers but was not noted for its photography of masculine sexuality. The art direction
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was credited as the best in the world. If there were any shots of bare cheated men, they never resembled those beautiful men in Muscular Physique, as they were afraid of any stigma associated with male beauty and homoeroticism.
It was on the eve of 7th of December and the attack on Pearl Harbour, that the US Military was mobilised and entered the 2nd World War. Valentine states in Beefcake that “the medical chief of Staff reversed the former policy of punishing men and women for homosexual acts and began discharging them as homosexual persons (attached to their records). After the Alger Hiss espionage trials in which the accused, Whitaker Chambers, was known to have had a homosexual crush on Hiss, communism and homosexuality became linked in the mind of the public. And from this period onwards, any such accusation would wreck a person’s life.”23
“After the second world war, the demobilisation of soldiers found an ever widening section in the men’s section of the magazine stands. Interest in male muscles was now so widespread that the mass circulation family magazines ran bare-chested shots.”24 In 1947, beautiful young men who were inspired
young men who were inspired by these barechested shots of actors, such as Errol Flynn followed their luck and flocked to Hollywood.
by these bare-chested shots of actors, such as Errol Flynn followed their luck and flocked to Hollywood. “Bob Mizer, was a young photographer during this time and wise to the fact that these kids had the chance of becoming movies stars as they had of being struck by lightning twice. He created a talent agency based on looks – faces and bodies that would supply other artists and photographers in the area. ‘Right from the start, plenty of boys were willing, even eager to strip down and have their picture taken…most of the men he was photographing lived very foot-loose, free-wheeling lives.” 25 He decided not to advertise boys like an agent, but only sell their photographs and took out ads for his “Athletic Model Guild” in the back pages of men’s magazines.
Publications, as a form of reproduction freed the individual to print and distribute photographs through advertisements in the back pages; this development stimulated the interest of the homoerotic myth and ignited the desires of various studios to photograph the male physique. These studios were forced to operate underground, as the male physique questioned homoeroticism did not
comply with heteroeroticism and like all forms of sexuality was regarded as sleaze by the authorities. Distribution of sexual content and material through the post carried heavy penalties. It questioned the Governments position on sexual identity and its’ ability to empower the Law. Mitzer’s ads paid off and he found many new customers. However, “in 1948 the US Post Office ran a campaign to clean up the mail order advertisement in men’s magazines…the magazines banned all physique ads.” 26
In 1950 Mitzer created the first Physical Pictorial magazine, and was able to bypass the restrictions enforced by the US post by having his magazine sold at newsstands on the cruisiest corners of Hollywood.
“Before the end of 1952, Physique Pictorial was available nationwide and could be found on sale in Europe. It had even encountered its first censorship battle when, to allow the magazine to remain on the news stands of it’s largest market, Los Angeles County required that the cover boys’ buttocks be concealed, something not required for Life, Look or Esquire.” 27 The
readers
were
constantly
“in 1948 the US Post Office ran a campaign to clean up the mail order ads in men’s magazines… the magazines banned all physique ads.”
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reminded that the men appearing in the editorials were there to inspire the ideals of health – mental, moral as well as physical. Mirzer’s family became involved in the business; his mother was the seamstress, producing the skimpy apparel, and his brother the accountant. It was the first magazine that actually advertised men’s swimwear apparel and was the inspiration for European designers in follow suit and idolizing the American male. For many homosexuals it was this awareness that provoked the struggle of their identity and that they were not alone.
‘The “Mattachine Society” which has been credited with instigating gay consciousness, claiming a top circulation of 3,500, in 1955.” 28 However, to avoid censorship they never used the word gay or homosexual in any of their articles, and were often harassed by the FBI.
In December 1953, the first issue of playboy with Marilyn Monroe on the cover became the heterosexual equivalent but with more articles and stories for men. The founder Hugh Hefner, has always kept a liberal on political issues, and has always
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maintained the opinion that the naked image of a beautiful woman’s figure should be celebrated and is not an element of sleaze. This was a new medium that would eventually play to the mainstream male audience and was one of the first magazines that accepted men’s fashion and underwear advertisements. They also played a benign role in male sexuality presenting only women as objects of sexuality. He commercialised on the success of the sexual revolution in the 60’s and made Playboy an identifiable global brand.
Esquire never regarded men as sexual objects, which gave rise in 1957 to a new men’s publication known as Gentleman’s Quarterly, which was not explicitly a gay magazine. Its mandate was to educate men of all persuasions of fashion.
In 1963 Demark became the first modern state to abolish virtually all forms censorship. Many other countries were heading in the same direction. “Nudist magazines were being imported from Denmark and were the first to portray full frontal nudity, but they had to avoid even a hint of sex. And Illinois became the first state to decriminalize all consensual sex acts.” 29
It was the first magazine that actually advertised men’s swimwear apparel and was the inspiration for European designers in follow suit and idolizing the American male.
The first censorship case to be heard by America’s Supreme Court was in 1958, by a photographer and gym owner called Renslow. The General Post office called the Federal Justice Department to indict his premises, registered as Kris Studio. He was the first to have the courage and confidence to argue for his freedom and with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union pleaded not guilty. The major turning or ‘tipping point’ of censorship in America occurred in late 1965 when two new publications, Butch by Arts Unlimited, and Drum Magazine by Janus Society broke the ban on frontal nudity. ‘“The government took up the gauntlet of course, indicated Polak and his transgression of the law…. He fought it all the way to the Supreme Court. The American Civil Liberties Union supported him and after several years of trials, the Supreme Court finally ruled on the case, declaring that the male body was no longer obscene’.” 30
By the mid-sixties and with the rise of these new magazines, it was clear that these male pictorial magazines were going to stay. Distribution companies became involved, such as the film and television industry supported publishers, who had the
knowledge and the finances to produce high quality colour magazines. Although the medium of the press had struggled against censorship laws, the individual on the street was still being persecuted and harassed by the police. These struggles against sexuality and legalisation lead to the sexual revolution of the 60’s
“The last years of the 1960s, however, were very contentious, as many social movements were active, including the African American Civil Rights Movement, the Counterculture of the 1960s, and antiwar demonstrations. These influences, along with the liberal environment of Greenwich Village, served as the catalysts for the Stonewall riots and the demonstration for gay rights. These riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early morning of June 28, 1969 at the Stonewall Inn, in Greenwich Village New York City.” 30
It was regarded as a tipping point where gays and lesbians rose up against the stigma attached to the persecution of their lifestyle, and fought back against a government sponsored system, symbolising the beginning of
The major turning or ‘tipping point’ of censorship in America occurred in late 1965 when two new publications, Butch by Arts Unlimited, and Drum Magazine by Janus Society broke the ban on frontal nudity.
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the LGBT human rights movement in the States and around the world.
Between the 70’s and 80’s, men were changing and becoming more conscious of their looks. The ‘new’ style of fashion photography in one swoop streamlined and modernised the American man. “The foremost practitioners of this ‘new’ style were Barry McKinley, Rico Puhlmann and a third photographer who started out as the least heralded of the bunch but ultimately emerged as the most influential: Bruce Weber.” 31
Bruce Weber made men look more relaxed and comfortable about their looks, which gave that hidden pulse of sexuality. He instigated the spontaneous homoerotic athletic look in his work, and believed in his family ethos that also played alongside his 50’s vibe of male sexuality. These elements combined and help formulated the newly found American man’s esprit.
In the 1980’s, for the September issue of GQ, Sterzin (the editor) had Weber shoot models in the clothes of American designers, each one featuring a quote. Ralph Lauren’s quote was slightly passé, however Calvin Klein said, “I design for the body conscious man who wants to look relaxed and sexy’…yet Weber ended up shooting
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prolifically for both of them in the 1980’s as the “Weber look” went mainstream.... That’s how Klein became aware of Bruce through GQ. Klein thought that “he had a wide appeal, beyond straight or gay. With him we were able to show women and men in a sexy way.” 32 Through this romantic collaboration of designer and photographer, Klein had the secret formula for creating the most inspirational underwear ad campaign of all time. By fusing the masculine and feminine elements of masculine beauty he was able to reflect social semiotics of the time that would remain a classic for the next 10 years.
Sexuality has always come into conflict with a successful campaign as the public questioned the relationship and integrity of sexuality as ideologies of ‘manhood’ in reference to gender identity. With the collaboration of the masculine and beautiful Brazilian Olympic Athlete, Klein/Weber reflected the excitement of the homoerotic masculine image that was seen as illicit in the 50’s and it was at a time when the AIDS epidemic was shockingly striking gay men at random to their deaths.
Bruce Weber made men look more relaxed and comfortable about their looks, which gave that hidden pulse of sexuality.
SYCHOLOGY P ND A
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istorically, we have looked back and studied the works of philosopher’s such as Michel Foucault, perceiving him to be one of the greatest philosophers of all time. He understood the vulgarity of the manipulative ideologies of the elites and how they have self-constituted the existence of life by empowering their own ideologies as protection through prohibition. In the modernist societies, especially after the war, individuals became interested in seeking truth and used whatever objects they could make or find, to transgress social government reforms of conformity. Michel Foucault also wrote that he realised, through his institutional studies of power, that objects identified with knowledge. Fashion was another way of expressing knowledge, and the new forms of desirable collectables became the objects of power, that transgressed the hierarchy of power.
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However, the 50’s were seen as a period of conformity, where the new medium of Advertising instigated the ideologies of the nuclear family. Hollywood produced films that lured moviegoers into idolising everything that was American as ‘good’, and viewed sex as problematic. Sexuality didn’t play a part in the conformist ideologies, and any discussions about personal sexual desires were left to the couch of the local psychiatrists. Modern psychology spelt conformity and discipline of control. “Modern advertising presented itself as an unquestionable authority figure, the image of the advertising executive was that of a manipulative liar or evil seducer of innocence.” 33
However, this period was about institutionalisation, education and the pursuit of knowledge. Therefore, a natural transgression of modernity also arrived that questioned the truth in sex and sexuality. The fragility in truth of sexuality and the confrontational struggle, questioned the changing perception of power and of the state.
Postmodern advertising can be regarded as a discourse of power. There is the institutionalisation of the corporation, which can be regarded as
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knowledge of power by means, through which the distribution of control over objects are bought and received.
Advertising is a medium where the corporation wins over the power of the people by offering them goods, a special commodity that will benefit the consumer and make them feel that the brand truly cares for them.
Foucault’s conception of power is of a qualitatively different order. Therefore, advertising is a medium where the corporation wins over the power of the people by offering them goods, a special commodity that will benefit the consumer and make them feel that the brand truly cares for them. “Power is conceived to be relational, sometimes exercised from a variety of points in the social body, rather than something that is acquired, seized or shared, Relations of power are not considered to be secondary to other relationships (economic, process, knowledge, relationships, sexual relations) but are immanent by the later. Furthermore, power is not conceived to be imposed, from the apex of a social hierarchy…. rather it operates in a capillary fashion from below.” 34 These capillaries of fashion have now
been measured as an expression of the power of the individual. Through the competition of creativity, as a form of expression, individuals have gained power as a measurement of wealth, by benefiting from institutionalised mediums of communications.
Postmodern advertising is admitting that it can no longer manipulate consumers, as they are more sceptical, cautious, savvy and educated. Through fierce competition, the individual has been empowered via globalisation and now has a diverse variety of brands from which to choose, and so the concepts behind the ads must deliver an honest approach, directed at their target audience.
Through the competition of creativity, as a form of expression, individuals have gained power as a measurement of wealth, by benefiting from institutionalised mediums of communications.
The explosion of information technology and computerisation has given the consumer the right to transcend boarders without fear of inherent political, religious ideologies. By surfing the Internet, we are discovering the truth of familiarities of cultural ideologies, the social norms that are the core belief of American culture: that we can recreate our selves and transform our lives.
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PORTS S ND A
ARCISSISM N “
T
he average American is exposed to at least three thousands ads every day and will spend three years of his or her life watching television commercials. Advertising makes up about 70 percent of our newspapers and 40 percent of our mail. We are powerfully influenced, mostly on an unconscious level, by the experience of being immersed in an advertising culture, in which all our institutions, from political to religious to educational, are increasingly on sale for the highest bidder. According to Rance Crain, editor-in-chief of Advertising Age, the major publication of the advertising industry, only eight percent of the ad’s message is received by the subconscious mind; the rest is worked and reworked deep within the recess of the brain, where a product’s positioning and reposition takes shape.” 35
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Recently there have been an overwhelming number of men’s undergarment adverts appearing around London, on bus exteriors, bus shelter, billboards, in magazines and in the tube. The sportsman physique and the gaze on gaze acceptability has now come at an all time high. This bombarded of youthful images of beautiful supple bodies emulate the newfound narcissistic freedom, resilient to the negative social innuendos of the past. Active muscular bodies at leisure, inviting the gaze and exploited by liberal corporate philosophies of power that benefit the consumer, as quality and comfort have developed in with power of knowledge.
It’s interesting to discover that these companies now strongly believe in the initial ideologies of the Weber/Klein formula that spelt the initial success of Calvin Klein’s eroticized photograph of the Olympic pole-vaulter Tom Hintinauss in 1983. Weber successfully exploits the illicit sexual ambiguities of the 50’s homoerotic images by placing the active subject into a passive and defenseless pose suggesting the acceptance of the divine resurrection of the esprit of manhood. “Increasingly
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since the 1980’s fashion photography has reveled in male sexual ambiguities and overt homoeroticism, and languorous images of sporting celebrity endorsements are a commonplace.” 36
These sports stars are increasing aware that their bodies are objects for the desire of the platonic heterosexual gaze. They are even more aware that their sportsmanship is a commodity of manhood that is to be used rather than be preserved. The stigma once associated with homoerotic imagery has declined, as more fashionable body conscious men with high disposable incomes are taking part in the once feminine ritual of shopping.
The stigma once associated with homoerotic imagery has declined, as more fashionable body conscious men with high disposable incomes are taking part in the once feminine ritual of shopping.
In recent year there has been an increase in the number of gyms, men are practicing the control of personal hygiene and are actively take health care more seriously. The male obsession of the body invites a new confidence
of worship, as he accepts femininity and sees beauty in masculinity. We then perceive muscles as a sign of power. “Muscularity and strength are highly valued with in the male sporting subculture by men of all races and social classes. Muscularity as masculinity is a motif in ads that target upper-income men as well as those on the lower range of the social stratification. Advertisers often use representation of physically rugged or muscular male bodies to masculinize goods and services aimed at elite male consumers.” 37
It is important to remember that in sports we participate and we strive to do our best, usually there can only be one winner and it is the title holder that we idolize. The champion is highly rewarded as it ‘s the struggle to win and persistence to train that by achieving his goal, we celebrate. “The Olympic creed reads ‘the most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle”. 38
More designers and underwear corporations are exploiting this phenomenal as they’re competitively producing products aimed at the commodification of the beautiful sporting body, answering the desires and interests of masculine vanity.
“The Olympic creed reads ‘the most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle”.
It’s in these athletes that corporations endorse their products as we respond to the struggle and achievement to win.
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HE T
HOPPING S
XPERIENCE E T
oday the Men’s undergarment merchandisers should be more conscious of the tantalising shopping experience they can now offer their clientele. With the mass competitive appeal of guaranteed profits, the stores should be taking this men’s hygienic industry more seriously. Merchandises don’t need to worry so much about the changing fashion trends, and with the slow process of developing new technological fabrics are never pressured with sales to move old stock. The classic y-front, boxer and brief, plus thong have been kept to an identifiable style leaving the shopper with an unobtrusive experience.
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However, with the introduction of new mediums of information exchange such as the Internet, and the bombard of repetitively publicity across the national landscape, department stores and smaller boutiques, have been opt to the challenge the shopper by offering a more desirable and tactile shopping experience.
The internet has been able to challenge the ethos of the traditional methods of shopping with stores now displaying the once thought not to be undesirable male body as the fruit of the loom publicities, enticing the customer to buy. Selfridges’ staffs have responded by saying that the in store publicity poster work. Selfridges’ manager said ‘that they would sell for example £12,000 of Calvin Klein a week, but when they display the in-store Calvin Klein posters, the sales would go to £17,000’. It proves that campaign posters do persuaded customer psyche right up to the point of sale.
However, with the number of packaging that the stores now needs to stock, the customer is confused. Calvin Klein, Hugo Boss, Ralph Lauren, and the other traditional designer’s packaging’s’ are much the same. On entering the store, the customers
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no longer find the muscular torso packaging interesting, and regard it as passé; they’re like insects to a light and are instantaneously attracted by the circus of colour and the reflective metallic packaging. The two Italian designer companies Dolce & Gabbana and Diesel are now an instant success. Their packaging’s that works best, have no images of the male torso, and depend purely on colour or reflection, as it identifies with the male psyche. The “mirror man” and the man of personality have been identified with male alter ego. These new narcissistic men are captivated by what was once regarded as purely feminine and have evolved into being the new coined word “Meterosexuals”.
It proves that campaign posters do persuaded customer psyche right up to the point of sale.
ONCLUSION C L
ooking back at men’s underwear advertising campaigns, we can analysis the semiotic as truth of man’s discourse of knowledge and power. Advertising was once regarded as a power of the corporation like government a dictator that manipulates men’s judgment in favor of its survival. Although the corporation has replace the bourgeoisie ideologies, man’s interest in seeking truth after the loss of faith in governments after World War two, has spelt the discourse of knowledge as power and has seen the rolls reversed.
After the war, the population was mobilized and re-employed in the industrial sector, mass production and the industrialization made it possible for domestic goods such as the camera, affordable for the masses. It also made the power of desiring and owning objects affordable. Artists were able to discover that a photo could be reproduced and distributed as truth and knowledge through the media, and for a small fee realized the potential of profit as power. Students seeking truth were institutionalized and educated, by specializing research projects they were able to hypothesize ideas, create new technologies, and begin their climb up the corporate hierarchy that would reward them with power and privileges, ensuring the survival of the mother corporation. The government was not aware that creativity could manifest power. The creative industry was not regarded and respected as a way to make a living; man’s discovery of photography made it a new tool to capture man’s
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fascination of discovering his own unique personal identity. Vanity and narcissistic behavior followed suite. Like in Melanie Klein’s ‘Mirror Man’, we become aware of our alter ego and want to achieve our full potential. We then compare our weakness and strengths; our beauty and masculinity; and our relationship with the feminine. The rise of the pictorial image questions men’s muscular physique as a sign beauty and their power as a sign of knowledge, identifying that strength in sports as a sign of success. They then can compare their success with men who are financially successful and institutionalized in corporations. These boys use their bodies to achieve the same glare as the man with the sports car. To day the glare that was once perceived as a homosexual desire, is no longer, but is measured as a sign of envy and success.
The underwear companies are aware of this gaze and are no longer restrained by censorship. They are at ease as the fusion of masculine and the beauty of the feminine are acceptable for all to explore. Men are more in touch with sports and hygiene, and are likely to change their underwear up to twice a day
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in locker rooms around the country. Advertisers understand that men who are fitness fanatics will be envying the campaigns that were once thought of homoerotic imagery of the 50’s, by comparing their own mirror image with the image of the models, they will either be inspired or subconsciously attracted to the beauty of the muscular physique and its semiotics. Men have been bombarded with so many commercial images of vanity products that they are now more intuitive and enjoying the shopping experience that was once regarded as a feminine ritual.
We are seeing more men in touch with their feminine side, as the masculine inherent cycle of the father is now so absorbed by achieving success within the hierarchy of the corporation, that the mothers have been left to educate and rear the boys into manhood. Leaving the ideologies of great mother unfailing active in the boy’s collective subconscious, and instinctively learning what women regard as beautiful, as a sign of vanity, acceptable for men. The postmodern man has at his fingertips numerous corporations befriending him through advertising, and like friendship can be hurt. The
Men are more in touch with sports and hygiene, and are likely to change their underwear up to twice a day in locker rooms around the country.
corporation perceives this level of power as a sign of trust that can easily be taken away. They now realize that market research is the key to unfolding the desires of the subconscious mind. We see that underwear companies also see power as understanding comfort. Men are no longer afraid of the feminine that once was perceived as homosexual. The stigma that once destroyed many men’s careers and social lives has been liquefiable by legislation enforced by law that was achieved through the human and civil rights movements. Like the development of the times, the classic design of the y front is also going through an evolution of change. A creative process of reinvention has just hit the apparel market as supply of new technologies and cheaper labor has given competition a new insight.
The Internet has allowed creativity to enter the market, which has caught the traditional corporations off guard. Boys and men around the worlds are no longer intimidated by government ideologies and can now cyber shop to their hearts content. The new cultural medium of advertising has reached a new stage where we desire to be creatively entertained before we
buy. Boys like gadgets and interesting creative ideas, as they regard them as the new cool.
The new cool is to understand knowledge as truth and discover new technologies. Recently fabrics are of interest as they introduce new natural design elements, which they have developed by subtracting natural fibers from trees such as Beech that benefit women’s comfort and hygiene. Men will no longer understand why they should not be included in these new discoveries of comfortable fabrics. They explore the world by searching for truths, goggling and surfing the net, identify with lifestyles that can be derivatives for their own and are demanding the same comforts as women.
Men are now envying the choices of style once created for answering women’s needs. We are seeing our underwear styles go through a normalization period, fusing together the masculine and the feminine. The power is measured as strength in creativity and constantly evolving, adopting new technologies and by merging our two gender identities together that will benefits for all of mankind as one.
Men are now envying the choices of style once created for answering women’s needs.
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Online
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Heterosexuality - (Online) Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetrosexual (Accessed 3 November 2008)
Microfiber - (Online) Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfiber (Accessed 7 November 2008) Nikon - History - (Online) Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikon (Accessed 3 November 2008) Products - (Online) Just Style : http://www.just-style.com/store/product.aspx?id=66322 (Accessed7 November 2008)
Religion and sexuality - (Online) Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Religion_and_sexuality (Accessed 3 November 2008)
Spandex - (Online) Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex (Accessed 7 November 2008)
Stonewall Riots - (Online) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonewall_riots (Accessed 3 November 2008)
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