Graduate Diploma in Architecture Year 1 Portfolio by Michael Clarke

University of Westminster Graduate Diploma in Architecture - Year 1 Portfolio

LEARN,BURN & REALISATION

MichaelClarke

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Biography & Works

BUCKMINSTER FULLER MichaelClarke

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Buckminster Fuller was born in Milton, Massachusetts on the 12th July Apprentice machine fitter, Richards, Atkinson, & Haserick, Boston, importers of cotton mill machinery. Various apprentice jobs, Armour & Co, New York City. Ensign U.S.N.R. to Lieutenant U.S.N. United States Navy, World War I. Assistant Export Manager, Armour & Company. National Account Sales Manager, Kelly - Springfield Truck Company. President, Stockade Building System, 240 Building Operations. Editor, Publisher, Shelter magazine. Assistant to Director of Research, Pierce Foundation & American Radiator Standard Manufacturing Company; produced mass-production kitchen and bathroom back to back. Director and Chief Engineer, Dymaxion Corporation; Bridgeport, Connecticut; produced 3 Dymaxion Cars. Assistant to Director, Research and Development, Phelps Dodge Corporation. Science and Technology Consultant, Fortune magazine. Vice President, Chief Engineer, Dymaxion Company, Inc., Delaware, Associated with Butler Manufacturing Company. Produced Dymaxion Dwelling Unit. Chief Mechanical Engineer, US Board of Economic Warfare, World War II. Special Assistant to Deputy Director, US Foreign Economic Adminstration. Chairman of Board, Chief Engineer, Dymaxion Dwelling Machine Corporation (later) Fuller Houses, Beech Aircraft Company; Wichita, Kansas. Chairman, Board of Trustees, Fuller Research Foundation, Wichita, Kansas. President, Geodesics, Inc.; Forest Hills, New York. President, Synergetics, Inc.; Raleigh, North Carolina. President, Plydomes, Inc.; Des Moines, Iowa. Research Professor, Design Science Exploration, Director of Inventory of World Resources, Human Trends and Needs. Founder, Director of World Game. Director of Design Science Decade of International Union of Architects, Southern Illinois University. Chairman of the Board, Tetrahelix Corporation; Hamilton, Ohio. Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry, Harvard University. The Architect of U.S. Pavilion at Expo ‘67 Montreal World’s Fair. President, Triton Foundation. Architect in production of the Tetrahedronal Floating City for US Department of Housing and Urban Development. Architect in collaboration with T. C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc., of the Tri-Centennial Pavilion of South Carolina at Greenfield, South Carolina. University Professor, Southern Illinois University. Architect, Samuel Beckett Theater, St. Peters College, Oxford University; Oxford, England. Architect, geodesic auditorium, Kfar Mena Chem Kibbutz, Israel. World Game seminars at Yale University and New York Studio School. Chief Architect, Old Man River Project (Environmental Domed City), East St. Louis, Illinois. Architect, Project Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Architect, Religious Center at Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, Illinois. Architect, design of St. Peters Theatre, London, England. World Fellow in Residence for the Consortium of the University of Pennsylvania, Bryan Mawr, Haverford and Swarthmore Colleges and the University City Science Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Editor-at-Large, World Magazine; Consultant, DESIGN SCIENCE INSTITUTE. Distinguished University Professor, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois. Chief Architect, Completion of the Design for the International Airports at New Delhi, Bombay, and Madras, India. Author of Synergetics, Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking (published 1975). Consultant, Design Science Institute. Consultant, Design Science Institute. Consultant to Architects Team 3 (designing $200 million Penang Urban Center), Penang, Malaysia, becoming Team 3 International in 1981 Appointed University Professor Emeritus, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois.

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Appointed University Professor Emeritus, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Member of Advisory Council on International Programs, Bryan Mawr College, Bryan Mawr, Pennsylvania. Member of Advisory Committee, Windworks, Mukwonago, Wisconsin. Tutor in Design Science, International Community College, Los Angeles, California. International President, World Society for Ekistics. Conceived and designed Synergetics exhibit for the opening of the Smithsonian / Cooper Hewitt Museum of Design. Author, artist and designer of a limited edition lithograph ‘Tetrascroll’. Author and designer of a limited edition of silk-screens Synergetics Poster Series. Conceived and designed a limited edition of metal sculpture Jitterbug. Author of And it Came to Pass, Not to Stay. Designed and developed two prototype geodesic domes “Pinecone Dome” and “Fly’s Eye Dome”. Lecturer, Far Eastern tour sponsored by the U.S. State Department/United States Information Agency. Scholar in Residence, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts. Senior partner, Fuller & Sadao PC, Long Island City, New York. Chairman of the Board, R. Buckminster Fuller Sadao & Zung Architects, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. Senior partner, Buckminster Fuller Associates, London, England. Author, Synergetics 2, Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking, published by Macmillan. Author, R. Buckminster Fuller On Education, published by University of Massachusetts Press. Author, Critical Path, to be published winter 1980-81 by St. Martin’s Press. Chairman, Fuller-Patterson Corporation and Buckminster Fuller Research and Development Park. Author, Grunch of Giants, to be published winter 1982-3 by St. Martin’s Press. Designed and developed tensional Dymaxion Hanging Bookshelf. Designed and developed deresonated Tensegrity dome. Author, Inventions (working title) to be published 1983 by St. Martin’s Press. Designed and developed steel strap model of spherical to planar triangular transformation. Designed BigMap, basketball-court-sized Dymaxion projection displayed to U.S. Congress. Bucky and Anne died within thirty-six hours of each other, one week before their sixty-sixth anniversary, Bucky on July 1st 1983, Anne on July 3rd 1983.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

The Impact of Fuller’s Early Life Fuller’s life was not easy and his outlook in later life and a commitment to his philosophies may have sprang from this. ‘His philosophy is centered around the human potential to overcome whatever “reflex conditioning” might have entrapped our humanity in counterproductive scenarios.’ Fuller was often considered eccentric and an outsider, especially in the world of academia. ‘Although the family had a four-generation tradition of sending its sons to Harvard, Fuller was too much the wild romantic to settle in and was expelled for treating an entire New York dance troupe to champagne on his own tab. The family sentenced him to hard labo[u]r in a Canadian cotton mill, where he sobered up quite a bit, but he still didn’t like Harvard upon giving it a second try and was again expelled. He later returned to Harvard as the Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry (1962).”’ In 1917 Fuller entered the Navy obtaining a command and later went on to the Annopolis Naval Academy in 1918. ‘A few years after his honorable discharge from the Naval Academy, Fuller attempted to make money using his father-in-law’s invention, a morterless brick building system, but failed in this enterprise (1926). This failure, which led to joblessness in Chicago, coupled with the trauma of losing his first child Alexandra to prolonged illness in 1922, pushed Fuller to the brink in 1927. He considered suicide but, as he put it, resolved to commit ‘egocide’ instead, and turn the rest of his life into an experiment about what kind of positive difference the ‘little individual’ could make on the world stage. He called himself ‘Guinea Pig B’ (B for Bucky) and resolved to do his own thinking, starting over from scratch. Hugh Kenner likens this to Descartes’ resolve to shut himself in a room until he’d discerned God’s truth -- a kind of archetypal commitment to a solitary journey.’ This great experiment governed much of Fuller’s work. All of Fuller’s work sought to make the biggest contribution to the world as a whole. There are many articles pointing out that Fuller never intended to design anything specific, instead he approached problems that could be solved. He labelled many of his discoveries and inventions under philosophies such as Synergetics, Design Science and Dymaxion all summarised over the next few pages. What he later called the dymaxion chronofile was his extensive documentation of his life including all his works, drawings, patents and thoughts. ‘The Chronofile was comprehensive to the point of being unintelligible, but accurately captures the spirit of this great intellectual omnivore’s attitude towards life. He was an inventor, but not of single objects: his whole life was devoted to the creation of a new world.’ Although not always accepted Fuller definitely had an impact on some if not the whole of humanity he sought. It is only now that much of his work is being re-examined. His thoughts for economising materials and futuristic discourses for an entire way of living that sought to rationalise and minimise energy systems are certainly relevant today. Although many of his revolutionary projects became one off prototypes some can be seen all over the world such as the geodesic dome. He is regarded as one of the last Utopian thinkers and a great modern day visionary compared by some even to Leonardo Da Vinci in his passion for engineering, design, philosophy, science and the arts.

Championing ‘Bucky’

Critics of Fuller and his character

The images on this page show some examples of Buckminster Fuller’s impact on the world today.

Fuller’s role as an outsider led to many criticising his works, not just championing it. He did little to appease his critics however and,

The Buckminster Fuller Institute’s ‘Buckminster Fuller Challenge’ competition. The Institute tries to bring together ideas from across varying disciplines whilst maintaining a record of Buckminster Fuller’s life and works. The competition rewards solutions from across the globe to social, political and environmental problems trying to build on the legacy left by Buckminster Fuller.

‘devoted his life to becoming, in his own words, “the world’s most successful failure”.’ The following extract taken from Kirby Urner’s online post ‘R. Buckminster Fuller: A 20th Century Philosopher’ accounts for some of Fuller’s chief failings in relation to his peer groups:

A molecule named Buckminsterfullerene. Discovered in 1985, the molecule, an allotrope of carbon in much the same way as graphite or diamond, was named after Buckminster Fuller when the structure was found to resemble Fuller’s geodesic dome. Other fullerenes have since been found although C60 is the most common. This allotrope is the principle molecule found in carbon nanotubes.

‘It was over this concept of ‘tensegrity’ that early divisions over the issue of Fuller’s character and integrity came to the foreground. Ken Snelson, a star pupil at Black Mountain College (1948), at first enchanted by Bucky’s spell, became highly disillusioned when it appeared that Fuller planned to abscond with the “tensegrity” idea without properly crediting his student.

Images from Drop City. Drop city was the first commune in the world set up in the desert of Colorado. Fuller’s geodesic dome was seen as symbolising a new way of living. These structures resembling the domes were made from a mixture of found materials including cloth, timber and scrap metal. The commune was set up to provide an open community able to breed ideas and form a platform for ‘drop in’ artworks in an area free from the pressures of everyday life. The philosophy of the commune and the limit on resources in the structures was very akin to Buckminster Fuller’s ideal and the original founders along with 6 additional people at the commune were presented the Buckminster Fuller Dymaxion award.

Fuller’s reputation for egomania and improperly seizing upon others’ ideas as his own may be traced to this Fuller-Snelson split, and led many to question whether the geodesic dome, widely credited to Fuller (who took out a number of patents around the idea) was another case in point. Walter Bauresfeld had hit on the same strategy in 1922, for use in constructing planetaria. Alexander Graham Bell had also made extensive use of the octet truss circa 1907, another one of Fuller’s key concepts (also patented). Fuller’s own archives, maintained since his death in 1983 by the Buckminster Fuller Institute (BFI) and his estate (EBF), details his side of the story and he seems to have died with a clear conscience regarding these matters -- realizing they would remain bones of contention. His collaboration with Werner Erhard (late 1970s on), a self-styled “est Trainer” who shared his home-grown philosophy of the mind using a hard-hitting seminar format, marked another chapter fraught with controversy. Fuller, as per usual, took pains to fully document the relationship for his Chronofile (an exhaustive record of the Guinea Pig B experiment), making it especially clear that Erhard’s group in no way ever funded or underwrote any of his activities. On the contrary, Fuller wanted to be seen as giving Erhard, many years his junior, a welcome boost from an independent platform. Fuller’s contribution has for the most part not penetrated to academia’s required reading syllabi within any department as of this writing (May, 1998), in part because Fuller himself remained largely aloof to speciation within the university system, and therefore was never embraced by any professional peer group, except by architects.’

MichaelClarke

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Dymaxion The word: The dymaxion phrase came about from Waldo Warren, an advertising expert, who was working on a brand for Fuller to display his first architectural model under, the dymaxion house. It came from an analysis of the words and language that Fuller commonly used. Fuller used the phrase for a whole series of works shown on this page. In simplistic terms it means doing more with less, much like Fuller’s ideas on synergetics. The dymaxion ideas, models and prototypes formed Fuller’s portfolio of ideas to rationalise living patterns and change the way society viewed objects such as the car or the bathroom.

The car: The dymaxion car was a streamlined lightweight three wheeler. It weighed around only 1000lbs and was approximately 20ft long. It had a ford engine mounted in the rear with the single rear wheel being responsible for the steering. The car was able to hold ten passengers and reach speeds of up to 120mph and 30mpg. However only three were ever made and there were problems. the single wheel at the rear responsible for the steering made it difficult to control, particularly in crosswinds.

The map: Buckminster Fuller experimented with the world map for several decades coming up with what he labelled as the dymaxion map in 1954. In most flat projections of the globe there are distortions where some landmasses are represented disproportionately to their actual size such as Greenland, sometimes shown up to three times larger than its actual size. Fuller viewed these maps as just one of the many things in popular culture and education impeding a common future: ‘Instead of serving as “a precise means for seeing the world from the dynamic, cosmic and comprehensive viewpoint,” the maps we use still cause humanity to “appear inherently disassociated, remote, self-interestedly preoccupied with the political concept of its got to be you or me; there is not enough for both.”’* Fuller’s projection is the most realistic showing almost no distortion in the landmasses. By also representing it as a singular connected landmass with one ocean he also hoped to limit the economic and political boundaries.

The house: There were two iterations of the Dymaxion house although only one was ever built and limited to a one-off instead of the mass produced house that could fit anywhere that it was designed to be. The initial model and designs were for a house hung around a central column with the supporting cables on the exterior. The house was designed to cost no more than a car and be able to be transported anywhere in the world in its own metal tube. The Buckminster Fuller Institute describes the house, ‘Bucky designed a home that was heated and cooled by natural means, that made its own power, was earthquake and storm-proof, and made of permanent, engineered materials that required no periodic painting, reroofing, or other maintenance. You could easily change the floor plan as required - squeezing the bedrooms to make the living room bigger for a party, for instance. Downdraft ventilation drew dust to the baseboards and through filters, greatly reducing the need to vacuum and dust. O-Volving Shelves required no bending; rotating closets brought the clothes to you. The Dymaxion House was to be leased, or priced like an automobile, to be paid off in five years.’ The original version of the house was never built to Fuller’s original specification although ‘two versions were built’. May criticised the use of aluminium being a high energy material although Fuller argued that aluminium kept down the weight, it was extremely strong and durable outweighing initial cost and energy in production. Many people disliked the overall aesthetic of the house as well. The original was designed in the 1920s with versions not being built until 1945. In 1946 Fuller redesigned the house with a round floor plan and the structure being hidden on the interior. The same principles applied and the built house (also called the wichita house) survived a nearby tornado in 1964. Perhaps most impressive is the entire weight of the house was only around 3000lbs. Every part of the house was designed to Bucky’s exacting standards with the dymaxion bathroom one of the most impressive parts however Fuller felt he could improve it and never let it go into production.

MichaelClarke

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The dymaxion car (above) was not Fuller’s only vehicle. He also developed a new rowing boat with two blades in the water and an elevated seat suspended between. His vehicles focused on as aerodynamic solution as possible using aas few materials.

Fuller’s designs incorporated every last detail. His ideas for the dymaxion house were supposed to spark a whole new way of living and he carried this through into the bathroom design. Also under the dymaxion brand this was a modular design with copper fittings inside.

Above is Fuller’s design for the original dymaxion house with the support structure on the outside. The later iteration that was ready for production before Fuller stopped it is shown to the left. This was the only built dymaxion house also known as Wichita House.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Vector Equilibrium Fuller’s work in geometry pushed radical new directions. Many of his explorations with form he devised new terms for describing the phenomena he came across. Although often formed from simple shapes Fuller worked with very complex geometries. Every exploration looked at finding a simple rational, looking at the minimum way of achieving a goal, the maximum geometries that could tesellate and minimum energy systems. Particularly important in this exploration was his work with ‘Vector Equilibriums’. Fuller’s work in this field derived from a fascination with the packing of spheres in space. His vector systems were generated from drawing lines between the centres of the spheres. ‘Unlike the geometers before him, Fuller did not start with a point, then a line, then a plane to which he then added dimension. He started in the center of the sphere and out in all directions. The lines or vectors represented energy, direction and time.’# Limiting the explanation purely to the vector lines for now we can start by looking at the symmetry involved in a plane. The hexagon is the only shape where the edge length is equal to the distance from the vertices to the centre (Fig. #). In the same vein, the only three-dimensional form (polyhedra) where every edge length is equal to the distance from each vertex to the centre is the cuboctahedron (Fig. #). It is also evident that 4 hexagons can be found in this shape (Fig. #). Going back to the spheres Fuller found that the maximum number of spheres that can be formed around a single sphere is 12. This is illustrated in the first image (Fig. #). Bounding the spheres is the cuboctahedron which bounds the centre lines of the spheres. The sculpture shows off the defining principles of Fuller’s vector equilibrium.

Tensegrity Structures ‘“The word ‘tensegrity’ is an invention: a contraction of ‘tensional integrity.’ Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guarenteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors. Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder” - Richard Buckminster Fuller (exerpt from Synergetics, p. 372.)’ This basically means that a tensegrity system is a zero energy system. Each compression member is isolated from every other separated by a net of tension members. Another word for this system is floating compression used mainly by Kenneth Snelson, a former student of Buckminster Fuller’s who we came across earlier when Fuller refused to credit his student for his work on tensegrity structures.

Tensegrity can be likened very simply to a balloon.THe outside surface of the balloon is in constant tension whereas the air inside is in compression. any external force is distributed across the entire system# Tensegrity was a key idea in FUller’s Synergetics. The idea of tension vs compression both acting together was one of the many opposites that co-exist. Synergy is explained fuller in later pages. The picture to the top is of a tensegrity dome. Tensegrity structures are very light and for their comparitive mass extremely rigid due to the lack of any bending moment in any of the members. Key examples of tensegrity are the dome pictured top, the Skylon tower in 1951 far left, and later structures such as the Needle Tower, second from left and a reusable easy to deploy structure on the right.

Top: Fuller’s diagram for vector equilibrium. It shows the make up of the cuboctohedron from 8 tetrahedrons and 6 half octahedrons. Bottom left: The regular hexagon is the only polygon where the edge lengths are also equal to the length from each vertex or point to the polygons centre. Bottom middle: A diagram highlighting the hexagons found in a cuboctahedron. Bottom right: A sculpture commissioned by Fuller for the maximum number of spheres packed around a central sphere. The structure surrounding the spheres is the cuboctohedron.

MichaelClarke

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The tensegrity sphere. The whole structure is in a state of equilibrium with the members in compression producing an equilibrium with the members in tension. None of the compression members in the sphere touch each other. The same principles can be applied to other tensegrity structures.

Left top: A model of the ‘jitterbug’ in the open position. Left bottom: The same model fully closed as an octohedron. Right: Another sculpture commissioned by Fuller called a ‘complex of jitterbugs’.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Design Science Planning Process

A Holistic Approach Many of Buckmister Fuller’s philosophies looked at approaching problems with a holistic approach aiming to encompass all of humanity. He developed theories for identifying problems and solutions and looked at many systems in nature, including humanity, as being interconnected. By taking a step back and looking at the larger image he was able to define his work to a scale applicable across the world in his own view.

Inventory alternatives

Choose problem situation

Define problems

Define preferred state

Describe present state

Design preferred system

Develop artifacts

Develop implementation strategies

Document process

Communicate plan

Initiate larger planning process

Develop evaluation criteria

Synergetics

Design Science

Triton City

Synergetics was one of Fuller’s philosophies that pervaded much of his work. It is also the title of a book Fuller wrote on the same subject.

Design Science follows Fuller’s thoughts on synergetics as a holistic approach. ‘“The function of what I call design science is to solve problems by introducing into the environment new artifacts, the availability of which will induce their spontaneous employment by humans and thus, coincidentally, cause humans to abandon their previous problem-producing behaviors and devices. For example, when humans have a vital need to cross the roaring rapids of a river, as a design scientist I would design them a bridge, causing them, I am sure, to abandon spontaneously and forever the risking of their lives by trying to swim to the other shore.”

‘Buckminster Fuller designed this tetrahedronal floating city for Tokyo bay in the 1960’s. He wrote:

‘Synergetics, short for synergetic-energetic geometry, systematizes its concepts around a core polarity variously labeled as: synergy vs. energy growth vs. decay tension vs. compression syntropy vs. entropy gravity vs. radiation. These paired tendencies ‘always and only co-occur’ and do not come across as moral catagories in any primary sense, nor should Synergetics be regarded as a theological work, despite its transcendentalist proclivities. The ethical direction in synergetics is towards “omnieconomical design” with nature’s “technologies” setting the standard. Our humanly contrived inventions work

nature’s ideals and as we become more adept at using basic principles to best advantage, our designs accomplish more with less physical time/energy expenditures -- a long term trend Fuller labeled “ephemeralization” ‘ to approach

Although often talked about in relation to geometry, synergetics was about entire systems, ‘101.01 Synergy means behaviour of whole systems unpredicted by the behaviour of their parts taken separately. 102.00 Synergy means behaviour of integral, aggregate, whole systems unpredicted by behaviours of any of their components or subassemblies of their components taken separately from the whole. 962.40 Synergetic geometry embraces all the qualities of experience, all aspects of being.’

MichaelClarke

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- R. Buckminster Fuller, from Cosmography Design Science is a problem solving approach which entails a rigorous, systematic study of the deliberate ordering of the components in our Universe. Fuller believed that this study needs to be comprehensive in order to gain a global perspective when pursuing solutions to problems humanity is facing.’

“Three-quarters of our planet Earth is covered with water, most of which may float organic cities...Floating cities pay no rent to landlords. They are situated on the water, which they desalinate and recirculate in many useful and nonpolluting ways. They are ships with all an ocean ship’s technical autonomy, but they are also ships that will always be anchored. They don’t have to go anywhere. Their shape and its human-life accommodations are not compromised, as must be the shape of the living quarters of ships whose hull shapes are constructed so that they may slip, fishlike, at high speed through the water and high seas with maximum economy...Floating cities are designed with the most buoyantly stable conformation of deep-sea bell-buoys. Their omnisurface-terraced, slop-faced, tetrahedronal structuring is employed to avoid the lethal threat of precipitous falls by humans from vertically sheer high-rising buildings...The tetrahedron has the most surface with the least volume of all polyhedra. As such, it provides the most possible ‘outside’ living. Its sloping external surface is adequate for all its occupants to enjoy their own private, outside, tiered-terracing, garden homes. These are most economically serviced from the common, omni-nearest-possible center of volume of all polyhedra...When suitable, the floating cities are equipped with ‘alongside’ or interiorly lagooned marinas for the safe mooring of the sail- and powerboats of the floating-city occupants. When moored in protected waters, the floating cities may be connected to the land by bridgeways. In 1966 my Japanese patron died, and the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development commissioned me to carry out full design and economic analysis of the floating tetrahedronal city for potential U.S.A use. With my associates I completed the design and study as well as a scaled-down model. The studies showed that the fabricating and operating costs were such that a floating city could sustain a high standard of living, yet be economically occupiable at a rental so low as to be just above that rated as the ‘poverty’ level by HUD authorities. The secretary of HUD sent the drawings, engineering studies, and economic analysis to the Secretary of the Navy, who ordered the Navy’s Bureau of Ships to analyze the project for its ‘water-worthiness.’ stability, and organic capability. The Bureau of Ships verified all our calculations and found the design to be practical and ‘waterworthy.’ The Secretary of the Navy then sent the project to the US Navy’s Bureau of Yards and Docks, where its fabrication and assembly procedures and cost were analyzed on a basis of the ‘floating city’ being built in a shipyard as are aircraft carriers and other vessels. The cost analysis of the Navy Department came out within 10 percent of our cost - which bore out its occupiability at rental just above the poverty class. ``At this point the city of Baltimore became interested in acquiring the first such floating

city for anchorage just offshore in Chesapeake Bay, adjacent to Baltimore’s waterfront. At this time President Lyndon Johnson’s Democratic party went out of power. President Johnson took the model with him and installed it in his LBJ Texas library. The city of Baltimore’s politicians went out of favor with the Nixon administration, and the whole project languished.”’ Triton City was developed from a tetrahedron, the largest possible surface area from a volume in order to maximise access to natural light and balcony space for all it’s residents. The inside was hollowed out to provide communal, civic and leisure space for the citiy’s inhabitants. Many of the concepts from the city are relevant in planning and design decisions for residential developments today.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

The Geodesic Dome Fuller’s work often looked at finding the maximum amount of space that could be formed with the minimal amount of materials. This tied in with his ideas of design science and synergetics trying to make the most of the earth’s resources for the benefit of humanity. With his work in geometry and knowledge of structures Fuller knew that the triangle was inherently stronger than the square which would collapse under any pressure. These ideas led to what has been termed as Fuller’s most famous discovery, the geodesic dome. ‘A geodesic dome is a structure comprised of a complex network of triangles that form a roughly spherical surface. The more complex the network of triangles, the more closely the dome approximates the shape of a true sphere. “By using triangles of various sizes, a sphere can be symmetrically divided by thirty-one great circles. A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn around a sphere, like the lines of latitude or longitude around the earth. Each of these lines divide the sphere into two halves, hence the term geodesic, which is from the Latin meaning “earth dividing”.’ Fuller patented his idea at the US Patent office in 1951 being approved in 1954, however, it didn’t become large built structures until quite a few years later. The dome received many plaudits worldwide once it began to appear. Fuller’s first worldwide acceptance of his idea was after presenting a model of his geodesic dome at the Milan triennial in 1954. ‘The theme for 1954 was Life Between Artifact and Nature: Design and the Environmental Challenge which fit in perfectly with Bucky’s work. Bucky had begun efforts towards the development of a Comprehensive Anticipatory Design Science which he defined as, “the effective application of the principles of science to the conscious design of our total environment in order to help make the Earth’s finite resources meet the needs of all humanity without disrupting the ecological processes of the planet.” The cardboard shelter that was part of his exhibit could be easily shipped and assembled with the directions printed right on the cardboard. The 42-foot paperboard Geodesic was installed in old Sforza garden in Milan and came away with the highest award, the Gran Premio.’ The US Army also recognised the potential of Fuller’s design and had already begun to look at domes as a cheap and speedy solution to soldiers housing abroad. In 1964 Fuller received the commission to design the US pavilion for the 1967 Montreal Expo. ‘The 250-foot diameter 3/4 geodesic sphere was constructed of steel and skinned with Plexiglas. Opened in April, 1967, this “skybreak bubble,” called “Buckminster Cathedral” by Peter Ustinov, drew record-breaking crowds of more than fifty million in its first six months and in 1968 was awarded the first Architectural Design Award by the American Institute of Architects.’ Fuller developed two further iterations of his geodesic dome, the first was for an improved laminar geodesic dome which he submitted to the patent office in 1960, the second was a monohex or fly’s eye dome that was submitted the following year. The fly’s eye is 5/8 of a geodesic sphere and was intended as another housing solution. Large circular openings served as windows or doors and places for solar collectors or turbines etc. The structure itself is made from fibreglass. Both these later domes gained patents in 1965.

Fuller’s largest geodesic structure, the US pavilion at the Montreal Expo. Fuller was responsible for the dome on the outside whilst

MichaelClarke

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The Fly’s Eye Dome

The geodesic dome as a solution to extreme climates. It is the structure most commonly used for biospheres such as the eden project in Cornwall. The versatility of the dome and is highlighted by the dome at the antartica base camp (left).

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

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1965 1968 1971 1973 1975

1987

Works Born in Siegmar, Saxony, Germany He spent his adolescence in Berlin and worked during the school holidays as a stone mason. He also learnt to pilot gliders. He graduated from the Schadow-Schule in Berlin-Zehlendorf. He began studying architecture at the Technische Universität in Berlin He served his military service as a pilot in an air fighter squadron He was taken prisoner near Chartres, in France and became the prison camp architect He completed his architectural studies at the Technische Universität in Berlin, taught by Professors H. Freese, H. Bickenbach, G. Jobst, and winning a scholarship to study at the “Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes” Study tour to the United States to see the works of Wright, Mendelson, Saarinen, Mies van der Rohe, Neutra and Eames. He studied sociology and town planning for two months at the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville He graduated and set up his own practice in Berlin He presented his degree thesis “Das Hängende Dach” (Suspended roofs) He was awarded a prize for his degree thesis He set up the Entwicklungsstätte für den Leichtbau Visiting professor at the University of Washington, St. Louis for a seminar on lightweight structures He held a series of lessons at the Hochschule für Gestaltung, in Ulm He was appointed visiting professor at Yale University in New Haven He became a member of the Biologie und Bauen research group He was appointed assistant to P. Poelzig at the Technische Universität in Berlin He held a seminar on minimal structures at the Technische Universität in Berlin. Visiting professor at the University of California, in Berkeley, at MIT and at Harvard University in Cambridge. He held a seminar at the Universidad del Zulia in Maracaibo Visiting professor at the Technische Universität in Stuttgart. He held a correspondence seminar at the Universidad del Zulia in Maracaibo. He set up the Institut für Leichte Flächentragwerke (institute for lightweight structures) at the Technische Universität in Stuttgart. He was appointed as professor at the Technische Universität in Stuttgart He was made an honorary member of the American Institute of Architects He was appointed professor of architecture at the International Summer Academy for visual arts, in Salzburg. He was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Washington, St. Louis. He was awarded an honorary degree in Science at the University of Bath 1978 - He was elected honorary member of the Institute of Structural Engineers He was made an academician of the International Academy of Architecture

1955 1957 1963 1965 1965 1965 1967

1968 1968/69 1969 1969/70 1970 1970/71 1971 1972 1972/73 1973 1973/74 1974

1978 1979 1980 1980/85 1981 1982 1985 1985/86 1988 1992 1997 1998 2000

Bandstand at the Federal Garden Exhibition, Kassel (Germany) Built in 1955. Shelter Pavilion at the Federal Garden Exhibition, Cologne (Germany) Built in 1957. Enlargement and roofing of the open-air theatre at Wunsiedel (Germany). Built in 1967/68. Roofing for the Masque de Fer open-air theatre in Cannes (France). Built in 1965. Pavilion for the Federal Republic of Germany for the Expo ‘67 in Montreal (Canada). Built in 1966/67. Project for temporary roofing for the Medical Academy in Ulm (Germany). Architect’s house and studio in Warmbronn, near Stuttgart, Germany; project for the Indian Pavilion at Expo ‘70 in Osaka, Japan; roofing of the open-air theatre in the ruins of an abbey at Bad Herzfeld, Germany; Institut für Leichte Flächentragwerke (institute for lightweight structures) building in Stuttgart Vaihingen, Germany; roofing for the sports facilities for the 1972 Olympic Games, at the Olimpiapark in Munich, Germany. He was awarded the Berlin Art Prize and the Prix Perret by the International Union of Architects Roofing of the ice rink at Conflans-Ste-Honorine. Hotel and conference centre at the Mecca (Saudi Arabia). Project for the Kuwait Sports Center for the PanArabian Games in 1974, Kuwait; project for a foot bridge in Berlin - Wilmersdorf, Germany. Roofing at the Federal Garden Exhibition in Cologne, Germany. Project for a “multimedia” roof for the Hoechst Stadium, Germany; roofing for the open-air swimming pool in Regensburg, West Germany. project for a town in the Arctic. Stuttgart Bonatzpreis for his work at the Institut für Leichte Flächentragwerke; Kolner Kunstpreis. Project for desert sunshade structures; honorary Plastics Use in Building prize awarded by the Club of Plastics Use. Project for a cultural and shopping centre in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Project for the Sarabhai Tent at Ahmadabad; project for the birdhouse in Ludwigsburg. Roofing of the multifunctional hall at the Federal Garden Exhibition in 1975 at Mannheim, Germany; protective roofing for the historical carousel in the grounds of the Smithsonian Institute in Washington, United States. Project for a Cooling Tower; project for spa baths at the old Police Station in Baden-Baden; project for the roof over the stage in the open-air theatre in Scarborough in England; project for roofing of a tennis court in Hammamet, near Tunis, Tunisia; Thomas Jefferson Medal and Prize, University of Virginia. Hugo-Haring Prize. Deutscher Holzbaupreis. Aga Khan Award for Architecture (Lahore). Diplomatic Club of the diplomatic corps in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Sports Hall for the King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah. Grosser BDA Preis, Biberach. New roof for the Wilkhahn production department, in Bad Münder (Germany). Prototypes for housing at Hooke Park, Dorset (Great Britain). Temporary tent used for the Pope’s visit to Bamberg. Competition for the German pavilion at Expo ‘92. Wolf Prize in Architecture, Israel Central station, Stuttgart; Aga Khan Award for Architecture Special Prize of the VII International Biennial for Architecture, Buenos Aires.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

From Soap Film to Structure_Minimal Surfaces Minimal surface Tension nets pneumatic structures

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Catenary Curves and gridshells

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Frei Otto’s Path Networks A lot of Frei Otto’s experiments focused on connections. He, ‘distinguishes empirically three scalar levels of path networks, each with its own typical configuration: settlement path networks, territory path networks and long-distance path networks. All start as forking systems that eventually close into continuous networks. In tandem, Otto distinguishes three fundamental types of configuration: direct path networks, minimal path networks and minimising detour networks’1 ‘Optimised Path Systems’ Imagining a road network Frei Otto set up an analogue experiment involving woolen threads. First pins were placed in a board around the circumference of a circle representing every possible destination. A tight thread was then connected from every pin to every other pin representing the journey. The result is a highly geometric shape and very symmetrical with far more routes than necessary if one was to plan a road network. The model simply represents a map of every possible route to every destination (fig. 1). This is also representative of a direct path network. What Otto then did was to lengthen every thread by approximately 8% (fig. 2). This maintains all the routes but now taking into account an average ‘detour’ across each route. Although no longer geometrically ordered there is still the surplus of roads and a messy incoherent network. The whole network of threads is then dipped in water. By allowing the additional thread length the threads begin to adhere in places bringing an organisational system to the network. In places many threads will stick together whereas in others single threads are left (fig. 3). It sets up a hierarchy of routes. This system allows the calculation of an optimal path for any given ‘length’ of detour. Although for each length every outcome or solution will be unique patterns can be seen in the way the threads are grouped or organised. Other architects and engineers have studied Frei Otto’s system. Lars Spuybroek, director of NOX has drawn on Frei Otto’s work in the development of a ‘wet grid’. Something he sees as softer and more adaptable, accounting for time and therefore stronger than the top down structured grid commonly in use in rationalised architecture.2

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Frei Otto vs. Buckminster Fuller Although not actually opposing the work of one another or even differing in opinion often, the title is intended to represent a difference of opinion that will serve as the focus for this stage of research and experimentation. Both men, as architects, engineers and even philosophers drew influence for their work from nature. Both have also remarked on the efficiencies that can be found in nature and that lessons can be learnt by studying natural systems. However, Fuller believed that nature is perfect in every way and that everything we do should aim to replicate the world around us. As I have noted, in his work on synergetics, there is a trend in human work labelled by Fuller as ‘ephemeralisation’ as humans try to match nature’s ideals. Fuller also stated that human’s were a part of nature and also subject to it’s laws and guidances.

Fractals Phyllotaxis

‘Nature is trying very hard to make us succeed, but nature does not depend on us. We are not the only experiment.’

Self-organising systems

Perhaps the most telling quote from Fuller is the following in which he categorically states the perfect ideal that nature sets us:

‘The opposite of nature is impossible’ Frei Otto, as I have said, did not disagree that lessons could be learnt from nature only his philosophies debated the extent to which we should try to copy. Many of Otto’s analogue experiments draw from the most efficient paths and surfaces created by soap films for example. Otto also looked at the structural properties of bamboo and spiders webs as well as the lightweight construction found in things such as bird skulls. All the time he was interested in the forms that are created, the material properties and the structural stabilities. However Otto also noted that not everything in nature is perfectly laid out.

“Irregularity is important not only in biology but also in technology, and is a field that has not been researched enough’’ We should not always look to fully replicate nature and that discoveries can be born from things that are outside of the system. Although not a focus of Otto’s research I am looking to take this idea of imperfections, irregularities and redundancies in nature and natural systems in contrast with the perfections cited by both architects as a starting point for my own research and experimentation.

IDEALS

IRREGULARITIES

In Natural Systems Logarithmic spirals and the golden ratio Turing Patterns Redundancy

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Physarum polycephalum

Self-Organising Systems

Physarum polycephalum is also referred to as a slime mold although is very different to Dictyostelium discoideum. Researchers are fascinated with it’s growth properties, again in relation to searching for nutrients. The mold radiates from its centre in a network of closely linked paths exploring the territory around it. When a branch detects nutrients that branch swiftly enlarges and the branch becomes stronger. Meanwhile any branches that haven’t found anything are redundant and are killed off, fading away. This system of growing and then rationalising continues quickly forming an efficient network sharing food across the network.

Natural Efficiency ‘Self-organization is the process where a structure or pattern appears in a system without a central authority or external element imposing it through planning. This globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make up the system, thus the organization is achieved in a way that is parallel (all the elements act at the same time) and distributed (no element is a central coordinator).’ There are countless examples in nature of systems that are self-organising. The idea has been around for centuries that given enough time, order will always appear without the need for any external organising force. It was never prescribed as a complete certainty but observed as trends. It is a central theory to the explanation of biological systems.

The mold’s properties have been tested and found remarkable similarities between man made systems such as the English road network or the tokyo rail system (pictured). In these experiments, oat flakes are placed as nodal points, such as cities or stops, and the growth of the mold is recorded.

In the 18th Century, ’naturalists’ sought out the ‘universal laws of form’. The hunt for a universal set of laws was continued in the early twentieth century. It is now considered that there are a set of laws derived from fundamental physics and chemistry that govern biological growth and form. In biological systems self-organization is a process in which pattern at the global level of a system emerges solely from numerous interactions among the lower-level components of the system. Moreover, the rules specifying interactions among the system’s components are executed using only local information, without reference to the global pattern

The mold’s properties are a remarkable example from nature for a self-organising system that not only creates an order from a network but is a model in efficiency both structurally and at a larger scale, for ecosystems. Researchers have also found that Physarum possesses memory, and think its computational powers can be harnessed in biological computer form. The opposite page shows a natural formation of the mold outside of the laboratory. Here nutrients are available across the wood hence the less clearly defined routes however there is still a clear hierarchy between the branches.

Dictyostelium discoideum A single-celled amoeba better known as slime mold. When they run out of food, millions coalesce into a single, slug-like creature that wanders in search of nutrients, then forms a mushroom-like stalk, scatters as spores and starts the cycle again. Research on Dictyostelium took off in the 1950s, when work by Princeton biologist John Bonner led to the discovery of a chemical used by slime mold cells to signal, triggering their group-forming behavior. At the time, scientists assumed that a few specialized cells controlled the process. But a couple decades later, inspired by famed mathematician Alan Turing’s work on how simple rules produced complex structures, researchers showed that slime complexity resulted from the linked interactions of its cells, not some centralized regulator. The image above shows the mold at its various stages searching for food.

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The picture to the left illustrates the maze-solving abilities of Physarum polycephalum. Due to its ability to grow efficient systems when placed in a maze with multiple routes and dead ends the mold will eventually work out the fastest route killing off any detours or dead ends. Each image is as follows: a. Structure of the organism before finding the shortest path. Blue lines indicate the shortest paths between two agar blocks containing nutrients: α1 (4151 mm); α2 (3351 mm); β1 (4451 mm); and β2 (4551 mm). b. Four hours after the setting of the agar blocks (AG), the dead ends of the plasmodium shrink and the pseudopodia explore all possible connections. c. Four hours later, the shortest path has been selected. Plasmodium wet weight, 90 +/- 10 mg. Yellow, plasmodium; black, "walls" of the maze; scale bar is 1 cm. d. Path selection. Numbers indicate the frequency with which each pathway was selected. "None:" no pseudopodia (tubes) were put out. See Supplementary Information at the Nature website noted in the Bibliography for an animated versions of 2.a-c. (Nakagaki, et al., 2000.)

We have already looked at Frei Otto’s work on minimal path networks and minimal detour systems. The mold shows an organic instance of this phenomena in practice.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Cellular Formation

Molecular Crystals

Development of convection

Following on from self-organising systems I have looked at other biological or physical conditions that give rise to growth within a system. Obvious examples are crystal structures but I have tried to look at examples where the growth is temporary or the crystal comes together in a unique way to other elements. I have also explored briefly how cell like structures can be constructed from a simple change in state.

These crystals contain recognizable molecules within their structures. A molecular crystal is held together by noncovalent interactions, like van der Waals forces or hydrogen bonding. Molecular crystals tend to be soft with relatively low melting points. They are also poor conductors of electricity basically due to the lack of electrons and ions in these solids.

Convection cells in a gravity field The experimental set-up uses a layer of liquid, e.g. water, between two parallel planes. The height of the layer is small compared to the horizontal dimension. At first, the temperature of the bottom plane is the same as the top plane. The liquid will then tend towards an equilibrium, where its temperature is the same as its surroundings. (Once there, the liquid is perfectly uniform: to an observer it would appear the same from any position. This equilibrium is also asymptotically stable: after a local, temporary perturbation of the outside temperature, it will go back to its uniform state, in line with the second law of thermodynamics).

Due to their weak physical bonds many molecular crystals can be broken down relatively easy even with small fluctuations in temperature. Ice crystals and sugar crystals are two such examples. I like the potential for structures with limited lifetimes. Ice is already used for the construction of the ice hotel in Swedish Lapland. Every year the hotel is completely rebuilt for the winter season using the readily available resources. In Summer the whole structure simply melts away.

Then, the temperature of the bottom plane is increased slightly yielding a flow of thermal energy conducted through the liquid. The system will begin to have a structure of thermal conductivity: the temperature, and the density and pressure with it, will vary linearly between the bottom and top plane. A uniform linear gradient of temperature will be established. (This system may be modelled by statistical mechanics). Once conduction is established, the microscopic random movement spontaneously becomes ordered on a macroscopic level, forming Bénard convection cells, with a characteristic correlation length. Convection features The rotation of the cells is stable and will alternate from clockwise to counter-clockwise horizontally; this is an example of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Bénard cells are metastable. This means that a small perturbation will not be able to change the rotation of the cells, but a larger one could affect the rotation; they exhibit a form of hysteresis.

A colloidal crystal is an ordered array of colloid particles, analogous to a standard crystal whose repeating subunits are atoms or molecules. A natural example of this phenomenon can be found in the gem opal, where spheres of silica assume a close-packed locally periodic structure under moderate compression. Bulk properties of a colloidal crystal depend on composition, particle size, packing arrangement, and degree of regularity. Colloidal crystals are receiving increased attention, largely due to their mechanisms of ordering and self-assembly, cooperative motion, structures similar to those observed in condensed matter by both liquids and solids, and structural phase transitions. Polycrystalline colloidal structures have been identified as the basic elements of submicrometre colloidal materials science. Molecular self-assembly has been observed in various biological systems and underlies the formation of a wide variety of complex biological structures. This includes an emerging class of mechanically superior biomaterials based on microstructure features and designs found in nature.

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(Left): A collection of small 2D colloidal crystals with grain boundaries between them. Spherical glass particles (10 μm diameter) in water. (Right): The connectivity of the crystals in the colloidal crystals to the left. Connections in white indicate that particle has six equally spaced neighbours and therefore forms part of a crystalline domain.

Moreover, the deterministic law at the microscopic level produces a non-deterministic arrangement of the cells: if the experiment is repeated, a particular position in the experiment will be in a clockwise cell in some cases, and a counter-clockwise cell in others. Microscopic perturbations of the initial conditions are enough to produce a (nondeterministic) macroscopic effect. This inability to predict long-range conditions and sensitivity to initial-conditions are characteristics of chaotic or complex systems (i.e., the butterfly effect). If the temperature of the bottom plane was to be further increased, the structure would become more complex in space and time; the turbulent flow would become chaotic. Convective Bénard cells tend to approximate regular right hexagonal prisms, particularly in the absence of turbulence, although certain experimental conditions can result in the formation of regular right square prisms or spirals. The Rayleigh–Bénard Instability Since there is a density gradient between the top and the bottom plate, gravity acts trying to pull the cooler, denser liquid from the top to the bottom. This gravitational force is opposed by the viscous damping force in the fluid.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Self-assembly Biological systems Molecular self-assembly is crucial to the function of cells. It is exhibited in the self-assembly of lipids to form the membrane, the formation of double helical DNA through hydrogen bonding of the individual strands, and the assembly of proteins to form quaternary structures. Molecular self-assembly of incorrectly folded proteins into insoluble amyloid fibers is responsible for infectious prion-related neurodegenerative diseases. Nanotechnology Molecular self-assembly is an important aspect of bottom-up approaches to nanotechnology. Using molecular self-assembly the final (desired) structure is programmed in the shape and functional groups of the molecules. Self-assembly is referred to as a ‘bottom-up’ manufacturing technique in contrast to a ‘top-down’ technique such as lithography where the desired final structure is carved from a larger block of matter. In the speculative vision of molecular nanotechnology, microchips of the future might be made by molecular self-assembly. An advantage to constructing nanostructure using molecular self-assembly for biological materials is that they will degrade back into individual molecules that can be broken down by the body. DNA nanotechnology DNA nanotechnology is an area of current research that uses the bottom-up, self-assembly approach for nanotechnological goals. DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create selfassembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information, to make structures such as two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based as well as using the “DNA origami” method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. These DNA structures have also been used to template the assembly of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins.

The top image shows binary nanoparticle superlattices selfassembled from different combinations of semiconductor, magnetic, metallic and dielectric nanocrystals show amazing structural diversity. The insets show sketches of the superlattice unit cells.

Other forms of self-assembly are hydrogen bonds in many molecules (above) and (left) worm like micella formations. The top image is a ‘glass’ like structure constructed by a marine sponge. It is built up molecule by molecule. This and other similar structures have prompted research into replicating not only biological structures but the way they are built. Within the DNA of the sponge the coding for the overall structure is kept and scientists are looking at ways of using DNA to ‘program’ self assembly. The image above shows a protein strand self-assembling into its functional state.

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Above is a man made nano structure using Platinum. Platinum is used as a catalyst in fuel cells but is very expensive. To increase the effectiveness and therefore reduce the cost the surface area needs to be maximised. This is done at a nano level. The nano spheres are coated with an organic material called a ligand to stop them clumping. This also allows the metal to be dissolved in a solution containing long chain polymers which form a structured building block of carbon when heated. The Carbon can then be dissolved leaving the structure above. Although not an organic self assembly it highlights an approach to maximising material properties at a nano level.

The model to the left is an analogue physical representation of the self assembly found in viruses, also akin to other complex biological organisms. c. is a stage by stage photo of the model in action. The parts of the virus are constructed from a solid printer with small magnetic charges representing the forces of attraction. The ‘virus’ then assembles itself simply by shaking the container. Other modes of self assembly include capillary forces such as the tendency of objects in water to group together. Another analogy would be cereal in milk.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Collective Behaviours - Emergence I have already looked at the principles behind self assembly and self-organisation at a micro and nano level. In each instance there is no controlling influence from either a central or top down source or a knowledge of the overall system. This can be translated to larger systems and into animal behavioural patterns. I could have looked at hundreds of examples but I have chosen just a few to explain the process. Ants Ants are fascinating as a species. They have survived for millions of years with the oldest specimens of closely related species found are around 80 million years old. They possess an instinct for what needs to be done for the good of the colony and are a very social species. Every ant in a colony has a function. This is based on a number of factors all of which are aiming to ensure the long term survival of a colony. Foragers hunt for food for the colony, these tend to be the older ants as foraging is a dangerous task. They are smaller than soldiers who are in charge of defending the colony, also made up of the older ants. The younger ants will stay closer to the queen and look after the brood. Most of the ants in the colony are also female and mainly infertile. The fertile females will breed and become the queen’s of new colonies. The males contribute little to the colony until it is time to breed and they usually die shortly afterwards. Male ants come from unfertilised eggs meaning they only carry half a complement of genes all from the mother. Females will end up with half from the mother and half from the father. Given that the father only carries a half gene complement all workers will receive the same half complement meaning that they are at least 50% related to each other. It has been said that this helps the communal aspect of the species lives. This means that the majority of their make-up and their delegation skills ensure the colony continues to grow and work together to ensure survival. The other major factor behind this is communication. In this regard ants function not too unlike the slime molds I looked at earlier. They constantly leave signals for each other through chemicals secreted from the body as well as tapping and climbing over one another when passing. These signals range from alarm, sexual communication, or directly for a group effect. Much like the mold they also signal when a food source has been found. In this way an ant can follow its own route again or signal to others. These ‘branches’ of chemicals allow networks of movement to be set up to quickly harvest a food source and distribute it back in the colony. It can also signal to others to join the task. It is this collective, altruistic, nature that has ensured the successful survival of the species for so many years. Flocking ‘From the perspective of the mathematical modeller, “flocking” is the collective motion of a large number of self-propelled entities and is a collective animal behaviour exhibited by many living beings such as birds, fish, bacteria, and insects. It is considered an emergent behaviour arising from simple rules that are followed by individuals and does not involve any central coordination.’ There have been attempts made to model ‘flocking behaviours’ in order to better understand. It follows on from Alan Turing’s ideas about a simple set of rules generating complex systems. I will look at Turing’s work in biology later.

Top left: Leaf-cutter ants working together to harvest food supplies.

Basic models of flocking behavior are controlled by three simple rules: Separation - avoid crowding neighbours (short range repulsion) Alignment - steer towards average heading of neighbours Cohesion - steer towards average position of neighbours (long range attraction)

Above: Terns flock in huge numbers at certain times of year

With these three simple rules, the flock moves in an extremely realistic way, creating complex motion and interaction that would be extremely hard to create otherwise.

Right: Fish shoaling in a tornado shape.

Shoals of Fish Fish exhibit much the same behaviour as birds, in particular migratory fish heading for mating grounds. Shoaling is the collection of a group for social reasons and schooling is the collection for a heading or directional goal. It is a common phenomenon for dealing with predators. In much the same way as ants collective behaviour ensures the survival of the species as a whole, shoaling can limit the success of predators.

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Left: Migratory birds commonly exhibit a v-shaped formation when flying.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Natural Structures - Natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Architects As Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller did, a lot can be learnt by looking not just at behavioural patterns, but at organic structures in the world around us. I have already looked at structures that form chemically such as crystals or the soap films studied by Otto but there are also structures built from elements by animals. Termite Mounds Honeycomb Spiders Webs

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

The Golden Ratio The golden ratio has influenced mathematicians, artists, musicians, biologists and philosophers for centuries. It is most often studied as part of aesthetics due to it’s supposedly being the perfect composition of elements to the eye.

It is said that the ancient egyptians used the golden ratio (or phi) in the design of the pyramids and it was definitely used in ancient greek architecture, most notably on the parthenon. Plato considered it the key to the physics of the cosmos and Euclid is the first known reference to splitting up a line in to the extreme and mean ratio, equivalent to what was later described as phi. It has many links to the fibonacci series of numbers discovered circa 1200AD. This is a series of numbers where the next number in the series is the sum of the addition of the previous two numbers. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, etc. It also has the properties that if you divide a number by its preceding number in the series it approximates the golden ratio. The higher up the series the closer it gets. It wasn’t taken up again by any great measure until the renaissance. The renaissance brought a fascination with the rediscovery of geometries and aesthetics as well as the introduction of perspective amongst many other elements. Renaissance artists, in particular Leanardo Da Vinci used it in all their work. ‘It wasn’t until the 1900’s that American mathematician Mark Barr used the Greek letter phi to designate this proportion. By this time this ubiquitous proportion was known as the golden mean, golden section and golden ratio as well as the Divine proportion. Phi is the first letter of Phidias (1), who used the golden ratio in his sculptures, as well as the Greek equivalent to the letter “F,” the first letter of Fibonacci. Phi is also the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet, and 21 is one of numbers in the Fibonacci series.’ In 1970 Roger Penrose discovered how surfaces could be tiled in five-fold symmetry called ‘penrose tiling’ using shapes found in a pentagon and pentagram with the ratios of phi, 1 and 1/phi. Discoveries are still being made today that have a basis on the golden mean, section or ratio. Daniel Shechtman has just been awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry this year for his discovery of quasicrystals that he originally found in the 1980s but is only just been recognised today.

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Examples found in nature and phyllotaxis

Images clockwise from bottom left:

There are countless examples of the golden ratio in nature. The spiral that can be drawn through a series of golden rectangles, also the fibonacci series is a logarithmic spiral and can be found in plant leaf formation such as the one above and perhaps best known in nautilus shells as the photo on the left demonstrates. The series can also be found in tree branching and many ratios of the human body such as the bones in the finger.

Bottom left: The Mona Lisa by Leanardo da Vinci is said to be based on ‘De Divina Proportione’ or the divine proportions

There are really interesting examples from phyllotaxis. ‘In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem (from Ancient Greek phýllon “leaf” and táxis “arrangement”)’ This can be in several forms but a spiralling effect is one common form found in nature exhibiting similar ratios of curve to the golden section. Particularly stunning examples come from alternate spirals such as the seeds on a sunflower head.

Top left: Central seed pods in many flowers exhibit spirals in the golden ratio. Top: The Vitruvian Man by Leanardo da Vinci. Also based on divine proportions setting out ratios in the body. Top right: The Parthenon in Athens is set out according to the laws of aesthetics. This includes the golden ratio but also ellipsis, where columns at the edges lean slightly more than at the centre and the steps are curved in order to appear straight to the human eye Bottom right: the great Pyramids in Egypt. These are set out to align with the stars but are also said to be constructed using phi and pi.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Irregularities and Chaos in Nature Many of the examples over the next few pages deal with irregularities in nature and randomness or redundancy in natural systems or phenomena. This does not mean, however, that these examples cannot be described mathematically or predicted partially. In many cases such as fractal geometries and Brownian motion there are accurate mathematical models to predict the sequence of events or the trend despite the chaotic nature of both. It is an exploration of this chaotic nature that I am looking at over the next few pages. Although when transferring examples from nature to built structure we often look for the most efficient system, to minimise material use and impact I believe there are examples of chaos in nature that we can learn from. No engineering solution proposes a structure constituting of the bare minimum. There have to be fail-safes or redundancies built in.

Simple Rules For Complex Systems Alan Turing was a mathematician who developed a method of calculation based on very simple rules. He is largely known for his work in computing and is the father of the first computing machine, the Turing machine. However he applied his ideas into biology also. Again using a simple set of rules he believed complex forms could be simulated. He defined a set of rules to create patterns using a ‘reaction-diffusion system’. The system consists of an “activator,” a chemical that can make more of itself; an “inhibitor,” that slows production of the activator; and a mechanism for diffusing the chemicals.

A Photo of Alan Turing alongside some examples of Turing Patterns created by mathematical models. They work based on the reaction-diffusion system that Turing devised. Many graphical manipulation softwares have functions built in to sharpen and blur an image. These are based on similar mathematical models of approximation. To the left is an image of a nautilus shell. Below is the same image that I have just applied a sharpen filter followed by a blur filter over and over again.

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Turing Patterns found in nature alongside mathematical models using the basic principles. The patterns found are remarkably similar.

Turing Patterns in 3D Researchers have tried to prove whether Turing patterns can be found in the origins of complex structures such as lungs or limbs. One way is to set off chemical reactions that cause Turing patterns in flasks in the laboratory. The above images are from a group of researchers led by Brandeis University chemist Irving Epstein. They are created using tomography, a form of imaging used to reconstruct three-dimensional images from thousands of two-dimensional snapshots, to picture them.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Fractal Patterns Fractal patterns can be found everywhere in nature. Many things that appear to have some kind of repetitive or iterative nature yet look completely random can be described using a set of rules called fractals. The mathematics behind fractal geometries is relatively simple as with the rules in the Turing patterns but can lead to beautiful individual forms. Fractal patterns are the result of recursive functions and can be said to continue indefinitely. There are countless examples found in nature that often result in beautiful organisms or phenomena. There is also a large area of mathematical study into fractal geometry. One pattern that is often drawn is the mandelbrot set. This is a collection of numbers that exhibit the same property, they do not grow exponentially when given an input number of any value within the complex plane for the iterative function f(x) = xÂ˛ + c. Although this is a very simple function the mandelbrot set of numbers is infinite and produces a spiralling pattern.

Fractals in living biological systems

Fractals in the weather

Fractals in the Earth

Pictured are just two examples of fractals found in living organisms. Above is an image of romanesque broccoli. This grows in spiral patterns also linked to the golden ratio however each spiral is a collection of smaller spirals repeating in a nature very similar to other fractal patterns.

Lightning is just one example of fractals found in weather patterns. Lightning strikes are not predetermined but work out a path of least resistance to the ground changing direction step by step.

The above image is of a salt flat. The ridges across the top show a consistent yet random pattern. It is characteristic of fractal patterns.

Many plants grow in what appears to be simple recursive functions including leaf venation and branching.

Cloud vortexâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s like the one to the left also exhibit recursive patterns. They have similarities to many mathematical models for attractors and some links to chaos theory which can be seen on the next page. Snowflakes are a beautiful example of naturally occurring fractals. The koch snowflake was the first identified fractal curve. Snowflakes also exhibit a crossover with self-organising systems being a molecular crystal as I looked at before.

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Other patterns occur at a much grander scale such as mountain ridges pushed up by the earth and weathered leaving fractal patterns. Similar patterns can be seen in river valleys or gorges where water has carved out routes through the earth.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Cellular Automata - Conway’s Game of Life

Randomness and Redundancy

‘Rules of the Game of Life

Chaos Theory

Life is played on a grid of square cells--like a chess board but extending infinitely in every direction. A cell can be live or dead. A live cell is shown by putting a marker on its square. A dead cell is shown by leaving the square empty. Each cell in the grid has a neighborhood consisting of the eight cells in every direction including diagonals.

I mentioned how we can begin to predict seemingly random patterns mathematically but that these patterns are still important. Although seemingly chaotic it can often be beautiful and add visual interest. ‘Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines including physics, economics, biology, and philosophy. Chaos theory studies the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, an effect which is popularly referred to as the butterfly effect. Small differences in initial conditions (such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation) yield widely diverging outcomes for chaotic systems, rendering long-term prediction impossible in general. This happens even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behavior is fully determined by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved. In other words, the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable. This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos.

To apply one step of the rules, we count the number of live neighbors for each cell. What happens next depends on this number. A dead cell with exactly three live neighbors becomes a live cell (birth):

Chaotic behavior can be observed in many natural systems, such as the weather. Explanation of such behavior may be sought through analysis of a chaotic mathematical model’

An image from Conway’s Game of Life - Many people search for patterns to try and apply to other problems. The above pattern oscillates between three patterns no matter how many iterations.

‘Chaotic dynamics In common usage, “chaos” means “a state of disorder”. However, in chaos theory, the term is defined more precisely. Although there is no universally accepted mathematical definition of chaos, a commonly used definition says that, for a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties:

A live cell with two or three live neighbors stays alive (survival):

it must be sensitive to initial conditions; it must be topologically mixing; and its periodic orbits must be dense.

In all other cases, a cell dies or remains dead (overcrowding or loneliness):

The requirement for sensitive dependence on initial conditions implies that there is a set of initial conditions of positive measure which do not converge to a cycle of any length.’

An image of a cellular automata pattern called the Sierpinski Triangle. Inside each white triangle are three further triangles. Like fractals this pattern is infinite.

Brownian Motion

Attractors

‘Brownian motion (named after the botanist Robert Brown) or pedesis (from Greek: πήδησις “leaping”) is the presumably random drifting of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) or the mathematical model used to describe such random movements, which is often called a particle theory.’

If you start with a point in space and plot the orbits of attractors it is relatively easy to build up a picture of what the end system will look like.

Brown was studying pollen grains of the plant Clarkia pulchella suspended in water under a microscope when he observed minute particles, ejected by the pollen grains, executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment with particles of inorganic matter he was able to rule out that the motion was life-related, although its origin was yet to be explained.

Life is one of the simplest examples of what is sometimes called “emergent complexity” or “self-organizing systems.” This subject area has captured the attention of scientists and mathematicians in diverse fields. It is the study of how elaborate patterns and behaviors can emerge from very simple rules. It helps us understand, for example, how the petals on a rose or the stripes on a zebra can arise from a tissue of living cells growing together. It can even help us understand the diversity of life that has evolved on earth.

‘The Lorenz attractor (pictured) is perhaps one of the bestknown chaotic system diagrams, probably because it was not only one of the first, but it is also one of the most complex and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern which looks like the wings of a butterfly.’

In Life, as in nature, we observe many fascinating phenomena. Nature, however, is complicated and we aren’t sure of all the rules. The game of Life lets us observe a system where we know all the rules. Just like we can study simple animals (like worms) to discover things about more complex animals (like humans), people can study the game of Life to learn about patterns and behaviors in more complex systems.

Einstein was the first to look at Brownian motion and used it as proof in his kinetic theories to confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Ink in water

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Note: The number of live neighbors is always based on the cells before the rule was applied. In other words, we must first find all of the cells that change before changing any of them. Sounds like a job for a computer!

An image from an interesting script I found online that translates time in Conway’s game of life 3 dimensiponally in the z-axis. This builds up a city representation of the patterns. The large diagonals are from gliding pattenrs that keep moving away from their start.

The rules described above are all that’s needed to discover anything there is to know about Life, and we’ll see that this includes a great deal. Unlike most computer games, the rules themselves create the patterns, rather than programmers creating a complex set of game situations.’

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Self-Organising_01 I wanted to test Frei Otto’s minimal path experiments myself as a basis for my research. I started by initially looking at minimal paths as a branch structure. The aim was to replicate Frei Otto’s experiment and those of his students at the Institute of Lightweight structures and then expand on them to see what other influences and factors could be calculated through similar experiments. This page documents my first attempt to replicate Otto’s experiment. I constructed a frame that could allow a number of iterations of comparable circumstances. Threaded rods were used to separate two sheets of acrylic acting as a base approximately 230mm apart. In both sheets of acrylic are 16 metal fixings removed from electrical connectors laid out in a regular grid, 4 fixings by 4. These fixings have two screws, one to attach the fixing to the acrylic, one to clamp the wool threads in place. In the initial model, threads were fixed in place from one fixing on the top sheet of acrylic to the corresponding fixing on the acrylic base with the minimal length of thread between the two creating 16 vertical, taught threads. The threads were then lengthened by 10% and then 20% before being dipped in water. I encountered a number of problems with this method which have been documented on this sheet. The major problem with my setup was the attraction between the threads. After dipping the model in water with a 10% extra length I was not getting any branching. I tried 20% extra length with limited success before realising that after pulling the thread from the water, the weight of the wet wool meant the extra length was weaving around the base before finding the shortest route to the top, largely straight lines all separate from one another. I knew that a minimal path system would converge to a single ‘trunk’ before beginning to branch out so in order to carry out an experiment into these branches I fixed all the threads into a single point just off the base using a ring of copper wire before dunking the model again in water. I then tried dunking the model in the water the other way up with the fixed point at the top of the model. This produced a result with clearly defined branches. The model is also affected by gravity after organising. The weight of the threads when wet produces sagging and begins to separate when the fixed point is at the base of the model.

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01. The initial frame model with minimal length connections 02. Detail of the fixings 03. Dipping the model into water 04. 10% additional length between points. A lot of the threads have stuck first to the acrylic before rising and have not grouped at all. 05. 20% additional length between points. Again, most of the additional length that is supposed to allow the minimum paths to form has been lost to gravity on the base plate however there is some form of branching beginning to appear. 06. The threads have been fixed to a single point at one end, suspended from that point at the top of the model. The resulting structure is a lot more clearly defined into a single branching network. the furthest distance threads have lost the additional length however and are simply straight. 07. When turned up the right way many of the threads have separated and sagged under gravity

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Self Organising_02 The next aim is to try and harden the resulting structures from my previous experiment. I can then remove them from the frame and try another method or altering some of the initial settings. I would like to try the experiment with a lot more threads in closer proximity to one another to try and observe branching without fixing a point. Due to the threads natural attraction to the acrylic it may still be necessary to fix points. It may also be interesting to look at different lengths or additional threads attached to the existing threads to provide separate branches as in leaf veins. In this experiment I have used an expoxy glosscoat. This is a clear resin that can be painted on and can dry at really thin amounts of resin suitable for my branches. I had difficulty painting it on all areas of the resultant structures. Particularly due to the threads being wet and the difficulty in getting a slow-drying resin to cover all areas without running down the length of the models. In the end I managed to get it to work but had to chop a lot of the connectors free and use new ones for the additional models. The final results are strong enough to stand alone. In this way I could produce a whole series of ‘optimised’ networks, each one unique.

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01. Painting the models with resin as soon as they came out of the water - difficulties arose from trying to capture the optimised networks before they sagged. 02. A close up of the resin setting into the joints of the model. 03. The ‘sagged’ result from the first experiment standing alone 04. Even after setting the resin was not completely rigid and sagged slightly when turned the other way up. 05. The result from the first experiment that was suspended from the top producing a much clearer branching structure. However, it is evident where the threads have been tied together has not left enough slack for the threads at the edges to group. Starting from a single point initially may fix this.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Self-Organising_03 I have followed up my smaller thread models with a 1:1 scale model. I wanted to se if similar principles of self-organisation could be explored at a much larger scale and in dry conditions. Essentially, it is not possible to ‘dip’ an entire room in water to allow the threads to bunch into minimal paths. I started by creating a basic model that I could then use as a tool for various methods of organisation. The model has a grid like set of threads across a small area of the studio space above head height. This was intended to provide some kind of logic to the placement of the vertical threads rather than hanging randomly however I didn’t want to build a large supporting framework. Therefore the threads are fixed by tying at 4 points to any available ceiling fixture or simply taped to the wall where no obvious connection was available. This makes the initial grid’s rigidity dependent upon the tension achieved across the grid between the fixing points. As the hanging threads can build up a large amount of weight and the fixings of the grid (where taped) are relatively unstable the grid sagged into a shell like support. I do not think that this will seriously affect my explorations of the model. My initial experiment was a controlled bunching of the threads by myself and therefore not self organising. This was informed by my earlier analogue models and I simply grabbed the threads in certain places to achieve a branched structure. Although not self-organising it was an early test of what I hoped to achieve later. I believe that the bunching achieved is a result of the friction between the fibres of the threads and not of any natural attraction forces occurring. I would like to use the rest of the grid to try two further methods of self organisation, the first using electrostatic properties and the second using electromagnetic properties. For the first example I will need thread with less wool content, maybe nylon and additional items to help charge such as polythene rods or balloons. For the second I will need filament wire and a power supply capable of producing sufficient current.

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01. The initial grid for hanging the threads, already sagging from the weight of a few threads. 02. The model in it’s starting state in the corner of the room. Threads are hung at regular intervals from the grid above. 03. The first set of bunching from the top down, I grouped the threads into small groups about a third of the way down. 04. The second set of bunching taking several groups from the first bunch and combining two thirds of the way down the length of the threads. 05. The final set of bunching combined all of the ‘branches’ into one base point or ‘trunk’. 06. Another view of the resulting network or structure.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Self-Organising_04 After the large scale model I returned to the smaller models to explore further hoping to improve upon my earlier attempts by using a higher wool content thread much more closely packed. I thought the wool might trap more air however it absorbed just as much water and was quickly to heavy to bunch properly without being affected by gravity and again, sticking to the acrylic base. However I used this model to experiment with different ways of doing it. The first replicates my analogue experiment 01 simply with 36 threads instead of 16. I then turned the top sheet of acrylic 90Â° to try and get more of a crossover between the threads but again a similar result was achieved. The final images show a piece of wire tying the threads into a node as in experiment 01 however this time in the middle of the model. It demonstrates clearly the effect of gravity on the experiment. Theoretically, an optimised system, although not exactly the same should have a similar result both above the node and below, simply mirrored. However, in this model, above the node has sagged and below has bunched but also across the base plate. The final image is the same model simply turned on itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s side. Again the weight of the threads is evident from the arches appearing.

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01. The initial grid for hanging the threads, with extra length to allow for bunching. 02. The first attempt at dipping it in the water, shows similar problems to the first experiment with less threads. 03. Second attempt at dipping it in the water 04. The model after being dipped in water with an artificial node placed in the centre. Notice the clumping below the node and the sagging above. 05. The final model turned on itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s side.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Self-Organising_05 Learning from the earlier experiments I made another quick model using only a single base point connected to all the points above. The results are much clearer and show a coherent minimal path system. I have then adapted the model by adding smaller threads to each original thread before dipping it in water again. I wanted to test whether or not they would join to form a secondary path system on top and if they interconnected or simply stuck to the existing paths. This was not so successful and needs further testing. I would like to use a finer thread for the secondary network and create slightly longer threads with more of them.

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01. The initial set up with all the threads pulled taught. 02. The model with additional length to each thread to allow for bunching. 03. Front view after dipping the model in water. 04. Side view after dipping the model in water. 05. The dry set up with additional threads tied. 06. A close up of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;secondary threadsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; after being dipped in water.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_01

Attraction:

Repulsion:

Basic bunching across a 2x2 grid

The three diagrams here show an attraction force applied to two parallel lines.

These three diagrams are replicating the initial conditions of the first three with a repulsion force instead of an attraction force. Again the endpoints are fixed to control the system.

In this system instead of 2 parallel lines Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve added an additional 2 parallel lines above to form a uniform 2x2 grid. The images show the force acting on the curves from the initial starting condition to the finished bunching.

01. shows two equal length lines with a uniform force acting between the points. This produces a symmetrical deflection between the points.

Using a combination of Kangaroo and Grasshopper for Rhino I can begin to construct a simple self organising computer model based on my thread experiments. Although not quite dealing with the same forces I have started by looking at bunching models replicating my threads but instead subdividing them into lengths of connected springs.

02. The first line is half the length of the second and offset so that the start point of each line are aligned. The result is an asymmetric bunching at neither midpoint.

To explore the fundamentals I have started with two simple parallel lines. Each line is subdivided into points with a spring between them. A force is applied using Kangaroo interacting between all of the points in the system. The strength of the force can be altered to be positive (repulsion) or negative (attraction). A cutoff value can also be defined to limit the distances that the force acts between. In each experiment the end points are fixed in order to limit the system to stop it collapsing to a point under an attraction force or expanding out continuously under repulsion.

03. The same lengths of lines as 02. with the mid points aligned. This produces a bunching about the middle with the point of connection as a peak in two parabolic curves.

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Here the bunching converges along a line central to the initial grid, equidistant from each of the imaginary boundary faces.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_02 These experiments follow on from the first set using the same initial set ups. In each of the series the cut off for the attraction forces applied is set to just over the length between two lines. In each case the set up is using lines of the same length.

Changing the cutoff values The examples below use the same set ups as the sequences to their left. In each case the cut off has been doubled to be just over double the length between two strings. With this number of initial threads it has the impact of combining trees to a single branch as opposed to 2 or four separate branches collectively. It would be interesting to try more than one attraction force or to vary the initial lengths. At the edges we are beginning to see separate groups before we see the overall branching. If I increase the starting length greatly it could begin to organise itself into a hierarchy of set ups.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

This set defines the threads used in the model as their starting position. In this case a set of points (any points can be defined) each have a line of length L (determined by the number on the slider) in the Z direction (vertically up).

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_02 Grasshopper Definition This page explains the script for the previous experiment. However, the input here is for one set of threads. The forces applied and the overall definition is the same as here for every output in both experiments 01 and 02 it is only the initial points and lines that are changed.

This model uses the in-built physics engine in the Kangaroo plug in for grasshopper. Kangaroo allows the input of multiple forces acting on a model and simulates the effect of those forces over time. The resulting movement of the model can be seen on the screen which is how I have generated the step by step images in the last two experiments. The threads are controlled using anchor points - fixed points that will not move whichever forces are acting on the model. In this case, these are defined as the start and end points of the full length threads. The first input force is one called springs. This defines each smaller length within the threads that we have generated as a separate spring. This gives an inherent tension to each thread. The second input force is one called PLaw. This takes all the lines connecting every point to every other point and uses them as a connection for an attraction or repulsion force to act upon. In this model the strength is set to a negative value meaning the force works as an attraction. The last input needed is the geometry to be transformed. This is a line which is made up of all the smaller lengths that we have also defined as the springs.

The threads are divided into a number of separate lengths (defined by the input N). The ‘Div’ command defines the domain of each subdivde. The ‘SubCrv’ defines the series of smaller lines that now make up the threads.

The threads are also divided into a series of points, also defined by n. This basically puts a point at each end of the thread and at each end of the new smaller lengths making up the threads. This toggle starts the animation when sets to false and resets it when set to true.

The points are all connected to each other using the interconnect points command.

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The final commands are purely for visual means. They take the output geometry and define a cylindrical shape following the curves generated. The cylinder’s radius is controlled by the slider.

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_04 This experiment took a different approach to creating the bundling threads although with similar principles. However, instead of a series of springs the model here takes a 2D script for wool threads created by Dave Reeves. I have adjusted the 2D definition to define a series of points in 3 dimensions. The script uses definitions for tension, cohesion and separation in the threads that act over a period of time. Although a similar result could be achieved to my original digital experiments I have looked at making this more organic. The points at the top and bottom are randomised and the connections between the points are not necessarily the nearest connections to allow sufficient overlap for the threads to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;stickâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The resulting sequence is documented numbers 01 to 05. Further images can be seen around.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_04 Grasshopper Definition This page documents the script that produced the model for the digital experiment_04. Each step is highlighted and annotated to describe the inputs, the controls and the process of organisation that the model runs through.

This set of functions is the script made by Dave Reeves controlling the thread movement. The controls are described as follows:

This slider controls the number of values taken to define the starting points. It feeds into four random number generators.

These are 4 random number generators. Each one is set to a different random seed generation ensuring different values. They feed in pairs to produce the top points and the base points of the model. Each pair defines a points co-ordinate by x and y values.

separative forces - operate between nodes of a single thread.

decay - controls the amount of velocity lost from one iteration to the next.

cohesive forces - operate between nodes of different threads.

0 = total velocity loss 1 = no velocity loss

tensile forces - operates between nodes of a single thread.

This box draws a line between the set of points at the base and the set at the top. Each point is connected to one corresponding point by a single line. The rotating arrow next to B is to reverse the values in the list to ensure that the lines cross.

general use seek - control active range of cohesive and separative forces. power - controls magnitude of each force

to start: disable timer, set “reset” to false, then enable timer. to reset: disable timer, set “reset” to true, set “reset” to false, then enable timer

timestep - controls rate of simulation. beware of instability with higher values. This function places a circle with it’s centre at each of the base and top points of the model as can be seen from the links between them. The radius of each circle is the active range of the separation forces. The three previews are easy toggles for viewing different outputs of the final model. The first previews the circles with a dark grey colour swatch. The second is a preview of all the points in the model including the base and top points and the divide points along each ‘thread’. The third previews the threads themselves. In this case the plug in is a ‘pipe’ surface which is basically a cylinder around the threads.

This set of functions simply measure the length of the lines produced and then divide that length by the value of the slider. This gives the number of points to place at equal intervals along each line which is the function of the ‘divide’ box. These two sliders define the domain for the random number generators. This means that all values generated by the random generators are constrained to a number between the value of these two sliders

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These two point controls define the points at the top and bottom of the model. The additional number slider for the bottom set of points control the overall height of the model currently set to 20.

The ‘crv’ tool stands for curve. This is redrawing the threads or lines we had before once the forces from the ‘wooly paths’ script have been applied. The pipe command following it, creates a 3D model using cylinders that follow the curves. This is what can be seen in the images on these pages.

The final set of commands are used to calculate the shadow cast by the model. The mesh command converts the pipe surface to a mesh. MShadow stands for a mesh shadow which calculates the shadow of the mesh using a light angle defined by a curve (Crv). This curve is drawn in Rhino and can be rotated or moved freely depending on what light direction is desired. The Planar command simply takes the shadow output and puts a surface of the same shape in it’s place which can be rendered

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_05 This experiment builds on the last digital experiment (04) and changes the starting conditions. In this case the points are defined randomly within a circular boundary at the base and the top as opposed to within a square grid. This removes points at the edges that result in one or two threads that donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t interact with the rest of the model. Instead of reversing the input at the top to create a model with lots of crossed threads the definition here simply rotates the points at the top creating a starting model similar to a hyperboloid revolution. This rotation can be controlled via an input command varying from 0rad to (pi)rad. The code is explained below.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_06 This experiment builds on digital experiment 04. It makes another change to the starting conditions and then adds a secondary set of threads between the primary ones, similar to leaf venation although on a very simple and abstracted way. In this case, the initial points to define the primary thread network are the same as in 04 but for one small difference. Instead of reversing one set so that the threads cross, each point here links to itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s corresponding point above creating a set of vertical lines. A secondary set of threads is then added using points on the primary threads as itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s definition. This builds up a lattice and a hierarchy of networks. To accentuate this, the secondary threads have been shaded blue and given a thinner radius.

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This set is the same bit of script from the digital experiment 04 but this time applied to the secondary threads just created. It is played only after the result of the primary threads has been achieved.

These final three commands simply visualise the resulting model and place a 3d cylindrical brach over the threads as before.

This part of the grasshopper definition is the end of the same script from a previous experiment (04). The only difference is there is no crossing of threads initially to provide large gaps at the centre of the model. (see fig. 01.)

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These three sets are identical. Each one picks a curve from the initial threads and defines a point a set distance along (the top slider). The bottom slider defines a point a certain distance along on every thread. The Ln command draws a line from the point defined by the first slider to all the points defined by the second.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_07 This experiment is simply combining the previous two experiments. It takes the circular thread network and begins to add a secondary network of threads inside.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Image key:

Digital Experimentation Self-Organising_08

All the images read as sets of three from top to bottom representing keyframes within a timescale. 01-03. The initial set of threads or primary threads. Each image is part of a sequence with 03 being the resulting model.

This experiment takes the principles of multiple layers of threads or routes to bunch back to it’s simplest version. It is all 2D and starts by copying Frei Otto’s experiment for energy optimisation by limited detours by simply connecting points around a circle to their opposites across the diameter. I have used the same ‘wooly_paths’ script as in the previous examples to apply the bunching. Once this has finished I added a series of secondary threads one at a time. In each instance a single point in the model on one thread connects to chosen point on every other thread in the model. The same ‘wooly_paths’ script is then applied to the secondary thread netwrok.

04-06. A single point of connections is added as the first set of secondary threads. 07-09. A second set of secondary threads is added to the model. This time the two sets of secondary threads start to bunch together, each affecting the other. 10-12. A third set of secondary threads are added. 13-15. A fourth set of secondary threads are added.

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Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Galapagos_01 Using a combination of Kangaroo and Grasshopper for Rhino I can begin to construct a simple self organising computer model based on my thread experiments. Although not quite dealing with the same forces I have started by looking at bunching models replicating my threads but instead subdividing them into lengths of connected springs. To explore the fundamentals I have started with two simple parallel lines. Each line is subdivided into points with a spring between them. A force is applied using Kangaroo interacting between all of the points in the system. The strength of the force can be altered to be positive (repulsion) or negative (attraction). A cutoff value can also be defined to limit the distances that the force acts between. In each experiment the end points are fixed in order to limit the system to stop it collapsing to a point under an attraction force or expanding out continuously under repulsion.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Digital Experimentation Leaf Venation_01 I came across a series of mathematical models in my research for approximating leaf venation. It would be really interesting to alter my thread experiments with objects or spaces that repulse the threads. It would be a very interesting way of doing it if these objects or spaces could come from the threads themselves almost growing out of the primary structure. I have therefore started to experiment with how leaf venation may be achieved in grasshopper. I have seen these lamp designs (below) by Nervous System before and found out that they are based on an algorithm for leaf venation. I found the set of rules that the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;growthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; follows in a research paper by Adam Runions although no scripts for the model. I have therefore tried to replicate the algorithm using only grasshopper and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plugins, without writing any script myself. It is a work in progress that I hope to finish once I understand the software better but here is my progress so far.

We begin following it at the stage when the vein system consists of three nodes (black disks with white centers) and there are four auxin sources (red disks) (a).

First, each source is associated with the vein node that is closest to it (b, red lines);

Define sources for growth towards

Define root[s] on edge (blue circle) - first vein node

Link sources to closest node point (currently one)

Take the average vector for each node of all sources affecting it.

New vein node defined set distance along vector.

Re-evaluate sources to their closest node point (now two nodes)

Again average vectors for each node by sources affecting it. (first node now redundant - second is closest for all sources)

Re-evaluate sources to closest nodes. Two of the sources now affecting the second node, all others the third node.

This establishes the set of sources that influences each node. The normalized vectors from each vein node to each source that influences it are then found (c, black arrows).

These vectors are added and their sum normalized again (d, violet arrows) Providing the basis for locating new vein nodes (d, violet circles).

The new nodes are incorporated into the venation, in this case extending the midvein and initiating a lateral secondary vein (e).

Two new nodes defined, a new vein branch beginning to form to the bottom of te primary vein. MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

BURNING MAN

Mission Statement

Ten Principles

Our mission is to produce the annual event known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;Burning Manâ&#x20AC;? and to guide, nurture and protect the more permanent community created by its culture. Our intention is to generate society that connects each individual to his or her creative powers, to participation in community, to the larger realm of civic life, and to the even greater world of nature that exists beyond society. We believe that the experience of Burning Man can produce positive spiritual change in the world. To this end, it is equally important that we communicate with one another, with the citizens of Black Rock City and with the community of Burning Man wherever it may arise. Burning Man is radically inclusive, and its meaning is potentially accessible to anyone. The touchstone of value in our culture will always be immediacy: experience before theory, moral relationships before politics, survival before services, roles before jobs, embodied ritual before symbolism, work before vested interest, participant support before sponsorship. Finally, in order to accomplish these ends, Burning Man must endure as a self-supporting enterprise that is capable of sustaining the lives of those who dedicate themselves to its work. From this devotion spring those duties that we owe to one another. We will always burn the Man.

Radical Inclusion Anyone may be a part of Burning Man. We welcome and respect the stranger. No prerequisites exist for participation in our community. Gifting Burning Man is devoted to acts of gift giving. The value of a gift is unconditional. Gifting does not contemplate a return or an exchange for something of equal value. Decommodification In order to preserve the spirit of gifting, our community seeks to create social environments that are unmediated by commercial sponsorships, transactions, or advertising. We stand ready to protect our culture from such exploitation. We resist the substitution of consumption for participatory experience. Radical Self-reliance Burning Man encourages the individual to discover, exercise and rely on his or her inner resources.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Radical Self-expression Radical self-expression arises from the unique gifts of the individual. No one other than the individual or a collaborating group can determine its content. It is offered as a gift to others. In this spirit, the giver should respect the rights and liberties of the recipient.

Leaving No Trace Our community respects the environment. We are committed to leaving no physical trace of our activities wherever we gather. We clean up after ourselves and endeavor, whenever possible, to leave such places in a better state than when we found them.

Communal Effort Our community values creative cooperation and collaboration. We strive to produce, promote and protect social networks, public spaces, works of art, and methods of communication that support such interaction.

Participation Our community is committed to a radically participatory ethic. We believe that transformative change, whether in the individual or in society, can occur only through the medium of deeply personal participation. We achieve being through doing. Everyone is invited to work. Everyone is invited to play. We make the world real through actions that open the heart.

Civic Responsibility We value civil society. Community members who organize events should assume responsibility for public welfare and endeavor to communicate civic responsibilities to participants. They must also assume responsibility for conducting events in accordance with local, state and federal laws.

Immediacy Immediate experience is, in many ways, the most important touchstone of value in our culture. We seek to overcome barriers that stand between us and a recognition of our inner selves, the reality of those around us, participation in society, and contact with a natural world exceeding human powers. No idea can substitute for this experience.

Burning Man - Inclusive society

BURNING MAN FACTS & FIGURES

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

BURNING MAN SURVIVAL GUIDE Essentials:

Contents

Upon arrival

The burning man festival organisers publish a survival guide with what to bring, the rules of the camp etc. every year to help people prepare for their experience at burning man and to make sure an environment is created in which everybody is safe and can have fun. Over the next few pages I have taken points from that survival guide to highlight potential problems that my pavilion could provide solutions to, in short to inform my programme and form.

The gates do not open until the entire site is ready and all of the safety and sanitation features have been set up. When the gates are opened hundreds of cars pile in and it can take a long time to enter the site, you are advised to delay arrival if you wish to miss the queues. Every car is searched and all occupants of the car must have their tickets or photo ids and confirmation number if picking up tickets. The cars are searched to ensure that none of the banned items can get through into Black Rock City, you can be turned away or at least to the back of the queue if you have any items. Most of the banned substances are purely to aid the clean up effort after and ensure that no trace will be left - one of the primary goals of Burning Man. Anything on the ground that shouldn’t be is referred to as MOOP (Matter Out Of Place).

•

Arriving at Burning Man - what to bring and what not to bring

•

Protecting the environment - leave no trace, waste management and water management

•

Survival - desert life and climate and how to cope

•

Community - ensuring an environment everyone can enjoy including the larger context outside Black Rock City and how to make the most of your time at Burning Man.

From looking at the survival guide lists of what to bring and what not to bring (see the three images to the right) the key issues appear to be: •

The heat during the day

•

Safety and Law - following the law and ensuring a safe environment

•

The cold temperatures at night

•

Exodus - leaving the desert with no trace

•

Management of supplies to ensure everything is looked after and not left on the ground

•

Storage of supplies

•

The dust and the storms

•

Ensuring plenty of water to drink, making sure all that water is brought with you

•

A consideration for everyone at the festival

MichaelClarke

DS10

Temperature

•

Sun cream and sunglasses although at the hottest part of the day you are encouraged to seek shelter and save your energy for the rest of the day

•

In addition you must have your ticket or photo id card and confirmation to collect tickets.

Suggested:

•

Portable ashtrays that can be sealed

•

Shading structures and umbrellas to protect from the heat

•

A wide brimmed hat, chin straps are recommended due to the sometimes high winds

An am/fm radio to tune into BMIR radio whilst you are at the festival

•

A bike for getting around, balloon tires are best and you should have a lock and lights for safe travel at night

Dust masks and goggles to protect from the dust storms (common)

•

A tire repair kit

•

A cooking stove if you wish to heat food or liquids

Heavy duty tent stakes to make sure everything is strongly grounded in the case of storms, rebar can be used effectively.

•

A portable shower providing it has a drain that can collect the grey water

•

Cut tennis balls or plastic bottles to sit on the tent pegs to stop people injuring themselves

•

Water tight protective bags for electrical equipment

•

Extra set of car keys in case you lose them

•

Ear plugs - some people may be up all night beside you!

•

Lotion and lip balm to protect against dry or cracked skin

In addition you are recommended to bring camp markers and lots of costumes to help you participate and find your camp easily.

•

Any plants, live or dead in addition to anything else that may break up or blow away in the wind

•

Explosives, aerial flares, fireworks or rockets

•

Any kind of firearm including bb guns and paintball guns

•

In addition, any mutant vehicles not pre registered will be turned away and any motorcycles that were not used as the primary method of transportation to burning man.

•

Strong tent

•

Warm sleeping bag (temperatures can fall to around 5°C at night)

•

Warm clothes for the night

•

1.5 gallons of water per person per day

•

Enough food and drink for your group

•

An extensive first aid kit

•

Any prescription medicines, contact lenses etc.

•

Fire extinguishers

•

Garbage and recycling bags to clear up

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A torch and spare batteries to see and be seen at night

Do not bring (you can be refused entry): •

Glass containers of any type

•

Excess packaging - for example take the bag of cereal, not the box as well

•

Loose glitter

•

Nuts in their shells

•

Too much fresh produce, it will start to smell before you can dispose of it at the end of the week

Water Supply

•

Styrofoam coolers will disintegrate into lots of pieces and will not last the week

•

Gravel

•

Straw or hay bales

Participation

•

Feathers including boas

Minimising MOOP Dust Transportation

Burning Man - Inclusive society

BURNING MAN SURVIVAL GUIDE

Protecting the environment

The six R’s

Planning

Of the ten key principles that Burning Man runs on only one is chiefly concerned with the effect of the festival on the environment which is Leave No Trace. Part of being allowed to use the Black Rock Desert Playa for the festival is down to regular inspections by the Bureau of Land Management. The BLM is also responsible in part for the current location and layout of the Black Rock City. They require an organised layout that doesn’t impact on other users of the playa in order to issue a permit to grant camping rights.

There are six guiding principles to help participants at Burning Man respect the environment and meet the Leave No Trace principles:

The survival guide offers tips for reduction, reuse and recycling during the festival in order to minimise participants impact. It’s primary focus is on reducing the MOOP in a firm belief that anything lying around leads to further matter being added to it.

Burning Man is the largest Leave No Trace festival in North America and actively tries to promote the Leave No Trace principles beyond the extent of the festival. It is a very simple principle that literally translates its name to its practice making sure that you leave an environment as or better than you found it. Since 2006 Burning Man LLC has also come up with an environmental statement: ‘Black Rock City LLC is committed to utilizing environmentally favorable solutions as they become financially sound alternatives to the use of fossil fuels and non-renewable materials. We encourage our staff and participants to use these alternatives in their camps in Black Rock City, and further to promote and encourage environmental awareness and make use of emerging technologies. We are determined to promote and continue to support the Leave No Trace principles, the use of renewable energy, the use of non-fossil fuels, recycling valuable reusable materials, and composting organic waste materials when ever possible. We are open to suggestions toward making the Burning Man experience environmentally sound and we will utilize new methods and technology as they become suitable to our needs. Help us make Black Rock City environmentally viable. Signed, Board of Director

Respect - respect for all things from the ground to the sky

•

Rethink - Do i really need this? The impact on the environment? where did it come from? What happens after?

•

Reduce - reduce waste, driving trips and disposables

•

Reuse - can it be reused before being recycled?

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Recycle - recycle everything possible that can’t be reused

•

Restore - Be the solution, always try and leave things better or at least the same as you found it.

Each camp is recommended to have a ‘Leave No Trace Planner’. This person is responsible for setting out a management plan to be carried out during the week ensuring minimal rubbish. There should also be a designated ‘Leave No Trace Monitor’ who is the last person to leave the camp. At the end of the week the entire camp should form lines crisscrossing their space to ensure that no MOOP is left on the ground. At the end of the week any rubbish should be taken with you including grey water that hasn’t been recycled. No grey water can be dumped on the Playa. This is to ensure that Black Rock City continues to get its permit for future burning man festivals.

Temperature Minimising MOOP Dust

Water Supply Transportation

Black Rock City LLC’

MichaelClarke

•

DS10

Participation

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Capillary Action_01 Capillary action is a process that allows vertical transportation of a liquid against gravity without any additional forces applied to the liquid. It utilises the attraction forces between the molecules in the liquid and the overall surface tension between the liquid and a surface placed in the liquid. The diagram below explains the phenomenon. In the two tubes on the left (red) the liquid in the container adheres to the surface of the tubes. In this case the contact angle between the liquid and the surface of the tube is said to be less than 90°. The centre of the liquid will be lower than the edges, this is called a concave meniscus. In the two columns to the right (blue) the liquid does not adhere to the surface of the tubes. Here the surface tension works across the entire liquid and the centre of the column of liquid will be higher than the edges, a convex meniscus is formed. In this situation the angle of contact is greater than 90°. Note that in each case the height difference is influenced by the diameter of the tube. The smaller the diameter, the greater the difference in height.

01.

>> In this experiment I looked at transporting water between two containers. My crit panel suggested looking at capillary action and potential programmes that could influence or be influenced by my minimal networks in the thread models other than potential structure. As I have looked at water storage and grey water recycling as being some of the biggest issues at Burning Man I decided first to look at potential methods of storing and transporting water at a basic principle that could then be expanded to a larger scale.

02.

03.

04.

01. The set up for my first experiment uses two glasses, one full of water and one empty. I have added red food dye to highlight the water movement. As a medium for transporting water I am using a kitchen towel. 02. The kitchen towel is rolled up and placed between the two glasses ensuring one end is below the surface of the water. The paper towel is essentially a whole network of tiny tubes that function with capillary action. 03. The water begins to siphon into the empty container. This continues as long as there is a moisture gradient in the ‘wicking’ material. 04. The water continues to siphon although is paler with a lot of the dye seemingly left in the paper towel. 05. The liquid between both glasses levels out, there no longer being a moisture gradient between the two. It is now in a state of equilibrium with water flowing in neither direction. I would like to try raising the paper towel in one glass to see if water can continue to flow.

05.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Frei Otto and Buckminster Fuller - Experimentation and learning from nature

Analogue Experimentation Capillary Action_02 The experiments on this page look at expanding on the first capillary siphon experiment. This time to see if it is possible to transport water vertically. I was encouraged by the first experiment however after thinking further about the potential it should be impossible. Essentially this could lead to a way of ‘creating’ energy by a cyclic system which is impossible, energy can only be conserved. These three experiments document the process I went through. In practice, although capillary action is responsible for raising the liquid vertically it cannot deposit that liquid above its original height. This is due to the forces needed to break the surface tension would only lead to the liquid travelling back along the material rather than falling free from the material. It can be seen in each case that the material is still ‘wicking’ the water vertically and holding it within the material.

The set up on the left shows a basic siphon. This is similar to the paper towel experiment I have recreated however surface tension and cohesion isn’t necessary here, the siphon will still work utilising only pressure differences. It maintains the conservation of energy principles in that the mass of water raised up is equal to the mass of water falling on the other side.

MichaelClarke

DS10

This experiment directly follows the last, this time lifting the paper towel free from the surface of the water in the second glass. I have still not had any joy in raising the water level although I may try a new paper towel that is not saturated as a next step. I would also like to look at multiple wicks between containers.

This page shows an attempt at utilising plastic bottles, a potential building material for the same purpose of raising the water vertically. Although the water is within the top bottle in the paper towel (I have unscrewed the lid to check) it is not dropping freely into the top container.

Basically a variation of the bottles experiment but with a larger height difference. I was hoping that the potential for greater evaporation at the top could lead to a larger moisture gradient and faster capillary action however this experiment has also reached a stage where the entire wick is wet but no water is being collected in the top glass.

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Environmental Analysis Climate and Appropriate Responses Black Rock City is built on the Playa of the Black Rock Desert in Nevada. The Playa is a silt alkaline salt pan 3848ft above sea level. The longest stretch of the Playa reaches 27 miles and with the widest point at 12 miles it is the second largest expanse of flat ground in the Northern Hemisphere. Although an old lake bed thousands of years ago it is a very dusty and dry environment, there is little humidity in the air. It can also get extremely hot during the day, particularly in Summer however as with most deserts, the temperature can fall dramatically at night. This page uses Ecotect’s Weather Tool to briefly analyse the type of climate and suggest possible design solutions to increase average comfort levels within the climate. The charts to the right are all psychometric charts with various overlays (see legend). The chart runs along two axis, with the dry bulb temperature in °C along the bottom axis and absolute humidity running vertically. The lines crossing the graph are the relative humidity (curved), wet bulb temperature (dashed diagonals) and vapour pressure (solid verticals). The tool allows you to look at temperatures and humidities as cumulative frequency plots or specific data points and overlays areas to show temperatures and humidities that fall within an average comfortable range for different levels of activity. It also then allows overlays for various passive design strategies to try and increase the range of values within the comfort levels. All the weather data used in this analysis is from Las Vegas, Nevada, a similar desert climate not far from Black Rock Desert and the closest set of weather data within Ecotect’s database. >> Pyschometric Chart Legend: 01. The yellow boxes highlight climate types based on the temperatures and humidities recorded. The blue line charts maximum values across the year. The letters along the line relate to the months of the year. The Burning Man festival takes place at the end of August and the start of September, all of these months fall within the hot and dry climate category. 02. The data points plotted in this case are a cumulative frequency chart for the month of August. Overlaid are the most suitable active cooling strategies for any points that fall within their areas. The majority of points recorded fall within the ventilate or evaporative category with a few outside points best solved with purely evaporative cooling or ventilation. 03. The same chart as 02, but for September. Again it shows a climate that is dry enough for evaporative cooling to be effective where air conditioning is unnecessary.

<< Images of Black Rock Desert 01. Natural springs north and east of the Playa 02. Vehicle tracks left in the mud of the Playa 03. Silt dunes and scrubland 04. A plane takes off above the dry and dusty landscape of the desert 05. In the Summer the Playa cracks like baked mud 06. Dust storms are common, particularly with increased activity stirring up the dust from the surface 07. Another silt dune pushed up by the wind and swelling below the Playa’s surface.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Environmental Analysis Passive Design Strategies Ecotect has some in built analysis of passive design strategies and their effectiveness in varying climates. Based on the psychometric charts that I have already looked at, it can also overlay the effect of a particular strategy, or even multiple strategies on the range of comfortable temperatures and humidities. Different passive design strategies can be looked at and compared to help decide on the best ones to incorporate in a design. These are not difinitive and even the psychometric chart should only be used as a guide however they can give an indication. I have already seen that ventilation or evaporative cooling are the best strategies for cooling in the Nevada desert climate however due to the fluctuating temperatures between day and night I am also looking at thermal mass. As the pavilion or theme camp will be outside in the desert it will be very easy to let air movement through so I am not comparing ventilation effects - it is not the same as a closed environment. I have also included on this page for reference the recorded wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures covering August and September. For evaporative cooling to be most effective there needs to be a greater difference in the two temperatures. This is often the case in dry climates. As a comparison the same recorded temperatures but for London, England can be seen below. A much more humid environment, there is very little difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures.

<< Psychometric chart overlays

The two graphs below show the effects of first, thermal mass and bottom, evaporative cooling on the range of temperatures that could be included in a comfortable range if that design strategy was put into place.

The three graphs on this page show the temperature and humidity ranges for September. The same two design strategies have been applied. Again they are largely successful although the chart shows there is less humidity in the air so that thermal mass becomes less effective at the higher temperatures. The design strategies are struggling to help the cooler dryer ranges. Again, these values are likely to be recorded towards the end of September and not during Burning Man.

Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperatures for Las Vegas, Nevada. The fluctuating blue line is the recorded dry bulb temperatures with the maximum, minimum and median average values indicated by the three horizontal blue lines. The same applies to the green lines at a lower temperature showing the Wet Bulb Temperature. The shaded green band across the graph is indicative of thermal neutrality or comfort.

MichaelClarke

DS10

The large image above shows the combined effect of both strategies on one chart. All of these three charts are for a temperature range in August. Although a few points, particularly in the higher temperatures fall outside of the comfort zone the design strategies include most of the data showing them to be largely successful options. As Burning Man is held right at the end of August, it is likely that these higher temperatures will not be experienced anyway. Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperatures for London, England. Notice that there is very little difference between the wet and dry bulb temperatures due to a higher humidity level. Notice also that the comfort level is often above the actual temperatures indicating that it is rarely too hot in the UK. Again, compare this to Las Vegas where temperatures fluctuate either side of the indicative comfort range.

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Passive Design Strategies Evaporative Cooling

Passive Design Strategies Thermal Mass

Evaporative cooling is a very simple process illustrated by the diagram on the right. Water is soaked into a material which acts as an evaporative pad. The pad needs to not just let the water fall rapidly into the collection point but instead hold enough in the material. As the warm dry air passes through the material/pad it picks up moisture (this is why it works best when there is little humidity) making it not only cooler but more humid also. The air can then be circulated around wherever it needs to be. In the top down diagram there needs to be a collective pan to take any excess moisture.

Thermal mass is a strategy that allows a more constant temperature throughout the day and night rather than greatly swinging temperatures. During the day the thermal mass material absorbs heat from the sun. This helps to cool the surrounding environment by reducing the radiation reflected. At night when the outside air temperature is much cooler the thermal mass starts to radiate heat warming its surroundings. Large amounts of concrete, earth or stone are often used as thermal mass materials in architecture. It’s effect can be felt perhaps at its most when entering massive churches or mosques where the sheer volume of stone and little daylight entering a space acts to create a much cooler environment.

I am aiming to try and recreate the effect, by replacing the evaporative pad with a material or thread network based on my bunching experiments. These will be a suitable material that can wick water from below up the structure. The warm air passing through the thread network will not only be cooled by the water wicked up, but increase the speed of the wicking by ensuring a constant moisture gradient.

I am planning on using water throughout my structure (partly for grey water storage and partly to try and evaporate the grey water) to act as a thermal mass. From the specific heat capacity values, water is second only to ammonia as a thermally massive material, far better than concrete and much more readily available. The table also shows that the presence of salts and ammonia within the water will not be a bad thing for the thermal mass.

Hot dry air passes through the thread mesh/network and takes on moisture cooling the air. Also by evaporating water from the threads it causes the wicking process to improve and speed up.

Above shows the pvc tubing I am proposing to use to transport the water around the structure. This provides a larger surface area for the removal of grey water through evaporation, larger storage for grey water and a larger surface area of thermal mass.

Thread network sucks up the water from below through capillary action and forms a mesh to act as an evaporative pad

Top specific heat capacities (kJ/kg.K) of common liquids and fluids:

Specific heat capacity of building materials:

Substance

Phase

Ammonia, 32°F

4.6

Asphalt

solid

0.920

Ammonia, 104°F

4.86

Brick

solid

0.840

Ammonia, 176°F

5.4

Concrete

solid

0.880

Ammonia, 212°F

6.2

Glass, silica

solid

0.840

Ammonia, 238°F

6.74

Glass, crown

solid

0.670

Water, fresh

4.19

Glass, flint

solid

0.503

Water, sea 36°F

3.93

Glass, pyrex

solid

0.753

Sodium chloride

3.31

Granite

solid

0.790

Sodium hydrate

3.93

Gypsum

solid

1.090

Milk

3.93

Calcium Chloride

3.06

Marble, mica

solid

0.880

Sand

solid

0.835

Soil

solid

0.800

Wood

solid

1.7 (1.2 to 2.3)

Human Urine (0.05g of solutes per g of urine), 73°F

4.019

Human Urine (0.90g of solutes per g of urine), 73°F

DS10

cp (J/(g·K))

(J/(g·K))

Water drawn up from tray through capillary action

MichaelClarke

Phase

1.536

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Sketch Proposals This page shows some initial sketch ideas. It does not intend to illustrate a fully resolved plan and overall form. I hope to inform the plan through further research and exploration of programme and social function in addition to practical needs. The overall form and scale I hope to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;findâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; through exploration and experimentation into air movement, exposed thermal mass surface and structural limitations. I hope to achieve this through both physical models and digital analysis.

Water in the tubes initially spiralled around a cone shape. The pressure differences utilise the venturi effect to speed up the inflowing air and increase the evaporative cooling effect of the wicking central thread mesh.

Water in the tubes serve as thermal mass for the structure.

Florescent colouring in water circulates around tube structure

Separate thread networks (following a growth function) spread across the tube networks. They help to close off a larger area of the pavilion relatively cheaply, however the main function is to absorb any excess humidity within the structure, largely all the sweat from people dancing. This will evaporate and crystalise around the interior. This also provides additional visual interest and will change throughout the week, refracting the light from above.

Central thread network wicks up the grey water and forms a mesh over the cone to provide evaporative cooling Need a way of transporting the water back to the higher tank. Potentially through pressure on an elevated dancefloor forcing water uphill.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Siphon action provides circulation of water throughout structure

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Early Sketch Visualisation - Night time club The image is an early visual to explore the potential aesthetic at night and how the structure may evolve. It looks at the three processes outlined in the initial sketch proposals showing the crystallisation and evaporative cooling networks. It also shows the potential for seating and form from the same continuous tube with the flourescent lighting throughout the structure and the potential for multiple colours. I do not like the single large space beneath a vault and feel that the form needs a lot of further exploration. The quality of the image isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t great but I feel I can use it as a starting point for design exploration.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Precedent Studies Lars Spruyboek - Guadalajara Library

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Precedent Studies Casual Profanity - Fluid sculpture and dress

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Defining a pattern for any surface If I’m going to use a continuous looping tube for my structure it needs to be made stronger and the necessary material to cover an area needs to be reduced. The more tubes I have the better the thermal mass capabilities and the more the evaporative cooling will work, I need to reduce hot air allowed into a space that is being cooled from another direction. In addition, visual interest can be improved by patterning the tubes, not just the water inside. I looked at a looping pattern that translated in the x direction every time it looped in order to make sure it could cover a space. in addition the loops had to be big enough at the top and bottom to allow multiple layers to overlap. The pattern I came up with can be defined by points on a grid, turning those points into control points for a b-spline curve. It can be stretched in either the x or y directions. This page explores the pattern across a shell and then mapped onto any surface. The more u and v curves on a surface the tighter knit the pattern can be and therefore a more accurate representation of the initial surface. This would also mean more material however. Fig. 01 illustrates how the pattern works. >> 02

A crude, initial model to look at the siphoning capability of the PVC/Polypropylene tubing;

The weaved pattern hanging loosely on a wall;

The same weaving pattern although much closer knit adds strength to be able to stand freely;

05- These are a series of digital explorations of the pattern across an arched surface. In each image the top half 08 shows the initial surface U and V curves used for construction lines and the curve pattern drawn on top. The bottom half shows a render of the curve standing alone. The series of images form a sequence with the number of u curves increased in each case allowing more repetition of the pattern. Figure 06. shows no interlocking of the patterns whereas 07 and 08 show the pattern’s overlapped by a single grid line. 02. Pattern: •

Start at edge of surface at nominal point 0,9

•

First control point one across at 1,9

•

Second control point below and to the right at 2,8

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Third point x distance below, in this case: two at 2,6

•

Fourth control point below and left at 0,4

•

Fifth control point y distance below. This can be the same as x but also an independent variable incase a non-symmetrical result is desired. In this case two below at 0,1

•

diagonally

x 6

•

Seventh control point horizontally translated by 1 at 2,0

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Eighth point at 3,1

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Ninth point up by y, in this case two at 3,4

•

Tenth point diagonally left and up at 1,6

•

Eleventh point up by x, in this case two at 1,8

•

Twelfth point is equivalent to the first in the pattern and lies at 2,9

•

To illustrate the continuation a thirteenth point is highlighted at 3,9

DS10

MichaelClarke

Sixth control point diagonally below and right one at 1,0 (notice the pattern is a mirror of the first stages only translated across the grid to the right by 1

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Burning Man - Inclusive society

<< 09- A continuation of the construction curves in the top 11 row and the rendered curves in the bottom row. The surface is now a freer form than the arch and can still have the pattern applied using the u and v curve intersection points as a grid. The number of points and therefore the accuracy of the output in relation to the input increases from figure 09. to figure 11. 12- The b-spline surface in this series has been modified 15 further to highlight the potential for the pattern.

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MichaelClarke

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DS10

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Burning Man - Inclusive society

Section A - Design Intentions

Additional threads around the inside of the structure will absorb the excess moisture in the air and the sweat produced by the occupants dancing. The salts in this water crystallise across the inside of the structure.

Water in the tubes serve as thermal mass for the structure.

Central thread network wicks up the grey water and forms a mesh over the end of the pavilion. The mesh soaks up the water and provides evaporative cooling to the space.

Need a way of transporting the water back to the higher tank. Potentially through pressure on an elevated dancefloor forcing water uphill or solar powered pond pumps

Siphon action provides circulation of water throughout the structure providing the receiving tank is below the level of the intake tank.

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Visualisation - Front perspective

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Visualisation - Evening Dust Storm

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Visualisation - Late Evening Haze

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Visualisation - Night lights

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Visualisation - Internal at night

MichaelClarke

DS10

Burning Man - Inclusive society

Physical Model - Weaving and Lighting Based on the initial pattern I set up for weaving across any surface I started to build a physical model to test the structural implications as well as the water movement, the flexible surface and the ability to draw flourescent material through the structure at night. From the tests although it does stand up freely it will need a more solid or fixed foundation. In addition the more levels added the more the pattern loses itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s porosity and begins to sag, the water adds further mass to this effect that would need to be taken into account in the overall form. I may need to add wire or use the thread networks within to add stiffness or additional tension members to secure the structure fully. I also need to look further at the design of the tanks for water storage and a pump mechanism to replace the top reservoir or an evaporative system for the bottom. The two rows of images are time based sequences from left to right. The top row shows the model growing whereas the bottom row shows the movement of light within the structure.

Sequence 01.

Sequence 02.

MichaelClarke

DS10