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studio 22 : matter
colour
wk michelle chang 501788 | studio c
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“...colours are the children of light, and light is their mother. Light, that first phenomenon of the world. reveals to us the spirit and living soul of the world through colours. Nothing affects the human mind more dramatically than the apparition of a gigantic colour corona in the heavens. Thunder and lightning frighten us; but the colours of the rainbow and the northern lights soothe and elevate the soul.� Wa ss i l y K an d i n s k y
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acknowledgements My deepest gratitude goes to our tutors Jannette, Mond, Adrian and Viet-My; members of Studio 22; peers within the MSD; our crit panels; and to Phil at UDMK. I wish to thank you all for having been so generous with the sharing of your time, resources, knowledge and laughter during this semester. This project would not have achieved half of its potential without your limitless support, motivation and guidance - Thank you!
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contents
i n t ro d uc t ion
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pi gm e nt s white
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blue
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green
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yellow
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orange
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red
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purple
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brown
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black
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appe nd ix research
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references
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introduction People naturally seek meaning in our surroundings and in the everyday things we interact with; whether we do this consciously or subconsciously, we are more often intrigued by semantics than the face value information that we are presented with. Colour is naturally loaded with meaning. It affects how we think, governs our emotions and influences our decision making processes. However we often overlook its significance because our reactions are so ingrained they have become instinctive and not much different from a knee-jerk reaction. We are surrounded by and respond to colour everyday but yet have very little critical understanding of colour and where it comes from. This is why today I would like to lead you all through a journey of colour – and hopefully by the end of our tour you’ll be able to take away a bit of social and cultural history from each of the 9 pigments that we’ll be travelling through. We begin with white...
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“W h i t e … i s n ot a m e re a b s en ce of col ou r; i t i s a s h i n i n g and af f ir mat ive t h i n g, a s f i e rc e a s red , a s d efi n i t e a s bl a ck…G od p aints in many co lou rs ; b u t H e n e v e r pa i n t s s o g org eou s l y, I h a d a l m ost said so g aud i l y, a s w h e n H e pa i n t s i n wh i t e.” G . K . C he s t e r t o n
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WHITE
LIME WHITE LEAD WHITE ZINC WHITE TITANIUM WHITE
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: originating from the Old English word hwīt, from Germanic origin; related to the Dutch word wit and German weiss as well as English wheat. S Y M B OLISM White is an achromatic colour, composed of all frequencies of light within the visible spectrum, it is literally a “colour without a colour”. It is one of the most common colours in nature and often referred to as the colour of milk, snow , clouds and chalk. White has been most often associated with new beginnings - both in religious and secular contexts. While it is associated with baptisms and weddings within the western world, Asian cultures use white in funerals to signify reincarnation and that death is not a permanent separation from the world. Dominating the architectural interiors of the Baroque and Rococo style - unifying the curves, asymmetry gliding and reliefs which were lavish displays of wealth and power. Within the modern movement in, white was extremely important in communicating the stripped back functionalist architecture of the international style. White is also often associated with buildings of a civic nature - revived by neoclassicism of 18th and 19th centuries. This was perhaps because of the way archaic monuments of Greece and Rome look to us today despite the fact that they were once colourfully painted. Politically white is often associated with monarchism - originating from the white flag of the Bourbon dynasty of France. A white flag could also alternatively signify surrender and is internationally recognised as a symbol of truce or ceasefire and a request for negotiation. Today white is associated with cleanliness, efficiency, perfection and used heavily within science fiction to portray technological advancement and futurism.
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Innocence & Purity - New beginnings - Equality & Unity - Impartial - Rescuer - Futuristic & Forward - Efficiency G EOM ET R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Vertical 0°
WAVELE N GT H -
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16 TITANIUM WHITE / tie • tay • nee • uhm wite / (1921-today) The white of the 20th century, 95% of the titanium ore extracted from the Earth is refined into titanium dioxide. Approximately 4.6 million tons of the pigment are used annually worldwide with numbers expecting to increase. Usually manufactured with 30% titanium oxide and 70% barium sulphate, the mineral ore is chemically broken down with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is very opaque and is also used in sunscreen and to strengthen graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
The iron and titanium deposits are dissolved in water and boiled to separate the titanium as a mettitanic acid from the iron precipitate.
Sample of titanium dioxide from the oven.
CH EM ICA L N A ME Titanium dioxide F ORM U L A TiO2
LIME WHITE
/ lime wite / (p r e hi sto r y-to day)
CH EM IC A L N A ME Calcium carbonate
Natural rock derived from marine material - largely composed of fossil remains of unicellular algae. Also known as chalk.
F ORM UL A CaCO3
LEAD WHITE
CH EM IC A L N A ME Basic lead(II)-carbonate
Prepared from metallic lead and vinegar. Its poisonous lead content restricted its manufacture in the 19th century.
F ORM UL A 2 PbCO3· Pb(OH)2
ZINC WHITE
/ zink wite / (1834-to day)
CH EM IC A L N A ME Zinc(II)-oxide
Zinc smoke derived from molten zinc heated to 150°C is collected and processed. It is valuable for making tints with other colours (such as yellows) because it is a “clean” pigment.
F ORM UL A ZnO
/ azh • uh • rite / (400BC-1800s)
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“C o b a l t [b l u e ] i s a di v i n e col ou r a n d t h ere i s n ot h i n g s o beautif ul fo r pu t t i n g a tm os p h ere a rou n d t h i n g s …” Vi n ce nt v a n G o g h
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BLUE
EGYPTIAN BLUE AZURITE ULTRAMARINE INDIGO SMALT PRUSSIAN BLUE COBALT BLUE CERULEAN BLUE MONASTRAL BLUE
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: Derived from the Old French bleu, related to the Old High German word blao. Russian: No single word for blue but different words for light blue (голубой, goluboy) and dark blue (синий, siniy) Japanese / Thai / Korean / Vietnamese: Same word to describe blue and green - the reason why green traffic lights in Japan appear more blue than green. S Y M B OLISM One of the three primary colours, blue is the colour of the skies above and the oceans below. Symbolising the divine, and the spiritual, blue has strong associations with the heavens. Thus blue has an unreachable quality to it - it completely surrounds us but is never quite within reach. Ultramarine was historically more precious in weight that gold leading to its use and control by the royals and the aristocrats and later by the church to paint only the robes of the Virgin Mary. Blue continues to evoke qualities of boundlessness and infinity in modern art. Yves Klein’s (1928-1962) monochrome painting and obsession of blue symbolised an “open window to freedom as the possibility of being immersed in the immeasurable existence of colour.”
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Communication - Peace & Tranquillity - Honesty - Authority - Spirituality - Wisdom G EOM ET R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Circle 150°
WAVELE N GT H 450-495nm
Also a symbol of trust and fidelity, blue symbolises faithfulness. Blue ribbons were worn in on the dress of a bride and in her bouquet as an old English custom. Modern day companies also utilise this association to communicate trust and security of their brands. Though blue is expansive, it is also sometimes referred to sadness. “Feeling blue” derives from the old sailing tradition where blue flags would be raised if a ship loses her captain.
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24 EGYPTIAN BLUE
/ e • gyp • shun bloo / (Egyptian anti qui ty-Ro ma n a ntiquity ) One of the oldest synthetic pigments and considered the first synthetic pigment. Know to the Romans as caeruleum the formula was lost until it was rediscovered in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy. New use has been found in the modern era within biomedical, telecommunications and lasers due to its high photoluminescence as shown in Infra-Red imaging. The pigment is also extremely stable, displaying a intense levels of luminescence even after millennia.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Requiring temperatures of 800 to 900°C, the calcium compound and Copper Compounds are melted at a ratio of 4 SiO2 : 1 CaO : 1 CuO
CH EM ICA L N A ME Calcium copper silicate F ORM U L A CaCuSi4O10
AZURITE
/ azh • uh • rite / (antiquity-1700s) Azurite is composed of mineral basic carbonate of copper, found in many parts of the world in the upper oxidized portions of copper ore deposits. Azurite mineral is often found with and associated in nature with malachite, which is more abundant than its blue counterpart. Azurite was the most important blue pigment in European painting throughout the middle ages and Renaissance. Though less vibrant than ultramarine, it offered a cheaper alternative to the precious blue. Produced artificially from the 17th century, it was quickly replaced when “Prussian blue” is discovered in the 18th century. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Azurite minerals are ground, washed & sieved. The more coarse the grounding is the darker the colour produced.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (1700s-1800s) Prepared at low temperatures with a copper salt. Produces a sky-blue slightly more green than natural azurite but more consistent in the colour produced.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Basic copper(II)-carbonate F ORM UL A 2 CuCO3 · Cu(OH)2
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26 ULTRAMARINE / ul • truh • muh • reen / (anti qui ty-1800s) Mined from the Kokcha Valley in Afghanistan Lapis Lazuli has been a precious source of blue to the ancients for over 6,000 years. The rock was transported to Egypt and later to Europe and used both in jewellery as well as a pigment. The name ultramarine is derived from the way it was transported which literally meant ‘over the sea’. The cost of the pigment meant that the colour was heavily controlled by the wealthy and the powerful and was banned from being used by the church for anyone other than the painting of religious figures. Since the 19th century, ultramarine has been manufactured artificially. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Pulverised into a fine powder by milling.
Gum Rosin, Gum Mastic and Beeswax melted with the powdered Lapis Lazuli.
Rolled into pigment extraction sticks.
Kneaded in water to extract the pure pigment. Impurities will be held within the gum. The water is then drained and the pure pigment is left as a sediment.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (1824-1828) French Ultramarine - developed in the 19th Century. A prize was offered by the Societé pour l’Encouragement d’Industrie for a for a formula costing less than 300 francs. Made by heating, in a closed-fire clay furnace, a finely ground mixture of China clay, soda ash, coal or wood, charcoal, silica and sulfur. The mixture is maintained at red heat for one hour and then allowed to cool. It is then washed to remove excess sodium sulfate, evaporated and milled.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Complex sulfur-containing sodium aluminum silicate F ORM UL A Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4
INDIGO / in • deh • go / (anti qui ty-to day) Derived from the Greek word indicon, meaning from India, it is a natural pigment and dye prepared from the plant source Indigofera. India is believed to be the oldest centre of indigo dyeing in the world. Today El Salvador is the biggest producer of Indigo. About 20 mil. kg is produced annually - mostly for blue jeans which requires on average 3-12g of indigo per pair. Woad is a common alternative and a main source of the blue dye in Europe which was traditionally soaked in urine ideally produced by excessive alcohol consumption. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Indigo leaves dried.
Pressed into long-lasting “indigo-balls” and left in the sun to dry.
Soaking in alkaline water extracts the colour. Typically fermented in pots underground to maintain a warm temperature for fermentation.
Rolled into pigment extraction sticks.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (1900s) In 1897, 19,000 tons of indigo were produced from plant sources. Largely due to advances in organic chemistry, production by natural sources dropped to 1,000 tons by 1914 and continued to decline. Artificially indigo is prepared using o-Nitrobenzaldehyde, acetone and sodium hydroxide.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Indigotin (2,2’-Biindolinyliden-3,3’-dion) F ORM UL A C16H10N2O2
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28 SMALT / smalt / (1400s-1700s) Made from crushed blue potassium glass and used heavily as an artist’s pigment during the 15th and 18th Centuries. Smalt was popular because it was easy to manufacture and not as costly as other rare blue pigments such as ultramarine or azurite. It became a specialty of the Dutch and Flemish in the 17th century.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Sand, potassium carbonate and cobalt oxide are heated at 1100°C for 30 minutes. The glass product is then cooled and finley milled to create the bright blue pigment.
CH EM ICA L N A ME Potassium glass containing cobalt F ORM U L A SiO2 (65%) (15%) K20 Al2O3 (5%) CoO (10%)
MONASTRAL BLUE / moh • nas • tral bloo / (1930s-to day) Also known as Phthalocyanine Blue, it was discovered by accident at a phthalimide plant with a blue contamination in their product. This was traced back to a reaction of the phthalmide chemical and trace amounts of iron from the metal reactor used to produce the product. The metal salt was converted into copper and sold under the trade name Monastral. When chlorinated the pigment becomes Phthalo Green. CuPc is one of the most stable pigments and widely used as a modern blue pigment. Worldwide production is over 110,000 tons / year. H OW IT ’S MA DE
- Phthalinide 1000kg - Urea 1350kg - Trichlorobenzene 3000kg
- Copper (II) chloride 240kg - Ammonium Molybdate 5kg
mixed in a oil bath.
added to mixture then slowly heated to 200°C over one hour.
Phthalocyanine is filtered off, washed with hot trichlorobenzene at 50°C, methanol and hot water then dried. Yield is 870kg (90%)
CH EM IC A L N A ME A complex sulfur-containing sodium aluminum silicate F ORM UL A Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4
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30 COBALT BLUE / ko • bawlt bloo / (1807-to day) Discovered in 1802 it is one of the most stable pigments and now the most important of the cobalt pigments. This pigment was a greatly improved version of the blue produced by smalt. Leading world manufacturers of cobalt blue in the 19th century were Benjamin Wegner’s Norwegian company Blaafarveværket, (“blue colour works” in DanoNorwegian) and the blue colour works (Blaufarbenwerke) in the Ore Mountains of Saxony. It is also the blue that is found in porcelain.
PRUSSIAN BLUE / pruh • shun bloo / (1724-to day) The first modern, artificially manufactured pigment made in1704. Diesbach accidentally formed the blue pigment when experimenting with the oxidation of iron.
CH EM ICA L N A ME Cobalt(II) oxide-aluminum oxide F ORM U L A CoO · Al2O3
CH EM ICA L N A ME Iron(III)-hexacyanoferrate(II) F ORM U L A Fe[Fe3+Fe2+(CN)6]3
The pigment was available to artists by 1724 and was extremely popular throughout the three centuries since its discovery - used in famous paintings such as Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa and Vincent van Gogh’s Starry NIght.
CERULEAN BLUE / suh • roo • lee • uhn bloo / (1860s-to day) Introduced as a pigment in the 1860s cerulean is a very stable and lightfast greenish blue. Because of its pure blue colour it superseded many of the prior pigments and became a valuable colour for artistic painting of skies. The word cerulean has links to words associated with divinity as it is derived from the latin word caerulelus, meaning “dark blue, blue or blue-green”, which comes from caelulum, diminutive of caelum, meaning “heaven, sky”.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Cobalt(II)-stannate F ORM UL A CoO · n SnO2
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“Ab s ol u t e gre e n i s t h e m os t res t fu l col or, l a cki n g a n y u nder to ne o f jo y , gri e f , o r p a s s i on . O n ex h a u s t ed m en t h i s res t fu l n ess has a benefici a l e f f e c t, b u t a f ter a t i m e i t becom es t ed i ou s . � Wassil y Ka nd i ns k y
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GREEN
MALACHITE GREEN EARTH VERDIGRIS COBALT GREEN EMERALD GREEN VIRIDIAN MONASTRAL GRREEN
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: Closely related to the Old English word grene which has the same root as the words grass and grow. As mentioned prior in blue, some older Asian languages had the same word for blue and green. S Y M B OLISM The colour of balance and harmony, green is described by Kandinsky as completely neutral as it sits between active and energetic yellow and slow-moving blue. Psychologically it represents equilibrium and signifies a balance of emotions between the head and the heart. Green is emotionally positive, nurturing and restores a sense of well-being with its renewing energy. Being the colour of leaves and its connection with nature it is the colour of growth, of life and of abundance. Conversely green is also associated with sickness, death, envy and the devil. Related also to safety and permission in reference to traffic lights, green was chosen because it could not be mistaken for red. Today green is universally used as a signal for technology working as it should as well as a symbol in video games for completed objectives or health.
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Growth - Rejuvenation - Safety - Fertility - Possessiveness - Finances G EOM ET R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Circular triangle static / passive
WAVELE N GT H 4495-570nm
Green is also sometimes associated with status and prosperity in Europe and America. Worn by bankers and merchants up until the 19th century and the colour of the dollar bill, green is also often associated with greed and want. The Emerald City in the Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a notable example of green’s symbolic use to illustrate the financial system of America - in which the author was experiencing the shift in America to paper money from gold. Culturally we now associate green with environmentalism albeit with a tinge of negativity as it is perhaps been overused symbolically while not actually demonstrating any actual environmental benefit.
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40 GREEN EARTH / green earth / (anti qui ty-co nti nue s use ) Derived from rocks containing Glauconite or celadonite it is formed on submarine elevations of ancient seabeds ranging in depth from 30 to 1,000 m. Colours vary from bluishgreens o warmer yellow and olive hues. Used extensively for underpainting flesh tones, the green neutralized the effect of pinks and reds of flesh tints. The most famous deposit of green earth is found nar Veron, Italy, and was active until WWII. Other mines that produce variations in colour and texture are located within the Baltic States, Bohemia, Cypress, France, Hungry, Poland, Saxony, Tyrol and the Mendip hills of England.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
The pigment is ground to extract he natrual material Glauconite and celadonite.
CH EM ICA L N A ME complex aluminosilicate minerals F ORM U L A K[(Al,FeIII),(FeII,Mg](AlSi3,Si4)O10(OH)2
MALACHITE / ma • luh • kite / (antiquity-1800s) A mineral basic copper carbonate it is found naturally at sites also containing azurite. One of the oldest known green pigments, it is found in Egyptian tomb paintings and was an important source of green during the 15th and 16th Centuries. Other names include Bremen green, Olympian green and Iris green. The word is of Greek origin, mallache = “mallow” which references the green colour of a leaf.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Natural mineral is crushed, ground to a powder and washed to separate the different grades of malachite. The finer the particles the lighter the colours.
Water sedimentation method of separating out different particle sizes.
A solution of sodium carbonate and copper (II) sulfate is used to make the artificial variety of the pigment. The solution must be stirred vigorously.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (500AD-1500s) Commonly prepared in the Middle Ages in Europe potash, lime nad sal ammoniac are added to a soluble copper salt.
CH EM IC A L N A ME basic copper(II) carbonate F ORM UL A 2 CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
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42 VERDIGRIS / vird • uh • gree / (antiquity-1800s) Often prepared in wine-growing areas as the acetic acid is a by-product of winemaking. Copper plates are covered with the acid and allowed to stand. The reaction forms a blue to blue-green crust which is then scraped off onto the ground. Records of its manufacture date back to Pliny’’s writings from ancient antiquity. Well-crystalised verdigris particles appear like shards of needles. Used from antiquity through to the Renaissance and Baroque verdigris was the most vibrant green available until more advance synthetic pigments were produced in the 19th Century. H O W I T ’S MA DE
- copper (II) sulphate - ammonia - sodium hydroxide - acetic acid
Verdigris crystals start to form on the surface of the copper plates.
Verdigris is then scraped off the sheets to create a brilliant blue-green pigment.
CH EM ICA L N A ME Basic Copper acetate F ORM U L A Cu(OH)2 · (CH3COO)2 · 5 H2O
EMERALD GREEN / em • ruhld green / (1814-1900s) Also known as the Deadly Regency Pigment, Emerald or Paris Green was developed in 1814 in Germany. The highly toxic pigment was made with arsenic and verdigris. Used extensively in clothing and wallpaper it was only later revealed that the pigment was highly toxic and even to this day the French avoid making green theatre costumes for this reason. The colour cheap to manufacture and was so popular it was used items as common as silk and paper flowers for wreathes and headdresses during the mid-19th Century. The pigment’s lifespan therefore was only short lived, use only until the early 1900s and later became used as a rodenticide and insecticide. H OW IT ’S MA DE
- 6 parts copper sulphate - 6 parts arsenic oxide - 8 parts potash dissolved in hot water.
Greenish yellow precipitate mixed with: 3 parts acetic acid producing a brilliant green.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Copper(II)-acetoarsenite F ORM UL A Cu(CH3COO)2 · 3 Cu(AsO2)2
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44 MONASTRAL GREEN / moh • nas • tral green / (1938-to day) Developed in 1935, Monastral green is a bright blue-green pigment with a very high tinting strength and transparency. It is a chlorinated form of the blue pigment copper pthalocyanine and is often used as a base for creating varying modern hues of green. Before its introduction, the only greens available of equal brilliance were the Emerald Greens which were opaque, harmful and much less permanent.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
- Phthalinide 1000kg - Urea 1350kg - Trichlorobenzene 3000kg
- Copper (II) chloride 240kg - Ammonium Molybdate 5kg
mixed in a oil bath.
added to mixture then slowly heated to 200°C over one hour.
Sodium chloride and Aluminium chloride are melted into the mixture at an elevated temperature.
Phthalocyanine Green G is filtered off, washed with hot trichlorobenzene at 50°C, methanol and hot water then dried. Yield is 870kg (90%)
CH EM ICA L N A ME A complex sulfur-containing sodium aluminum silicate F ORM U L A Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4
COBALT GREEN / ko • bawlt green / (anti qui ty-1800s) It’s a green cobalt-oxide-zinc-oxide, semi-transparent of limited hiding power discovered by Rinmann in 1780. Due to its permanence it can be used in all painting techniques. The poor tinting strength and high cost of cobalt green kept it in limited use. Field called it, “chemically good and artistically bad”
VIRIDIAN / vuh • rih • dee • uhn / (antiquity-1800s) Very stable and powerful cold green. It’s a Chromium oxide dihydrate. Its excellent permanence and lack of toxicity could replace all other greens, both ancient and modern.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Cobalt(II)-oxide-zinc(II)-oxide F ORM UL A CoO · ZnO
CH EM IC A L N A ME A complex sulfur-containing sodium aluminum silicate F ORM UL A Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4
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“T he re a re p a i n te rs w h o t ra n s form t h e s u n t o a yel l ow spo t, but t here a re ot h e rs w h o wi t h t h e h el p of t h ei r a rt a n d t h eir intellig en c e , tra n s f o rm a yel l ow s pot i n t o s u n � P ab lo P i c a s s o
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YELLOW
YELLOW OCHRE OPRIMENT SAP GREEN LEAD TIN YELLOW INDIAN YELLOW NAPLES YELLOW CHROME YELLOW CADMIUM YELLOW LEMON YELLOW COBALT YELLOW
E TY M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: The word “yellow” comes from the Old English geolu, derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz “yellow”. It has the same base as the Indo-European word, ghel-, and as the word yell; ghel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. Yellow is a colour which cries out for attention. S Y M B O LISM Yellow is psychologically the happiest colour in the spectrum. Associated with sunshine, creativity and enlightenment, yellow is described by Kandinsky as dynamic and sharp and is associated with the piercing sounds o brass trumpets. Symbolically the yellow sun was one of humanity’s most important symbols and worshiped as a God in many cultures. Radiance and light also personifies divine wisdom. In the English language yellow can also be associated with cowardice or jaundice. It is also the colour of caution and used in many road signs to signify danger. Danger also comes across in the production of the pigments as many of the ingredients used to produce the colour are heavy metals and highly toxic. Yellow is also associated with the yellow canary - another symbol of danger due to their use historically as warning mechanisms in gas mines.
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Optimism - Creativity - Enlightenment - Madness - Egoism - Cowardice GEOMETRY Itten: Kandinsky:
Triangle 30°
WAVELENGTH 570-590nm
Yellow in images appear to sit at the front of the image, as opposed to deeper colours such as blue that appear to recede.
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54 SAP GREEN
/ sap green / (1300s-1600s) Also known as Stil de grain yellow, Sap green is made from the buckthorn berries. The ripeness of the berries determines the intensity of the colour produced which ranges from a deep green to a golden yellow. The berries are small and globular, up to about 10mm in diameter and tend to grow in non-uniform clusters all along the growing branch. Rather than crushing the berries, they are left to soak and ferment in water. The colour however is not permanent or lightfast.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Berries sorted acording to ripeness - left is unripe, followed by semi-ripe and ripe.
Soaked in water 2 inches in depth and left for one week.
Boiled and strained to produce an intense dye.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y Modern versions marketed under this name is usually a blend of other pigments - commonly using Phthalocyanine Green G as a base.
INDIAN YELLOW
/ in • dee • uhn yel • low / (anti qui ty-e ar l y1900s ) A clear, deep almost fluorescent pigment, Indian yellow, was used since ancient times in the far east but only introduced to Europe when trade routes opened up during the 15th Century. Its origin was unknown until an investigation in 1883 discovered that the pigment was manufactured from the urine of cattle fed only on mango leaves and water. The practice was inhumane and therefore outlawed in 1908, replaced by synthetic alternatives.
H O W I T ’S MA DE
Cows are fed on a diet purely of mango leaves and water.
Their urine is collected which is then evaporated, powdered and formed into yellow lumps.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Magnesium euxanthate F ORM UL A C19H16O11Mg · 5 H2O
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56 YELLOW OCHRE
/ oak • ur / (p r e hi sto r y-to day)
CH EM ICA L N A ME Iron oxyhydroxide
A natural earth pigment, ochres vary widely in pigments and transparency. Artificially made in the 1920s by reacting cobaltous salts with acetic acid and mixing with concentrated potassium nitrite.
F ORM U L A FeO(OH)
OPRIMENT
CH EM ICA L N A ME Arsenic sulfide
/ or • puh • munt / (antiquity-1800s) A natural mineral found throughout the world as a low-temperature product of hydrothermal locations, hot-spring deposits, and volcanic sublimation.
LEAD TIN YELLOW / led tin yel • low / (1200s-1700s) Most used between the 15th and 17th centuries, Lead-tin yellow is produced by fusing lead, tin and quartz compounds at 800°C.
F ORM U L A As2S3
CH EM ICA L N A ME Lead tin oxide silicate F ORM U L A Pb(Sn,Si)O3
NAPLES YELLOW / nae pulls yel • low / (anti qui ty-1900s) A natural mineral, it was used as a tinting colour in yellow ceramic glazes in Babylon and Assyria, it is one of the oldest synthetic pigments available to humanity. Has a reputation to be a pigment in the palette of the Old Masters. Essential to the landscape tradition as it has the quality of appearing to recede into a painting’s distant plain unlike other yellows that advance to the foreground.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Lead(II)-antimonate F ORM UL A Pb(SbO3)2
CHROME YELLOW
CH EM IC A L N A ME Lead(II)-chromate
Identical in chemical composition as the rare mineral crocoite, though it is artificially prepared. It is officially known in the U.S. and Canada as National School Bus Glossy Yellow and was for a long time the lead-containing chrome yellow but has now largely been replaced by cadmium yellow.
F ORM UL A PbCrO4
CADMIUM YELLOW
CH EM IC A L N A ME Cadmium sulfide
/ krome yel • low / (anti qui ty-1700s)
/ kad • mee • uhm yel • low / (1820-today)
F ORM UL A CdS
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“O r a n ge , i t s e e m s , m a y be t h e b es t col or ch oi ce for t h e c o mpetitive p lay e r. ...o ra n ge i s j ovi a l , wa rm , en erg et i c, forcefu l , a n d has a subject i v e i m p re s s i on of ex u bera n ce. I t i s a s s oci a t ed wi t h f r uitf ulness, ad v e n tu re , v i gor a n d wh ol es om en es s ...� M ich ae l P a t r i c k S hi e l s
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ORANGE
REALGAR MYCOPIGMENTS CHROME ORANGE
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: Derived from the fruit’s name orange, the word is borrowed from Persian گنرانnārang and Arabic جنران nāranj. It is widely accepted that there is no English word that rhymes with orange, inspiring poetry that pokes fun at this fact. S Y M B O LISM Like the humorous versus surrounding orange, the colour is often associated with amusement and non-conformity - exuding an air of extroverted enthusiasm. Negatively orange can be perceived as boisterous or over-bearing arrogance. Orange is also the colour of autumn and a signifier of change, risk taking and adventure. It has a forward thinking optimism and an active energy about it. Orange is different and informal challenging expectations. Because of its visibility the colour is also used to set things apart from their surroundings. Construction equipment must be painting must be painted in safety orange and is used on traffic control devices for temporary construction signage. The Golden Gate Bridge was also painted in safety orange for visibility due to the heavy fog over the San Francisco Bay area. Orange is also the national colour of the Netherlands. The royal family, the House of Orange-Nassau derives its name from its former holding of the principality of Orange, Vaucluse. It is also often the colour of political and social movements - both religious and secular because of its symbolic meaning of activity. Protestantism is associated with orange as well as many revolutionary movements such as the Ukrainian Orange Revolution against presidential corruption in 2004.
WORD A S S O CI A T I O N S - Sociable - Enthusiasm - Adventure & Risk - Social Communication - Informality - Taste & Aroma G EOM E T R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Trapezium 60°
WAVEL E N GT H 590-620nm
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66 MYCOPIGMENTS / my • co pig • ments / (anti qui ty-to day) Mushrooms can be used to create colour dyes through colour-extraction by boiling or soaking using a solvent. Often ammonia is used as the alkali serves as a colour catalyst for the dye. Orange can be created using a number of mushroom species, including: dyer’s polypore, chicken of the woods and orange-gilled dermocybes.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Mushrooms gathered.
Chopped into small pieces for more surface area to extract colour.
Soaked in simerring water to extract colour. Ammonia or mordants added to vary the intensity of the dye.
Resulting colour.
REALGAR
/ ree • al • gar / (anti qui ty-1800s)
CH EM IC A L N A ME Arsenic sulfide
A pigment used in Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia it was the only pure orange pigment until modern chrome orange.
F ORM UL A As4S4
CHROME ORANGE
CH EM IC A L N A ME Basic lead(II)-chromate
/ krome are • inj / (1809-1900s) Chrome orange became the first pure orange pigment since the medieval use of realgar which was a highly toxic compound of arsenic. Made by replacing the lead in chrome yellow
F ORM UL A PbCrO4 · Pb(OH)2
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“Pain te rs u s e re d l i k e s pi ce.� D er e k J a r m a n
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RED
RED OCHRE MADDER CHOCHINEAL VERMILION RED LEAD CADMIUM RED
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: Derrived from the Old French bleu, related to the Old High German word blao. Hebrew: The words for blood dm and red dom have the same origin. S Y M B O LISM Most likely the oldest pigment to exist, red is a warm colour and the colour of fire and blood. Red expresses aggression and dominance as well as a assured confidence and vigour. On the other hand red is also love and compassion, the colour of sexuality and lust which reflects the carnal nature of the colour. Red in our environments can be over-stimulating causing us to feel emotionally agitated and irritated. It is energizing and symbolizes a pioneering spirit and leadership qualities - ambitious and determined. It is the colour of courage and of sacrifice and in western culture a symbol of martyrdom because of its association with blood. It has also been an important colour in Chinese culture, associated with fire and nobility - featured in Imperial architecture of the Tang and Song dynasties. The colour is attention seeking, most frequently associated with visibility and dynamism and is therefore used as danger signs and is the reason why we have red traffic lights.
WORD A S S O CI A T I O N S - Action & Energy - Assertive & Confidence - Powerful - Driven - Aggressive - Rebellious G EOM E T R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Square 90째
WAVELE N GT H 620-750nm
Red was also used as a political symbol and an icon of socialist reform with many countries having gone through the revolution such as China, Vietnam and Laos adopting red flags.
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76 MADDER / mad • der / (anti qui ty-to day) Derived from the extract of madder roots, the principle colouring substance is alzarin. It is one of the most stable natural pigments and used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans for colouring textiles. Use has continued until today and was cultivated on a large scale in Europe during the mid 13th century though its use was never as extensive as pigments from cochineal or brazilwood. Roots are harvested, turned into a dye and then bound to a white powder - a process called “laking”.
H OW IT ’S MA DE
Madder roots are dried, crushed, hulled the boiled in a weak acid to dissolve the dye, and fermented.
The extracted dye is made into a pigment by dissolving the dye in hot alumn.
It is then precipitated using using soda or borax to create the pigment.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (1868) A synthetic variant for making alizarin was discovered by German chemists, Graebe and Liebermann in 1868.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Alizarin (1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone), F ORM UL A C14H8O4
CHOCHINEAL
/ ka • chuh • neel / (antiquity-today) Cochineal is a type of carmine lake coming from the cochineal beetle native to the Americas. It was once used by the Aztects for dyeing and painting and was introduced to Europe during the 16th centuries following the Spanish conquest. Colour is extracted by crushing the insects and are farmed on prickly pear cacti. Today the pigment is primarily used as a colouring agent in foods and in lipsticks. A complete cycle of cochineal farming lasts three months, during which time the cacti must be kept at a constant temperature of 27°C. Harvesting is labour intensive - as they must be individually knocked, brushed or picked from the cacti. They are typically collected at around 90 days old. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Zapotec nests on host cacti containing females that leave the nests to settle on the cactus.
Harvesting after a full 3 month cycle.
The collected cochineal insects are then crushed and grounded to create the pigment.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Carminic acid F ORM UL A C22H20O13
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78 RED OCHRE
CH EM ICA L N A ME Anhydrous iron(III)-oxide
Composed mainly of iron oxide, a haematite which is derived from Greek meaning blood.
F ORM U L A Fe2O3
VERMILION
CH EM ICA L N A ME Mercuric sulfide
/ red oak • ur / (p r e hi sto r i c-to day)
/ vir • mill • eon / (anti qui ty-1800s) Also known as cinnabar, it was used from antiquity - made artificially from the 8th century. The name is derived from the Latin word vermiculus, diminutive of the Latin word vermis, or worm.
F ORM U L A HgS
RED LEAD
CH EM ICA L N A ME Lead(II,IV)-oxide
Made by heating litharge (PbO) in air or oxidizing atomized molten lead at high temperatures.
F ORM U L A Pb3O4
/ red lead / (antiquity-today)
CADMIUM RED / kad • mee • uhm red / (1820-today) Mixed with cadmium yellow (CdS) to create cadmium orange (CdS+CdSe).
CH EM IC A L N A ME Cadmium sulfide F ORM UL A CdS
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“If B a c c h u s e v e r h a d a col or h e cou l d cl a i m for h i s own, it sho uld s ur e l y b e th e s h a de o f t a n n i n on d ru n ken l i p s , of J oh n Keat’s ‘purp le- s t a i n e d m ou t h ’ , or perh a ps even of Hom er’s d a n g e r o usly w ined ar k s e a .” Vi cto r i a F i nl a y
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PURPLE/VIOLET
TYRIAN PURPLE COBALT VIOLET
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS English: Derrived from the name of the violet flower, the word is from the Middle English and old French word violette, and Latin viola. Purple comes from the Old English word purpul which is from the Latin purpura and fthe ancient Greek porphyra. S Y M B O LISM Traditionally purple is associated with royalty and nobility because of the cost of creating the purple dye Tyrian purple. Derived from the mucous secretion of Murex sea-snails, experiments conducted in1908 demonstrated that 12,000 snails yield no more than 1.4g of pure dye - enough only to cover the trim of a single garment. Thus purple was only affordable to members of nobility and was controlled by the Byzantium court. Byzantine empresses gave birth in the Purple Chamber which gave the term Porphyrogenitus, “born to the purple”, meaning that kingship was gained by dynasty and not by force. Purple’s low wavelength sits only a few steps away from x-rays and gamma rays and perhaps explains its associations with supernatural energy and connection with the non-physical world. Purple symbolises magic, mystery and the imagination yet it also has undertones of grandeur, impracticality and cynicism. It is also the colour of mourning in some cultures as it is the colour worn by Thai widows in mourning as well as in Tudor, Britain which also uses the colour to symbolise religious fervour.
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Royalty - Imagination - Impracticality - Individualistic - Empathy - Inspiration G EOM ET R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Circular Rectangle 120°
WAVELE N GT H 380-450nm
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88 TYRIAN PURPLE
/ tir • ee • uh n pur • puh l / (anti qui ty-1700s) Manufactured from the mucous of the Mediterranean Murex sea-snail, it is a reddish-purple natural dye that gave purple its imperial status and associations today. Considered an ancient pigment and dye, the dye’s production came to an abrupt end with the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and the pigment became unaffordable for even the Byzantine rulers. The chemical composition of the Tyrian dye was discovered by Paul Friedlander in the early 1900s and experiments conducted in1908 demonstrated that 12,000 snails yield no more than 1.4g of pure dye. An alkaline fermenting vat was necessary to produce the dye and the process was known to produce an extremely foul stench. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Murex snails. The mucous of the snails is collected - the snails secrete this substance when it is attacked or physically antagonized.
Dye had a strong odour of rotting fish as the pigment had to be fermented and exposed to air to produce the lasting pigment.
ART I F ICIA L VA RIET Y (early 1900s) The chemical composition creating the purple pigment was discovered to be 6,6′-dibromoindigo in the early 1900s.
CH EM ICA L N A ME 6,6′-dibromoindigo F ORM U L A 2 CuCO3 · Cu(OH)2
COBALT VIOLET / ko • bawlt vie • (uh) • luht / (1859-today) One out of the many range of pigments that could be produced from cobalt.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Cobalt(II)-phosphate or Cobalt(II)-arsenate F ORM UL A Co3(PO4)2 or Co3(AsO4)2
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“Mo ra l i s t i c i s n ot m ora l . A n d a s for t ru t h — wel l , i t ’s l i ke br o w n — it ’s n o t i n t h e s p e c t ru m . Tru t h i s s o g en eri c.” Iris Murdoch
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BROWN
UMBER VAN DYKE BROWN SEPIA
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS The word brown comes from Old English brún used for any dusky or dark shade of color. The French term brunette to decribe a woman with brown hair is also derived from the same word. S Y M B OLISM Made by mixing the three primary colours, brown is the only colour that doesn’t sit on the spectrum as a colour on its own. It is usually referred to as a high wavelength hue (reds, oranges and yellows) with a low luminance or saturation. For this reason brown appears comparatively dull though its un-adventurousness also means dependability. The colour brown was long adopted by the United Parcel Service (UPS) delivery company for this reason as well as the fact that brown uniforms were easy to keep clean (or at least appear that way). Brown also represents earthiness as it is the colour of dark wood, rich soil and human hair, eye colour and skin pigmentation. There is therefore a natural tone to brown and is used by many companies who brand themselves as simple, natural and healthy products. In the western world, the colour is associated with plainness, humility, the rustic and poverty. It is also according to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States the least favourite colour of the public despite many of the world’s indulgent foods such as chocolate, coffee and caramel being the same colour.
WORD AS S O CI A T I O N S - Plainness - Humility - Rustic - Humility - Comforting - Natural & Wholesome G EOM ET R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Circular Rectangle 120°
WAVELE N GT H 570-750nm (low luminance / saturation)
Because of its abundance in the natural world, brown was available to humanity as a pure pigment from the beginning of art. Raw and burnt variations of umber were used throughout history to create various types of brown. In the 1920s brown became the uniform colour of the Nazi Party in Germany - a colour chosen for convenience due to the abundance of cheaply available brown uniforms due to a war-surplus, the colour became a symbol of the working-class and military images which that Party wanted to convey.
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98 SEPIA / se • pi • a / (anti qui ty-1800s) Made from the ink sac of the common cuttlefish, the word is the Latinized form of the Greek word σηπία, sēpía, meaning cuttlefish. It is a rich brown pigment and was commonly used as writing ink during the Greco-Roman period. It remained as a common drawing material for artists until the 19th century. Sepia tones are often used in photography and resembles the effect of aging photographs. It was believed that sepia toning increased the photo’s longevity and was therefore used for archival purposes. Many graphics software today has programs that include a sepia tone function. H OW IT ’S MA DE
Made using the dark ink of cuttlefish.
UMBER
/ um• burre / (p r e hi sto r i c-to day)
CH EM IC A L N A ME Iron(III)-oxide, partly hydrated + manganese oxide + aluminium oxide
Natural mineral that consists of silica and clay - its colour is due to the presence of iron oxides. Found throughout the world in hues from yellow to brown, and faint blue - depending on the chemical composition of the pigment. The best brown ochre comes from Cyprus. Still mined and continued use as a pigment today.
F ORM UL A Fe2O3 (· H2O) + MnO2·(n H2O)+ Al2O3
VAN DYKE BROWN / van dike braoon / (1600s-today) Containing over 90% of organic matter, it is derieved from earth compounds such as soil and peat.
CH EM IC A L N A ME Iron(III)-oxide, partly hydrated + manganese oxide partly hydrated + humic acids F ORM UL A Fe2O3 (· H2O) + MnO2·(n H2O) + humic acids
CAPUT MORTUUM / ka • putt mor • tem / (1600s-to day) A type of haematite oxide pigment used in oil paints and paper dyes. It is a Latin term which literally means “worthless remains” and was also used in alchemy to signify a left over substance. Its alchemical symbol is three dots surrounded by a circle. Also used as an alternative name for mommia, a brown pigment made in the 19th century using the processed remains of Egyptian mummies.
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“Blac k i s a tot a l l y de a d s i l en ce... A s i l en ce wi t h n o p os s ibilities, has t he i n n e r h a rm o n y of b l a ck. � Wassil y Ka nd i ns k y
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BLACK
CARBON BLACK BONE BLACK MARS BLACK
E T Y M O LO GY / LIN GUIST ICS The word black is associated to words derrived from scortching or burning. The Old English blæc meaning “black, dark”, also, “ink”, comes from Proto-Germanic blakkaz “burned”. It is related to Old Saxon blak “ink”, Old High German blach “black”, Old Norse blakkr “dark”, Dutch blaken “to burn”, and Swedish bläck “ink”. In Ancient Greek one word Kuanos was used to describe both dark blue and black. Two words on the other hand were used to describe black by the Ancient Romans: ater was a flat, dull black, while niger was a brilliant, saturated black. Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, but niger was the source of the country name Nigeria, the English word Negro and the word for “black” in most modern European languages (French: noir; Spanish: negro; Italian: nero). S Y M B O LISM The colour black represents opposing ideas: authority and humility, rebellion and conformity, and wealth and poverty. Black also signifies absence, modernity, power, elegance, professionalism, mystery, evil, traditionalism, and sorrow. Black is often one sided - imposing yet restrained and revealing nothing about itself.
WORD A S S O CI A T I O N S - Mystery - Power & Control - Formality, Dignity & Sophistication - Aloofness - Depressing - Pessimistic G EOM E T R Y Itten: Kandinsky:
Horizontal 180°
WAVEL E N GT H -
Priests wear black to signify submission to God and was a statement by the protestant faith in denouncing the lavishness of he red worn by the Pope and his Cardinals. Western society also often associates black with mourning and is worn for funeral processions. In Japanese culture, black means experience as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté. The black belt is therefore a mark of seniority in many martial arts, whereas a white belt is worn by beginners.
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108 BONE BLACK / bone blak / (prehistory-today) Prepared by charring bones or waste ivory, containing 10% carbon, 84% calcium phosphate and 6% calcium carbonate.
CARBON BLACK
CH EM ICA L N A ME Calcium phosphate + calcium carbonate +carbon F ORM U L A Ca3(PO4)2 + CaCO3 +C
/ kar • bon blak / (prehistory-today)
CH EM ICA L N A ME Amorphous carbon
Made simply by burning organic matter such as twigs and woody vines.
F ORM U L A C
W
CH EM ICA L N A ME Ferrous ferric oxide F ORM U L A Fe3O4
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research
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‘ S ynt hes is ’ b y T om P rice 2015
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Pe r r y B u rge
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‘ R e fl ec t e d Glory ’ R e b e cca Bau man n 2013
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C r a yo n M e lt in g
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Mi l k , Pain t & H y d rop h oic Li q u i d
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A cr yl i c + al co h o l i n water
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F ood d y e + a lco h o l i n wate r
F ood dy e + oil in wat er
Acry lic + corn s t ar ch o n p ap e r
Ac ry lic + oil on paper
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references
David Jacoby, “Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade” in Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean 1997 pp. 455f and notes 17–19. Douma, Michael, curator. “Pigments through the Ages.” 2008. Accessed April 30, 2015. http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments Dunne, Anthony, and Fiona Raby. Speculative everything : design, fiction, and social dreaming. n.p.: Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press, [2013], 2013. Eastaugh, Nicholas. Pigment compendium : a dictionary and optical microscopy of historic pigments. n.p.: Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008., 2008. Frank H., Mahnke. “Color in Architecture — More Than Just Decoration.” Archinect. July 20, 2012. Accessed April 18, 2015. Color in Architecture — More Than Just Decoration. Feller, Robert L., et al. Artists’ pigments : a handbook of their history and characteristics. n.p.: Washington : National Gallery of Art, c1986-<2007 >, 1986. Itten, Johannes, and Faber Birren. The elements of color : a treatise on the color system of Johannes Itten, based on his book The art of color. n.p.: New York : John Wiley & Sons, c2003., 2003. UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE’s Catalogue, EBSCOhost (accessed June 2, 2015). Jones, Jonathan. “Through the Language Glass: How Words Colour Your World by Guy Deutscher.” The Guardian, June 12, 2014, Culture sec. Accessed June 2, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/jun/12/ language-glass-colour-guy-deutscher.
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Jones, Johnathan. “Making Colour Review – Enter a Dazzling, Eye-opening World.” The Guardian, June 18, 2014, Culture sec. Accessed April 20, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/ jun/17/making-colour-review-national-gallery. Kandinsky, Wassily, et al. Concerning the spiritual in art. n.p.: Boston : MFA Publications ; New York, N.Y. : [distributed by] D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, c2006., 2006. UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE’s Catalogue, EBSCOhost. Morton, J.L. Colour Matters. 2015. Accessed April 30, 2015. http://www.colormatters.com/. Lenclos, Jean-Philippe, and Dominique Lenclos. 2004. Colors of the world : the geography of color. n.p.: New York : Norton, 2004., 2004. UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE’s Catalogue, EBSCOhost. Mark, Liberman. “It’s Not Easy Seeing Green.” Language Log. March 2, 2015. Accessed April 18, 2015. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=17970. Rose, John. “Pigments: Historical, Chemical, and Artistic Importance of Colouring Agents.” JcSparks. Accessed April 30, 2015. http://www.jcsparks.com/painted/pigment-chem.html. Sicolnofi, Claire. “Sap Green from Buckthorn Berries (Part 1).” Medieval Whimsies. September 6, 2013. Accessed May 30, 2015. Scott-Kemmis, Judy. Color Psychology to Empower and Inspire You. 2015. Accessed June 2, 2015. http://www.empower-yourself-with-color-psychology.com/. com/.
Smith, Kate. Sensational Colour. 2015. Accessed May 15, 2015. http://www.sensationalcolor.
Szalavitz, Maia. “Why Humans Have Color Vision, and Other Qs & As with Neuroscientist Mark Changizi.” Time, July 6, 2012. “Color Theory According to Wassily Kandinsky: “Concerning the Spiritual in Art”” Arnold Schönberg Centre. February 23, 2012. Accessed April 12, 2015. http://www.mat.ucsb.edu/~g.legrady/academic/ courses/12w259/Kandinsky_ Color Theory.pdf. “History of Colour Analysis.” House of Colour. Accessed April 18, 2015. http://www.houseofcolour.co.uk/colour_analysis_history.htm.
“Colour Spotlight.” Windsor & Newton. 2015. Accessed May 15, 2015.
“Forbes Pigment Database.” Museum of Fine Arts Boston. 2015. Accessed May 20, 2015. http:// cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Forbes_Pigment_Database.
Images http://westdeanconservation.com/2014/06/09/treatment-of-an-18th-century-survey-with-copper-corrosion/ http://www.webexhibits.org/pigments http://www.winsornewton.com/
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http://www.mushroomsforcolor.com/PetersburgMushroomDyes.htm https://adrienlucca.wordpress.com/2012/06/13/shades-of-malachite-ueba-esou-kyoto/ http://westdeanconservation.com/2014/06/09/treatment-of-an-18th-century-survey-with-copper-corrosion/ http://www.slideshare.net/benjaminlukas/copper-phthalocyanine-crudepreparation-methodof-cupc-crude-with-99-yield http://www.vandonkelaar.ca/category/colour/green/ http://www.tate.org.uk/about/our-work/conservation/paintings http://www.yellowtrace.com.au/tom-price-synthesis/ http://www.chronoscapes.com/
http://rebeccabaumann.com/Works/Reflected-Glory/
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