Milestone Education Review, Year 10, No. 01 & 02 (October, 2019)

ISSN: 2278 – 2168

Milestone Education Review (The Journal of Ideas on Educational & Social Transformation) Year 10, No. 01 & 02 (October, 2019)

Chief-Editor: Dr.Desh Raj Sirswal

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Milestone Education Review (2278-2168) Milestone Education Review (The Journal of Ideas on Educational & Social Transformation) is an online peer-reviewed bi-annual journal of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa (Kurukshetra). For us education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual.

The role of education must be as an instrument of social change and social transformation. Social transformation refers to large scale of social change as in cultural reforms and transformations. The first occurs with the individual, the second with the social system. This journal offers an opportunity to all academicians including educationist, social-scientists, philosophers and social activities to share their views.

Each issue contains about 100 pages. Š Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Pehowa (Kurukshetra) Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh.

Associate Editors: Dr. Merina Islam, Dr. Poonama Verma Editorial Advisory Board: Prof. K.K. Sharma (Former-Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Shillong).

Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater (Former Vice Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan).

Dr. Dinesh Chahal (Department of Education, Central University of Haryana).

Dr. Manoj Kumar, (P.G. Department of Sociology, P.G.Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh.)

Dr. Sudhir Baweja (University School of Open Learning,, Panjab University, Chandigarh).

Dr. Koppula Victor Babu, (Associate Professor,Institute of Education, Mettu University,Metu,Ethiopia).

Dr. Nidhi Verma (Deptt. Of Psychology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh).

Dr. Jayadev Sahoo (Jr. Lecturer in Logic & Philosophy, GM Jr. College, Sambalpur, Odisha).

Declaration: The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the individual authors, and not necessary of those of the Society or the Editor.

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Title and Author ETHICS IN RELIGIOUS TEACHING: AN ANALYTICAL APPROACH Tariq Rafeeq Khan & Mudasir Ahmad Tantray MAHATMA GANDHI AND NON-VIOLENT REVOLUTION Reyaz Ahmad Bhat & Tariq Rafeeq Khan DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR: AN EXPONENT OF MODERN “SARVAMUKTIVĀDA” Surajit Das & Moumita Das HAPPINESS IN BUDDHISM: AN EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH Desh Raj Sirswal FRIEDRICH SCHLEIERMACHER : HERMENEUTICS IS THE ART OF UNDERSTANDING. Lighitha P. TOLSTOY’S PURPOSE OF ART Suyasha Singh ROLE OF WOMEN IN A MEDIEVAL INDIAN SOCIETY AS PORTRAYED IN THE BHAKTI LITERATURE OF MAHAPURUSA SRIMANTA SANKARDEVA: ‘SITA GETS FAIR TREATMENT IN SANKARDEVA’S UTTARAKANDA RAMAYANA’ Sunu Kalita & Archana Barua VIVEKANANDA’S LEADERSHIP LESSONS FROM BHAGAVADA GITA Sudhir Baweja CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE

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ETHICS IN RELIGIOUS TEACHING: AN ANALYTICAL APPROACH Tariq Rafeeq Khan & Mudasir Ahmad Tantray Abstract Ethics is a significant and inevitable part of religious learning. It is the objective of religious teaching to develop and create morality in human beings. All religious teaching signifies ethical codes but all ethical statements and claims may not be religious. Since ethics deals with values whether social, aesthetical, epistemic, intellectual, and moral but in religions teaching, values are dependent either on authority of religions or theological principles. This study inculcates and develops the ethical attitude (objective and subjective) to understand the role of ethical statements, obligations, duties, prohibitions and permission in context with religious teaching. The main purpose of this analytical approach is to provide answer to the research question viz. Is there harmony between ethics and religious belief system? What is role of freedom of will in the sanctity of religious teaching? How to resolve conflicts in religious diversity through applied ethical dialogues. This paper shows the arguemental framework to describe the relation between ethics and religion. Nevertheless, the paper determines the superiority of religious authority over morality. In this paper it is assumed that religious values are the source of knowledge of moral values. This analytical exploration further describes and evaluates the relativity of religious values in different religious beliefs.

It also shows the views of different moralities and philosophers to interpret and clear the ambiguities in religious teaching.

Keywords: Ethics, Morality, Religion, freewill.

Introduction Ethics and Religious help out us to investigate questions of meaning, value and purpose in life. It helps us to extend our insights, ability for moral and spiritual life and individual autonomy. These traits help in building the life into meaningful in the social, cultural and political contexts of the pluralistic world. Religion and ethics are apparently entangled as there exist innumerable studies of Christian ethics, Islamic ethics, and Hinduism ethics and so on.

Some believes that the moral systems may well be confined to the standards of a society‘s religion. Traditionally, the ethical values of cultures have resided within religious traditions.

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The main characters and the champions of virtue and character are the faith traditions, whether you think of Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, the ancient Greek and Romans. In these civilizations, set of laws about acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are intimately united with religious beliefs. Morality is closely attached up with religious beliefs about the authority of deceased kin, the whims of impulsive gods and goddesses, the will of a solitary omnipotent deity, or the authority of the Karma of one‘s past volitions.

As religion also teaches moral rules and provides impetus for adhering to them, as religion proves to be a close neighbor to ethics and we sometimes find it difficult to distinguish between them. But as compared to ethics, religion working in a dominating way.

The value of sin and moral transgression is not only the sanction of God but also the disapproval of one‘s religious community.

Ethics Ethics, like Religion, is not easy to define with exactness and for many of the same reasons__ it is the concept whose content shifts with time and varies from place to place.

Ethics is the study of what ―ought‖ to be. It is a theoretical study and is otherwise referred to as the study of morality. We are interested in how life ought to be lived, morally speaking. As a branch of philosophy, ethics has three components ―metaethics‖ studies the sources and meaning of ethical terms; ―normative ethics‖ does the more practical task of examining the moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct, and ―applied ethics‖ examines controversies such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment or nuclear war.

Religion Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and to moral values. Religion is that complex dimension of human activity involving beliefs about the supernatural, belief that are expressed in propositions and narratives and enacted in rituals and institutions. These beliefs authorize the group‘s moral code and answer the question. What is the best way of life overall? Typically religion refers to ‗belief in‘ or the worship of god or gods or the service and worship of God or the supernatural.

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Religion, Ethics and Man Man as a human being, cannot exist without religion because it is intrinsic in his nature. One cannot isolate religion from the life situation. Religion determines its true value from the role it plays in the enrichment of the quality of life. It has a role to play, a contributive role in the evolution of man, by providing society with ethical codes, social rules and ideas, rituals and devotion. Religion also enhances human and self awareness.

Religion helps one to lead a disciplined and purified life. Religious always stand for the betterment of human soul. The different religions, though devotedly called by different names, show a surprising likeness of spirit and life. It is a unique expression and cannot be equated with anything. There is no religion which does not stress one form or other of universal brotherhood, and which does not advocate kindness to all living things.

Role of Religion and Ethics in the world Religion and ethics occupies a central place in all speculations, ancient or modern, East or West. Religions and ethics of the world are of a great driving force in imparting guidance and inspirations to human beings in general. The essence of all religions and ethics is the attainment of self-happiness. When the essence of all religions and ethics in the world is stung together in understanding and mutual acceptance, then it will create a pleasing world of human well-being and peace. The philosophy of all religion and ethics offers a clear and stable foundation for the harmonious existence of men, nations and civilizations.

In our age of scientific and technological civilization, where everything is measured in terms of pragmatic results and quick remedies, man is hardly in possession of the art of self-enquiry, the result of which is that our contemporary human society faces an alarming debasement of values. Violence, injustice wars and human cruelty, our modern age is well acquainted with all these; scientific progress has further sharpened and refined our skills of destroying each other.

Religious and Moral Consciousness Religious, family, education, social norms, culture, etc., are formative factors of moral consciousness which includes intellectual, emotional and volitional elements. An individual‘s morality, by content and structure, includes both an explanation of what and the why of morality. Though a pattern of development cannot predict for the content, the structure has a

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well established pattern. Religious constitutes itself as a formative factor in religious consciousness regardless of the stage of one‘s moral development.

What is truly needed today is a moral and spiritual regeneration of religion apart from man‘s material progression. To make it more clear, one can firmly specify that our cultural and social milieu demands an inner transformation of consciousness, a qualitative improvement of mankind as a whole. That consciousness is the realization of the Ultimate Reality. That consciousness is to understand the essential oneness of religion. Here the essence of all religions is to better his soul to be good to the world. The task of religion is to enkindle in the minds of modern man intuitive perception of his true nature and potentialities.

Relation between Religion and Ethics The current views of ethics are not of a very high order. Some believe that ethics is not something quite essential. Others think that there is no relation between religion and ethics. But an examination of the world‘s religions shows that, without ethics, religion cannot subsist. True ethics covers religion for the most part. Anyone who observes the laws of morality for their own sake and not for any selfish end can be regarded as religious.

A substantive definition of religion, by contrast, provides a good tool to think through the relationship of religion and ethics. Every religion has certain moral rules, such as ―Treat others in the way you would like to be treated,‖ and ―Do no harm to any living creatures.‖ Clearly, moral rules and ideals are found in religious traditions. But if we assume that not every tradition or person is necessarily religious, then moral rules and ideals can exist apart from religion as well. Many people do not qualify as adherents of religion, and yet they have moral principles and lead lives of moral integrity.

The relationship between religion and ethics has occupied an important place in the discourses of philosophers. The logical position regarding the relationship of religion and ethics in general, the intimate relationship between the two, as contingent facts of history, has never been and never can be, denied.

There may be morality without religion, but there has not been a religion without morality. This becomes all too clear when we examine the contents of the great living religions, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Jainism, which have made a very fundamental use of ethical objectivity.

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Ethics is the study and evaluation of human conduct in the light of moral principles.

Philosophers consider ethics as a philosophy. Some philosophers seek an absolute ethical criterion in religion. Major religions have stressed the importance of ethics. Religion, ethics and philosophy are interconnected. Religious vision gives necessary guidance to all other pursuits. Also ethical conduct and philosophical knowledge help the development of spirituality. Without ethics and philosophy religion becomes empty and in the same way without religious guidance, ethical and philosophical endeavors become meaningless. All religious recognize the importance of ethics. Religion as an encounter with something in the higher order of existence and morality as a personal and social code of conduct are interconnected. They constitute the spiritual endeavors of man.

Furthermore, it seems that the rules of morality, laid down in the world‘s great religions, are largely the same. The founders of the religions have also explained that morality is the basis of religion. If a foundation is removed, the superstructure fails to the ground; if morality is destroyed, religion which is built on it comes crashing down.

Freedom of Will The concept of freedom of free-will is a moral, religious and social concept that is central to most religious. It has been argued that the basis of freedom lies in the contingency of natural events. According to Kant, freedom of the will is the chief postulate of moral philosophy, it does not require proof, and it is an apriori truth. Freedom is the very basis of morality. The moral and religious life is a genuine one, and it cannot be so without freedom.

As far as the religious interpretation of the problem of the free-will is concerned, it seems that the religious traditions of the East and West both have treated it very differently. Western religious traditions, especially Judaism and Christianity, deal with the problem of free-will in two different spheres of philosophy; first the philosophy of religion and secondly the moral philosophy. In the philosophy of religion the problem of free-will arises in the context of theistic concept of good and evil. There, this is known as problem of evil. In morality, this is related to the human responsibility and comes as a problem of free-will and determinism Conclusion The subject of this research paper may strike one as strange. The common idea is that ethics and religion are distinct things; their having two approaches regarding ethics and religion for some religion as more than ethics, and from others who think that, where there is

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morality, there is no need for religion. But there is a close relationship between religion and ethics. The societies spreading ethical religion or religious ethics believe in religion through morality. Religion and Ethics is that set of beliefs or institutions, behaviors and emotions which binds human beings to something beyond their individual selves and fosters in its adherents a sense of humility and gratitude that, in turn, sets the tone of one‘s world-view and requires certain behavior dispositions relative to that which transcends personal interests. In other words, religion and ethics connects a person with a larger world and creates a loyalty that extends to the past, the present and the future. This loyalty not only makes demands the person but__ and this is the part that makes it distinctively spiritual_ it creates a sense of humility. So religion and ethics provides a story about one‘s place in the larger scheme of things, creates a sense of connection and it makes one feel grateful. The prevalence of religion and ethics may indicate that there is something about human nature that predisposes us to be human beings. Religion and ethics also provide an evolutionary advantage.

References: 1. Gary, L. Comstock, (2010). Religion. North State University: USA 2. Bahm, Archie. J, (1964). World‘s Living Religions. New York: Delhi Publishing Co. 3. Widgery, Alben. G, (1954). What is Religion. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 4. Ben. Oni. Ardelan, (2012). The Ethics of the Relationship between Religious and Civil Norms. Evagelical Journal of Theology, Vol. Vl. No.2 5. Arnal, W, (2001). The Segregation of Social Desire. Religion and Disney World, Journal of the American Academy of Religion.

6. Harris, J.R, (1990). Ethical Values of Individuals at Different

Levels in the

Organizational Hierarchy of a Singer Firm. Journal of Business Ethics.

7. Weaver, G. R and B. R. Angle: (2002). Religiosity and Ethical Behavior in Organizations: Academy of Management Review.

8. Henry, C, (1957). Christian Personal Ethics. Grand Rapids, MI: Wim. B. Eerdmams Publishing Company.

9. Rachels, J, (1993). The Elements of moral philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill.

10. Rolando. M. Gripaldo, (2008). Religion, Ethics, and the Meaning of Life. Philippine National Philosophical Research Society.

11. Rashdall, H, (1907). The theory of good and evil: A treatise on moral philosophy.

Vols. I and II. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

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MAHATMA GANDHI AND NON-VIOLENT REVOLUTION Reyaz Ahmad Bhat & Tariq Rafeeq Khan

Abstract Mahatma Gandhi who is also known as Mohandas karamchand Gandhi was humble seeker of truth. He summed up his philosophy with the words, ―My life is my message.‖ In this paper an attempt is made to examine social and political significance of Gandhian concept of truth and Non violence. This study aims to show how Gandhian concept of non violence is based on the higher aspects of human nature which rebel against cruelty, injustice and totalitarianism. Non violence or Ahimsa means lack of desire to harm or kill. This paper shows how Non violence as a philosophy, act as an existing theory and practice of being harmless to self and others under any situation. How it produces a means for conflict resolution without the negative effect of violence. This study will reveal why Gandhi practiced Non violence right from his youth till the end of his life and why he considered Non-violence as one of the highest moral values and why it is the basis of the search for truth and, truth is the search for universal absolute. It is simplest method of persuasion and guarantees freedom of sense of right and wrong. This study focuses how his policy of Non violent protest to achieve political and social progress based upon total Non violence for which he is internationally well-known. In this paper I shall demonstrate how the Gandhian concepts of nonviolence, brotherhood, harmony, patience, sacrifice etc are the need of the hour.

Keyword: Gandhi, Nonviolence, Truth, Satyagraha, Humanity

Introduction Mohandas karamchand Gandhi was born on 1869, called Mahatma, ―Great soul‖, because of his extraordinary achievements as leader of the Indian movement for independence; he was not primarily a theorist but a reformer and activist. He was guided by values and ideas that remained remarkably enduring throughout his life. Chief among them were his unique concepts of freedom and power. In his pursuit of freedom he transformed our conception of power through his practice of nonviolence and Satyagraha.

Gandhi stayed in South Africa for 21 years working to secure rights for Indian people.

He developed a method of action based upon the principle of courage, nonviolence and truth

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called Satyagraha. He believed that the way people behave is more important than what they achieve.

Before one can fully understand Gandhi‘s concept of nonviolence it is essential to bear in mind the philosophical background of the concept. Through his life and teachings Gandhi bears testimony to the values for which our country is has stood for ages; faith in spirit, the beauty of holiness, the acceptance of life‘s obligations, the validity of character and the values which are universal. Life to him was a total and eternal war against evil to be fought under the only worthy banner of truth and nonviolence. Such a way of life has tremendous ethical implications for a world that seems to have lost faith with the mystic, the holy, and the humble. Gandhi believed in the authority of spirit that alone can bring about unity and salvation of mankind. He translated his passionate spiritual quest into an equally passionate struggle to ensure the freedom and dignity of the human spirit everywhere.

Narayan Desai (2008) examined in his article that Gandhi‘s concept of nonviolence as a force for radical change. He mentioned that present world is divided between the forces of love and forces of death. He emphasizes the need for strengthening the forces of love to change the present scenario. He argues that, by and large, people of west and even many Indians look upon the Gandhian method of nonviolence as a mere technique. But to Gandhi nonviolence was a technique as well as a way of life. He said that there are three essential elements in Gandhi‘s Satyagraha. They are firm faith in truth, overflowing love for the adversary and the capacity to undergo any amount of suffering. Organization is the test of nonviolence. Gandhi‘s method postulated simultaneous engagement in struggle and constructive activities. These two are inseparable.

In the next article C. S. Dharmadhikari argues that Gandhi, peace and nonviolence are crucial for the survival of humanity. He reminds us the importance of the Gandhian approach to sustainable living. He calls for civil society initiatives to challenge threats of war and violence. We have to identify the roots of violence and to address them, instead of declaring global war against violence and terrorism. Often, in the name of caste, creed, religion, language and even state or nation we are harboring a form of mental terrorism.

Nonviolence Gandhi took up the ancient but powerful idea of Ahimsa or nonviolence and made it familiar, throughout the world, particularly in political and economic field. However, nonviolence means more than the more absence of violence. It is something more positive, more meaningful and dynamic and Gandhi ji combined it with a sense of responsibility for the welfare of people. His great achievement was to demonstrate through his own examples

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that nonviolence can be implemented effectively not only in the political ground, but also in our day to-day life. His whole life was his experiment with truth.

The 20th century was the most violent period in human history. More people have suffered and have been killed by organized violence. The wars, the genocides, the weapons of mass destruction have created such an enormous mass misery and agony that it is difficult to find any trace of hope. Therefore, Gandhi‘s teachings of nonviolence are most relevant today.

Gandhi demonstrated the power of nonviolence to free India from colonial rule. Although he was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale. The concept of nonviolence or Ahimsa and nonresistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and had has many revivals in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Jewish, Christian and Islamic contexts. According to Gandhi the science of non-violence alone can show the way to pure democracy. Power based on love is thousand times more effective and permanent than power derived from fear of punishment. It is an irreverence to say nonviolence can be practiced only by individuals and never by nations which are composed of individuals. The nearest approach to purest anarchy would be a democratic state based on nonviolence. A society structured and run on the basis of complete nonviolence would be the purest anarchy.

We live in a globalised world; no one can remain isolated from each other or unaffected by changes, so it is important to develop a spirit of mutual cooperation, as well as of tolerance together with the spirit of nationality and understanding. If we succeed in doing that we can be sure that we will have less problems in our daily living, at the present time we have to see that we cannot live in isolation we have to learn to live respecting and being respected as well. On the other side, if we have to face a conflict situation and we are determined to solve it by nonviolent means we have to take seriously into account two things.

First, that to solve a conflict by nonviolent means is not a sign of cowardice or of not wanting to face a fight, but of a firm determination of having a secure form of solving it permanently and without losing lives. Secondly, that, in order to solve a conflict by nonviolent means, the compromise is essential, this means that we must have a firm intension of solving it, and we can do this by first, knowing the basic and original cause of the conflict, then, trying to overcome that tendency in an individual and at social level and finally trying to use a discussion to arrive at the above mentioned compromise and mutual cooperation.

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Truth Satya derives from the Sanskrit root sat meaning ―to be.‖ It refers both to truth in the sense of truthfulness or honesty, and to truth as ―that which exists,‖ or reality, the real,.

Gandhi‘s inquiry about truth is directed towards understanding reality at the deepest level as well as living in accordance with that understanding. This ―search for truth‖ formed the essence of his work. He gave his socio-political struggles the name Satyagraha, meaning truth-force and his life was to become a string of ―experiments with truth.‖ To Gandhi truth is both universal as well as particular. He is conceived that there was an ultimate truth, but is equally convinced that people can only understand it in a relative sense. What is more, one can only find it in experience.

Mahatma Gandhi said that God appears not in person but in action. He advocated truth in thought, truth in speech and truth in action. Truth for him was not merely a philosophical concept; it was the basis of moral life and acted as a link between moral principles and our actions so that moral life can be attained in practice. Truth is taken by Gandhi as the supreme principle of moral life since it is the law that regulates all human actions. It is the fundamental principle of his philosophical teachings of his life.

According to Gandhi truth is the supreme principle of moral life and it is that law which regulates all human actions. In Gandhi‘s system of thought, truth has its own value and morality. Gandhi understood by ―truth‖ by several different things. Sometimes he means epistemological truth, that which we can know, sometimes he means absolute truth, God, fundamental reality. Sometimes he means the ultimate goal of life that is called liberation. At other times, he means the natural right, ethical justice which is of its nature generally valid and binding on all men.

Satyagraha Satyagraha is literally holding on to truth and it means, therefore, truth-force. Truth is soul or spirit. It is therefore known as soul-force. The term satyagraha was coined by Gandhi in south Africa to express the force that the Indians there used for full eight years and it was coined in order to distinguish it from the movement then going on in the united kingdom and south Africa under the name of Passive Resistance. Its root meaning is holding on to truth, hence truth-force. Gandhi has also called it love-force.

According to mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha in its initial stage of evolution, means a moral weapon to fight untruth with truth and violence with nonviolence ‗a priceless and matchless weapon‘ standing in sharp contradiction to customary force of resistance. The

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characteristic beauty of this weapon is not to touch the body of the opponent but to transfer him into a new man with a new vision of truth and justice. The new weapon of Satyagraha born of self-sufferings and sacrifice of non-violent resistors thus, has changed the existing strategy and established pattern of fighting the evils and gives birth to a new technique. A satyagrahi by creed treats the opponent his friends. Hate evil and not the evil-doer is his motto. He does not physically hurt his opponent nor does he damage his property. By undergoing voluntary sufferings up to the extent of death he tries his best to make the opponent realize his errors. He suffers and suffers till his sufferings melt the story heart of the opponent to realize the truth of situation. R.R., Diwakar has aptly remarked: the word Satyagraha is now loaded with so much meanings that it amounts to a philosophy, but it is a practical philosophy of life, of action, of self and co-realization.

Significance of Gandhian concept of truth, nonviolence and Satyagraha Mahatma Gandhi during his lifetime employed three different principles to achieve political goals; these are ahimsa, Satyagraha and tapasya. Together the techniques provide a means of nonviolent action in situations of conflict. The goal of Satyagraha is to discover the truth through the establishment of values with the settings of conflict situations. The second principle Ahimsa or nonviolence provides the means to achieve this discovery. Literally it means no injury. By following the principles Satyagraha and ahimsa, an individual undertakes a journey of finding the truth through nonviolence and love. The last key principle of Gandhi‘s philosophy is ‗tapasya, which means self-suffering. It actually becomes the essential expression of nonviolence and truth. It follows the concept that the truth of a nonviolent activists may be further from the real or absolute truth that of his opponent. One final Gandhian concept that is often overlooked is Swaraj, means self-control. Swaraj in Gandhian philosophy refers to both personal self-control and the social goal of Indians to become independent and free from British colonialism.

For Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha and Sarvodaya were the two sides of the same coin and rightly regarded as the most significant and revolutionary contributions to contemporary political and socio-economic thought. One is incomplete without the other. The fundamental concepts of Satya and Ahimsa, truth and non-violence, can be found in the world‘s major religious and philosophical traditions. Gandhi‘s originality lay in the way he fused them in both theory and practice. His doctrines of Satyagraha and sarvodaya or universal welfare were at once the logical corollaries of his fundamental premise about human nature, and the mature fruit of his repeated experiments with political action and social reform.

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Mahatma Gandhi taught the world that we cannot be truly fulfilled if we only live for ourselves. He took inspiration from religious scriptures. He said we cannot overcome the divisive challenges facing our communities if we do not first sincerely respect and love one other, in spite of our differences of nationality, race, ethnicity, or religion. As we think about how each of us can affect positive change in our community, across the country, and in the world, let us always remember the lessons of Mahatma Gandhi, who said, ―the best way to find you is to lose yourself in the service of others.‖ The most potent weapon to fight oppression and injustice was nonviolence for Gandhi. His ideas influenced common people as well as leaders across the globe. Martin Luther King Jr., referred Mahatma Gandhi as, the guiding light of nonviolent social change, and during his Indian visit in 1959, Martin Luther King, said, ―in a real sense, Mahatma Gandhi embodied in his life certain universal principles that are inherent in the moral structure of the universe, and these principles are as inescapable as the law of gravitation.‖Nelson Mandela, while unveiling a Gandhi Memorial in South Africa, in 1993, stated, ―The enemies that Gandhi fought- ignorance, disease, unemployment, poverty, are today common place… Now more than ever is the time when we have to pay heed to the lessons of Mahatma Gandhi.‖ There is a need for an in-depth study of Gandhian principles and their potential to resolve global problems ranging from ethno-religious conflicts, inequality, environmental degradation, class and race problems, and so on. This anthology emphasizes that there is an urgent need to revisit the Gandhian principles and apply then to individual-individual, community-community and state-state relations, to make the world a better place. It is not only interested in the theoretical aspects of Gandhian philosophy, but also its practical and educational aspects.

Conclusion From the above discussion we have observed that Gandhi was such a great leader who imbued culture and civilization with a sense of nonviolence and his impact is permanent. His politics of spiritual truthfulness have influenced millions of people around the world, as well as great thinkers and political leaders. He was a part of the inspiration in South Africa that turned a failed movement of violence against apartheid into a successful non-violent one.

Non violence implies a complete self-purification as is at all possible. Gandhi‘s great success was to renew and put into practice the ancient Indian concept of nonviolence in modern times, not only in politics, but also in our daily life. Another aspect of his legacy is that he

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won independence for India simply by telling the truth. His practice of nonviolence depended completely on the power of truth. This power based method is still applicable for all problems and conflicts all around the world. He used the technique of truth and nonviolence as a powerful weapon in fighting against evils and injustice.

References: 1. Dennis Dalton, Mahatma Gandhi Nonviolent Power in Action (Columbia: University Press, 1893), 1.

2. Sharma Raj, Indian Political Thinker (Srishti Book Distributors New Delhi, 2012), 125.

3. Kewal K. M., Quest for Truth (K. L. Vohra, University of Delhi, 1976), 200-207 4. Joseph S. k. and Mahodaya B., Contemporary Perspectives on Peace and Nonviolence, (institute of Gandhian Studies, Maharashtra, India, 2008), 1-5.

5. Tahtinen Unto, The Core of Gandhi‟s Philosophy (Shakti Malik Abhinav Publications New Delhi, 1979), 24.

6. Dharmadhikari C.S.,

My Life Is My Message, Mahatma Gandhi (https://pib.gov.in

2016),1-10 7. Tripathy M., Glimpses of Gandhi, Gandhism And Gandhians Vol-1, Mahatma Gandhi: Life and Works, (Cyber Tech Publications New Delhi, 2013), 205.

8. Meijer. S and Von, G., The Power of the Truthful: Satya in the Nonviolence of Gandhi and Havel, (International Journal on World Peace VOL. XXXII no. 2, 2015), 21.

9. Gandhi, M.K., Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha), (Dover Publications Inc. Mineola New York, 1961), 3.

10. Singh Nirmala, The Concept of Satyagraha. (Indian Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. xxiv no. 4. 1997), 523-524 11. Mayton D. M and Palmer B. J., The Measurement of Nonviolence. (Vancouver, British Columbia, 1996), 6-7.

12. Singh S., Satyagraha Gandhi‘s concept of Non-Violence, (India perspective January, March 2008) 28-29.

13. Bose Anima, A Gandhian Perspective on Peace, (Journal of Peace Research No.2, Vol. XVIII, ISSN 0022-3433, 1981)161-163 14. Tariq R. and Mudasir T., Impact of Religious Pluralism on the World: An Analytical Study, (Lokayata: Journal of positive philosophy Vol-8, Issue-02, 2018) 22-28.

15. Tariq R and Mudasir T., LalDedd‘s Contribution to Philosophy (Lokayata: Journal of Positive Philosophy vol-8, issue-02, 2018) 54-60.

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DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR: AN EXPONENT OF MODERN “SARVAMUKTIVĀDA” Surajit Das & Moumita Das Abstract The word ―sarvamukti‖ etymologically means ―the liberation of all‖. The Vedic seers preached the idea of sarvamukti for the first time. The idea of sarvamukti has not been advanced later on. It almost vanished from the Hindu tradition. But with the advent of Gautam Buddha this idea was recovered again. He sought not only for his own salvation, but also for ministering to the spiritual uplift of all sentient beings. Since then more or less a period of two millennia has passed away. We have neither a Buddha working hard for the emancipation of all, nor a Vedic seer praying for the true well-being of mankind. This is what happened in the tradition of Indian philosophy during 2000 years before the emergence of contemporary Indian philosophy. No doubt, contemporary Indian philosophy has a distinct status and this status being due to an influence. It is the influence of the Indian Renaissance.

This Renaissance was a new birth of India. It was a thing of inestimable value due to some important results. It gave to the old truths new aspect, new potentialities of creation and evolution. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar is a real product of this Renaissance. Now, the question is: what is the position of Ambedkar as a contemporary Indian philosopher? This concerns the type-distinction of ―sarvamuktivādī‖ character of Ambedkar and as such falls within the periphery of our initial commitment. The present paper is an attempt to answer it critically through his teachings and writings.

Key-words: Sarvamukti, Gautam Buddha, Renaissance, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar

In the first half of 20th century Mother India had produced many eminent scholars and they will be remembered with reverence for all times to come. They were Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) and a few others. Their activity was directed to a goal, i.e., the achievement of Independence of India under the British rule. But while working in that direction, they worked towards another goal which is far greater than the former. And this is what is called the idea of ―sarvamukti‖.

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Now, we may raise some simple questions. What does the idea of ―sarvamukti‖ signify? Is there any gap between those two? Can we make a bridge between them? The present paper is an attempt to elucidate these questions. But all these have been done here in reference to bringing out the sense in which Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956) may be regarded as an exponent of modern ―sarvamuktivāda‖.

The word ―sarvamukti‖ is the combination of two words, such as ―sarva‖ and ―mukti‖. Here ―sarva‖ means ―all‖ and ―mukti‖ means ―liberation‖. Hence, ―sarvamukti‖ etymologically means ―the liberation of all‖. The Vedic seers preached the idea of sarvamukti for the first time. In this context we may refer a hymn of the Ṛgveda. It is as follows: ―Sam gacchadhvam sam badadhvam sam vo Manāmsi jānatām Devā bhāgam yathā pūrve samjānanā upāsate Samāno mantrah samitih samāni samānam Manah saha cittameṣām Samānam mantrambhi mantraye vah samānena vo Haviṣā juhomi Samāni va ākutih samānā hṛdayāni vah Samānamastu vo mano yathā vah susahāsati‖… (Book-X, 191) A happy and peaceful coexistence, according to this hymn, is possible through meeting together, talking together and letting our mind apprehended alike, common be our prayer, common be our aim and common be the necessities of our life. United be our hearts and our minds. This was the prayer of the Vedic seers. Liberation of all, according to the Vedic seers, was something spiritual and knowledge concerned with this liberation was entitled the highest knowledge (parāvidyā). On the other hand, there was lower knowledge (aparāvidyā) that dealt with mundane life. The Vedic seers were chiefly interested to concern with the highest knowledge.

The idea of sarvamukti has not been advanced later on. It almost vanished from the Hindu tradition. But with the advent of Gautam Buddha this idea was recovered again. The life of

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Buddha was devoted to the service of an ideal. He sought not only for his own salvation, but also for ministering to the spiritual uplift of all sentient beings. He preached the ideal of socio-political emancipation as well. In other words, according to the Buddha, ―sarvamukti‖ signified terrestrial uplift also.

In the 6th century B.C. Gautam Buddha appeared. ―Since then more or less a period of two millennia has passed away. We have neither a Buddha working hard for the emancipation of all, nor a Vedic seer praying for the true well-being of mankind‖.[1] This is what happened in the tradition of Indian philosophy during 2000 years before the emergence of contemporary Indian philosophy. No doubt, contemporary Indian philosophy has a distinct status and this status being due to an influence. It is the influence of the Indian Renaissance beginning with Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833). Such Renaissance was a new birth of India. It was a thing of inestimable value due to some important results. These are as follows: 1. It emphasized the power of the human intellect to create a better environment for men to live in.

2. Before the Renaissance there was a blind follow-up of the old fixed traditions. There was hardly any break in the customary view of things. But the custodians fixed them before our view so that we reckon and deal with them in a new light. It turned our look upon all that our past contained with new eyes.

3. It enabled us to recover the ancient sense and spirit, long embedded and lost in the unintelligent practice of received forms. It thus ―gave to the old truths new aspect, new potentialities of creation and evolution‖.[2] From the above discussion we can precisely say that Ambedkar is a real product of such Renaissance. No doubt, contemporary Indian philosophy created a new sense of life and a new vision of life. It is a mixture of the ancient spiritual wisdom of the East and idea of free thinking of the human intellect. The latter, as we have mentioned earlier, is a result of the Western tradition. Hence, contemporary Indian philosophy is a philosophy of synthesis. But this ―synthesis‖ has been done here in three different ways. These are as follows: 1. Some of the contemporary Indian philosophers emphasized the ancient sense and spirit of the Vedic seers.

2. Some of them enlarged the concept of free thinking of the day.

3. Some of them maintained a balance between the two.

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Now, we may raise an important question. What is the position of Ambedkar as a contemporary Indian philosopher? This concerns the type-distinction of ―sarvamuktivādī‖ character of Ambedkar and as such falls within the periphery of our initial commitment.

This eminent scholar was born on 14th April, 1891 in a Mahar family of Maharashtra. The Mahars were looked upon as untouchables. Being an untouchable by birth, Ambedkar was rigorously humiliated during his school days and this continued for a considerably long period. He was force to sit apart in the classroom. He could not mix with other students. Even the teacher would not touch his note-book and would not ask him any question from the lesson. He was prohibited from learning Sanskrit. He was not allowed to touch water vessel and drink water. ―This humiliation gradually showed the seed of burning hatred in his mind for the caste-Hindus‖.[3] And it is in this connection that his view on Hinduism deserves to be mentioned.

We all know that the Hindu society consists of four varṇas. These are Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Ṥūdra. This system was originally based on ―worth‖ and ―virtues‖. But as the time went on, those varṇas come to be based on ―birth‖. Though the law of the system, according to Ambedkar, encourages servitude of the weaker section of people in society and thus it deadens the people from mutual cooperation.

Ambedkar really wanted to lead a movement to pull down the power and prestige of the priests. He suggested reducing the priesthood of the Brahmins to that extent so that Hinduism can be saved. He also insisted to have one common religion for the Hindus that ―would culminate in the system of a close participation of all orders in the common life each predominating in its own field‖.[4] This was the original spirit and became a religion only in name.

Ambedkar made a distinction between ―religion of principles‖ and ―religion of rules‖, and thought that this distinction to be real and important. Though rules are practical, they are habitual ways of doing things according to prescription. On the other hand, principles are intellectual and useful methods of judging things. This distinction between rules and principles makes the acts different in quality and content. He expressed his thought of a true religion. A true religion, according to him, requires four conditions. These are as follows: 1. A society in order to hold it together must have either the sanction of law or the sanction of morality.

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2. Religion, in order to function, must be in accord with reason which is merely another name for science.

3. Moral code is not enough for religion, but its moral code must recognize the fundamental tenets of social life, namely liberty, equality and fraternity.

4. Religion must not sanctify or ennoble poverty.

Ambedkar points out that only Buddhism fulfils all these conditions. That is why, according to him, Buddhism is a true religion. He was fascinated by other religions as well. These were Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Sikhism etc. But we know that he renounced Hinduism and was converted to Buddhism. Why, then, was he not converted to Islam, Christianity, Jainism, or Sikhism? This concerns his comparative study of religions.

Conversion to Islam or Christianity will denationalize the depressed classes. If they go over to Islam, the numbers of Muslims will be doubled and the danger of Muslim domination also becomes real. If they go on to Christianity, the numerical strength of Christians becomes five to six crores. It will help to strengthen the hold of Britain on the country. Regarding Jainism Ambedkar expressed the view that it was not a powerful religion at all and that the ―Ahimsā‖ preached by Jainism was extreme and thus unacceptable.

Apart from these three religions, Sikhism was the best alternative faith for Ambedkar. It provides equal treatment for all its adherents. Why, then, did he not embrace to Sikhism? ―What seems to have turned his mind away from Sikhism was the question of seats for the depressed classes should they become Sikhs. Sikhs were granted such seats only in Punjab and his people would actually lose political privileges in other provinces by adopting this religion‖.[5] As we know that Ambedkar renounced Hinduism and was converted to Buddhism. One of the most important reasons that influenced Ambedkar to opt for Buddhism was that the Buddha never proclaimed himself to be a savior of mankind, the son of God, the last messenger of God and Parameśvara etc. He was born a son of man and was content to remain a common man and preached his gospel as a common man. He never claimed any supernatural power nor did he perform miracles to prove his supernatural power. ―The Buddha made a clear distinction between a mārgadātā and a mokṣadātā. Jesus, Mohammad and Krishna claimed for themselves the role of mokṣadātā, but the Buddha was satisfied with playing the role of a mārgadātā‖.[6]

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There was another important distinction among the above four religious teachers. Jesus, Mohammad and Krishna claimed that what they taught was infallible. The Buddha claimed no such infallibility for what he taught. He told that his religion was based on reason and experience, and that his followers should not accept his teachings as correct and binding merely because they emanated from him. Being based on reason and experience, they were free to modify or even to abandon any of his teachings if it was found that at a given time did not apply. He wished that his religion not to be encumbered with the dead wood of the past.

He wanted that it should remain evergreen and serviceable at all times. That is why, he gave ―liberty to his followers to chip and chop as the necessities of the case required. No other religious teacher has shown such courage‖.[7] Buddhism is not a religion as the expression is traditionally conceived. The religion of the Buddha is nothing but morality. Morality replaces God. Even the ideal of social gospel, i.e., equality is not so much emphasized by other religions as it is done in Buddhism. Naturally, Ambedkar tended to Buddhism. And the beginning of this tension can be dated from 1935, just a few months before death.

Long before his conversion to Buddhism, Ambedkar started his journey towards a Buddhist ideal. But this ideal was neither salvation of an ―Arhat‖ nor supreme insight of a ―Pratyeka Buddha‖. Ambedkar rejected ―those ideals because they were meant for personal salvation‖.[8] He accepted the ideal of a ―Bodhisattva‖. This ideal is based on five basic conditions. These are as follows: 1. A ―Bodhisattva‖ is born in the lowly.

2. He vows to serve the suffering humanity.

3. He interprets and preaches the teachings of his Master.

4. He practices ―Dhamma‖.

5. His life is a continuous process of perfection.

Ambedkar fulfilled all these conditions. As we have mentioned earlier, he was born in a Mahar family of Maharashtra. The Mahars were not only poor, but also they were treated as untouchables by the caste-Hindus. Ambedkar vowed in his early life to devote to the cause of suffering humanity. He tried to the best to root out all type of evils like social, political and moral. Ambedkar fulfilled the assignment of interpreting the teachings of his Master as well.

He wrote a book, such as The Buddha and His Dhamma. In this book he explained the nature and ideal of a modern ―Bodhisattva‖. He himself practiced the teachings of his Master. His

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activities thereby consisted in his endeavor to liberate the depressed classes, creating a new awakening among the down-trodden and preparing them for the struggle ahead. He marshaled many a battle. And having secured for his people the social, economic and political rights, he turned towards their spiritual uplift. Ambedkar was qualified with virtues like generosity, morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, honesty, resolution, loving kindness and equanimity. These are known as ten Perfections (pāramitās) in the Sthaviravāda (or Pali Theravāda).

Hence, I may conclude that in thus living a life of a ―Bodhisattva‖ as per the teachings of Gautam Buddha, Ambedkar made him an exponent of modern ―sarvamuktivāda‖.

Notes & References: 1. Bahr, H. W. (1996). The Universal Community of Mankind. Germany: Rothenburg Company. p. 49.

2. Ghosh, A. (2002). The Renaissance in India and Other Essays on Indian Culture.

Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. p. 20.

3. Keer, D. (1887). Dr Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. p. 12.

4. Ghosh, A. (2002). The Renaissance in India and Other Essays on Indian Culture. Op. cit., p. 411.

5. Presler, H. H. (1964). Indian Cultures Quarterly. Jabalpur: Jabalpur University Press. p. 11.

6. Mungekar, B. L. (2010). Ambedkar‟s Approach to Buddhism. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 26.

7. Ibid., p. 27.

8. Ahir, D. C. (1982). Ambedkar on Buddhism. Bombay: Peoples Education Society. p.

112.

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HAPPINESS IN BUDDHISM: AN EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH Desh Raj Sirswal Abstract Indian philosophy is a term that refers to schools of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian continent. Buddhism is one of the important school of Indian philosophical thought. Happiness is much pursued by individuals and society in all cultures. Eastern and western cultures have understood well-being and evolved ways and means to promote wellbeing over the years. Buddhism pursues happiness by using knowledge and practice to achieve mental equanimity. In Buddhism, equanimity, or peace of mind, is achieved by detaching oneself from the cycle of craving that produces dukkha. So by achieving a mental state where you can detach from all the passions, needs and wants of life, you free yourself and achieve a state of transcendent bliss and well-being. The journey to attain a deeper form of happiness requires an unflinching look into the face of a reality where all life is seen as dukkha or mental dysfunction. Buddhism is a philosophy and practice that is extremely concerned with the mind and its various delusions, misunderstandings and cravings but, happily for us, sees a way out through higher consciousness and mindful practice. Perhaps it is because of this seemingly dim view of reality that happiness in Buddhism is so tremendously full; the ideas contained in Buddha's teachings point to a thorough engagement with lived reality. Ironically, it is through such an engagement with one's self, the world and reality that one is able to achieve a transcendent happiness. Equanimity, a deep sense of wellbeing and happiness, is attainable through proper knowledge and practice in everyday life. The objective of this paper is to the study the conception of happiness Buddhist philosophy. This paper is divided into four parts (i) meaning of Indian philosophy and its relation with Indian psychology, (ii) Buddhist philosophy, (iii) Buddhist conception of happiness and (iv) relevance of Buddhism in present day world.

Key-Words: Buddhism, Well-Being, Happiness, Four-noble truth, Mindfulness, Indian Philosophy.

I

Philosophy is an attempt to satisfy the rational nature of through the desire of knowledge regarding the life of man and his world. Philosophy in its widest etymological sense means ―love of wisdom‖. Indian Philosophy denotes the philosophical speculations of all thinkers.

Ancient or modern, Hindus or non-Hindus, theists or atheists.1 Indian philosophy has

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basically nine systems of philosophy including three heterodox (nastika) including Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism and six orthodox (astika) systems including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaishesika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. Those systems of consider Vedas as the final authority are considered as astika and those who rejected the authority of Vedas called as nastika. The central idea of Indian philosophy is that consciousness is the origin and base of manifestation.

The ancient sages did not arrive at this knowledge by a strict mental reasoning and were not content with a mental idea. They discovered the foundations of their philosophical principles through a direct intuitive perception and inner experience. This is how, through –out ages Indian thinkers considered philosophy to be connected a practical spiritual discipline. The experiential methodology of the Indian philosophers has given rise to a very rich and detailed psychology. Indian psychology has its roots in Indian Philosophy and shares its emphasis on knowing by experience. A core characteristic of Indian psychology is that it address the complete human being-not only the body, heart and mind, but also the soul and spirit. Selfobservation and self-enquiry are the main method of self-development and self-perfection is most of the systems of Indian psychology.2

Now will have an outlook of Buddhist

philosophy.

II

Buddhism is one of the three heterodox systems of Indian philosophy. This system was developed through the teachings of Gautama Buddha (560-480 B.C.) previously known as Siddhartha. He was deeply influenced by the Upanishadic and the non-Vedic (especially materialist) philosophies, propounded a philosophy based upon his own empirical and meditational experiences3. Buddhist literature consists of short collections containing speeches, saying, poems, tales or rules of conduct, which are combined into longer collections, called pitika or basket. There were three such pitilas, called the Tri-pitakas written in Pali language: 1. Vinaya-pitika or the basket of discipline: It supplies the regulations for the management of the order (the samgha or the community of monks) and for the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns.

2. The Sutta-pitik: This is the best source for dharma or religion of the Budhha and his earliest disciplines. It consists, in prose and verse, the most important products of budhist literature , grouped in five minor collections called nikayas.

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3. The Abhidhamma-pitika or basket of higher religion: It treat the same subjects as the Sutta-pitika, through in a more scholastic manner All these were considered to be canonical. There were also non-canonical works in Pali like the Milinda-panha, recording a dialogue supposed to have taken place between a Buddhist teacher Nagasena and the Greek kind Menander (Milinda) who ruled over north-west Indian about 125-95 B.C. Later on several another literatures came to existence in Sanskrit and mixed Sanskrit literature.4 III Happiness is much pursued by individuals and society in all cultures .Measuring human wellbeing is important in determining whether people‘s lives improve or worsen over time. Today many countries focus on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure economic well-being, but focus on economic growth fails to capture the overall well-being of the people. The researchers showed that increasing incomes are not accompanied by increasing happiness. The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago. He did not reject outright the idea of possessing wealth but recognized that for the layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life. He did stress, however, that living an ethical and Under the Influence of Buddhism moral life more so than wealth but would bring genuine happiness. He rejected greed in accumulating wealth, being enslaved to materialism, and treating wealth as the ultimate goal5.(Wijeyawansa 2009)‖5 For Buddha, the path to happiness starts from an understanding of the root causes of suffering. He discussed the Four Noble Truths in his philosophy:  The truth of suffering (dukkha)  The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya)  The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha)  The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga) The Buddha‘s teachings of wisdom and compassion known as Dharma. In the teachings of Buddha :―All that we are is the result of what we have thought. It is founded on our thoughts.

It is made up of our thoughts. If one speaks or acts with an evil thought,, pain follows one,, ass the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the wagon.

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All that we are is the result of what we have thought. It is founded on our thoughts. It is made up of our thoughts. If one speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness follows one, like a shadow that never leaves(Dhammapada 11--2

M ller

Maguirre, 2002.)‖6

The Buddhist understanding of well-being has two parts:1. The Imperfect Well-Being 2. The Perfect Well-Being. The imperfect wellbeing of unenlightened persons consists of some measure of ordinary goods, the more the better, but it is imperfect because suffering is always present. By contrast, the perfect well-being of enlightened persons precludes suffering and consists of joyful tranquility, wisdom and virtue. In Buddhism, Suffering is a state of mind: the dissatisfaction that comes with craving. The joyful tranquility aspect of enlightenment is also a state of mind: the contentment that comes with not craving. In fact, all aspects of enlightenment, including wisdom and virtue, are states of mind.

In our daily practice of refraining from thoughts, words, and actions that cause suffering, we can find support in adopting a commitment to core values that nurture and deepen our sense of internal and physical well-being. Here are ten values I find particularly beneficial to developing an enduring sense of well-being.

1. Be truthful in what you say (wise speech) and speak with wise compassion.

2. Be genuine and authentic. We so often protect the ―false pride‖ of the ego or else ―package ourselves‖ for acceptance, approval, or popularity and this is not a winning strategy for well-being.

3. Be kind in all that you do and say.

4. Be compassionate to those who are in pain and/or experiencing difficulty.

Compassion is contingent on what‘s happening.

5. Act and make choices in terms of relatedness. Know that you are part of something larger.

6. Honor you own creativity. Pay attention to what you care about and align your outer priorities accordingly.

7. Maintain a personalized life balance such that you primarily spend time on areas you care about. This requires that you know what matters to you and that be absolutely honest as to how you are spending your time and life energy.

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8. Continue to learn and grow (personally and/or professionally) at every stage of life.

9. Be present in your life moment to moment.

10. Take responsibility for your body and make choices that support your body‘s health and well-being. This includes choices in the areas of diet, exercise, sleep, relaxation, play, and health maintenance.7 IV RESENT RELEVANCE OF BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY A central tenet of Buddhism is that we are not helpless victims of unchangeable emotions. In the words of Buddha himself, "We are what we think. All that we are arises with our thoughts. With our thoughts we make the world."

It's an idea that's in line with current thinking in psychology. In fact, this simple philosophy – that changing the way we think can change the way we feel – underpins the very practice of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), an approach widely used in clinical psychology and counselling, as well as stress management programs.

CBT emerged in the 1970s, and according to the University of Technology Sydney's Dr Sarah Edelman, who wrote a book on the subject entitled Change Your Thinking, it was originally developed to help people recover from problems such as depression, anxiety disorders, anger and self-sabotaging behaviours.

"But its principles are just as relevant for managing the upsetting emotions that arise and disrupt everyday life," says Edelman.

However, while psychologists stress actively challenging negative thoughts and replacing them with more optimistic ones, Buddhists focus more on detaching yourself from all thoughts to create a state of stillness conducive to ultimate self-understanding, or enlightenment.

For Buddhists, the key method of achieving this is meditation – which usually involves fixing our attention on a body part, the breath, a mantra or an inspirational picture – to arrive at a state where we are not distracted by our thoughts.

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And psychologists agree that quite aside from any spiritual connotations, meditation is a powerful tool. Research has shown that practising meditation regularly – and being more 'mindful', that is, focused on the present moment – has beneficial effects for a range of conditions. These include stress, anxiety, depression, poor sleep and coping with chronic pain. It also has other health benefits like reduced inflammation, improved immunity and lower blood pressure.

Lungtok describes meditation as "a method to make the mind relaxed and peaceful.

Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding and wisdom grow."

While psychotherapy seems to be in need of integration, psychotherapists increasingly employ Buddhist meditation. Research has shown that this has proven to be effective in treating certain aberrant conditions and in promotion of well-being. In the wake of this development it is safe to assume that Buddhism might be a rich source of inspiration to cater individual development.

Buddhists and psychologists alike believe that emotions strongly influence people‘s thoughts, words, and actions and that, at times, they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfaction. From a Buddhist perspective, how-ever, some emotions are conducive to genuine and enduring happiness and others are not. The ideal here is not simply to achieve one‘s own individual happiness in isolation from others, but to incorporate the recognition of one‘s deep kinship with all beings, who share the same yearning to be free of suffering and to find a lasting state of well-being.8 ―Buddhist conceptions and practices that deal with emotional life make three very distinct contributions to psychology. Conceptually, they raise issues that have been ignored by many psychologists, calling on the field to make more finely nuanced distinctions in thinking about emotional experience. Methodologically, they offer practices that could help individuals report on their own internal experiences, and such practices might thereby provide crucial data that is much more detailed and comprehensive than that gathered by the techniques psychologists now use to study subjective emotional experience. Finally, Buddhist practices themselves offer a therapy, not just for the disturbed, but for all who seek to improve the quality of their lives. We hope what we have reported will serve to spark the interest of psychologists to learn more about this tradition.‖9 In the conclusion, we can say that Buddhism offer a highly relevant knowledge concerning to human life, which has its roots in ancient tradition and application in modern times.

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References: 1. Dutta & Chattejjee, Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarasidass Publications, New Delhi, p.4 2. Neeltje Huppes, Indian Psychology - an experiential approach, Indian Psychology Institute, Puducherry, 2017, pp. 1-10.

3. K.Satchidananda Murty, Philosophy in India: traditions, teachings & research, Motilal Banarasidass & ICPR, Delhi, 1991, p.18 4. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction, People‘s Publishing House, Delhi, 2007, pp.122-123 5. Paul Ekman et all., ―Buddhist and Psychological Perspectives on Emotions and WellBeing‖ in Current Directions in Psychological Science, Volume 14—Number 2, 2005, pp. 56-57, Cited on February, 2019, Link: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ 250b/1ca53dc06dc15b40f2a982253c5f85228fd5.pdf 6. The Pursuit of Happiness, Cited on February 2, 2019, Link: https://www.pursuit-ofhappiness.org 7. Phillip Moffitt , ―Ten Values Associated With Well-Being‖, DharmaVision, Cited on February 2, 2019,

Link: http://dharmawisdom.org/teachings/articles/ten-values-

associated-well-being 8. Paul Ekman et all., ―Buddhist and Psychological Perspectives on Emotions and WellBeing‖ pp.59-60.

9. Ibid, p.62.

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FRIEDRICH SCHLEIERMACHER : HERMENEUTICS IS THE ART OF UNDERSTANDING. Lighitha P. The notion of understanding (Verstehen) as a method in studies of historical and social sciences was first introduced by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen. In his GrundrissederHistorik (1858), Droysen proposed three possible scientific methods discerned in terms of the object and the nature of human thought. These methods are the speculative, the mathematical or physical and the historical. Their respective aims were to know, to explain and to understand. Understanding (Verstehen) is a method in the human sciences that aims at reconstructing meaning from the agent‘s point of view. Such a method makes primary, how agents understand themselves; for instance, how cultural anthropologists try to understand symbols and practices from their native point of view.

Understanding aims at explicating the meaning of an action or expression from an internal perspective of the actor. This distinction is often the basis for a further methodological and ontological distinction between the natural sciences and the human sciences. As we know that, the data of natural sciences may be theory dependent and interpretative to that extent, while the human sciences are doubly interpretative. This is so because they try to interpret the interpretations that human subjects give to their actions and practices. The human sciences do not aim at explaining events but at understanding meanings, texts and text analogues.

Actions, artifacts and social relations are all like texts in that they have significance for and by human subjects. Thus, the method of Verstehen denies the unity of science, envisaged by leading philosophers of science and the account of explanation given by empiricists and positivists.

Wilhelm Dilthey and the Neo–Kantians have proposed that Verstehen could be the imaginative re-experiencing of the subjective point of view of the actor. In this connection let us remember the sharp distinction Wittgenstein and his followers proposed between reasons (applicable to human sciences) and causes (applicable to natural sciences) and define reasons in terms of relating an action to the relevant rules or norms that it follows. Dilthey and the Neo – Kantians have argued that with regard to both sciences, the aim is to understand what the text or text analogue really means for the agent. All understanding then becomes interpretations, a universal feature of all human activity including that of the natural sciences.

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If all understanding is interpretation, then there are no presupposition less natural data that can be put to empirical tests. This takes us to the further position that Verstehen is not a method but an event, in which there is fusion of horizons between the text and the interpreter.

Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher, one of the most important and influential European intellectuals of the 19th century, and known variously as the Father of Romanticism, the Father of German Plato studies. He is also known as the father of modern theology, and the Father of Hermeneutics.He transformed the traditional Biblical hermeneutics into a general hermeneuticswhich incorporated texts of all kinds. Texts, in this sense refer to anything, not just written words, but conversation, understanding etc. By raising hermeneutical inquiry onto a universal level, Schleiermacher opened up the problem of interpretation to a new world of understanding and explanation. He compared the reading of a text to dialogue in conversation. The reader was to play both parts in the dialogue : the author and the recipient of the text. Schleiermacher referred this as ―significant conversations‖ and stressed the importance of understanding a series of thoughts in texts as if it were a moment in life breaking forth.1 Hermeneutics is a doctrine of art oriented according to the idea of understanding given the universality of misunderstanding, which is caused by hastiness or prejudice. According to Schleiermacher non- or misunderstanding is the ordinary condition, and understanding needs to the persuade in order to be achieved.2 Art is not imposition of science on tradition or system on the life – world for Schleiermacher. Art originates in ordinary experience itself. It always already at work in ordinary understanding to the degree that even the child is engaged in the art of hermeneutics in language acquisition. Hermeneutics, according to Schleiermacher, is the art of understanding. Understanding is the art to the extent that it is neither fully reducible to nor independent of the application of rules. Hermeneutics is an art, concerned with language, through which we interpret texts and indirectly understand others.

It is proper to commence a discussion on hermeneutics with Friedrich Schleiermacher, since he is understood as the first to unite the various disciplines‘ specific hermeneutic theories into a universal hermeneutics. For Schleiermacher, hermeneutics is the art of understanding in spoken and written language. It is viewed that Schleiermacher has formulated a new general or universal hermeneutics that could successfully unite and support several disciplines and their specific hermeneutics like say, legal, biblical and philological hermeneutics. Of these, legal hermeneutics evidently, attended to the correct interpretation of law and its codification

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with an aim to prevent misinterpretations, while biblical hermeneutics developed rules for interpreting the biblical texts correctly, particularly during the renaissance period.

Philological hermeneutics too grew eventually that concentrated on interpreting the classics.

The state of Art of hermeneutics was described Schleiermacher thus: by ―Hermeneutics as the art of understanding, does not yet exist in a general manner, there are instead only several forms of specific hermeneutics‖.3 The intention of Schleiermacher apparently is to unify the peculiar rules of interpretation emphasized in these various hermeneutic theories, and isolate a ‗justification‘ applicable in a universal manner.

It is evident that Hermeneutics deals with the art of understanding. Here Schleiermacher‘s view of art does not mean merely a subjective, creative process. It includes methodological rules, but their application is not rule-bound, as would be the case in a mechanical procedure.

Schleiermacher clarifies his position here : ―Every single language could perhaps be learned via rules, and what can be learned in this way is mechanism. Art is that for which there admittedly are rules. But the combinatory application of these rules cannot in turn be rulebound‖.4 According to him there is a contradiction between hermeneutics used as the art of understanding and the same used as the art of speaking or rhetoric. Hermeneutics in the former sense deals with the externalization of thought: here speaking moves from the inner thought to its external expression in language, but hermeneutics in the latter sense moves from the external expression back to the thinking as the meaning of that expression.

The main goal of hermeneutic practice, therefore, is to understand correctly what another has expressed, especially in the written form. For Schleiermacher clear thoughts occur when the appropriate words have been discovered. There is not one meaning for a word that is represented by one object. Since language is primarily meant for communication it must be common to both the speaker and the listener. Words have their meaning in relation to other words of that language. The goal of hermeneuticsis to understand or interpret the appropriate meaning of the word befitting the context. Since hermeneutics as a method aims at understanding all types of linguistic expressions, it could be thought to include all disciplines.

Schleiermacher, however, attempts to restrict the scope of hermeneutics. If rhetoric is concerned with the expression of thoughts in language, hermeneutics is, rather the reverse process of discovering the thoughts behind an expression.

Schleiermacher ask how hermeneutics is possible or how the interpreter can reconstruct the author‘s seminal decision that motivates the creative process and constitutes its unity. He also

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brings forth the disparities in ascertaining the authenticity of text and the authenticity of the interpreter of the text. Attention drawn on this reveals that in hermeneutics both these factors are intertwined and depend on each other, for one must have the correct text in order to understand and explain completely what the author meant, but in order to judge a text‘s authenticity, one must have first understood it.5 Therefore, hermeneutics as the art of understanding utterances, has two parts: (1) the grammatical aspect, is one must understand the authors language or which interprets the utterance as derived from language, and (2) the technical or psychological aspect, aims to reconstruct the author‘s thinking and the way these thoughts are expressed or which interprets the utterance as a fact in the thinker. It presupposes a partial understanding of the times in which the author writes and the author‘s life.

Hence hermeneutics requires both grammatical and psychological interpretation.

Schleiermacher maintains that it would be wrong in general, to ignore one at the cost of the other while seeking after the goal of interpretation. If one is interested primarily in language as the means by which an individual communicates his thoughts, then the psychological interpretations will take predominance, whereas if one is interested in language as it explains the thinking of individuals at a particular time, then the grammatical side will predominate.

Both are required to some degree, for to use just grammatical interpretation would imply complete knowledge of the language, whereas the psychological interpretation would imply complete knowledge of the person, and neither of these in isolation of the other is possible.6 Therefore, Schleiermacher observes, ―One must move from one to the other, and no rules can be given for how this is to be done‖.7 This explains why hermeneutics is an art of understanding.

According to Schleiermacher, psychological interpretation of acts of speech or writing may occur by means of either a divinatory or comparative method. The divinatory method is a means of understanding spoken or written language by trying to understand the motives of the speaker or writer. Through the divinatory method the interpreter would come to reconstruct what particular circumstances lead the author to his seminal decision as well as to his secondary ideas. On the other hand, the comparative method explains the individuality of the author‘s work through a comparison with others. For Schleiermacher, comparative method sees as predominating on the linguistic side of interpretation, where it takes the interpreter from the particular uses of a word to the rule for use that governs them all.

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The interpreter is promoted in psychological interpretation by several factors. In that way the interpreter knows about the author‘s subject matter and the way one thinks about it. For Schleiermacher, to imagine two travellers who write about their conceptions of what they experience together. For instance, a landscape, it is simple to understand the individual differences in their thinking. Thus, if we only had two descriptions it would be state to separate the subjective impressions from the objective descriptions. If there is aim in the text that can be discovered, then their descriptions is easier because there will be an important connection of the different ideas to that aim.

The aim of hermeneutics is ―to understand the utterance at first just as well and then better than its author‖.8 One understands an author better by defining explicit what is unconscious in the works of the author. To begin the hermeneutic process one must endeavor to place oneself subjectively and objectively in the position of the author; here objectively by learning the language as the author possessed it, and subjectively by learning about the author‘s life and thinking.

This suggests that hermeneutics ―depends on the talent for language and the talent for knowledge of individual people‖.9 One needs a talent for interpreting language in the sense of its possible expressionsfrom a grammatical view point, for instance, its analogies and metaphors. Schleiermacher pointed out that there are two sides of this talent and they rarely coincide in one person. One is the extensive talent for comparing different languages and the other is the intensive talent for penetrating into the interior of one‘s own language.10Similarly, the talent for understanding others has both aspects. The extensive talent regards understanding the individuality of one person through comparison to others, and thereby reconstruct ―the way of behaving of other people‖.11The intensive talent concerns understanding the ―individual meaning of a person and its particularities in relation to the concept of a human being‖.12 Hermeneutics is possible, even if infinite, task. The interpreter can reconstruct what the author means since language permits the interpreter to know the approximate schematization experience that the author presents in language.13In daily use of language we do not know this kind of interpretation. But in most tough cases the interpreter must use the comparative and divinatory methods as we mentioned above. The interpreter needs to focus on the author and his times, the subject matter discussed and the language area of the text. So hermeneutics requires experience and talent on the part of the interpreter.

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In brief, hermeneutics may be understood as the art of understanding what another means by her linguistic expressions. Schleiermacher‘s original contribution lies in discerning the two spheres of hermeneutic understanding that is the grammatical and the psychological : in a hermeneutical exercise one needs to know the language used by the author to interpret her writings, while in the psychological side he needs to know how the author thinks with reference to his particular culture and historical time. The main aim of hermeneutics, from this perspective is to reconstruct the creative works of the author and attempt to understand the author even better than he understood himself.

Notes and References: 1. Klemm , David E, Hermeneutical Inquiry : Vol 1, The Interpretation Of Texts, Atlanta : Scholars Press, 1986. P.57.

2. Matthias Jung,HermenutikZurEinfuhrung, Hamburg :Junias, 2001. P.59.

3. Friedrich Schleiermacher, Hermeneutics and Criticism and Other Writings, Andrew Bowie (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.5.

4.

Ibid., p.229.

5.

Lawrence K.Schmidth, Understanding Hermeneutics,Accumen Publishing Ltd, 2006.P.12.

6.

Ibid.

7.

Friedrich Schleiermacher(1998),p.11.

8.

Ibid.

9.

Ibid., p.23.

10.

Lawrence K.Schmidth (2006), p.13.

11.

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1998), p.13.

12.

Ibid.

13.

Lawrence K. Schmidth (2006), p.27.

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TOLSTOY‟S PURPOSE OF ART Suyasha Singh

Abstract Art has a greater purpose of its own. Tolstoy says that for the good of humanity, less kind and needed feelings are replaced by kinder ones which are applied at both particular and collective levels. Art acts as a therapy. It is an attempt by educators towards emotional good health and ethical good sense. His idea of the expression of art did not exhibit political reforms as he thought that they should not measure up with social goals rather it should be a display of life and its love in its most utmost forms where he presents the picture of an individual at an intimate level. He drew on his life experiences as he lived them; just like the correspondence of his marriage in real life and like in Anna Karenina. The aim is to combine both the spiritual and materialistic aspects of the world reflected in his novel. One distinctive idea that can be witnessed in Tolstoy is the metamorphosis of his characters throughout the reading yet they remain the same. His characters have a thought process and personality of their own. His narratives include simple outlines - death and love. The descriptions in his novels are symbolic in nature.

Keywords: Art, Love, Emotional, Metamorphosis, Reform, Anna Karenina, Morality Introduction This paper explores the idea that for Leo Tolstoy, Art especially novels as mainly predicated by his works were not a source of entertainment but were tools for psychological education and reform. For knowing others it acted as a supreme medium. This in a way helped expand humanity as we might also know people who seem unappealing from the outside. He did not advocate the idea of art for arts‘ sake. He was deeply invested in the belief that good art should make us less moralistic and judgmental and should supplement to religion in terms of developing our reserves of kindness and morality. Leo Tolstoy‘s work casts an expression theory where an artist's feelings are transmitted to a recipient through a medium. He defines art in his essay "What is Art?"

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Art is a human activity consisting in this, that one man consciously utilizing certain external signs, hands-on to others feelings he has lived through, and that others are infected by these feelings and also experience them.1 Experiencing beauty plays a determining factor in this. It is not necessary to give away one‘s hedonistic assertions of contingent factors like psychological, historical and physiological. Seeking pleasure cannot be a factor in undertaking art. Art is thereby an association between man and man. This gives a base to the civilization. Feelings are communicated and words are expressed between the people which form an imperative.

1. Art-Life Relationship Theological practices try to suppress art through prohibitions. They do not understand that by doing this they deny the people of one of the means of communication to humankind without whose support it‘s difficult to exist. He makes art as a tool for civilization. Also, the fellowship among humans when communicated through the medium of art makes them united as if the feelings they share are the same. This is a sort of spiritual union as there is no isolation of a party. This is a result of a spontaneous infection that the recipient gets with the artists‘ work. The artistic infection is used as a measure to evaluate the impact of art. The intensity is in correspondence with each other. The clarity of this communication, the sincerity of the work and the uniqueness of the feeling spread are some of the necessary and sufficient factors involved.

Leo Tolstoy‘s work Anna Karenina is understood to have provided a beautiful edge to his legacy. He has resurrected the character of his novel from people in his real life. Nikolai Levin in Anna Karenina resembles his brother Dmitry who died of Tuberculosis twenty years before when the novel was written. There is a term known as artistic machinery, ―it implies a mechanical process: you feed reality at one end and out comes art at the other.‖2 We witness an art-life relationship in most of his works.

He tries to strike a ground showing of life through the novel‘s characters. Alexei Karenina is depicted to be a rational and conservative character. Despite all this, his self reflective nature does not improve his life. His character shows that it is important to embrace dynamism to succeed. Stiva Oblonsky stands as an example by Tolstoy whose human values stand corrupted with the refinements of city life. One cannot succeed if their lives are dominated by fun. Stiva‘s lack of responsibility leads to his downfall. Tolstoy links Stiva and

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Anna to the end that a developed and prosperous life can be ruined by bad choices. Anna seems to be connected to the philosophy of love which bounds relationships.

It has lots of glimpses from his life. Similarly, is the case with Levine, … his struggles toward spiritual light come to the deep satisfaction of work with the earth, of philanthropic effort, but his last unclouded by false anticipations of great success. The peasants with whom he has to work areas dull of perception, as slow in comprehending his great schemes, as were Tolstoy‘s own; his very wife, lovely and faithful, cannot fully understand him.3 As the similarity of his own family and situation, it is like a Greek tragedy that shows a marriage with love and adultery. The characters try to live by such an arrangement within the society but the circumstances force them to give up. To reflect, more on Tolstoy‘s creations it becomes helpful to go through his significant observations of life and society through ‗The Death of Ivan Ilytch‘.

There is other work of the purely so-called artistic nature after this period; such as the ―Death of Ivan Ilytch," a marvelous study of the painful death of a worldly and loveless respectable official; the play "The Power of Darkness;" and the story of "Master and Man." The action of this last takes place in a snowstorm on the steppes.

The master clothed in his heavy furs, first abandons his man in terror at the death staring him in the face, and then returns, and, by lying on top of his ill-clothed and half-frozen servant, saves his life and is himself frozen; the approach and reality of death this time, however, being not with terror, but with peace, because where there is love, self-sacrifice, there is God also.4 The book tries to make the sense of death by living life in the right manner. It tried to form segregation between living an authentic life dominated by pity and compassion and artificial life dominated by superficial existence.

2. Is Expression of Art Subjective or Objective Feeling Classical definitions of art in the history of philosophy are portrayed in contemporary discussions of the definition of art; take art to be characterized by a single type of property.

The standard candidates are representational properties, expressive properties, and formal properties.5 This is done in the form of different activities through the medium of sound,

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light, color, dance, etc. It's also a form of production of human reason. The reaction to any work of art is subjective appealing to different minds. There have been various debates surrounding the idea of beauty around it. The success of an artist happens when the creation has a lasting effect on the human mind. It engages a lot of emotional elements and is not a dull activity. The element of beauty fulfills the purpose of pleasing people's minds. In this way, our sentiments align with the creation. Any artwork has an end. They are created for a purpose.

Expression of something is a creative process which is evoking the feelings one has experienced and transmitting in the form of light, words, sound, color, etc. The origination of art lies in the artist. Artist‘s intention must be genuine and not conceiting. Those feelings transmitted must be experienced personally. The emotions communicated are not at a descriptive level but emotions themselves. It is not arousal. Arousal is an activity by skilled workers. The expressionist theory communicates it as the manipulation of a physical medium.

However, for putting up this thought, Tolstoy had to face several criticisms. Critics like John Dewey states that manifestation of emotion can be an outburst or a discharge. Screaming of pain when hurt cannot be said to be a work of art. These are raw emotions. Sussane K. Langer states that artists cannot work in a state of mind when struck by tragedy or personal upheaval. This is the case because works of art should be treated as an escape and not turning loose.

Opinions like these falsify the Tolstoy‘s stand. Certain artists become successful in creating a hue of emotion without that actual backing. Or sometimes the artist is miserable but the creation will convey happiness and vice – versa. So, it is understandable to say that the communication of the actual emotion to the audience cannot be deemed as art. There is no objective certainty that the same emotions were experienced by the artist that was conveyed.

Since it‘s a subjective feeling, it becomes difficult to comprehend this exact line of communication.

Tolstoy wants to make a united feeling with a monistic understanding. But even if an emotion is passed it cannot be deciphered by the other party as the same. If A experiences sadness then it does not mean that B will also experience the same sadness with the same amount of intensity. If we try to portray a scene of erratic behavior by an actor in a scene in theatre the amount of absorption of that behavior by the audience will vary even though they

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are similar emotion or mood. This is the case because they both are distinct entities.

Therefore, the expression theory has a subjective monotony to it.

Even though we see that subjective feelings play an underlying role in comprehension, when evaluated based on his works, Tolstoy has tried to do justice with his findings. Tolstoy says that Art should be communicated with a clear and irrepressible feeling whereas the technique is used unnaturally. A good work of art is interpreted irrespective of appealing morally and immorally.

The early 1870s in Russia witnessed a ‗suicide epidemic,‘ and the pages of the Russian press discussed personal tragedies as a social fact at great length, publishing society‘s ills, especially suicide and crime.6 Anna Karenina is the protagonist who is caught in moral standing. Anna sacrifices her family, love, and society in her search for more physical and emotional realization.

Anna‘s significant peasant dreams are linked symbolically to a major weakness in her personality: a tendency, fist, to exaggerate appealing features of an attractive new acquaintance and then, as time passes and reality inevitably brings layers of disillusionment. To exaggerate the same person‘s inadequacies……..The cycle then begins again as Vronsky by degrees displaces Karenin in her dreams and nightmares, ending in Anna‘s even greater disillusionment and propelling her toward selfdestruction.7 She finds obsession in revenge and self-destroying behavior when her expectations from her lover and husband are not fulfilled.

This structure shelters and enshrines much of Tolstoy‘s deepest and most essential message concerning the utter futility of seeking enduring happiness in even the most defensible and sincere adulterous relationship, which must, Tolstoy asserts, finally inflict devastating suffering upon all concerned, including both the inevitably disillusioned, guilty perpetrators and, most sadly, the innocent but gravely wounded victims.8 Tolstoy put his fifteen years to research on the subject of Art and was confused that how the idea of beauty can form its central element. According to him, beauty is nonessential.

He compared the incomplete idea of eating to this. Just as people who just like the idea of

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eating and don‘t take food as a means to support the body. Similarly, those who take beauty as an end to art do not understand a work‘s true nature. If emotions are not transmitted through art then it just becomes meaningless. It is through art that humanity advances. Art lately has been used by the rich and the idle rather serving humanity. Advancement in the human soul happens with the development of human consciousness. Good and bad art are evaluated in accordance with the religious perception of those times. The Greeks evaluated work in harmony with the feelings it produces. If it transmits a sensation of beauty and courage, it‘s good. If it communicates dissent and rudeness it is bad.

Conclusion Art is a way to promote brotherhood. Serving through their works to a small section is bad but humanity is good. A creation is marked by the kind of life one has lived. It arises from the human soul based on their experiences. Those who witness the reality produce creations that are grounded. It comes out from life proper and not based on the incentive of salary.

Writing acts as a medium for knowing others who seem unappealing from the outside.

It is used to expand our idea of humanity. For Tolstoy, art should be used as a means to become less judgmental and supplement our morality. Writing is a part of therapy for inducing goes sense based on ethics. He admonishes the practices based on false pretenses and encourages people to return to the state of love.

On one hand, Anna is doing her duty although being deprived of love where a social standing has and on the other hand, where she is following her heart, she is being admonished. She was a deeply religious woman but still committed suicide. In Christianity, suicide is considered a sin. The question here then arises is if her actions were moral or not.

In context to Tolstoy‘s essay 'What is Art?' it can be said that it all depends on the appeal to be a good work of art irrespective of the main character being judged ethically solely on their actions. Anna Karenina successfully infects its readers with emotional and psychological appeal in depicting then Russian society, the psychology of people involved along with the elaborate background settings of city and rural lives of the Russian people.

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References: 1. Maria Popova, ―Leo Tolstoy on Emotional Infectiousness and What Separates Good Art

from

the

Bad,‖

brainpickings

(blog),

2019/12/05,

https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/09/09/leo-tolstoy-what-is-art-infectiousness/ 2. Hugh Mclean, ―Truth in Dying,‖ in In Quest of Tolstoy (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2008), 30 3. George Clifton Edwards, ―Tolstoy,‖ The Sewanee Review, Vol. 9, No. 04 (Oct. 1901): 464 4. Ibid, 464 5. Thomas Adaijan, ―The Definition of Art,‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, August 14, 2018, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/ 6. Yuri Leving, ―The Eye-Deology of Trauma: Killing Anna Karenina Softly,‖ in Border Crossing, ed. Alexander Burry, Frederick H. White (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016), 103 7. Gary L. Browning, ―Conclusion,‖ in A ―Labryinth of Linkages‖ in Tolstoy‘s ―Anna Karenina‖ (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2010), 117 8. Ibid., 119

Bibliography: Adaijan, Thomas. ―The Definition of Art,‖ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, August 14, 2018, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/art-definition/.

Browning, Gary L. ―Conclusion.‖ In A “Labryinth of Linkages” in Tolstoy‟s “Anna Karenina.” Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2010.

Edwards, George C., ―Tolstoy,‖ The Sewanee Review, Vol. 9, No. 04 (Oct. 1901.

Leving, Yuri. ―The Eye-Deology of Trauma: Killing Anna Karenina Softly‖. In Border Crossing. Edited by Alexander Burry, Frederick H. White. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016.

Mclean, Hugh. ―Truth in Dying,‖ In In Quest of Tolstoy. Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2008.

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Popova, Maria. ―Leo Tolstoy on Emotional Infectiousness and What Separates Good Art from the Bad,‖ brainpickings (blog), 2019/12/05, https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/09/09/leo-tolstoy-what-is-art-infectiousness/.

Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. Translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky.

Penguin USA; Deluxe ed. Edition, 31 May 2004.

Tolstoy, Leo. What is Art? Translated by Alymer Maude. Digireads.com, 01 January, 2013.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN A MEDIEVAL INDIAN SOCIETY AS PORTRAYED IN THE BHAKTI LITERATURE OF MAHAPURUSA SRIMANTA SANKARDEVA: „SITA GETS FAIR TREATMENT IN SANKARDEVA’S UTTARAKANDA RAMAYANA‟ Sunu Kalita & Archana Barua

Abstract In different regional variations of the great Epics, especially in its vernacular forms, we find wider scope for addressing woman‘s position in society from a nuanced perspective with more scope for liberal and sensitive interpretation. With more focus on sahadharminini ideal than tightening of the same. Sankardeva is a Neo-Vaishavist, and though deeply committed in Eka-Sarna-Naam-Dharma, he brought a great social reform by spreading secular ideas. We find that Sankardeva remains very sympathetic for Sita‘s ordeal and trials (agnipariksās).

Taking his liberty as a Bhakta saint, in his creative interpretation of the Uttarakanda Ramayana, Sankaradeva puts strong words in Sita‘s mouth before which Rama, the God incarnate, appears to remain speechless. Despite his strong sympathy for Rama‘s own tragic predicament that he too is a victim of tragic circumstances in life, Sankaradeva is not happy at repeated ordeals that Sita herself has to undergo despite Rama remaining very sure of her innocence.

This kind gesture of Sankaradeva‘s Assamese version of the Ramayana Uttatrakanda also reflects comparatively liberal attitude shown by Assamese males in general toward woman a society that placed girl child in high esteem and a society that till lately was not aware of dowry and crime against girl child. The article thus revisits Sankaradeva‘s portrayal of Sita in his Assamese version of the later Ramayana. This kind gesture on Sankardeva‘s part tells a lot about men‘s sympathetic understanding on women‘s conditions. Despite respecting playing of role models as ideal wife, she is also an individual, a suffering human being who is to be sympathetically understood by her husband, who is not her master but

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friend, philosopher and guide. This article will try to revisit Sankardeva‘s portray of Sita in the context of role and position of women in Assamese society and in North-East at large.

Keywords: Sankardeva, Sita, Bhakti, Ramayana, Sahadharmini .

Traditionally people have a very negative idea about women‘s position in a patriarchal society considering the distinctive meaning of Indian patriarchy. We may say the term patriarchy has different shades and colours as per the phases of its development from an earlier and a liberal one of its kind that was substituted later with a rigid one during the time of caste oriented Smarta phase handled by priest-king alliance at the instrumentality of the Karmakaandi Brahmnis. Even then, even despite all its ups and downs, we cannot overall generalise the term patriarchy as it is also seen in the context of the Indian scenario, as it is not exactly what patriarchy means in the west that remains the target of the Feminist critics across culture. What we can say in the beginning is that we find that similar to other patriarchal set ups, in India too, gradually a rigid kind of patriarchy emerged out of its base in a comparatively liberal one as in a comparative study we find that that gradually women‘s position deteriorated unlike in the earlier phase which we used to see in early Vedic period as well. At post Vedic and a Smarta period the position deteriorated which was sought to be corrected and reformed by many including a large section of the Bhakta Saints with their creative expressions in Bhakti literatures as thus trying to re-discover those lost liberal ethos of idea. Taking that as the true liberal spirit of this vast country of many cultures and many races living in harmonious pluralistic platform despite differences.

This is the context that makes sense why in Bhakta saints like Mahapurush Srimanta Sankaradeva in particular could accommodate some liberal ethos even within a so called patriarchal family set up. Sankaradeva and the other Bhakata saints and reformers of Assam, as in mainly in Medieval India, did not interpret husband wife relation in terms of Heglian and Sartrean master-slave exploitative relation that enables the master, usually the husband if he remains the authority and the more powerful one, to be the total controller that the wife is to be completely controlled by the male counterpart, the husband, who is thus projected more as a boss and a master than equal and complementary partner to his female counterpart. The initial liberal position of husband and wife as sahadharmi( ni ) was also the true meaning of the word sahadharmini when more than being a partner in a dominating relation

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husband and wife portrayed a complementary status. That way both husband and wife remains Sahadharmi (also as sahadharmini) as co-traveller in life and in dharma, through thick and thin. Accordingly there remained more scope for liberal interpretations of men women relationship that also safeguarded women‘s secured position in society.

The present study is a short exploration of the status of Indian women within a comparatively liberal and reformist kind of a patriarchal society is based on literature review and research of particular scriptures with its most traditional sources based on Vedic texts as analysed by innumerable researchers and scholars in various ways. In order to determine whether Hindu women really enjoyed some kind of freedom and independence in early phase of Vedic Period even though that period regarded as patriarchal, we have surveyed some scholarly literatures in this regard. Based on some of our study we may summarise the following here.

Women were found enjoying their rights to develop their potentiality in various fields, ranging from housekeeping, cooking, being a good host to being a good daughter-wife –etc. also to learn music, other womanly skills from stitching, needle work to weaving and knitting, from decorating to artistic aspects in them as well. Thus their presence was essential in all the streams of life even though overall household cantered round a father figure or a male authority who also remained the prime food provider for the family, also the one who goes out to the agriculture field when there was need for ploughing etc. Those way families had a paternal authority as father, the husband and in that case a wife is seen and treated as a shadhami(ni). Along with that we find that a section of really studious and talented women excelled as scholars and poets, philosophers etc. during the early Vedic period. On the other hand some also showed courage and independence as warriors too. Especially in the context of Sankaradeva influenced Vaishnavite society only we found the first Assamese woman poet Aai Padmapriya, the learned and bhakti daughter of Sankaradeva‘s disciple Gopal Ata, the founder head of the Kaala Sanghati sub sect of Neo Vaishnite Order founded by Sankaradeva. We also hear about the valour of Mula Gabharu during Ahom period as of Radha and Rukmini and others during Moamoria vidroh from the Maran community in Assam.

We also have Sati Radhika as an epitome of ideal housewife balancing her wifely duties as per moral and social norms and also as the first woman work team leader who contributed their manual labour in the construction of Tembuani stream (small river) bāndh (dam) that 47

Sankaradeva sought to save the locality and its people from flood and erosion. That needed contributions from both male and female members and here came Radhika Sati representing an otherwise lower caste of Kaivarta community whom Sankaradeva particularly identified and glorified as the role model of virtues personified in her and an ideal of all other women also in so called higher castes to follow her. As Sankaradeva also disapproved caste hierarchy and discrimination that Brahmins and priests and kings sought to impose and monitor. Here she stands as the role model, a perfect epitome of both feminine and wifely virtues imbibed in her that so long she remains dharma bound to her husband she values loyalty to her wife as she expects similar loyalty from her sahadharmi counterpart, her husband. So she remained chaste, so she said to the Bhakta saint what remains her virtue and strength that will enable her to pass the trial of the beginning the whole process by one virtuous woman when she claimed herself to be eligible to do so, to join hand in this dharmic act of helping people out of crisis situation besides performing all her expected wifely and womanly duties in a balanced way. No doubt the land was full of some such sahadharmin is when we find the story of Sati Jaimnati who made herself a crusader to the dictatorial and rigid Ahom monarchy of her time so that her husband can be saved to restore liberal values in the land later. The interesting point to note here is that no one forced them to act in this manner , nor any male member forcing them to do so though it was a patriarchal society, rather the males , her husband Gadapani when he heard the news of Jaimoti tortured by the king, came in disguise to persuade her to withdraw that he himself will be imprisoned if the king wants that but Jaimoti strongly refused as her dharma was to keep the rightful and liberal heir to the throne alive so that the people will be liberated from tyranny. This was the kind of sahadharmani ideal that Sankaradeva too glorified in his literature.

Women were treated equivalent to men and had freedom to develop that encouraged them to explore their identity as per their choice. Various customs and traditions were absorbed by the Hindu society gave full and active participation to its women. During this liberal phase of Vedic patriarchy we find women as Atri, Maitreyi, Lopamudra, and many others who were also greatly honoured in society but who excelled in merit and intellect along with their male counterparts. But gradually, with the passage of time, this high and equal status that women enjoyed once began to decline, more so when as we move from the early Vedic to later Vedic Period and it touched its base during the Smriti period when women were deprived and divested of their due status, respect and opportunities. In the north eastern part of society also, including Assam, it has been found that the impact of patriarchal

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pressure on women tightened suddenly and it turned out to be negative and a controlling kind of authority that also lost its original complementary kind of relations that characterised sahadharmini ideal. Still later, women were not to be treated as equally as there came social barrier of various kinds which sought to discriminate between men and women. As long as the problems of women were identified peripheral and a woman‘s personal problem, and not as social problems, the attempts at the solution of these problems lost the importance. We see that this kind of attitude even worked at the otherwise progressive kind of Marxist movements that paid little attention to woman‘s domestic labour issues in their overall labour related negotiations. When the problems are seen as major issue for the whole society than only these may set importance.

In Assam during the time of Mahapurusa Srimanta Sankardeva, 1400 A.D, there were social structures and old social norms in Assam that suddenly deteriorated demolished the veil of preserving modesty and sanctity. And Sankardva was one who tried to liberalise women even though he himself was a product of a patriarchal social system led by the definite setup where man still possess the central authority in every matters. Patriarchal system prevailed during Srimanta Sankardeva‘s time when the Bhakta Saint was born in 1449 A.D. The place he was born at Borduwa in the Nagaon district of Brahamputra Valley of Assam. He was the great social reformer, progressive thinker along with that he was writer, actor, dancer and he formed some religious drama. Srimanta Sankaradeva was not only a religious preacher but also a wide-ranging literature as well as a social reformer. Srimanta Sankaradeva tried to reclaim and recover woman from that degraded state and regarded her to equal status with man, basically with equality in the all spheres including dharma.

Feminism has mostly challenged idea that women could be projected as ideal wife or daughter that she can find fulfilment of her life as wives and mothers. In every way the concept of feminism has applied in the political, social, religious arena by raising the issue of women‘s rights. But many people do not know that Srimanta Sankaradeva had already introduced the concept of feminism in the true and in its Indian sense of the term when despite caste, family restrictions and other constraints some reformers, mostly male, addressed woman‘s issues in a very liberal and sensitive way back in the fifteenth century itself, before the beginning of all the proponent of feminism in the West. Though generally people get bewildered and they conclude that Srimanta Sankaradeva‘s idea as Sahadhrmini is

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not a liberal kind of approach if judged from a typical feminist perspective also because people generally equate feminism with woman‘s right issues than anything with duty aspect of any relation. Feminists also primarily focus issues more related with sexual liberation etc. that cannot appreciate how come some woman friendly liberal ideas could be fostered from a so called patriarchal set up that also glorifies duty aspect of woman and of man.

In this background this article explores some issues that are related to woman welfare irrespective of whether we use the term feminist or not , to understand what actually this Bhakta Saint of Assam sought to address on woman welfare or whether this was there in some manner in his writings or not. Sankaradeva (traditional date 1449-1568) was a near contemporary of Vallabhacarya and Caitanya and founded the eka-sarana dharma sect which has dominated Vaisnavism in Assam ever since his day. A skilled and prolific poet, he produced works in Maithili kind of Brajabuli as well as in Sanskrit and Assamese.

Now trying to understand Sankaradeva‘s liberal approach to woman and her position in society whether she too can be seen as a person in her own right who has feelings of her own, whether she can demand her right in a legitimate way despite being otherwise a duty bound daughter, wife, daughter in law and all others. We will try to see here a so called typical Feminist kind woman and particularly Sita oriented woman friendly position of Mahapurush Sankaradeva in his creative translation of a part of Ramayana in Assamese. Here we follow mostly very scholarly approach to Sankaradeva‘s Uttarakanda by W.L.Smith particularly.

The greater part of Sankaradeva‘s production was in the latter of these languages and consists of Assamese renderings of portions of the Bhagavata purana, the Hariscandra-upakhyana, the Rukmini-harana-kavya and various other Sanskrit works‖ (W.L. Smith, 2004). Sankardeva‘s translation Uttarakanda Ramayana is not an independent book. As mentioned above, when Adikanda and Uttarakanda could not be found in Madhava Kandali‘s Ramayana, Sankardev took the responsibility of translating Uttarakanda from the original Valmiki Ramayana and added it to Kandali‘s Ramayana. While translating from the Sanskrit original, the saint excluded several stories and emphasized mainly on those portions that rotated around Rama and Sita (Biswadip Gogoi). Now while coming to see Sankaradeva acting also as a saviour of woman against injustice made to her in his writings, we have to understand the post Vedic deteriorating situation that Assamese society in Sankaradeva‘s time was going through in some part, though not in all others. The time of Srimanta Sankaradeva‘s advent was a horrible time. As scholars point out: ―Women had no honour in those days. A woman could

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be taken by the Bhogi (a man selected for sacrifice before the deity) at any time. That situation arose from the Tantriks. Making woman the object of enjoyment in the name of the Sahajiya path of the Tantric cult gave rise to adultery among some people. Srimanta Sankaradeva redeemed woman from that degraded state and elevated her to equal status with man in the performance of the religion of devotion‖ (Sanjib Kumar Borkakoti, 2008).

Srimanta Sankardeva tried to give these subdued women some taste of their lost dignity being recovered to them by enabling them to be free while taking leadership in Naam-kirttan, also some of them emerging as well versed in saastras who could recite kirttanas in performance of regular Naam-kirttan etc. Some also emerged as Guru to be able o initiate disciples as we see later in Harideva‘s daughter and also Sankaradeva‘s daughter-in-law Aai Kanaklata playing active role in rediscovering Gurus dharma and the ancestral place at Bardowa. He took the steps so that women can enjoy the right to organize offerings in the Kirtan-ghar and also perform Nama-kirtana by themselves. The Eka-Sarana-Nama-Dharma preached by him, attracted many women devotees into the fold of Eka-Sarana-Nama-Dharma and women played a crucial role in the spread of the Dharma. Along with thatSankaradevaadvised the married couples to offer Bhakti to God together and by this man and women sharing an equal status.

There are many other instances that show that Srimanta Sankaradeva bestowed honour to women and His project was progressive in his thought.―A revolt against the traditionalists was brewing in his maiden book ‗Harish Chandra Upakhyana‘ itself. The people who torture women are strongly condemned here‖ (S.K.Borkakoti, 2008). Here in his writing Srimanta Sankaradeva recognized the strength of woman by comparing her with burning fire in various verses and also even more important than that is narration by Sankardeva in his plays the act of seeking of apology by men from women in his writings.

In this paper the main focus is to explore Srimanta Sankardeva as a liberal and women reformer by the character Sita in his writing of Uttarakanda Ramayana. The way he depicted the character of Sita in his Assamese portrayal is evidence of his great respect for the concept of women‘s rights. Here the difference of their vernacular translation appears prominently from the original work in Sanskrit by Valmiki. In Balmiki‘s Ramayana there action of Sita in the scene of Rama banishing Sita to the Forest or asking for agniparikshaa again and again, it was a meek Sita who followed Rama‘s order quietly who banished her to exile. What we can see is that Sita accepts Rama‘s order of banishment meekly in the Valmiki‘s work. But

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what we can find in Sankaradeva can rightly be termed as a Feminist –like one as it comes close to a typical Feminist position in this regard. Usually a Feminist position in this crisis scene for Sita will remains a strong Sita centric one than taking side with Rama‘s. Here is Sankaradeva we find a similar position too. Sita of Srimanta Sankaradeva‘s Uttarakanda Ramayana makes sarcastic comments at Rama when he banished her: “Awe Râma swâmi sukhe bhunjantoka raja

Mari jâo moi nimâkhiti banamâja (Uttarâkânda Râmâyana / 23)” (Sanjib Kr Borkakoti, 2008).

Here the above sarcastic comment is given by Srimanta Sankardeva in the mouth of Sita in his writing means that she did not accept her banishment and she taunted the capacity of Rama to banish her. Even when later Rama sent Hanumana and others to the Ashrama of Valmiki for bringing her back, she spoke with revenge and with harshness that there would be nothing more than acting as a shameless woman on earth if she now follows Rama as her trusted husband even when he failed to protect her. She will rather despise it to be called as Rama‘s wife. Sita also said that she would have given up her life in Lanka and that it could have been a better decision especially when she had she known Rama to be so cruel to her.

The incident of Sita entering into the bosom of mother earth after again facing trial in the court of Rama on her return to Ayodhya is there both in the original Ramayana as well as Srimanta Sankaradeva‘s portrayal of the Ramayana.

Aura jena nushuno Râmara ito nâu

Phat diyâ Basumati pâtâle lukâu

(Uttarâkânda Ramayana / 381)” (Sanjib Kr Borkotoki, 2008)

But whereas Sita takes leave of Rama after expressing love for him in the original Râmâyana, in Sankardeva‘s version of the Ramayana part, she takes leave of Rama angrily.

Srimanta Sankaradeva deviated from the scriptures of Sanatana religion by depicting the

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character of Sitain a protesting and revolting image. Here he created a progressive trend of his own which we cannot find easily in any other scriptural form in that period. So we can see that the concept of feminism was implanted in this trend initiated by Srimanta Sankardeva through his religious expression and devotional steps.

In this vernecual version of the story by Sankaradeva, in great contrast from the Valmiki‘s original Ramayana, Rama is overwhelmed by guilt at having abandoned Sita: -

henaya priyaka mai tejilo kamane /

candala buliya garhibe yiba sune //

ehi buli Ramacandre karanta bilapa /

How did I abandon such a wife? Whoever hears of it will condemn me as a candala. In these words, Rama lamented. (W. L. Smith, 2004).

But we can see that Sita‘s response is not positive and she said out of anger that ―in my mind Rama seems like the god of death. Had I known that he was so heartless, I certainly would have ended my life in Lanka.‖ This is what we cannot find in any interpretation of Ramayana except Sankardeva‘s.

In Valmiki‘s version of the final scene, Sita does not speak a word to her husband. She swears her innocence, calling upon Madhavi, her mother, the Earth goddess, to open a fissure in the ground and admit her as she has never had thoughts of a man other than Rama, and so it happens, Sita disappears triumphantly into the depths of the earth. In Sankaradeva's rendering Sita has far much more to say through her silence, through her defying and protesting acts and through her acts of crucification far more than words can convey. She is so much humiliated and enraged at the necessity of having to undergo a second public test of her chastity and her temper is obvious to the crowd which has come to witness the sight.

Thinking of all she had suffered,

That good woman flared up in anger, (....)

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Her body shook with rage and grief

Like the flame of an intense fire.

Rama felt great fear in his heart, (....)

Her eyes and face were scarlet with rage and indignation.

In her anger she turned her back to Rama and lying Aside her shyness, she looked at the crowd. “By a ruse he had me abandoned in the

forest (....)

He wanted to kill the two boys in my womb.”

Everyone said, „today a calamity will take place,‟ If paddy had been put into Rama‟s mouth,

It would have turned into puffed rice.

(I.e. he was burning with shame)

The queen, in her great sorrow,

Began to revile him.

Angrily she looked at Rama from the corners of her eyes. (W.L.Smith, 2004) ―Though Sita does protest her devotion to Rama‘s feet in conventional terms, this is drowned out in a long (longer, in fact, then the story of her exile) and very unconventional harangue in which she vents her bitterness. Sita then swears the same oath as in Valmiki, the earth heeds it, and splits open and accept her. She is gone and Rama is crushed with grief.

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The point Sankaradeva is trying to make is one of compassion, compassion for Rama‘s dilemma, of course, but much more for Sita sufferings. Sankaradeva‘s sympathies are with her‖ (W.L.Smith, 2004).

The Ramayana story belongs to everyone, and Sita belongs to every woman. Assamese version of the Ramayana morally supports suffering woman to protest against injustice as Sita here questions Rama‘s decision to ask for her fire trial second time. Sita has accused Rama that he failed to protect her even in the minimum way and that as a wife she has a right to ask him this minimum protection of her life, safety and security. In that period even Sankardeva carefully creates a scene in which Sita negotiates the questions of freedom, dignity etc. with Rama, her husband also meant to others who are the audience here. In contemporary feminist way then it is coming from a duty bound sahadharmini the feminist questions of rights of woman as wife and as daughters as well, that could be contextualized in the contemporary context as well. Sankaradeva touches upon human rights aspect on Sita‘s destiny seeing her as a dignified human being in her own right who deserves a fare treatment, more so, as a deserving wife asking for her right from a husband.

One of the things is India and Hinduism is that it‘s a male dominated society and religion and it is a religion that has attributed the words for the strength and power to feminine. ―Shakti‖ means ―power‖ and ―strength‖ and all male power comes from the feminine. But Sankardeva given a new image while to mostly Sita protests against Rama, still she remains or likes to remain dutiful as parivrata herself to her Rama like husband as his true sahadharmini and we find that Sankardeva remains very sympathetic for Sita‟s ordeal and trials (agnipariksās). And taking his liberty as a Bhakta saint, in his creative interpretation of the Uttarakanda Ramayana, Sankaradeva puts strong words in Sita‟s mouth before which Rama, the God incarnate, appears to remain speechless. Despite his strong sympathy for Rama‘s own tragic predicament that he too is a victim of tragic circumstances in life, Sankaradeva is not happy at repeated ordeals that Sita herself has to undergo despite Rama remaining very sure of her virtue.

Dr.Maheswar Neog has quoted in his book that ‗Sankardeva takes it as the signal to recount in synopsis the whole story of the Ramayana. The early part of the Uttra-kanda also comes in this connection for a swift survey. The pathetic scenes of the Uttra-kanda are reproduced vividly and elaborately. Ankara‘s elderly Site is very much charged with

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righteous indignation at the almost cowardly conduct of Rama; and even Rama, with all his superhuman greatness, becomes a weakling with self-reproach and an impotent love for Site, much sinned against than sinning. His sentimental character is a bit too much stressed. Both the hero and the heroine are thus brought bearer to the sphere of the life of the common man‘ (M.Neog, 1965).

This makes the saint to present Sita‘s case kindly and gesture on Sankardeva‟s part tells a lot about men‘s sympathetic understanding on women‘s conditions though patriarchal social system prevailed. Sankardeva showed that despite playing role models as ideal wife, Sita is also an individual, a suffering human being who is to be sympathetically understood by her husband, who is not supposed to act as her master and boss but as friend, philosopher and guide. Sankardeva‟s portrayal of Sita in the context of Assamese society and in NorthEast at large remains significant and meaningful at Sankaradeva‘s hand.

References: 

Borah, Dr. Rinku.The Neo-Vaishnavism Of SrimantaSankaradeva: A Great SocioCultural Revolution In Assam. Mssv Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences.Vol. 1 N0. 1 [Issn 2455-7706].



Borkakoti, Sanjib Kumar.Srimanta Sankaradeva as a Feminist in Tejaswini, Souvenir of SrimantaSankaradevaSangha, 2008.



Gogoi,Jahnabi Nath. State, Religion and Women: Changing Pattern of Patriarchy In Pre-Colonialassam. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 73 (2012), pp.

372-382.

Publishedby:IndianHistoryCongress.Stable.URL:https://www.jstor.org/stable/441 56227Accessed: 21-08-2019 09:00 UTC



Kakoti, Padmakshi and Mahanta, Pradip Jyoti. Understanding Women in the Religious Institutions: A Study With Reference To the Sattras of Assam. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSRJHSS). ISSN: 2279-0845 Volume 1, Issue 5 (Sep.-Oct. 2012), PP 19-22. www.iosrjournals.org.www.iosrjournals.org 19 pp.



Neog, Maheswar. Early History of the Vaisanava faith and movement in Assam. LBS Publication, Guwahati (1965).

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

Smith, William L.The Wrath of Sita: Sankaradeva‘s Uttarakanda. Mahapurusa Jota, Journal of the Srimanta Sankaradeva Sangha, Vol. VI, 2004.



www.atributetosankaradeva.org



Gogoi, Biswadip. Translation in Assamese: A Brief Account.History of Translation in India.pp281307. https://www.academia.edu/34604056/Translation_in_Assamese_A_Brief_

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VIVEKANANDA‟S LEADERSHIP LESSONS FROM BHAGAVADA GITA Sudhir Baweja

Abstract Bhagavada Gita and Vivekananda are two marvels India would always be proud of. For so many centuries celestial symphony- Gita, has been overwhelming billions of people across the globe. This ocean of wisdom and a perpetual fountainhead of strength has been offering profoundest insights for human excellence, actionable guiding principles and cogent rebuttals to existential dilemmas. Unfolding in the most unimaginable setting of a seminal dialogue- a battlefield, this unconventional divine song fruitions in to a universal anthem of human action without attachment. Gita, ever since his itinerant days, had been an all- time companion of Vivekananda. Gita was his moral and spiritual compass which not only guided his life long mission of human emancipation but it also shaped his ethical edifice and leadership doctrine. The kind and scale of leadership crisis the world is undergoing is compelling humanity to look for insights and solutions from sources which had been hitherto almost forbidden and unexplored. No wonder Gita today has emerged as one of the most respectfully quoted and keenly googled scriptural reference in the world. Swami Vivekananda‘s Spiritual Servant Leadership doctrine, which he literally lived himself all through his life, draws not just inspiration but a lot of content and cardinal principles from Gita. Selfless service, Action without attachment, Manliness, Strength of Character, Moral courage, Gospel of Spirituality, and Duty Ethics are some key attributes which characterize the Spiritual Servant Leader of Vivekananda.

And it is not hard to correlate the key doctrines viz.- Detached Action, Sense of equanimity, Doing one‟s duty skillfully, Karma yoga, Renunciation, Svadharma, Lokasamgraha, Spirituality and Harmony of Paths, unfolding in Gita and giving a cogent basis to the Spiritual Servant Leadership doctrine of Vivekananda. The world cannot afford to ignore the leadership nuggets strewn in Gita and rightly crystallized by Vivekananda in his Leadership doctrine.

Keywords:

Spiritual Servant Leader, Manliness, Detached Action, Rājarsi

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I Bhagavad Gita (Gita) and Swami Vivekananda (Vivekananda) are two marvels India would always be proud of. While the two are quite frequently googled independent keywords they do have a strong connection. If Gita has been called as the „song celestial‟, Vivekananda has been deemed as the human songster of this divine composition. This proverbial song is in fact a profound poetic- dialogue between two legendary leaders- Lord Krishna and Pandava warrior Arjuna which unfolds in one of the most unimaginable locations- a battle field. We have heard of a saying ‗silence before the storm’, Gita can well be regarded as- „wisdom before the war.‟ Ever since its creation this composition has been overwhelming billions across the globe. This profound scripture has also been a life-long companion of Vivekananda ever since his austere itinerant days. Gita, one could say, has been his steadfast friend, enlightening philosopher and a trust worthy guide. Gita not only helped him in surmounting his tough travails of a globe trotting life, it also turned out to be his perpetual source of motivation and inspiration. No wonder Gita was one of the

dominant recurring themes of his

discourses. His Gita classes were one of his ardently recounted and reverently cherished spiritual sessions with his disciples. Not only his core doctrines of Practical Vedanta, Divinity of man and Oneness of soul came out of Gita, his ethical edifice, his dynamic spirituality, and his legendary man-making education were also deeply inspired by the timeless wisdom of Gita. For Vivekananda Lord Krishna was the pinnacle of mankind.

According to him Lord Krishna is an epitome of harmonised personality – well rounded, equally accomplished in matters of head, heart and hand. From this ideal teacher he learnt quite a few lessons on leadership too. This study endeavors to delineate some key ideas which Vivekananda drew from Gita to shape his path breaking doctrine of Spiritual Servant Leadership.

II Bhagavad Gita , mostly known as Gita is one of the most prominent popular scriptures of India. Literally Bhagavad Gita means –the song of the Lord. Divided in 18 Chapters and carrying 1400 lines (700 couplets) in Sanskrit verse, Gita appears between 23rd and 40th chapters of Bhishma Parva of epic Mahabharata. It enjoys a unique status besides being the most revered and respectfully referred scriptural text in India. Despite technically

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being a Smriti Gita enjoys the status of a Shruti. Despite being respected as a Shruti which is mostly associated with eternal esoteric truths, Gita is so full of wise counsel, advices and tips for a meaningful practical life. All its 18 chapters, independently called yogas, are in a way as many practical approaches to this world. Gita must have unfolded in a battle-field to awaken and arouse a demotivated Arjuna but its subtle, universal, and profound lessons continue to be a perpetual source of strength and long lasting inspiration for anyone and everyone. Especially for someone who is wrenched in fighting one‘s own righteous battle.

The dominant note of this composition ‗human action

without attachment‘ not only sums up the essential universal message of Gita, it also encapsules the core of the spirit of leadership excellence. Its universal appeal and acceptance transcends time and space barriers. It will be interesting to learn that Gita is not only revered in India, it is a world wide classic which has been, "...translated into 82 languages and it can safely be said that at least 75 or more of these are foreign languages‖1 Swami Tathagatananda goes on to claim that

―...there are about 2000

translations and commentaries in various languages of the world today‖ 2. Today it is an established and much respected world-scripture ready to be dived deeper and explored still more keenly.

III Something interesting is happening in the world of leadership these days. The practical field of leadership and leadership-studies as a research area, both are witnessing unprecedented growth. More interestingly their interface is quite dynamic and symbiotic.

Objectively leadership- studies without any doubt is becoming one of the fastest growing academic disciplines in the world. The discipline is emboldened by rich cross-cultural perspectives and it is being served with a rich plethora of evidence based findings.

Numerous and ever growing multi-disciplinary studies are feeding it right. At the same juncture time-tested and trusted quantitative methodologies are adding to its rigour.

Above all a huge and ever growing data- base of first hand learning and experiences of practicing leaders from all over the globe are glibly filling the requisite gaps with valuable insights and useful innovative practices. But the irony is, that despite these 1

2

Tathagatananda, Swami. (2015) Light From the Orient-Essays on the Impact of India's Sacred Literature in the West, Kolkata, Advaita Ashrama, p.44 Loc. cit.

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phenomenal collective accomplishments individual leadership failures are on the rise every passing day. The aberration and extremity of leadership delinquency is baffling every one. The severity of leader let-downs and the growing behavioral- deviance in corporate governance is almost becoming the new normal. The blatant disregard of human values especially moral values and the growing recourse to coercive and controlling regimentation in the corporate world is bewildering. Political leadership has already touched its nadir. The very agency of Leadership is earning an underserved discredit. In view of this, leadership scholars are exploring the unchartered paths. They are moving away from trait- competency -skill-based leadership paradigms to normative spiritual and human excellence driven models. Today Symbolic Leadership, Charistmatic Leadership and Transformational Leadership are not just academic interest areas, they are full fledged leadership models, practical paradigms and leadership styles doing rounds in the changing landscape of Leadership.

In the recent times the Leadership and Management Scholars have literally woken up to Gita as a new treasure trove of Leadership wisdom. Vivekananda has already gracefully embraced the Gita Leadership lessons in his Leadership paradigm. This study will endeavour to outline and articulate some key leadership lessons which Vivekananda drew from this ‗timeless classic‘.

IV A personage like Vivekananda defies commonplace description. For Swami Ranganathananda he is a 'universal phenomenon'. Swami Nikhilananda, author of Vivekananda's most popular biography, calls him an 'unusual phenomenon of all times.'3 He further acknowledges him as a "...philosopher, a man of action, an introspective yogi and also a writer, a dynamic speaker, a brilliant conversationalist and a dreamer. 4 He goes on to ascribe him attributes like – "deep spiritual insight, fervid eloquency, brilliant conversation, broad human sympathy, colourful personality and handsome figure..."5 Vivekananda's legendary Chicago address got him some unconventional and absolutely magnificant epithets like 'A Cyclonic Monk', 'A Warrior Prophet' and 'A Millitant Mystic' 3

4 5

Nikhilananda, Swami. 'An unusual phenomenon' in Jyotirmayananda, Swami (Ed.), (1993) Vivekananda – A Comprehensive Study. Madras : Swami Jyotirmayananda, p. 206.

Loc. cit.

Loc. cit.

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and many more. After this momentous speech almost every aspect of his multifaceted personality has been recognised and eulogized. For William James he was a 'A Paragon of Vedantists'. For Swami Ranganathananda he was a, 'Spiritual Teacher of Modern India'. Nehru calls him a "Constructive Genius". For Sister Christine he was a "unique perceptor". K.M. Panikkar prefers to call him a "unifier of Hindu Ideology" Romesh Wadhera celebrates him as a "Dynamic Redeemer". Russian philosopher Chelishev would remember him for "his lofty ideas of humanism". CEM Joad calls him ''the counter-attack from the east''. Josephine Macleod holds him high for his 'unlimitedness'. Sister Nivedita rightly spots him as a "worker at foundations". His gurubhai Swami Abhedananda regards him as, "a patriot saint of modern, India" while for his Nobel prize winning biographer Romain Rolland he is a "a born king...Everybody recognised in him at sight the leader... the man marked with the stamp of the power to command."6 And very recently Asim Chaudhuri writes a full book to highlight -'The attributes and thoughts of an extraordinary leader manager – A Perfect Embodiment of the Servant-Leadership Concept.'7 The essence of all the myriad tributes he received could be summed up in calling him – Vivekananda-a leader extraordinaire. World over he is hailed as a great leader of eternal universal appeal, cutting across nationalities, faiths and economic stratification.

Though he hardly construed his theory of leadership systematically yet one could easily see his leadership doctrine living through his own life, works, organisations and the legacy he left behind.

In fact the mammoth missions of mass emancipations and man-making of global scale he wished to take up needed exceptional leaders not of the kind the contemporary world is familiar with and full of. His leaders could not have been egoistic, greedy, coercive, authoritarian, manipulative, power hungry, productivity driven and profitability oriented. He could not imagine his leaders having no regard for the oppressed masses, no concession for the trampled ones, no respect for holistic development and no disposition for selfless-service of the masses. He needed, Servant of Servants' (Dasasya Dasa) leaders who are imbued with service attitude, powered with dynamic spirituality and 6 7

Ibid, p. 179 Asim Chaudhuri (2012) Vivekananda – A Born Leader. Kolkata : Advaita Ashrama, Jacket of the book.

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driven by a missionary zeal to ensure that each individual realizes one's inherent divinity and actualize one's inborn perfection.

Like the battle of Kurukshetra Vivekananda's life was no less than a saga of struggle, strife, dilemmas, challenges, adversories and hardships. Like the 18 days of the Kurukshetra war he lived 18 years of crisis, struggle and strife after the untimely and sudden demise of his father. Like Arjuna, Gita lessons not only just stayed with him they always kept him on the righteous path. The human songster of Gita literally lived Gita through his entire life. K.M. Panikkar rightly calls him- 'New Shankaracharya'. He does that on two counts-first because he too revived Vedanta and second he too spread the message of Gita far and wide, the way the Adi Shankaracharya did.

In the phrase-Spiritual Servant Leadership, both the terms-Spiritual and Servant, preceding Leadership owed their origin to Gita, only. We can also trace that the inspiration of fearlessness, strength, moral uprightness, manliness, renunciation as key attributes of spiritual servant leadership also came from Gita only. The category of selflessness providing the pivot of leadership morality, also originates from Gita.

Service and Renunciation Swami Vivekananda used to hold that Renunciation and Service are the twin ideals of India, intensify her in these channels, the rest will take care of itself, who else than the Spiritual Servant Leaders can accomplish this huge task. A leader must observe renunciation first, rise above his ego-centricity and then take up service, Vivekananda's Master Sri Ramakrishna often repeated that Renunciation is the real message of Gita.

In Gita Krishna counsels Arjuna to renounce attachment to all work and their consequences. Preaching the concept of universal welfare (Lok samgraha) Gita exhorts Arjuna to choose the universal welfare over one's individual good. Swami Vivekananda gave yet another dimension to service by associating it with asceticism. The motto of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission states-'Atmano-mokshartham jagad-hitaya ca' which means liberation of one's own self and welfare of the world. Vivekananda gave a new status, significance and expression to these twin ideals- Renunciation and Service, which owe their origin to Gita. In fact one can see these Gita ideals living through the

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operations of the twin-organisations and hundreds of inspired sister organisations and outfits.

Manliness Man was the epicenter of Vivekananda's deliberations and man making was his major thrust. Manliness was one of his leading ideals. He used to say, "The older I grow the more everything seems to me to lie in manliness."8 He used to call this to be his new gospel and this gospel was the guiding principle of his Spiritual Servant Leaders also.

This manliness was not just physical manliness but an all round manliness-physical, mental, spiritual and moral.

William Page adds, "Swamiji's ideal (manliness)

transcended mere physical strength, it encompassed moral courage, strength of character, fortitude, resoluteness, tenacity, refusal to bend before adversity..."9 This inspiring lesson of manliness also come from Gita. In beginning of the Chapter 2 of Gita Krishna exhorts Arjuna, "Do not yield to unmanliness, O Partha, it is not worthy of you."10 Like Krishna Vivekananda also calls upon his Spiritual Servant Leaders to shake of their weakness and cowardice and gain in strength, manliness and courage. Explaining manliness Swami Ranganathananda writes – "This represents a totality of positive attitude based on faith in oneself and faith in fellow human beings, and the heroic mood of facing life's problems instead of evading them or running away from them."11 Rajarsi Ideal The term Rajarsi appears in the fourth chapter of Gita. The composite word Rajarsi is composed of two words Raja (king) and rsi (seer). Apparently it sounds like on oxymoron. How can a king be a seer? Gita expects a leader to be a saint too. Swami Ranganathananda clarifies, "When one combines power and social responsibility with the strength arising from character, clear thinking, dedication, and practical efficiency, one effects in oneself this unique synthesis of the rajarsi of the Gita."12 8 9

10 11

12

CW, 8:264 Page, William. Manliness, Strength and the Religious connection in Atmashraddhananda Swami (Ed.) (2014). Swami Vivekananda. The Charm of His Personality and Message, Chennai : Sri Ramakrishna Math, p. 245 Gita, (2:3) Ranganathananda, Swami (2013) Democratic Administration in the light of Practical Vedanta.

Chennai : Sri Ramakrishna Math, p. 11 Ranganathananda Swami (2013) Ibid. p. 36

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Vivekananda's Spiritual Servant Leaders is also one such Rajarsi, a perfect blend of manliness and saintliness, he exhorts his servant leaders to build character, embrace purity and responsibility. Vivekananda strongly believed that future of India lies in the hands of leaders who are Rajarshis. His own words rightly reflect his faith-"They had hundreds of Rishis in ancient India. We will have millions. They did great work in the past, but we must do greater work than they."13 Do whatever you wish Spiritual Servant Leader of Vivekananda is not an overimposing Coach-leader grooming streotypical followers, he instead is nurturing empowered Spiritual Servant Leaders. The inspiration in Gita is not hard to find. Everyone knows that by the time Lord Krishna concludes his wise counselling session, Arjuna is fully aware that Krishna is not just his wise counsel he is a divine incarnation. But despite this revelation Krishna concludes by saying, "I have told you, Arjuna, whatever I had to tell you. I have placed before you, all the options that are available to you. Through your body mind infrastructure, with all the faculties that you have, manifest the potential divinity already present in you. Do whatever you wish (Yatha icchasi tatha Kuru). History is witness that most of his associates Vivekananda groomed, be it Sister Nivedita or Swami Premananda or Alsinga Perumal or Swami Turiyananda or Sarachchandra Chakraborty and many more monastic or lay disciples, all of them stood out as independent Spiritual, Servant Leaders themselves. Vivekananda groomed them so well that they were responsible enough to 'Do whatever they wished'.

V Swami Vivekananda's Spiritual Servant Leadership doctrine, which he himself literally lived and made his associates idealize, draws not just inspiration but the complete framework and the cardinal principles from Gita. Manliness approach, Selfless service and Renunciation, Action without attachment, Strength of Character, Gospel of Spirituality, Duty ethics, Rajarsi attitude etc. are some key attributes which characterize his Spiritual Servant Leaders. And it is not hard to correlate the key doctrines viz., Detached Action, Sense of Equanimity, Loka-Samgraha, Yogah Karmasu Kausalam, Harmony of Paths, Svadharma, Selfless work, Sacrifice and Self surrender which as some 13

CW 3:284

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key principles unfolding in Gita giving a cogent basis to the leadership doctrine of Vivekananda. The world cannot afford to ignore the leadership nuggets strewn in Gita and rightly crystallized by Vivekananda in his Spiritual Servant Leadership doctrine.

REFERENCES: A compilation (2008) Vivekananda. The Great Spiritual Teacher. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.

A Vedanta Kesari Presentation (2012). Gita for everyday living. Chennai : Sri Ramakrishna Math. Kolkata; Ramakrishna Mission Swami Vivekananda's ancestral House and Cultural Centre.

Rekha Jhanji (Ed.) (2007). The Philosophy of Vivekananda. New Delhi : Aryan Books International.

Sridharanananda Swami, Getting Introduced to Bhagavad Gita, in A Vedanta Kesari Presentation, Gita for Everyday living.

Swami Jitatmananda (2007). Swami Vivekananda, Practical Vedanta and Servant Leadership (Theme Paper) Seminar on Indian ethos for tomorrow's Leadership and Management.

Swami Nikhilananda (2015). Vivekananda – A Biography, Kolkata : Advaita Ashrama.

Swami Ranganathananda (2013). Democratic Adminsitration in the light of Practical Vedanta. Chennai : Sri Ramakrishna Math.

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CONTRIBUTORS OF THE ISSUE  Mr. Tariq Rafeeq Khan, Research Scholar of Department of Philosophy, M.L.B Govt. College of Excellence, Jiwaji University Gwalior (M.P.)  Mr. Mudasir Ahmad Tantray, Research Scholar Rani Durgavati University Jabalpur (M.P.)  Mr. Reyaz Ahmad Bhat, Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy, M.L.B Govt. College of Excellence, Jiwaji University Gwalior, M.P.  Mr. Surajit Das, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Mathabhanga College, Cooch Behar.  Ms. Moumita Das, Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore.  Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Assistant Professor (Philosophy), Post Graduate Govt. College, Sector 46, Chandigarh.  Dr.Lighitha P., Guest Lecturer, Department of Philosophy,Govt: College Chittur,Palakkad, Kerala.  Ms. Suyasha Singh, Research Scholar (Ph.D.), Department of Philosophy, University of Delhi.  Ms. Sunu Kalita, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.  Prof. Archana Barua, Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.  Mr. Sudhir Baweja, Co-ordinator, Department of Philosophy, University

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