HYPATIA
Fall Issue 23-24
Ada Lovelace
By: Ariella Sato-Baran ‘25 Women In STEM: Issue 4.
The First Computer Programmer From opening the door of Olin with your keycard to typing up an essay for your class, almost everything in this world uses a code sequence to give out an output. When computers were first invented, they were huge, heavy, and more expensive to build than the desktop computers sold in Apple stores today. Their only purpose was to calculate tedious equations, like a less versatile calculator. But if computers were initially designed only to calculate complex and repetitive mathematical equations, who first saw the possibility of this future of automatic doors and minuscule pixelated screens?
Who Is She?
On December 10th, 1815 Augusta Ada King-Noel, was born in London (1). She was the daughter of the famed poet George Byron and Annabella Milbanke, though many know her as Ada Lovelace from when she became the Countess of Lovelace later in her life.
Lovelace’s father was imaginative and saw life through rose-colored lenses, while her mother was factual and logical. The stark difference in personality between them created discord in the two’s marriage, and only four months after Lovelace was born, the two divorced (2). Annabella moved with Lovelace to the countryside of England while George sailed across to Greece, where he later died when she was eight (1).
Childhood/ Early Life: To prevent her from having a quick-tempered and irate nature like her father, her mother hired mathematics and science tutors instead of tutors focused on the arts, unlike typical aristocratic families of the time (2). Even at an early age, Lovelace’s prowess and natural intellect in the field of mathematics were apparent; however, she was also very imaginative and curious, like her father. An example of her nature is when, through thorough observation of birds at the age of 13, Lovelace composed and illustrated a guide on “Flyology” which recorded her findings and design on a flying machine based on her wish to fly like a bird (2-3). When she was only 17, Lovelace met Charles Babbage in 1833 at Cambridge University. They quickly became close friends through their shared interest in mathematics and soon after, he became a mentor to her. Babbage is most well-known as the “father of the computer” (3) due to his invention of the Difference engine and Analytical engine.
The Difference engine is a complex machine that calculates and tabulates polynomial functions. The Analytical engine, in contrast, was made to be able to perform any calculations given. It had four components: the mill, the store, the reader, and the printer (4). The mill was the calculating unit, analogous to our modern-day CPUs, and the store was where data was stored (memory and storage). The reader and printer are the input and output devices (4). Though never completed, the Analytical engine was the first ever mechanical generalpurpose computer proposed. However, it was only when Lovelace suggested the computational possibilities of the engine that it became seen as the first computer. HYPATIA JOURNAL
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Lovelace’s proximity to Babbage allowed her to see the machine in its early stage of design and calculations, and later, when she was asked to translate into English Babbage’s article of work, she composed seven notes. The most famous note of all is the last note, Note G. In the note, she highlighted how, by utilizing the flexibility of how the engine requires punch cards with instructions as their input, it can follow a recursive algorithm to calculate Bernoulli numbers. This would make the Analytical engine programmable (4). Lovelace followed up her hypothesis with a table of data containing the mathematics behind the engine’s calculation of Bernoulli numbers. Her calculations were proven to be correct when decades later researchers finished the engine and tested her theory. She also theorized how machines such as the analytical engine would soon be able to translate images, pictures, and sound into a digital format: “The analytical engine might act upon other things besides numbers, were objects found whose mutual fundamental relations could be expressed by those of the abstract science of operations (programs)” (5). Centuries later, when her mathematics was proven correct, she was named “the first computer programmer.”
Unfortunately, Lovelace passed away at 36 from uterine cancer after suffering years of medical conditions following the birth of her second son. Until the very end, her relationship with her mother was rocky, for when she was urged to embrace religion to be forgiven, she turned down her mother by declaring that “[r]eligion to [her] is science, and science is religion” (5). Her achievements were not recognized until the 1950s when an English scientist, B.V. Bowden, republished her work in his hit book ‘Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines’ and in 1980, the U.S. Department of Defense named their newly developed advanced computer programming language "Ada" after her (5). Only in recent years were her accomplishments and genius suitably acknowledged for someone so ahead of her time.
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Tu Youyou
The Woman Behind Behind the Cure of Malaria
T
By: Alyssa Shi ‘26 Women In STEM: Issue 5.
屠呦呦
u Youyou ( ) is an exceptionally competent and prestigious Chinese pharmaceutical scientist who is known for her key contributions to the discovery of artemisinin ( in Chinese) in malaria treatment, which saved millions of lives. Due to her significant involvement in anti-malaria drugs, she was the first Chinese woman laureate of the Lasker Award in 2011 and the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
素
青蒿
Tu Youyou was born in 1930 in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province of China. She contracted tuberculosis at 16 years old, which postponed her education for two years. Since then she was determined to study medicine to help other patients who were afflicted by diseases like she was. She pursued a herbal medicine degree at Beijing Medical College and graduated in 1955 at the age of 24. Due to the tremendous casualties that malaria caused in the Vietnam War, Vietnam requested China for help in battling malaria. To help fight against the disease, Tu was appointed as the team leader of a national project named Project 523 to develop an antimalarial method in 1969, two years after it was launched on May 23rd,1967.
Before Tu started her work, scientists worldwide screened over 240,000 herbs (1) to find synthetic compounds for the cure of malaria, but none of them succeeded. Tu had the idea of researching ancient Chinese herbs because of her strong foundation in both Western and Chinese medicine. She compiled a notebook namely the collection of Single Practical Prescriptions for Anti-Malaria. Her team screened and investigated over 2,000 herbs and identified possible antimalarial 640 recipes at the first stage of the classic books, and 380 extracts were tested on mice. (2) The process was painstaking, but she was determined to sacrifice her personal life for this top priority. HYPATIA JOURNAL
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Tu Youyou
The Woman Behind Behind the Cure of Malaria
By: Alyssa Shi ‘26 Women In STEM: Issue 5.
She even put her four-year-old daughter in a nursery and left her one-year-old to her parents. After testing the remedies on rodents, one extract named Artemisia was found in a 1600-year-old Chinese medicine book (3), where it was mentioned as the treatment of malaria symptoms. It seemed to generate positive results in the inhibition of parasite growth with 40 percent of the highest inhibition rates. After rereading the recipe from 1,600 years ago, in which the wormwood is soaked in water patients could drink the juice, (4) Tu found out it was the temperature that affected the effectiveness of Artemisia since it was boiled and its active ingredients might have been damaged. She redesigned the whole method in 1971. The results showed that using ether solvent which boiled at 35°C and removed the acidic component of Artemisia, the remaining neutral part generated 100 percent of the inhibition rate on rodent plasmodium. To ensure the safety of clinical trials, Tu and her colleagues volunteered to be the first human samples, and it turned out no side effects occurred. She then organized clinical trials for the patients, and all the illnesses were cleared out within one day with the use of artemisinin-based therapy.
青蒿素
Two decades later, artemisinin (Qinghaosu in Chinese) was recognized by the World Health Organization as the first line of treatment for malaria. Tu’s role was also revealed in 2011 by the Lasker Foundation, which lauded the discovery of artemisinin as “arguably the most important pharmaceutical intervention in the last half century”. (5)She was also the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine receiver, which changed history as the first Chinese woman winning the Nobel Prize.
Works Cited 1. “ Liao, F. (2009b). Discovery of artemisinin (Qinghaosu). Molecules, 14(12), 5362–5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules14125362 2. Tu YOUYOU. (n.d.). https://scientificwomen.net/women/youyou-tu-97 3. SITNFlash. (2020, November 18). Youyou Tu — An Exceptional Nobel Laureate - Science in the News. Science in the News. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2020/youyou-tu-anexceptional-nobel-laureate/ 4. Belluz, J. (2015, October 6). For 40 years, no one knew this woman discovered a malaria cure. Now she's won a Nobel. Vox. https://www.vox.com/2015/10/6/9461471/nobelmalaria-tu-youyou 5. The Nobel Prize | Women who changed science | Tu Youyou. (n.d.). https://www.nobelprize.org/womenwhochangedscien ce/stories/tu-youyou
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Acute Myeloid Leukemia and Cardiotoxicity
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n recent decades, cancer research has progressed from the question of what caused their death to how to prevent it. Even though technology has improved and the knowledge of cancer has increased, the unfortunate answer is that as of current progress, there is no preventing cancer. Whether you’re an office worker, a secretary, or the very scientist studying cancer, there is always a risk that you, too, could get it. Oncology is a field where the diseases scientists study differ from person to person, and a drug effective for patient A might not necessarily work for patient B. However, because of this, scientists working on drugs and cures for cancer are given more grants leading to more breakthroughs year after year. Today, there is hope at every stage of cancer, with new drugs that work effectively even against stage 4 cancer cells. But what happens when the spread of cancer lies undetected until it is too late and the spread is too aggressive to handle? This case study will focus on the treatments of acute myeloid leukemia and the aftereffects of its treatment.
By: Elizabeth Zee ‘25 STEM In The News: Issue 3.
Leukemia is a broad term used to describe the cancer of the body’s blood-forming tissues, especially the bone marrow and the lymphatic system. Acute myeloid leukemia (AML), also known as acute myelogenous cancer or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia, is an aggressive form of leukemia. AML progresses rapidly due to its origins in the bone marrow, which affects the production of unmutated white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. This results in recurrent infections because of mutated white blood cells, and easy bruising due to the lack of platelets. The most common treatment of AML is chemotherapy, which is the use of cytotoxic drugs to help kill off the rapidly growing cells. Over time, chemotherapy can become less effective, especially in older patients whose leukemic cells become more resistant to standard chemotherapy. Because older patients are more susceptible to diseases, they are not compatible with myelosuppressive chemotherapy (the reduction of white blood cell population) as it yields a 25% mortality rate (4). Therefore, the best action for older patients is to use cytotoxic drugs that specifically target the cancerous cells.
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This brings us to Doxorubicin, the most commonly used drug specific to AML, although it has been used to treat a variety of other cancers as well. Doxorubicin is an antibiotic derived from the Streptomyces peucetius bacterium and is part of an anthracycline group of chemotherapeutic agents. The issue that lies in Doxorubicin is its extremely cardiotoxic nature as discussed in the study titled “Doxorubicin Cardiotoxicity May Be Caused by Its Metabolite, Doxorubicinol”, where researchers broke down and tried and separate the toxicity from the drug. This study focuses on what makes Doxorubicin so cardiotoxic and opens the floor to other researchers who want to try and inhibit doxorubicinol to reduce the drug’s cardiotoxicity (1). Doxorubicin has been used since the 1960s simply because it is so aggressive towards all cells in the human bo This is not to say that there is no hope for a safer way to stop AML in the field of oncology. Researchers are constantly searching and working on how to make therapies less cardiotoxic. Whether that be studying the genes that help improve resistance to cardiotoxicity as shown in the study titled, “p53 prevents doxorubicin cardiotoxicity independently of its prototypical tumor suppressor activities” (2). Or getting to the root itself with the study called “Uncoupling DNA damage from chromatin damage to detoxify doxorubicin” (3).
There is so much hope for the field of oncology and many researchers are making headway into the field with their discoveries. With the rate at which scientific papers and research are being produced, it’s safe to say that in terms of curing cancer, researchers are making progress, slowly but steadily. One day, we can finally say that prevention is better than cure when speaking about cancer but for now, we have to wade through the questions about cardiotoxicity and walk to our solution.
Works Cited 1. Qiao, X., van der Zanden, S. Y., Wander, D. P. A., Borràs, D. M., Song, J.-Y., Li, X., van Duikeren, S., van Gils, N., Rutten, A., van Herwaarden, T., van Tellingen, O., Giacomelli, E., Bellin, M., Orlova, V., Tertoolen, L. G. J., Gerhardt, S., Akkermans, J. J., Bakker, J. M., Zuur, C. L., … Neefjes, J. (2020). Uncoupling DNA damage from chromatin damage to detoxify doxorubicin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(26), 15182–15192. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26935068 2. Olson, R. D., Mushlin, P. S., Brenner, D. E., Fleischer, S., Cusack, B. J., Chang, B. K., & Boucek, R. J. (1988). Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity may be caused by its metabolite, doxorubicinol. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 85(10), 3585–3589. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.85.10.3585 3. Li, J., Wang, P., Long, N. A., Zhuang, J., Springer, D. A., Zou, J., Lin, Y., Bleck, C. K. E., Park, J.-H., Kang, J.-G., & Hwang, P. M. (2019). p53 prevents doxorubicin cardiotoxicity independently of its prototypical tumor suppressor activities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(39), 19626–19634. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.190497911 4. Flores, I. Q., & Ershler, W. (2010, February). Managing neutropenia in older patients with cancer receiving chemotherapy in a community setting. Clinical journal of oncology nursing. https://doi.org/10.1188/10.CJON.81-86 5. Science Photo Library. (n.d.). Acute myeloid leukaemia, micrograph - stock image C013/7012. Science Photo Library. https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/467688/view/acutemyeloid-leukaemia-micrograph
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Why Flies Die Faster after Witnessing Death
By: Zaiyi Yang ‘26 and Jessica Lin ‘27 STEM In The News: Issue 4. Intriguingly, “flies that had seen corpses were avoided by other flies, as if they’d been marked by death (how this works is still a mystery). The carcass-viewers also quickly lost stored fat and died sooner than their non-traumatized counterparts” (2).
Flies, persistent and relatively harmless insects on a larger scale, exhibit a bizarre behavior that has puzzled scientists for years. Why do flies die faster after witnessing death? Many studies have shown that different animals react to the death of one of their own differently. Elephants grieve for their dead; crows hold ‘funerals’; and for bees, ants, and termites, some colony members undertake specialized tasks when one of their own passes away (2). Although many believe animals don’t have the same concepts of death as humans do, they experience the grief and sadness of the loss of a loved one just like we do (3). In the case of flies, this experience can shorten their lifespans, speeding up aging while ultimately leading to an early death. Like many other animals, flies are sensitive to environmental stressors and alterations in their surroundings. When a fly witnesses the death of another fly, this can elicit a physiological stress response. This heightened stress can lead to the release of stress hormones such as cortisol, which can lead to negative impacts on a fly’s health if prolonged or severe. High levels of stress can alter a fly’s metabolic system, immune system, and, in rare cases, behavior (4). Flies that come in contact with diseased flies may also contract and spread disease and pathogens, which can be deadly.
According to the ‘Michigan Medicine of the University of Michigan,’ fruit flies experience accelerated aging after witnessing the death of another fruit fly due to a type of serotonin receptor in their bodies. This serotonin receptor, which controls aging, can be strongly affected by the witnessing of death. There are R2 and R4 neurons in the brain cells of flies that are instantly activated after the fly sees the death of or comes into contact with a postmortem fly. Flies that witness death experience a shortened lifespan. While the regular life span of a fly is over 60 days the lifespan of a fly who has witnessed the dead body of another fly is around 45 days (1). This is related to sensory perception in the fly, which controls energy homeostasis, tissue physiology, and organism aging (1). While more research is needed to fully understand all the aspects of a fly’s lifespan after witnessing death, the stress response, potential disease transmission, and the serotonin receptors play central roles in this observed phenomenon. The study of these topics not only provides insights into the world of insects, but also teaches valuable lessons about the links between stress, social structures, and health in various species, including our own. Understanding these connections will contribute to a better understanding of the importance of knowing how to maintain a rich and complex world humans and insects share. Works Cited 1. How seeing corpses reduces the lifespan of flies. (2023, June 15). Michiganmedicine.org. https://www.michiganmedicine.org/health-lab/how-seeing-corpses-reduces-lifespanflies#:~:text=The%20study%2C%20published%20in%20the,leads%20to%20more%20rapid%20 aging. 2. These Flies Age Faster After Witnessing Death. (2023). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/13/science/fruit-flies-deathaging.html#:~:text=Gendron%20found%20that%20flies%20that,sooner%20than%20their%20n ontraumatized%20counterparts.
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Navigating the Safety of Driverless Cars Driverless “robotaxis” are being deployed to the public in cities nationwide to test the capabilities of artificial intelligence. Waymo, a subsidiary of Google’s parent company, recently deployed fleets in San Francisco to accompany their other autonomous ride service in Phoenix (1). As the possibility of autonomous cars driving unrestricted on roads alongside humans inches closer, many questions still remain: What is the threshold for measuring the safety of driverless cars? What point of this threshold should be reached before self-driving can be fully deployed on all roads? There is no easy way to answer these questions, but some companies have proposed ways to define this threshold. The RAND Corporation developed a framework for testing safety by using developmental stages that correspond with different testing sites. Testing starts digitally with simulations, then moves to closed roads, and finally reaches real roads (2). While it might seem more sensical to collect data by deploying autonomous vehicles on actual streets, there are many complicated restrictions for driverless cars. Laws around autonomous driving are complex; the federal government’s responsibilities for vehicle safety overlap with local laws for state roads, and it hasn’t been determined how autonomous cars should be regulated differently from normal cars (3). Alongside varying laws, it also requires an immense amount of time and resources to collect data equivalent to human drivers (3). But how do we decide if a driverless car is safer than one with a driver? Car accidents accounted for 42,939 deaths in the United States in 2021, but the implementation of autonomous vehicles could change this (4).
By: Julia Koontz ‘25 Opinions : Issue 1.
According to the RAND Corporation, waiting for the development of the “perfect” autonomous car will only result in more loss of life, while releasing autonomous cars that are just 10% safer than human drivers will save lives (5). However, it isn’t easy to convince the public to place their lives in the hands of automated vehicles. Surveys conducted in 2021 by the Pew Research Center found that 63% of Americans would not want to ride in a driverless car (6). The public uneasiness surrounding self-driving cars calls for companies to set high standards for safety and communicate them with the public. Without public approval, companies face the possibility of a lack of investments and profit. The ever-changing world of artificial intelligence is evolving before our eyes, and self-driving cars are at the forefront of these advancements. As we move forward, communication between major tech companies and the public will be necessary to foster open conversations on safety, accountability, and accessibility. With time and trust, the journey of autonomous cars will be worth undertaking as a step forward in transportation safety. Works Cited 1. Autonomous Driving Technology - Learn more about us. (n.d.). Waymo. https://waymo.com/about/#story 2. Fraade-Blanar, L., Blumenthal, M. S., Anderson, J. M., & Kalra, N. (2018). Measuring Automated Vehicle Safety: Forging a Framework. Www.rand.org. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2662.html 3. Stewart, E. (2019, May 17). Self-driving cars safety: How safe is safe enough? Vox; Vox. https://www.vox.com/recode/2019/5/17/18564501/self-driving-car-morals-safety-tesla-waymo 4. Fatality Facts 2021: State by state. (n.d.). IIHS-HLDI Crash Testing and Highway Safety. https://www.iihs.org/topics/fatality-statistics/detail/state-by-state#:~:text=Posted%20May%202023.5. Kalra, N., & Groves, D. G. (2017). The Enemy of Good: Estimating the Cost of Waiting for Nearly Perfect Automated Vehicles. Rand.org; RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2150.html Rainie, L., Funk, C., Anderson, M., & Tyson, A. (2022, March 17). Americans cautious about the deployment of driverless cars. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/03/17/americanscautious-about-the-deployment-of-driverless-cars/
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What Makes a Pan Non-stick and is it Safe?
Seemingly all frying pans claim to be nonstick, but what gives a material its non-stick property? One such substance is Teflon, one of the many trademarked names for polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a polymer made up of carbon chains bonded to fluorine ([C2F4]n). The fluorine that surrounds the molecule creates a uniform and continuous protective casing around the carbon chain, resulting in a molecule with strong carbonfluorine bonds (1). PTFE is used in a variety of ways, the most well-known is as coatings on pans and other cooking appliances (2).
By: Wei Li ‘25 Opinions: Issue 4.
These properties are all due to PTFE’s structure, which prevents the molecule from forming intermolecular bonds with other substances, giving it a non-stick surface. The substance itself is considered safe to use at temperatures below 500 degrees Fº (260 degrees Cº), as any higher temperature will cause the polymer to degrade and release toxic fumes (3). If inhaled, these fumes may cause polymer fume fever; a disease including symptoms of fever, sore throat, and weakness (4). The effects of ingesting PTFE are unknown, however, some hypothesize the effects to be minimal due to its unreactive nature(5).
Some properties of PTFE include good resistance to UV light and heat; a very high melt viscosity, causing the liquid to flow with more difficulty; and being an effective electrical insulator (1).
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Tu Youyou
The Woman Behind Behind the Cure of Malaria
By: Alyssa Shi30 ‘26 Women In STEM: Issue 5.
With PTFE having the lowest coefficient of friction of every known solid, there is no better non-stick material that functions better than PTFE. However, it would be beneficial to look into substitutes for PTFE. Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which include PTFE, have been noted to release other PFAS into the environment during their life cycle. This is problematic because PFAS are known for their unreactive properties, meaning they will stay in the environment for extended periods without ever breaking down (6).
It could be beneficial for the environment to avoid non-stick pans, however, if only PTFE-coated pans are at your disposal, remember not to heat them when empty, to use wooden utensils to avoid scratching the non-stick coating, and to replace old pans when there is visible wear (3). The next time you use a frying pan, know that the strong carbon-fluorine bonds in PTFE may be what helps you avoid scraping burnt eggs from the pan, but will have unwanted effects if left on the stove with the burner on.
Additionally, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which was previously in the production of PTFE, is toxic to the environment, entering many water supplies in the nation as well as not degrading with ease (7). A study in 2007 also showed that PFOA remains in the pan after the manufacturing process, and fumes may be produced during normal heating temperatures (8). PFOA has been associated with higher cholesterol, thyroid disease, weakened immune systems, and cancer (7). Consequently, PFOA has been replaced in the synthesis process of PTFE production in the United States, although other parts of the world still use PFOA, contributing to pollution on a global scale (5). Additionally, substitutes in the United States have also been suspected to have many of the same concerns: environmental persistence, accumulation in plants and animals, and ability to travel worldwide (6).
Works Cited 1. Comprehensive guide on polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). (n.d.). Omnexus. Retrieved September 21, 2023, from https://omnexus.specialchem.com/selectionguide/polytetrafluoroethylene-ptfe-fluoropolymer 2. Polytetrafluoroethylene. (n.d.). Britannica. Retrieved September 21, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/science/polytetrafluoroethylene 3. Coyle, D. (2017, July 13). Is nonstick cookware like Teflon safe to use? Healthline. Retrieved September 21, 2023, from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/nonstick-cookware-safety 4. Hamaya, R., Ono, Y., Chida, Y., Inokuchi, R., Kikuchi, K., Tameda, T., Tase, C., & Shinohara, K. (2015). Polytetrafluoroethylene fume–induced pulmonary edema: A case report and review of the literature. Journal of Medical Case Reports, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13256-015-0593-9 5. Sajid, M., & Ilyas, M. (2017). PTFE-coated non-stick cookware and toxicity concerns: A perspective. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(30), 23436-23440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0095-y 6. Lohmann, R., Cousins, I. T., DeWitt, J. C., Glüge, J., Goldenman, G., Herzke, D., Lindstrom, A. B., Miller, M. F., Ng, C. A., Patton, S., Scheringer, M., Trier, X., & Wang, Z. (2020). Are fluoropolymers really of low concern for human and environmental health and separate from other pfas? Environmental Science & Technology, 54(20), 12820-12828. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03244 7. PFOA information sheet. (2022, April). MN Department of Health. Retrieved September 21, 2023, from https://www.health.state.mn.us/communities/environment/risk/docs/gui dance/gw/pfoainfo.pdf 8. Sinclair, E., Kim, S. K., Akinleye, H. B., & Kannan, K. (2007). Quantitation of gas-phase perfluoroalkyl surfactants and fluorotelomer alcohols released from nonstick cookware and microwave popcorn bags. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(4), 1180-1185. https://doi.org/10.1021/es062377w 9. [Molecular structure of PTFE]. (n.d.). Omnexus. https://omnexus.specialchem.com/selectionguide/polytetrafluoroethylene-ptfe-fluoropolymer 10. [Diagram of PFAS emissions]. (2020). https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c03244
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THANK YOU FOR READING! Our next Issue will be... Winter 2023! If you would like to write or submit STEM-related art for the next Issue, please email: ashi24@missporters.org jliu25@missporters.org
