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GROWING TOGETHER CREATING A MYCELIUM BASED GRADIENT MATERIAL FOR ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

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GROWING TOGETHER CREATING A MYCELIUM BASED GRADIENT MATERIAL FOR ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

ANASTASIA COCKERILL NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY ARCHITECTURE DISSERTATION PROJECT 2020

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank my supervisor Martyn Dade-Robertson for all the time and enthusiasm extended to me throughout this project. I would also like to thank Juliet Odgers, for being so kind and providing so many drop-in sessions which were always tremendously helpful. A big thank you also to Annie and Heather who supported me through the ups and downs of this project and put up with our flat being filled to the brim with mycelium for months on end.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents for supporting me every step of the way, always putting a smile on my face and being always there to help me.

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ABSTRACT

This dissertation reports on the findings of experiments undertaken to determine the optimum conditions required to grow mycelium into a single graded material. A mycelium based graded material provides important benefits, including replacement of multi-element designs with single graded solutions; entirely new and versatile methods of design and construction; and a significant reduction of CO2 emissions and environmental harm. A set of five experiments were conducted. A process of selection and elimination was followed to determine the optimum combination of substrate and substrate density. This resulted in a graded material confirming that mycelium can indeed be grown on substrates to become a graded material. The dissertation concludes with a proposal for future design integration of the findings from these experiments.

1. Mycelium grown on hemp fibres

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CONTENTS Acknowledgements Abstract Glossary

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1. Introduction

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2. Context

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2.2Taking the next step 2.3Why functionally graded materials

3. Experiments

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3.1. Phase I 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5

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Materials and method Substrate test: experiment 1.1 Nutrition tests: experiment 1.2 Density test: experiment 1.3 Phase I discussion

3.2. Phase II

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3.2.1. Experiment 2: refining growing

3.3. GROWING TOGETHER: Final gradient material composite

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3.4 Experimentation discussion

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3.5 GROWING TOGETHER: reflection

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4. Outlook

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5. Conclusions

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Bibliography List of figures

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GLOSSARY Autoclave

Chitin

A pressure chamber used as a sterilization method

Binding agent

A polysaccharide often found in the exoskeleton/external skeleton, of many arthropods such as insects, spiders, and crustaceans.

A material or substance which holds material together to form a cohesive whole

Composites two or more materials which are combined to yield a new material with improved performance.

Bio utilisation the direct use of nature for beneficial purposes

Enzyme

Bio-composite

A biological catalyst

two or more materials (one being naturally derived) which are combined to yield a new material with improved performance.

Functionally graded material physical forms that change in composition throughout their volumes to perform a particular function

Biomimicry the process by which functional problems in man made design are resolved by solutions inspired by nature and biological systems

A key structural component of plant cell walls

Cellulose

Inoculate

Hemicellulose

A key structural component of plant cell walls

To introduce a microorganism into a substrate

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Lignin A key structural component of plant cell walls

Ligninase An enzyme used by mycelium to decompose lignin

Substrate The medium upon which mycelium is grown on

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1.INTRODUCTION Throughout architectural history, designers have looked to nature for inspiration. It has shaped architectural discipline from the decorative capitals of the classical Corinthian columns depicting Acanthus leaves, to 3D printed products in the 21st century mimicking controllable gradients seen in nature (figure 2). Yet the influence of the natural world also goes beyond the aesthetic, to inform the operative elements of architectural design.

Biomimicry is the name given to the process by which functional problems in man-made design are resolved by solutions inspired by nature and biological systems. The term is defined by Pawlyn in their book Biomimicry in Architecture as “translating adaptions in biology into solutions in architecture” (Pawlyn,2011).

By utilising biomimicry, architects have been able to create a more efficient response to environmental sustainability (Oxman, Keating and Tsai, 2011). A key example of this is Neri Oxman, whose pioneering work takes inspiration from biological materials such as mollusc shells and bamboo which adapt to their environments by applying a material gradient (Miyamoto et al.,1999). Naturally occurring functional gradients are designed by nature to be able to perform a variety of functions when subject to “loading conditions and the working environments to which they are subjected” (Mahamood and Akinlabi,2017).

Human-made functionally graded materials are a key example of biomimicry. These materials are graded in response to a variety of functional needs, just as natural functionally graded materials are.

2:. Concrete sample with a linear density gradient

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Oxman is currently working on a 3D printer with the ability to 3D print products with controllable density gradients. With the ability to 3D print controlled densities, it is possible, on an architectural scale to improve material qualities such as “strength, weight, material usage, and functionality” (Oxman, Keating and Tsai,2011). This technique would allow the building and construction industry to drastically cut down on CO2 emissions due to the conservation of energy used to produce, transport and construct multiple building materials. This is crucial as the carbon emissions of material production, transportation and construction add up to 30-40% of the total emissions of the various building life cycle stages (Ramya and Hanbin,2018).

This application is evident in Ecovative’s use of mycelium based materials as a replacement for polystyrene packaging (figure 3).

Bio-utilisation takes this idea a step further and refers to “the direct use of nature for beneficial purposes” (Pawlyn, 2011). A key example of this is the application of the biological material mycelium in; replacing harmful production practices by utilising organic and biodegradable materials (Bracco, 2018) creating replacements for harmful, mainstream materials such as petroleumbased products (Attias et al., 2017).

3. Ecovative’s mycelium based packaging for Keap’s hand poured candles

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William McDonough presents an economic strategy called the Triple Top Line which goes beyond the Circular Economy strategy and suggests that “products enhance the well being of nature and culture while generating economic value” (McDonough, 2002). Mycelium fits into the Triple Top Line category because it can produce mycelium based composites by feeding off waste and after use can be decomposed (Stamets, 2005)(figure 4) therefore waste is reduced resulting in a cleaner environment (Lelivelt,2015).

Mycelium based bio-composites, therefore, present an interesting solution to the CO2 emissions problem posed by the construction and building industry.

This dissertation combines two concepts 1.

The use of mycelium in creating environmentally friendly composite materials.

2.

Oxman’s revolutionary idea of the gradient material inspired by nature.

Guided by these two principles a mycelium based graded material presenting the same solutions as Oxman’s 3D printed gradient materials is developed. This product goes beyond biomimicry by utilising nature itself through the cultivation of mycelium as a binding agent, thereby allowing us to

Atmosphere

Plants

CARBON CYCLE

Waste is reduced. positive environmental impact

Produce

Waste

Reuse/Recycle

Mycelium

Soil

Decompose

4. Diagram depicting how mycelium utilises and reduces waste.

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formulate a fabrication method that is natural to the materials employed. While Oxman’s pioneering work applies the material gradient to conventional human-made building materials, my experiments cultivate mycelium to grow a natural gradient material that can be used as an alternative to conventional human-made building materials. This product has the potential to offer an environmentally sustainable unit for construction and design.

The body of the dissertation includes experiments on the nature of mycelium based biocomposites, to determine whether mycelium can be grown on substrates to become a graded material that would offer the potential for use in the design and construction industry. The experiments focus on:

1.

The composites produced from growing mycelium on varying substrates

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The addition of a nutrient during mycelium growth

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The mycelium composites grown on varying substrate densities

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Refining the methodology

and practice. An example is provided of how Growing Together to create unique functionally graded designs can be utilised.

These experiments result in the fabrication of a final mycelium based graded material.

The dissertation then recommends the integration of the findings from these experiments into future architectural design 5. Mycelium feeding off straw substrate

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2.CONTEXT Fungi are of prime importance in nature.

With at least 100,000 species recorded and many more still to be discovered (MooreLandecker,1996), fungi present a plethora of characteristics that are vital in plant pathology, clinical & veterinary practice and industrial & agricultural biotechnology (Dugan,2006).

Figure 6 illustrates the life cycle of a fungus.

Mycelium is the vegetative thread-like “roots� of a fungus (Yang et al.,2017). Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi responsible for producing and dispersing spores

(Parshan,2019). Spore germination occurs under specific environmental conditions and produces branches called hyphae which fuse to create a mycelial network (Dugan,2006). This network grows to a vast extent and once it is sufficiently strong, in the correct environmental conditions, fruiting bodies (mushrooms) will begin to grow (Parshan,2019). The fruiting bodies begin to grow from a single point where a dense network of cells come together. These cells are called primordia (Lelivelt,2015).

Primordia

MYCELIUM LIFE CYCLE Mycelium

Fruiting body

Spores

Spore germination 6. Fungi life-cycle

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Mycelium most commonly decomposes materials containing lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, which are the key structural components of vascular plants and some algae (Kroschwitz and Seidel, 2004) (figure 7).

Lignin is decomposed by mycelium through the use of ligninase enzymes (Dashtban et al.,2010) allowing access to the cellulose and hemicellulose embedded in the lignin matrix (Hammel,1997). Mycelium then converts the cellulose and hemicellulose into chitin, (BiologyWise,n.d.)(Haneef et al.,2017), becoming integral to the mycelium structure, giving it strength (Elsacker et al., 2019; Haneef et al.,2017). By providing the optimum temperature, humidity, and sanitation conditions, mycelium can be grown upon organic waste (Parshan,2019), and once dried to prevent further growth, creates a solid mass. Chitin produced by mycelium from

cellulose acts as a biological “glue� giving the dried mass structural stability. The mycelium based materials which are the subject of this dissertation are made by growing mycelium on a substrate and heating (to prevent further growth) the final grown product to produce a solid mass before fruiting bodies form. The materials produced have many key characteristics (Camere and Karana,2017) depending on the variety of fungus used, the substrate the fungus is grown on (Appels et al.,2019) and the mixing/growing protocols (Yang et al.,2017). The characteristics include high tensile and compressive strength, fire resistance, moisture resistance and insulation (Appels et al.,2019). These characteristics make it an ideal material as a replacement to more harmful, mainstream materials such as petroleum-based products (Attias et al.,2017) (Elvin,2015).

Plant cell

Hemicellulose Lignin

Cellulose

Plant cell wall

Lignocellulosic feedstock

7. Structure of the lignocellulose complex in plant cell walls

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8. Phil Ross 2012 mycelium chair collection. walnut legged. Yamanaka McQueen

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9. Phil Ross 2012 mycelium chair collection. walnut legged. Yamanakita

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In practice, Phil Ross is developing his company Mycoworks which utilises mycelium composites for design. Ross demonstrates the capabilities of mycelium in design in his 2012 mycelium chair collection (figure 8 & 9) (Cogdell,2019). Companies such as Ecovative and Mogu were built upon Ross’s preceding works and have already produced pure mycelium foam (Ecovative Design,n.d) (figure 11), acoustic panels (Mogu,n.d.) (figure 12) and insulation (Ecovative Design,n.d.) (figure 13). David Benjamin has taken mycelium based biomaterials even further in their Hy-Fi building (figure 10). This temporary building used 10,000 mycelium bricks to create a 13 metre tall tower, which, after three months was disassembled and returned to the soil of local community gardens (Thelivingnewyork. com,n.d.).

10. David Benjamin Hy-Fi building (left) 11. Ecovative’s pure mycelium foam (top) 12. Mogu’s acoustic panels (bottom) 13. Ecovative’s insulation (right) 21

Cushioned elements for comfort Plywood forms for support, structure and aesthetics.

Cast aluminium base for structure and balance.

14. Drawing of the Eames lounge chair deconstructed into mono-purpose material components.

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2.2 Taking the next step Although these are important developments in the design and application of mycelium, its potential has yet to be fully explored. It is imperative that we continue to develop the architectural potential of this material.

The Growing Together method results in a single unit product. In this way, I propose to go further than creating separate prefabricated units for design, and attempt to grow a mycelium composite with a material gradient expressing different functionalities.

2.3 Why functionally graded materials When analysing objects with multiple material units such as a chair with structural legs and cushioned seats, there is a series of prefabricated units that are joined together to create a final design (figure 14). This method of joining mono-purpose materials is representative of the vast majority of the human-made world. It is interesting that when observing nature, we see examples of structures with material gradients that have adapted to their environments to become as functional and efficient as possible rather than utilising mono-purpose materials. These are called Functionally Graded Materials (FGM’s).

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FGM’s are physical forms that change in composition throughout their volumes to perform a particular function (Miyamoto et al.,1999). Oxman’s Functionally Graded Rapid Prototyping presents the idea of 3D printing materials with a functional gradient thereby improving material qualities such as “strength, weight, material usage, and functionality”. I propose that, due to the ability to create mycelium composites with varying key characteristics, it is possible to create a single graded element capable of meeting multiple structural needs.

If this hypothesis can be proved correct, it will present an exciting future for mycelium composites and their potential in architectural design and construction as mycelium based FGMs would not only be reducing CO2 emissions due to the conservation of energy used to produce, transport and construct multiple building materials but would also be utilising waste products which could then be easily decomposed after use.

The next section details the experiments to test this hypothesis.

3.EXPERIMENTS

[Author’s note: The present tense is used below for experiments I undertook in the summer of 2019.]

A two phased approach is adopted. Phase I comprises experiments conducted according to processes detailed in the literature to date. Phase II experiments go beyond these methods by further refining the process in order to consistently produce the optimal outcomes.

15. Mycelium growing on straw substrate in experiment 3.1.1

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3.1. Phase I The goal of Phase I is to successfully grow a range of samples with varying characteristics and qualities.

The procedures followed are based on principles outlined in the literature to date with the findings of one experiment informing the next in a creative sequence of refinement.

The aim is to determine how a variety of variables might impact on the various qualities of mycelium.

16. Inoculating substrates in phase I experiments

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Sterilising conditions according to sources

Growing methods according to sources

Drying methods according to sources

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3.1.1 Materials and method

Growing: Growing methods vary throughout the literature due to the wide variety of conditions in which mycelium can grow. By extrapolating data from sources, the optimum conditions

Protocol 1: Based on the most relative sterilisation, growing and drying conditions described in the literature, the following method is followed: All samples are soaked in water for 2 days prior to testing.

for mycelium growth is determined.

Based on this analysis, mycelium samples are individually inoculated (a Bunsen burner sits next to the workspace ensuring a sterile environment (figure 17) in ramekin moulds with 1/3 spawn-to-substrate ratio and allowed to grow within the moulds for 16 days allowing mycelium to fully populate the substrates.

Tests are duplicated three times to verify the consistency of findings .

All experiments use Pleurotus Ostreatus, a fungus that is selected owing to its ability to grow in a wide variety of conditions and utilise lignocellulosic compounds (Baysal,2003).

Drying: To create a final mycelium bio-composite, substrates are dried preventing the further growth of mycelium and the possibility of contamination. Given the resources available and multiple drying methods in the literature, after 16 days, samples are dried at 70°C for 10 hours in a convection oven.

Sterilisation: To prevent contamination of samples, substrates are sterilised (Lelivelt,2015). This can be done in a series of ways as presented in table 1. Due to the resources available, after substrates are distributed into moulds, they are autoclaved for 1 hour at 120°C.

17. Phase I experiments conducted in a sterile environment by utilising a Bunsen burner

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18. Luffa in glass ramekin after inoculation

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3.1.2 Substrate test: experiment 1.1

contents (Siqueira, Bras and Dufresne,2010).

Luffa is particularly interesting, due to its unique structure which could be favourable for the growth of mycelium as it would allow heat to dissipate and oxygen levels to be

Aim: To determine the effects of varying substrates on colonisation by mycelium.

evenly distributed (Lelivelt,2015).

To determine successful mycelium composites that are structurally resistant to light pressure once grown on six different substrates.

Hypothesis:

Approach: Preliminary tests are conducted on six different substrates to gauge the extent of variation in material quality. Substrate tests must be conducted first as this sets a basis for results upon which other variables can be applied.

Materials: Through analysis of previous studies, a series of substrates are chosen, based on their recorded structural abilities as a mycelium composite: sawdust (Parshan,2019), straw (Xing et al., 2018), hemp fibres (Lelivelt,2015) and spent coffee grounds (Alves and Campos,2020). To fully explore the potential qualities mycelium composites can achieve, two additional substrates are tested; ceiba pentandra (kapok) and luffa cylindrical (luffa). There is no literature on the use of luffa and kapok as substrates for mycelium growth but they both present great qualities due to their cellulose

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1.

Substrates with a higher cellulose content will have greater structural stiffness compared to those with lower cellulose content.

2.

Sawdust, straw and hemp fibres will be the optimum substrates structurally resistant to light pressure

Day 1

Day 1

Day 1

Day 4

Day 4

Day 4

Day 8

Day 8

Day 8

Hemp fibres

Kapok

Luffa

19. Photos of samples during growth (days 1, 4 and 8) and dried.

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Day 1

Day 1

Day 1

Day 4

Day 4

Day 4

Day 8

Day 8

Day 8

Sawdust

Straw

Coffee grounds

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20. Luffa(top), coffee(middle) and hemp(bottom) samples are inspected under a digital microscope

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Observations: During growth: When observing samples, the majority of visual growth occurs between days 1 and 4 (Figure 19). After day 4, mycelium growth visually begins to plateau, most likely because growth is most visible when mycelium first colonise the space around the substrate in search of nutrients, before penetrating the fibres themselves (Gow et al.,1995). Furthermore, growth is most likely to occur on the surface due to the abundance of oxygen. Mycelium growth is most dense on coffee grounds. The only samples with little mycelial growth are sawdust and kapok.

Dried: Despite the lack of growth evident on kapok, it seems, once dried, the structure holds its shape well. Although it is possible that this is due to mycelium growth, it is more likely that the kapok fibres stiffen in a particular formation due to the rapid state change caused by drying.

All samples of sawdust completely crumbled and had extremely little growth throughout the sample. Extremely little growth on kapok and sawdust suggests a hostile environment which could be due to the substrates being treated with chemicals which prevent mycelium growth (most likely conclusion for kapok as

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it was bought at a pet store, therefore might have been treated to prevent rot) (Jaramillo MejĂ­a and AlbertĂł,2013) or a lack of air-voids within the composite (most likely conclusion for sawdust)(Elsacker et al.,2019). Although straw seemed to be well colonised, once dried samples become extremely brittle and the structure begins to crumble. A possible reason for this is a comparably high lignin content.

Increased lignin may decrease mycelial ability to access the cellulose within the lignin matrix, thus an increase in enzymatic reactions would need to take place to decompose the lignin (CriticalConcrete.com,2018; Hammel,1997; Haneef et al.,2017; Poonam et al.,1987).

Once dried and cooled it is evident that the most successful samples are hemp, coffee, and luffa. Although luffa is well colonised and holds its structure well under light pressure applied through handling, coffee and hemp are far superior. Luffa, coffee and hemp samples are inspected under a digital microscope (figure 20). during inspection, it is clear that mycelial growth is most dense on coffee grounds and least dense on luffa and hemp. This is likely due to the density of the substrate - as the density of substrate decreases, the hyphal length increases due to larger air spaces between the organic matter (Ritz and Young,2004).

that substrates with higher lignin content result in the decreased ability of mycelia to access the cellulose, reducing the amount of cellulose being converted into chitin (Haneef et al.,2017) and resulting in brittle composites.

Experiment 1 conclusions The most successful substrates resistant to light pressure and that present distinguishable material aspects to each other are hemp fibres and coffee grounds.

Mycelial growth is denser when grown on denser substrates.

Hypothesis 2 2.

Brittle composites suggest high lignin content.

Findings show that sawdust alongside kapok was not resistant to light pressure due to little/ no mycelial growth (figure 21). It is suggested that lack of growth in these samples is due to substrates having been treated with chemicals (due to where they were sourced) preventing mycelial growth. As suggested previously, straw is not structurally resistant to light pressure due to high lignin content. Mycelium composites produced from hemp fibres and spent coffee grounds are structurally resistant to light pressure, therefore, concurring with hypothesis 2.

Limited mycelial growth on sawdust and Kapok suggests substrates were treated with chemicals that prevent fungal growth.

Reflection Hypothesis 1 1.

Sawdust, straw and hemp fibres will be the optimum substrates structurally resistant to light pressure.

Substrates with a higher cellulose content will have greater structural stiffness compared to those with lower cellulose content.

Although this hypothesis is correct to some extent as increased cellulose available to mycelium results in increased chitin production (Haneef et al.,2017) and therefore stronger mycelia, findings suggest that lignin content is even more important for resulting in structural stiffness as it controls the accessibility of the cellulose. Findings suggest 21. Final kapok sample showing little/no mycelial growth

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As it is hypothesised that lignin decreases the mycelial ability to access cellulose, a further experiment is conducted testing whether the addition of flour as a nutrient increases structural resistance to light pressure caused by accelerating enzymatic reactions, (Poonam et al., 1987) therefore, increasing ability to access cellulose within the lignin matrix. This experiment is important because if the hypothesis proves correct, flour can be utilised to determine structural resistance where appropriate when growing a functionally graded mycelium composite.

will also be observed to determine if increased density of substrates results in stiffer less elastic composites. Further tests on sawdust and kapok, sourced from different places could be conducted in future experiments.

As hemp and coffee sample experiments undertaken in this study were successful, such further experimentation is not necessary to my line of inquiry.

Observations indicate that increased substrate density results in increased mycelial density. Furthermore, samples with increased substrate density (coffee grounds) seem to be stiffer when handled under pressure compared to those with lower substrate density (luffa and hemp) which present more elastic qualities while maintaining structural integrity. Although luffa maintained structural integrity it is unclear whether this is due to its natural form or due to hyphal bonding. Hemp instead of luffa is therefore used in further experiments due to its similar elastic qualities.

To identify whether it is indeed increased substrate density that results in increased mycelial density, an experiment using only hemp fibres (to maintain a controlled experiment) of varying densities is carried out. variation in material qualities of samples

22.

Straw (top), hemp (middle) and coffee

(bottom) samples

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3.1.3 Nutrition tests: experiment 1.2 Aim: A small jar of flour is autoclaved alongside the substrates. Once autoclaved, 1.5g of flour is mixed with 10ml of distilled water and subsequently mixed with the substrate (figure x). Protocol I is followed to maintain a controlled experiment.

Identify if the addition of flour as a nutrient for mycelial growth increases final composites structural resistance to light pressure.

Materials and method: Ecovative, the worlds leading company in developing biocomposite materials from mycelium (Zeller and Zocher,2012), suggests flour as a nutrient for use in Ecovative GIY kits (grow.bio,n.d.).

Flour contains sugar in the form of carbohydrates which is utilised by hyphae (CriticalConcrete.com2018) to accelerate enzymatic reactions of ligninase(Poonam et al.,1987), therefore increasing mycelial ability to access the cellulose within the lignin matrix. By increasing mycelial ability to access cellulose, structural resistance of final composite will increase as cellulose is utilised by mycelium and converted into chitin giving mycelium it's strength (Haneef et al.,2017).

Hypothesis: 1.

Once dried, straw samples with added nutrients will present greater resistance to light pressure compared to straw samples produced in experiment 1.1.

23. Straw before inoculation in experiment 1.1 (top left) 24. Straw mixed with flour before inoculation (bottom left) 39

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Observations:

the lignin content of straw is comparably still too high for the mycelium to break down the lignin matrix to access the cellulose.

During growth: The extent of mycelial growth is increased by the addition of nutrients. This is most obvious after 4 days (figure 26).

Although it was found that the addition of flour as a nutrient increased mycelium growth, it did not increase structural resistance.

Further experimentation may investigate on a micro level, the effect of mycelium growth with the addition of flour on a straw substrate, therefore, developing a greater understanding of the breakdown of lignin.

Due to the focus of this dissertation, this will not be further investigated and the following experimentation will be focussed only on hemp fibres and coffee grounds.

Dried: after being handled, the composite begins to break apart, therefore, although the addition of flour increases the quantity of hyphae, the structural qualities of the composite do not change.

Conclusions: Addition of nutrients increases the rate of mycelium growth and the quantity of mycelium produced.

Addition of nutrients does not increase structural resistance Reflection Hypothesis: 1. Once dried, straw samples with added nutrients will present greater resistance to light pressure compared to straw samples produced in experiment 1.1.

Findings suggest that the hypothesis is incorrect. The likely conclusion for this is that although flour accelerates enzymatic reactions (Poonam et al.,1987) of ligninase,

25. Mycelium growth after 4 days with no added nutrients (top left) 26. Mycelium growth after 4 days with added nutrients (bottom left)

27. Straw sample with no added nutrients once dried (top right) 28. Straw sample with added nutrients once dried (bottom right) 41

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3.1.4 Density test: experiment 1.3 Aims: To identify whether increased substrate density results in an increased mycelial density.

To examine the variation in material qualities created by growing mycelium on hemp fibres of varying densities.

Method: Before hemp fibres are autoclaved, they are cut to three different sizes (figure 29), fine, chopped and coarse. Protocol I is then followed.

Hypothesis: 1.

Increased density of hemp fibres will result in increased mycelial density and therefore stiffer material composites.

29. Hemp fibres- fine (left), chopped (middle), coarse (left).

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30. Sample during growth grown on fine hemp fibres (top) 31. Sample during growth grown on coarse hemp fibres (bottom) 44

32. Sample once dried grown on fine hemp fibres (top) 33. Sample once dried grown on coarse hemp fibres (bottom) 45

Observations:

Composites consisting of Coarser substrates present elastic qualities as they can be compressed and then retract back to their original state.

During growth: During the 14 days there is little visible variation of mycelial growth between samples(figure 30 & 31). Once dried there is still little visible variation between samples.

Reflection: Hypothesis:

Dried: Once handled it seems that composites consisting of denser substrates have a higher compressive strength as they are stiff to the touch and resist bending.

Composites consisting of coarser substrates present elastic qualities as they can be compressed and then retract back to their original state.

After inspection under a microscope, it is clear that the hypothesis is correct as the finer hemp fibre samples depict decreased hyphal length compared to the hyphal length of coarser hemp fibre samples. Results are highlighted through analytical drawings (figure 34).

1.

Increased density of hemp fibres will result in increased mycelial density and therefore stiffer material composites.

Findings agree with the hypothesis, demonstrating that it is possible to determine compressive strength of mycelium composites through the use of varying substrate densities.

As a result, a gradient of compressive strength can be predetermined by the careful placing of varying substrate densities, as shown in figure 35.

Conclusions: Increased substrate density results in an increased mycelial density Composites consisting of denser substrates have a higher compressive strength as they are stiff to the touch and resist bending.

34. Analytical drawing of mycelium grown on fine hemp fibres (top) and coarse hemp fibres (bottom)

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higher compressive strength

lower compressive strength

35. Gradient of materials from coffee grounds (top) which are most dense to coarse hemp fibres (bottom) which are least dense 47

3.1.5 Phase I discussion Phase I examined multiple factors which resulted in a series of conclusions key to further investigation: Mycelium based composites produced using hemp fibres and spent coffee grounds are structurally resistant to light pressure.

Mycelium based composites produced using hemp fibres present elastic qualities as they can be compressed and then retract back to their original state.

Mycelium based composites produced using spent coffee grounds are stiff to the touch and resist bending.

A gradient of compressive strength can be predetermined by the placement of varying substrate densities.

Phase I presents all the results needed to design the substrate composition of a mycelium based graded material but before Growing Together, further experimentation on the methodology must be refined to create optimum final results.

36. Inoculating substrates in phase I experiments

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3.2. Phase II A result of Phase I is that once the sample is dried it can be seen that parts of the sample that were exposed to the air have a ‘fluffy’ mycelium layer. This is a chitinous skin and acts as a protective shield (Parshan,2019).

To optimise the qualities of a mycelium based graded material, Phase II will focus on developing an optimum method based on achieving a chitinous skin surrounding the whole sample.

37. Samples from experiment 2 showing fluffy mycelium layer

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38. Method - process images

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3.2.1 Experiment 2: refining growing different times, it is possible to see the extent of growth within the mould at different stages. method All samples are then dried according to the protocol I technique.

Aims: Identify a growing method that allows for maximum mycelial growth around the sample (a “fluffy” chitinous skin).

Hypothesis:

Method: Sterilisation as in protocol I is undertaken.

All experiments conducted are grown using Pleurotus Ostreatus as in previous experiments. After sterilisation, the substrate is inoculated with a ration of 1/3 spawn to 2/3 substrate in silicone moulds.

To allow mycelium growth to create a 'fluffy' envelope around the substrate, Ecovative suggests leaving the samples out of the mould for a few days (grow.bio,n.d.). As growth was most visible up to day 4 in phase I experimentation, half the samples are taken out of the mould after this time.

Samples are then left to grow for a further 12 days in a sterilised box covered in a black bin bag to prevent light from entering. The other half of the samples were taken out of their mould after 8 days and then left to grow for a further 8 days. All samples are turned 4 days after being taken out of their moulds to allow for growth on the base of the sample.

By taking samples out of their moulds at

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1.

Samples taken out of the mould after 4 days will display as much growth throughout the substrate as those taken out of the mould after 8 days.

2.

All samples will produce a “fluffy” mycelium layer on every face after 16 days of growth

patterns that can be seen also reflect the findings of experiment 1.3, as coffee grounds are a dense substrate therefore producing dense mycelium growth.

Observations: Samples taken out of the mould after 4 days are not fully colonized by mycelium throughout the sample and mycelium growth patterns can be seen (figure 39). The parts of substrates which have not been colonised are very delicate and begin to crumble. Samples taken out of the mould after 8 days are on the other hand fully colonized throughout and hold their shape well. After the full 16 days of growth, all samples are fully colonised with mycelium, and a fluffy layer can be seen on all faces.

Hypothesis 2 2.

Hypothesis 2 is proved to be correct as although mycelium did not fully colonize the samples on those taken out of the mould after 4 days, after the full 16 days all samples were covered on every face.

Conclusion: Taking samples out of their moulds after 8 days presents optimum results due to the substrate being fully colonised and therefore holding its shape successfully.

Reflection: Hypothesis 1: 1.

All samples will produce a “fluffy� mycelium layer on every face after 16 days of growth

Samples taken out of the mould after 4 days will display as much growth throughout the substrate as those taken out of the mould after 8 days.

Findings show this hypothesis to be incorrect as samples taken out of the mould after day 4 were not fully colonised. This is most likely due to the dense growth of hyphae. The growth

39. samples taken out of the mould after 4 days

54

40 samples after 16 days of growth

55

Coffee grounds

Fine hemp fibres

chopped hemp fibres

coarse hemp fibres

41. image showing substrates placement

56

3.3. GROWING TOGETHER: Final gradient material composite To conclude section 3, results of former experiments are utilised in growing together a final mycelium based gradient material composite.

Aims: To grow a sample with a material gradient achieving multiple material characteristics utilising hemp and coffee grounds To produce a unit that can be suitably analysed and presents varying qualities in structural stiffness and elasticity throughout its gradient.

Method: Protocol I is followed for sterilisation. When the substrate is placed in the mould after sterilisation, it is graded as shown in Figure 41. This composition of the substrate allows a smooth gradient, therefore, preventing a point of weakness where different substrates meet. Samples are taken out of their mould after 8 days and then left to grow for a further 8 days as defined in experiment 2. Protocol I is followed for drying.

42. image showing substrate after inoculation.

57

Observations: During growth: As in previous experiments, rapid growth occurred up until day 4. Towards the last days of growth, primordia began to appear. (Figure 45) The growth of primordia suggests that mycelium can no longer extend and therefore create their fruiting bodies.

Once dried: Once dried, composite is much darker compared to previous experiments which could be due to greater moisture content due to increased mycelium growth. There is a clear gradient in stiffness once handled and once cut, section presents a density gradient of material and mycelia. Results are highlighted through analytical drawings (figure 44).

Conclusion: A composite with a material gradient achieving multiple material characteristics throughout its section can indeed be grown together utilising mycelium.

43. Final gradient material composite after 8 days of growth before drying (far left) and after drying(middle) 44. Analytical drawing of mycelium on final gradient material 45. Primordia formation after 16 days of growth

46. Final gradient material

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47. Final gradient material

61

48. Final gradient material composite analytical drawing

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3.4 Experimentation discussion

in experiment 1.2 as they did not increase the final composite resistance to light pressure. The results of experiment 1.2 could lead to further experimentation beyond this dissertation to understand the complex nature of mycelium and the breakdown of lignin. Phase II focused on refining methodology and aimed to Identify a growing method that allows for maximum mycelial growth around the sample (a "fluffy" chitinous skin). This experiment found that successful results could be obtained by taking the samples out of their mould after 8 days of growth.

Experimentation: Through this multi-stage material investigation, it has been demonstrated that mycelium composites can be produced with varying key characteristics, from spent coffee grounds producing stiff non-elastic structural properties to coarse hemp fibres producing more elastic qualities that can be compressed and retract back to their original state. Phase I aimed to achieve a series of successfully grown samples with varying material aspects. This was done through a set of three corresponding experiments testing;

Experiencing contamination: During experimentation, none of the samples presented signs of contamination suggesting a successfully sterile growing method.

Around 30 days after samples were dried and observed contamination began to occur as seen in figure 49. Contamination of samples suggest that moisture is still present in the samples therefore further experimentation must focus on refining drying conditions.

A potential suggestion would be to dry the samples at a low heat (around 40 degrees) for a few days before placing them in a convection oven at 70°C for 10 hours. It is hypothesised that this would get rid of all excess moisture while not burning the mycelium or substrate and therefore not jeopardising the structural integrity of the material composite.

Mycelium composites produced from varying substrates.

Addition of nutrient during mycelium growth.

Mycelium composites grown on varying substrate density’s.

The results of these experiments which were utilised in the final Growing Together stage were the use of hemp and coffee grounds as substrates and the use of variation in density to control structural properties.

Although some substrates were unsuccessful in producing a mycelium based composite, coffee grounds and hemp fibres present large enough variation in structural qualities to act as substrates in creating a mycelium based FGM. The addition of nutrients was ruled out

49. Contaminated sample

64

65

3.5 GROWING TOGETHER: reflection The results of Growing Together to create a final material composite show that it is possible to create a unit with a material gradient presenting different characteristics with stiff, non-elastic qualities on one side and more elastic qualities on the other. Although composite presented a successful material gradient, future experimentation beyond this dissertation should focus on mechanical testing in learning further about material performance. By demonstrating for the first time that Growing together a mycelium based gradient material can be done, there is great future potential in an architectural and design application, and perhaps once refined, Growing Together may become a mainstream element in design.

50. Texture ofFinal gradient material composite

67

4. O U T L O O K Based on the findings of these experiments a design integration proposal is presented below, taking a chair as an example. The findings can be implemented into design and manufacturing processes, looking specifically at a chair. This proposal assumes development of drying method to prevent contamination and mechanical tests to determine exact structural properties.

A chair presents two problems which are directly related to this project. A stiff component for structural use and a cushioned component for comfort (figure 51). Phil Ross created a series of chairs made from mycelium tissue (Cogdell,2019)(figure 52). Although these chairs display the qualities of mycelium, they were held together using oak legs which become the main structural component of the chair leaving the mycelium as merely an aesthetic attribute.

51. Drawing of the Eames lounge chair deconstructed into mono-purpose material components.

52. Phil Ross 2012 mycelium chair collection.

Walnut Legged. Yamanaka McQueen 68

Natalia Piórecka takes this a step further as they create a mycelium based chair which instead of needing structural elements such as oak legs, is fully self-supporting (figure 53) (Piórecka,2019). By integrating a material gradient with different characteristics as presented in this dissertation, it would be possible to create a chair with both selfsupporting elements as seen in Piórecka's chair, and additionally a cushioned element through Growing Together.

The table below presents the methodology for this proposal. A simple gradient drawing represents the density of substrates that this chair would have(figure 54). The concept of the graded mycelium chair shows the possible integration of mycelium based graded materials in design and is just one example of the endless opportunities of this material.

53 Piórecka’s mycelium Bunso Easy Chair

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54.Gradient drawing depicting the density of substrates for the Growing Together graded mycelium chair design proposal

5. C O N C L U S I O N Throughout this dissertation, a series of

experiments consisted of;

experiments on mycelium based composites lead to refined methodologies resulting in a successfully grown sample with a material gradient expressing different strength and elasticity. The dissertation aimed to determine if mycelium can be grown on substrates to become a graded material.

Substrate test Nutrient test Density test Refining growing method Experimentation concludes that it is possible to create a single unit with a material gradient.

This conclusion points to a future possibility where we can design through the utilisation of mycelium materials and obtain a design process that is natural to the material. By concluding with an integrated design proposal, it is possible to envision the future of Growing Together in creating unique functionally graded designs.

In addition to the experimental findings, Section 2 (Context) presented a contextual understanding of mycelium, mycelium composites and graded materials in design.

The literature here outlines that growing mycelium on substrates to become a graded material, has the following benefits: Replacement of multi-element designs with a single graded solution Entirely new and versatile methods of design and construction Significant reduction of CO2 emissions and environmental harm.

Following the learning from Section 2, a set of experiments were undertaken, resulting in a grown sample with a material gradient expressing different characteristics. These

55. Mycelium grown on hemp fibres

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71

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Theses

Lelivelt, R. (2015). The mechanical possibilities of mycelium materials. Masters. Eindhoven University of Technology. pp. 28, 57, 54 76 Parshan, F. (2019). Engaging Mycelium: explorations of a cultivated architecture.

Masters. University of Waterloo. pp. 11, 39, 129, 93

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Theses

Lelivelt, R. (2015). The mechanical possibilities of mycelium materials. Masters. Eindhoven University of Technology. pp. 28, 57, 54 Parshan, F. (2019). Engaging Mycelium: explorations of a cultivated architecture. Masters. University of Waterloo. pp. 11, 39, 129, 93 Piórecka, N. (2019) MYCOsella: Growing the mycelium chair. Undergraduate. Newcastle University. . and Giller, K.E., Eds., Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition, CAB International, Wallingford, p.34

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.

Authors own image Figure 2:.

Keating, S., Cooke, T., and Fernández, J. (2011) Concrete sample with a linear density gradient.

[Online]. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300064193_Functionally_Graded_Rapid_Prototyping. (Accessed: 19 January 2020).

Figure 3.

Ecovative (2018) Ecovative’s mycelium based packaging for Keap’s hand poured candles. [Online]. Available at: https://mushroompackaging.com. (Accessed: 19 January 2020).

Figure 4 - 6.

Authors own image Figure 7.

Montgomery, L. and Bochmann, G. (2014) Structure of the lignocellulose complex in plant cell walls. [Online]. Available at: https://www.iea-biogas.net/files/daten-redaktion/download/Technical%20Brochures/pretreatment_web.pdf. (Accessed: 11 January 2020).

Figure 8.

Ross, P. (2019) Walnut Legged Yamanaka McQueen, by Phil Ross, 2012Walnut Legged Yamanaka McQueen, by Phil Ross, 2012. [Online]. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctv9b2tnw. (Accessed: 14 January 2020). i Figure 9.

Ross, P. (2014) Phil ross 2012 mycelium chair collection. Walnut Legged. Yamanakita. [Online]. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwikxuezo5bnAhU95uAKHbJBCKYQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Fpin%2F86483255315679525%2F&ps ig=AOvVaw3ThVbnW6l1Fu1QBm7LMvi0&ust=1579750510484983. (Accessed: 17 January 2020).

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Figure 10.

Barkow, A. (2014) The Living, a NYC architecture firm, created the Hy-Fi, a 40-foot tower made from organic bricks.. [Online]. Available at: https://www.wired.com/2014/07/ a-40-foot-tower-made-of-fungus-and-corn-stalks/. (Accessed: 18 January 2020).

Figure 11.

Ecovative - pure mycelium foam (top) Ecovative (2018) Ecovative - pure mycelium foam. [Online]. Available at: https://www. fastcompany.com/90246740/can-mushrooms-be-the-platform-we-build-the-future-on. (Accessed: 20 January 2020).

Figure 12 Mogu’s acoustic panels (bottom) Mogu (2020) Mogu’s acoustic panels. [Online]. Available at: https://mogu.bio. (Accessed: 18 January 2020).

Figure 13. Ecovative Insulation (right) Ecovative (2014) Ecovative insulation. [Online]. Available at: https://www.archdaily. com/473052/insulation-grown-from-funghi. (Accessed: 14 January 2020).

Figure 14 -51 Authors own image Figure 52. Phil ross 2012 mycelium chair collection. Walnut Legged. Yamanaka McQueen Ross, P. (2014) Phil ross 2012 mycelium chair collection. Walnut Legged. Yamanakita. [Online]. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwikxuezo5bnAhU95uAKHbJBCKYQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Fpin%2F86483255315679525%2F &psig=AOvVaw3ThVbnW6l1Fu1QBm7LMvi0&ust=1579750510484983. (Accessed: 17 January 2020).

Figure 53 Parshan, F. (2019). Engaging Mycelium: explorations of a cultivated architecture. Masters.

University of Waterloo.

Figure 54 – 55 Authors own image

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