Master's Thesis by Mohamed Alqari, MS

Kingdom of Bahrain

‫مملكة البحرين‬

The Role of the Historic Natural Springs in the Formation of the Society and the Old Urban Fabric in Bahrain By: Mohamed Alqari

A masters final plan B project submitted to the University of Minnesota in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MS in Architecture Heritage Conservation and Preservation School of Architecture College of Design 2015

Examination Committee: Lin Nelson-Mayson Chair: Greg Donofrio, Ph.D. Director, Goldstein Museum Associate Professor & of Design Director of Heritage Conservation and Director of Graduate Preservation Studies & Museum Studies Minor School of Architecture

Daniela Sandler, Ph.D. Assistant Professor School of Architecture

‫«وجعلنامنالماء‬ ‫كلشيءحي»‬

Table of Contents: [1] Abstract [5] Glossary of Arabic Terms [7] Methodology [17] Research [19] Introduction [21] History of Bahrain's Civilizations and the Epic of Gilgamesh [29] Natural Springs in Bahrain [39] Urban Planning in Relation to Water Resources [47] Bahrain Maps 1904-2014 [55] Mapping Discussion [57] The Cultural Dimension of the Natural Springs [79] Political Discourse [87] Current Conditions and Recommendations [103] Conclusion [107] Bibliography

Abstract How have the historic natural springs influenced people’s lives in Bahrain, and therefore contributed to the formation of its society and its old urban fabric? Bahrain is one of the countries that were vigorously influenced by the rapid architectural, industrial, and economical developments in the Arabian Gulf after the discovery of oil in the 1930s. These developments jeopardize its identity and cultural significance. On the one hand, historians have often pictured Bahrain throughout history as the paradise of Dilmun (one of the oldest civilizations according to the Epic of Gilgamesh), when it prospered by its profound natural sweet water springs that were influential culturally, socially and spatially. On the other hand, these natural springs are no longer prominent due to the intensive developments. In addition to the natural springs, Bahrain’s old urban fabric represents an authentic example of the urban growth before the establishment of urban planning rules, and when the natural resources that were needed for everyday life were the magnets that attracted early settlements. Politically speaking, the natural springs do not receive appreciation by Bahrain’s government in comparison to other historical sites such as the pearling project, which is inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. This negligence is due to the natural springs’ association with the low-income communities that do not represent an honorable image of the country. This research, hence, provides a study of the importance of the historic natural springs and their cultural and spatial influences

on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives, which affected the settlements that drew the old urban fabric of Bahrain. Additionally, it documents these natural springs with many cultural associations and stories that are affiliated with them. Particularly, this research is conducted through many qualitative research tactics such as interviews, archival research and examinations of orientalistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; writings and diaries. Finally, it concludes with recommendations for actions that governmental bodies as well as the community can take to preserve and conserve these springs as evidential vestiges of Bahrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history. Key words: heritage, springs, history, Bahrain, urban fabric, culture, natural resources, Arabian Gulf.

Glossary of Arabic Terms Ain:

Natural spring

Dalia:

Palm grove that originally depended on water supply using â&#x20AC;&#x153;Daloâ&#x20AC;?, which means a large size bucket that was used to carry water from a place to another.

Dulab:

Palm grove that originally used to rely on animals such as donkeys and bulls to pull the ropes that carry water out of wells.

Baraha:

Outdoor space between developed areas.

Saab:

Water channel.

Kashteh:

Traditional picnic to palm groves, water springs, islands, and other natural sites.

Masjid:

Mosque.

Musallah:

Smaller mosque, or outdoors prayer area.

Fareeg or Fereej:

Neighborhood.

Methodology

How have the historic natural springs influenced peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives in Bahrain, and therefore contributed to the formation of its society and its old urban fabric? This research question clearly indicates that the answers are open-ended theories and findings rather than statistical focused answers. Thus, this research is conducted through a qualitative research method. Particularly, the data was collected through several qualitative research tactics such as informal interviews, archival research, literature review, and field survey. This study is approached through five main areas of significance that form the sections of the project and are described alongside with the methods as follows: 1- History of Bahrain and the natural springs. This section is built on literature review of writings that address relevant issues to the research topic. These writings were searched in the libraries in Bahrain, and are mainly in Arabic, so I translated them into English. Additionally, I examined some writings of orientalists such as Charles Belgrave, Bahrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s governmental advisor, who documented different aspects of Bahrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history from different perspectives since the early 1900s. 2- Urban planning in relations to water resources For this section I researched relevant literature that focus on Bahrain urban form as well as many other countries that are characterized by the naturalistic urban fabric. Also, this section comprises maps procured through archival research in the Ministry of Culture,

University of Bahrain’s Special Collection, the Central Library, and some heritage societies such as Bahrain History & Archeology Society. These maps dates back to 1904. After collecting them, I used software such as GIS and AutoCAD to digitize the maps and locate the natural springs throughout these years and compared them in terms of the growth of settlements and decline in the natural resources and the agricultural lands. 3- The cultural and spiritual dimension of the natural springs. This section depends mainly on a wide range of recorded informal interviews. The questions of these interviews were studied well and organized according to the prospective interviewee’s categories and the needed information. These interviewees are categorized as follows: a- Special Collectors and Bloggers: I approached one of the main bloggers that is interested in heritage as a whole. This blogger had a great collection of old pictures and information. So, he helped me approaching special collectors as well as seniors in places near natural springs, in order to include them in the interviewees’ list. b- Senior Community: People who experienced the natural springs while they were thriving. The interview questions were designed carefully to evoke the interviewees’ feelings towards natural springs. However, some people did not have a strong attachment to the springs, or stories to tell. Hence, I took these interviewees to the

natural spring that they remembered the most, in order to have a direct description of what they remembered within the same context. Also, I used the earlier collected old pictures of the springs and showed them to the interviewees in order to evoke their emotions and to refresh their memories, and then to recorded their reactions. c- Current residents of neighborhoods in which some springs are located. These interviewees revealed their relationship to the natural springs today in comparison to the past. They, also, walked with me around the areas where springs existed, and they described their daily activities in relation to the springs. Additionally, the interview questions tackled their opinions on the future plans that might or might not take the springs into consideration. 4- Political issues. This section explores the political dimension of the natural springs in Bahrain. It is built upon the history written by the Englishmen and orientalists. Also, it depends on articles by the official newspaper that track governmental decisions that had impacts on the current condition and future of the natural springs. 5- Current conditions and recommendations. This section concludes with findings and recommendations. I observed some existing recommendations of conservations and restorations to some of the springs by researchers of different fields and tackled them critically. Also, in this section, I provided some

suggestions for raising the awareness as the first step of the protection of the remaining springs. Particularly, I designed a proposed exhibit at Bahrain National Museum that discusses the issue of natural springs in Bahrain presented in this paper. The main purpose of this exhibit is to raise the awareness among the Bahraini community.

Figure 1. Ain Al-Safahiya. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

Research

Figure 2. Ain Al-Shaikh, exact date unknown. Taken by: Abdullah Al-khan.

Introduction “From water we have created all living things…”1 God stated in his holy book of Quran. Water has always been the core of life on earth. Numerous civilizations in various locations developed where water existed. Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt civilizations, for instance, both developed near water. The former developed between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers,2 while the latter took place near the Nile River.3 Bahrain is also one of the lands that attracted ancient settlements and caused multiple civilizations to develop on its land due to the availability of water. Humans existed more than 10,000 years ago on the island of Bahrain, which was originally connected to the Arabian Peninsula. In that area and time, particularly, the climate used to be mild and humid as appose to its condition today. However, this humid climate started to get drier gradually. As a result, people started settling in places where water existed profoundly. Thus, they found an oasis in the middle of all that drought, and that is Bahrain, prior to its current form as an archipelago.4 See figure 2.

1 Holy Quran, “Surat Al Anbiya’a (The Prophets),” 21:30. 2 Gretchen Wildwood and Rupert Mathews, Ancient Mesopotamian Civilization (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 2009): 20. 3 Robert C. Allen, “Agriculture and the Origins of the State in Ancient Egypt,” Exploration in Economic History (1997): 135. 4 Hind Al-Gosaibi, “History and Present Conditions of Natural Springs in the State of Bahrain” (Master’s thesis, Arabian Gulf University, 1997).

Figure 3. Palm groves at Al-Bilad Al-Qadim. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

Throughout history, historians have often pictured Bahrain as the paradise of Dilmun (one of the oldest civilizations according to the Epic of Gilgamesh), when it prospered by its dense vegetation and abundant fresh water springs. See figure 3. These springs were influential culturally, socially and spatially.5 Unfortunately, Bahrain is one of the countries that were vigorously influenced by the rapid architectural, industrial, and economical developments in the Arabian Gulf, especially after the discovery of oil in the 1930s.6 These developments have jeopardized its identity and cultural significance. As a result, many changes have threatened its heritage in different aspects. Exotic buildings invaded palm tree groves, highways separated houses from seashores, and most importantly, natural springs were abandoned due to the escalating reliance on treated seawater.7 History of Bahrain’s Civilizations and the Epic of Gilgamesh Bahrain is an archipelago of 33 islands, located in the Arabian Gulf. People knew it for its strategic location for many years. Hence, it was home for numerous civilizations since around 5,000 B.C. The population of Bahrain during this time was comparatively small, and it depended mainly on agriculture and hunting, until the Early Third Millennium Occupation. During this period, Bahrain established 5 Maureen Kovacs, The Epic of Gilgamesh (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1989). 6 Fay Al Khalifa, “An Urban Healing Agenda for Reform in Bahrain: Where the Dweller Falls into the Urban Gap and the Sailing Boat Hits the Skyscraper” (Master’s thesis, University of Sheffield, 2012). 7 Ibid.

Figure 4. Ain Buri surrounded by stones from Dilmun civilization. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, July 2015.

its role as an important trading center. In that time, particularly, the seawater level was high, which resulted in high springs’ water levels. This ascent helped in supplying the surrounding agricultural lands, stimulating more cultivation. Later during Barbar I Phase (2100 B.C.), the population further grew and caused the demand on the agricultural system to further expand. As a testimony, Bahrain started exporting dates around this time to the surrounding countries. After Barbar I Phase came Barbar II Phase, which coincided with the apex of Early Dilmun. At this time, the population vigorously increased, and reached 20,000. This population concentrated mainly near areas that were characterized by the profuse availability of water.8 See figure 4. 5,200 years ago, from 3,200 to 330 B.C, Dilmun civilization developed on the islands of Bahrain.9 Dilmun, in the ancient Dilmunian language, means natural sweet water within the seawater.10 This miraculous phenomenon gave Bahrain its current name, which means the two seas. In Dilmun civilization, Bahrain was always called the Land of Immortality by the Sumerians, and they considered it as “a holy, pure, clean and radiant land, where there is neither sickness nor death.”11 The capital of Dilmun was the settlement at Qala’at Al Bahrain 8 Curtis E. Larsen, Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Island: the Geoarcheology of an Ancient Society (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1983), 200-205. 9 Randolf Rausch et al., “The Riddle of the Springs of Dilmun—Does the Gilgamesh Epic Tell the Truth?” Groundwater 52, no. 4 (2014): 640-644, 10 Sami Al-Ahmad, The History of Arabian Gulf from the Ancient Times to the Arab’s Liberation (Al Basrah: Arabian Gulf Studies Center at Al Basrah University, 1985). 11 Samuel Noah Kramer Dilmun: Quest for Paradise (Cambridge: Heffer, 1963): 112.

Figure 5. Ain Al-Shaikh, exact date unknown. Source: Jassim Al-Abbas, Al-Jareesh.

site, which is currently listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In fact, the Epic of Gilgamesh describes Dilmun vividly as the land of immortality. At first, the Epic of Gilgamesh was found on twelve tablets, and it was written in cuneiform. Later, many scholars translated it into various languages. The fable can be summarized as follows: Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk, was two-thirds god and one-third man. He had a strong friendship with Enkidu. The two friends went to the Cedar Mountain to defeat Humbaba, the guardian. Later in their journey, the sad event of Enkidu’s death broke Gilgamesh’s heart, and was the main reason of his immortality seeking. Hence, Gilgamesh sought the immortal flood hero, Utnapishtim, to ask about the secret of immortality. Utnapishtim, therefore, referred Gilgamesh to the plant of immortality that exists in the fresh waters of Dilmun. Consequently, Gilgamesh dove into the fresh waters of Dilmun, and extracted the plant. Sadly, on his way back to Uruk, he felt tired and fell asleep by a river, and a big snake came and ate the plant of immortality. On his way back to Uruk, the sad Gilgamesh, looked at all the buildings and monuments by the border of Uruk, and realized that people can only be immortal by their achievements.12 12 Kovacs, The Epic of Gilgamesh.

Figure 6. Ain Adhari, exact date unknown. Taken by: Abdullah Al-khan.

Many scholars rigorously linked Dilmun with the islands of Bahrain. For example, Sir Henry Rawlinson, who translated the cuneiform more than a century ago, was the first scholar who indicated that Bahrain is the site of Dilmun. His evidence was the discovery of a cuneiform inscription that was found by Captain Durand in 1879, built into one of the mosques in Bahrain’s Al Khamis district.13 Dilmun was influential on the trade routes between Mesopotamia, Oman, and the Indus. That is due to the availability of water with which traders loaded up their ships. In fact, numerous descriptions of Dilmun focused mainly on the profound fresh water springs as a main basis of living through ages. Agriculture vigorously depended on it, and that explains the paradisiacal image of Dilmun.14 As a result of the flourishing trade, the wealth of Dilmun rose. And it was known for its wealth and richness during Barbar Second Period. Thus, it intrigued the greed of the Mesopotamian dynasty, which gradually resulted in the fall of Dilmun Civilization. With the fall of Dilmun civilization, the agriculture deteriorated, and the green zones were limited to areas surrounding the springs.15

13 Angela Clarke, The Islands of Bahrain: An Illustrated Guide to Their Heritage (Manama, Bahrain: Bahrain Historical & Archaeological Society, 1981): 22. 14 Rausch et al., “The Riddle of the Springs of Dilmun,” 641 15 A-Gosaibi. “History and Conditions of Natural Springs.”

N at u r a l S p r i n g s

Bahrain

Figure 7. A map of Bahrain (2014) showing the springs' locations. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Until the 1950s, Bahrain comprised approximately 173 springs. These springs are of two types: Mainland (dry land springs) and Submarine (springs under the sea). Mainland springs, which were approximately 153, were located all around the island with a concentration in the north, which helps to explain the current dense settlement patterns in that part. The submarine springs, which were 20, were scattered in various locations under the sea.16 See figure 7. Surprisingly, these submarine springs discharge sweet water within the salty water; each of these spots is called Kawkab or Chawchab. This phenomenon is the main reason behind Bahrain’s name. The word “Bahrain” in Arabic means “Two seas," which are the sweet and the salty water seas.17 Furthermore, the pearling profession, which was the reason for Bahrain’s recent inscription to the UNESCO World Heritage List with the title “Pearling, Testimony of an Island Economy”18 was fundamentally dependent on these submarine springs. Pearl fishers declared that the most precious pearls were mainly found in areas near the Kawakabs, as a result of the mix between sweet and salty water. Also, they used to dive deep under the sea to collect the sweet

16 A. D. Ferguson and W.G. Hill, “Land Spring Survey,” (Bahrain: Unpublished BAPCO Report, 1953). 17 Ibid. 18 “Pearling, Testimony of an Island Economy,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed November 3, 2014, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1364.

Figure 8. Pearl divers getting ready to dive. Source: http://www.perle-magazine.com.

water, within the salty water, using bags made of goatskin.19 See figure 8. As evidence of people’s dependence on the submarine as well as the mainland spring water for their daily life, they suffered from teeth discoloration as well as bone fusion due to excessive fluoride intake. That is because the fluoride content of the spring water is considered higher than normal. Skeletons of the early Dilmun years clearly show the effects of that high fluoride intake.20 Three main entities concerned about the natural springs in Bahrain conducted four spring water flow and quality surveys between 1924 and 1979. These entities are: BAPCO (Bahrain Petroleum Company, which was the first to discover oil in the Arabian Peninsula in 1932)21, Italconsult, and GDC (Groundwater Development Consultants). It started with The Question of Water in Bahrain Island in 1924, which was the first study about the natural springs in Bahrain; only 18 springs were surveyed then.22 This report was followed by another report by BAPCO in 1953, conducted by Ferguson and Hill. This report concluded that Bahrain comprised 153 mainland springs and 20 submarine springs. Unfortunately, 63% of these springs stopped 19 Rausch et al., “The Riddle of the Springs of Dilmun,” 641 20 Ibid. 21 http://www.bapco.net/en-us/about-bapco/ 22 A. Heim, “The Question of Water in Bahrain Island,” (Bahrain: Unpublished BAPCO Report, 1924).

Hiem, 1924 Spring

BAPCO 1953

Italconsult, 1971

Number

Amount million m3/year

Number

Amount million m3/year

Number

Amount million m3/year

Number

Amount million m3/year

Mainland

*70

153

40.4

7.1

8.1

Submarine

**17

9.5

6.6

Overall

49.9

***23

14.7

The original number is 57; it was modified by Sutcliffe, 1966. ** Estimated by GDC, 1979. *** Uncompleted study and modified by GDC, 1979.

Table 1: A comparison table of all the reports on the natural springs in Bahrain. AlGosaibi, 1997.

GDC, 1979

discharging water by the time the survey was conducted. Also, the percentage in the mainland springs fluctuated between 2480 and 4250 parts per million. If this report is compared with the one conducted in 1924 by Hiem, it is noted that the water level decreased by 43%.23 BAPCO conducted yet another report in 1966 by Stutcliff, which concluded that the water level further decreased by 30% between 1953 and 1966.24 Finally, in 1971, a report by Italconsult concluded that only 7 mainland springs remained, and that 80% of the springs completely dried up between 1966 and 1971.25 See table 1. While interviewing Bahraini citizens who witnessed the natural springs while they were thriving, the majority believed that one of the main reasons of the deterioration of the natural springs is the developments on the sea shores, especially that of Salman Harbor, which caused a lot of excavations and land reclamation in the 1960s. This development, according to the interviewees, destroyed the Veins (as they referred to the underground water channels).26 However, many researchers believe that the sources of Bahrain’s springs are located in different areas in the Arabian Gulf. For example, 23 Ferguson and Hill, Land Spring Survey. 24 Stutcliff, “Report on Groundwater Extraction in Bahrain and Coastal Hasa,” (Bahrain: Unpublished BAPCO Report, 1966). 25 Italconsult, “Water and Agriculture Studies in Bahrain,” (Bahrain: Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, 1971). 26 Fuad Ahmad Abdulla, interviewed by Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

many researchers confirmed that aquifers in Al-Dammam and AlKhober–in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia–mainly supply many of the springs in Bahrain. Additionally, the German geologist H.G. Wunderlich assumes that the rainfalls in the Zagros Mountains in Iran form a primary source of many springs in Bahrain.27 These findings raise the question “Did the developments in the Arabian Gulf in general cause the deterioration of the natural springs in Bahrain?” Some researchers, on the other hand, think that the escalating usage of the underground water through the excessive number of wells dug in the 1920s affected the water levels in the aquifers.28 They, also, related the problem with the intrusion of seawater that caused water salinization.29 A very critical question needs to be answered: “If the natural springs were thriving since Dilmun era, why did they specifically dry recently?”

27 H.G. Wunderlich, “The mystery of the sources of Bahrain,” (paper presented at FH-DGG Conference, Göttingen, 2008). 28 A-Gosaibi. “History and Conditions of Natural Springs.” 29 Larsen, Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Island. 133.

U rb a n P l a nn i n g i n R e l at i o n Resources

W at e r

Figure 9. A map of the old part of Manama city in 1951. Source: Special Collection at the University of Bahrain.

Historically speaking, the settlement in Dilmun was unrecognized at first as a civilization. The recognition occurred with the establishment of villages and towns, which caused the urban centers to develop. These villages and towns were essentially arranged around the natural resources, which attracted people, since they depended on them for their daily life activities. Therefore, the market centers have developed from the existing villages that were located near the natural springs.30 As Larsen states in his book Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands, “the urban fabric was highly influenced by the geological fabric of Bahrain.”31 That said, we could draw a very strong connection between the urban fabric and the natural resources, especially in areas that had not witnessed rapid developments until today, and still retain the old naturalistic urban fabric. Bahrain’s old urban fabric forms an authentic example of the gradual growth of the old city and the influences on its development. In other words, until the early 20th century, Bahraini citizens were able to decide on the shape and orientation of their land plots. Hence, people usually competed for locations near natural water sources, since it was not easy to commute for long distances.32 These decisions, therefore, caused the gradual growth of the old cities and drew the

30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Al Khalifa, “An Urban Healing Agenda.”

Figure 10. An illustation sketched by a resident of A'ali. He was describing how the water channels formed the urban layout of A'ali Village.

naturalistic picture of the old urban fabric, where Barahas33 came to existence between the houses adding more excitement to the walking experience. Some of these Barahas still exist today in the old parts of Manama and Muharraq, and they are used for public activities and gatherings. Also, according to the historic title deeds that belong to older plots, the water channels used to shape the plots. For example, Z plot is surrounded by XX channel from the north, and YY channel from the south. See figure 10. After the oil discovery in the 1930s, some radical transformations took place in different areas of Bahrain resulting in major impacts on its urban fabric. These changes reached their apex after World War II. For example, Awali is the first planned town in Bahrain. It was built by the British following their design ethos, incorporating the pitched roofs and street grid systems.34 This example vividly illustrates the interventions that had severe effects on the old urban fabric, and unfortunately applied completely foreign concepts that are relevant to the context neither physically nor culturally. After the grid system was incorporated, the historical centers were demolished and replaced by

33 Outdoor space between developed areas. 34 Fay Al Khalifa and N. Dempsey, “Potentials and Constraints of Urban Sustainability in the Arabian Gulf: The Case of Bahrain and Kuwait,” (PhD diss., University of Sheffield, 2013).

Figure 11. Manama's skyline from Tubli. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, July, 2015.

new contemporary buildings.35 The springs, moreover, started to lose their spatial significance gradually. In fact, starting in that time, when an individual purchased a plot that contained a spring or a water channel, the spring or the water channel would be included in the purchased plot, which diminished their identities as communal resources. Other considerations developed as people’s needs grew and changed. People started to desire more space and depended mainly on cars for their daily life. Thus, wider highways were constructed, only to magnify people’s separation from nature. Also, the grid system that was introduced resulted in more space around each house. All these transformations have had destructive impacts on the simple naturalistic theme of the islands of Bahrain, and more importantly on the natural resources including the historic springs.

35 Ali A. Alraouf, “The Rehabilitation of the Muharraq Historical Centre, Bahrain: A Critical Narrative,” in Cultural Heritage in the Arabian Peninsula: Debates, Discourses and Practices, (England: Ashgate, 2014): 174.

Bahrain Maps 1904 - 2014

Bahrain Map in 1904

Figure 12. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Bahrain Map in 1937

Figure 13. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Bahrain Map in 1956

Figure 14. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Bahrain Map in 1970

Figure 15. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Bahrain Map in 1990

Figure 16. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Bahrain Map in 2014

Figure 17. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Land Reclamation in Bahrain

Figure 18. The difference in Bahrain's coastline between 1904 and 2014. Drawn by: Mohamed Alqari.

Mapping Discussion I prepared these maps based on information from the Topographic Survey Directorate in Bahrain. After tracking the changes that occurred on the islands of Bahrain in the period between 1904 and 2014, I came to the following concluding remarks: 1- The natural springs are concentrated mainly in the northern part of the main island. 2- As a result of the abundant availability of the fresh water resources in the northern part, the agricultural lands took place there, too. 3- Following the agricultural lands the settlements are concentrated in the same zone. 4- The oil wells are located mainly in the southern part of the main island. This concentration did not affect the settlements in the north directly. However, the wealth achieved by the oil trade, starting in 1930s, fostered developments all around the island with a concentration in the north, since it started there. 5- British colonization that lasted until 1971 had an influence on the urban growth in the middle part of the main island. That expansion can be noticed in the maps of 1956 and 1970. 6- Towards the end of the twentieth century, the developments bloomed, causing the agricultural lands and natural springs to decline. 7- Land reclamation projects that were rapidly growing in the early 2000s had a vigorous impact on the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coastline. This can be seen clearly in the last map. 8- The difference in land area between 1904 and 2014 is: 765.300 636.768 = 128.532 sq. km.

T h e C u lt u r a l D i m e n s i o n Springs

of the

N at u r a l

Bahraini Interviewees Abbas Qattan - 80 years old - Al Nabih Saleh Island Khatoun Abdulla Bin Rajab - 78 years old - Manama Ahmad Rabee' - 43 years old - Buri Village Ahmad Ali - 75 years old - Karanah Village Fuad Abdulla - 42 years old - A'ali Vilage

"Bahrain was a paradise." Abbas Qattan. .‫"البحرين كانت جنة الفردوس" عباس قطان‬

Figure 19. Abbas Qattan (80 years old) describing Ain Al Safahiya behind him in Al Nabih Saleh Island, Bahrain. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

"The spring water used to be warm in the winter and cold in the summer." Khatoun Abdulla Bin Rajab. .‫"العيون كانت دافئة يف الشتاء و باردة يف الصيف" خاتون عبدالله بن رجب‬

Figure 20. Khatoun Abdulla Bin Rajab (78 years old) describing Abd Ali palm groves in Manama, Bahrain. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, July 2015.

"The springs are haunted, not only humans use them, even the spirits do, too." Ahmad Rabee' .‫" أحمد ربيع‬.‫ ولكن األرواح أيضا‬،‫ ليس اإلنسان فقط يستعملها‬،‫"العيون مسكونة‬

Figure 21. Ahmad Rabee' (43 years old) describing Ain Buri behind him in Buri village, Bahrain. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, July 2015.

"We used to go to the springs for everything because we didn’t have water in our house." Ahmad Ali. .‫" أحمد عيل‬.‫ حيث مل يكن عندنا ماء يف البيت‬،‫"كنا نذهب للعيون لقضاء كل حاجاتنا‬

Figure 22. Ahmad Ali (75 years old) describing Ain Al Jin in Karanah, Bahrain. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

"The palm tree used to be the basis of living, and it depended on the natural springs." Fuad Abdulla. .‫ فؤاد عبدالله‬."‫ وكانت تعتمد عىل العيون الطبيعية‬،‫"النخيل كانت أساس الحياة‬

Figure 23. Fuad Abdullah (42 years old) describing A'ali springs, Bahrain. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, June 2015.

Figure 24. Ceremonial stairway at Barbar Temple that presumably was inhabited by Enki, the God of sweet water. Source: http://www.virtualtourist.com.

The Cultural Dimension of the Natural Springs The natural springs have always been perceived culturally and spiritually by general people all around the world. Many spiritual ceremonies take place near natural springs. Also, in many countries beyond the Middle East, people believe in the sacredness of the springs’ waters. In India, for instance, the Talaab or the pond forms a venue for various religious rituals. Also, it has several religious elements on its edges such as sacred trees, small temples, and shrines.36 Going back to Dilmun and the Epic of Gilgamesh, it was believed that Enki, the god of fresh water, resided in Bahrain. Thus, many of the ancient temples are located near the springs. For example, Barbar temple, which is built of stone, is constructed above a holy spring, and it comprises a ceremonial stairway that leads down to the spring.37 See figure 24. Surprisingly, until today, most of the springs’ sites comprise Masjids or Musallahs.38 One reason for that is due to people’s needs for ablution, so it is more convenient for them to build mosques near springs, rather than walk distances to and from the Fareeg39 to perform 36 Alpa Nawre, “Talaab in India: Multifunctional Landscapes as Laminates,” Landscape Journal: Design, Planning, and Management of the Land 32, no. 2 (2013): 137-150. 37 Rausch et al., “The Riddle of the Springs of Dilmun,” 641. 38 Masjid is the Arabic word for mosque. Musallah is a smaller Masjid, or an outdoors prayer area. 39 Fareeg or Fereej is the Arabic word for neighborhood.

Figure 25. Ceremonial stairway at Um Al-Sujoor Spring. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari June 2015.

ablution or bath in the spring before praying. Another reason for the mosques’ presence next to springs is because most of the workers in agriculture spend most of their day near the agricultural lands, which are next to the springs, so it is easy for them to have nearby mosques, especially before cars were invented because it took effort and time to travel from the agricultural land to the village, and vice versa.40 In literature that is mainly in Arabic, many of the natural springs in Bahrain and their cultural associations are described by Hussain Mohamed in Al Wasat Newspaper. He describes the sacredness of these natural springs and the stories and myths related to them. Ain Um Alsujoor41 is an old spring located in Al Duraz village (see figure 25). People believe that it was buried as a punishment to the Bahrainis by Abdulmalik Ben Marwan, who asked one of the Bahraini families for their daughter’s hand and was rejected.42 This incident is not unique among legends in Bahrain; some people believe that invaders to Bahrain had a strategy of burying some springs and leaving the others, so people would fight over the remaining ones.43 Furthermore, Ain Adhari is one of the largest and most popular springs in Bahrain (see figure 26). It has two main stories associated 40 Ahmad Rabee’, interviewed by Mohamed Alqari, July 2015. 41 Ain is the Arabic word of spring. 42 Hussain Mohamed, “Natural Springs,” Al-Wasat, October 29, 2009, 4. 43 Rabee’. 2015.

Figure 26. Ain Adhari. Taken by: Abdullah Al-Khan.

with it. The first story is about a man who asked a virgin girl to marry him, and she refused, because she was in love with another man. The evidence of her honesty was to hit the ground by her feet and cause the water to flow. That was the story behind the name Adhari, which means the virgin in Arabic. In the second story, according to Sir Charles Belgrave44, Ain Adhari was a dangerous spring to swim in, except for advanced swimmers. He describes an old superstition, that Ain Adhari has the right to take one Bahraini as a sacrifice annually. Surprisingly, throughout his stay in Bahrain for 31 years, he documented a drowning accident every single year, from 1926 to 1957.45 Further, there is a traditional Arabic saying in Bahrain, which translates to “Ain Adhari waters the distant lands and deserts the nearby ones.” It is often used by Bahrainis in describing family members who prefer strangers over their own family.46 This phrase is inspired by Ain Adhari’s nature, which is the strong flow of water that finds its way to irregate the faraway lands by channels that skip the nearby lands. Most literature suggests that people widely believe that the springs are haunted. Also, the interviewed individuals have confirmed these beliefs, which explains the many ambiguous incidents that happened 44 Charles Belgrave is Bahrain’s government advisor, from 1926 to 1957. Belgrave documented the history of Bahrain in his own diaries during his stay there. 45 Mohamed. “Natural Springs,” 46 Nelida Fuccaro, Histories of City and State in the Persian Gulf: Manama since 1800. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

Figure 27. People washing their clothes at Ain Qassari. Taken by: Abdullah Al-Khan.

numerously near various springs. Khatoun Rajab explains in her own words: My cousin was called Murtadha, he was around 14 years old, and was a disobedient boy. One day, he got his mother angry, and as he was standing near a spring, his mother came and suddenly hit him on his back. As a result of the shock, he stayed ill for a few days until he died. Our parents always warned us not to fight with our children or get angry with them near springs, and not to go there at 47 night. Furthermore, people used to be scared to go to Ain Um Al-Shoum at night. That is because they believed that a historic fictional female character called Um Humar used to be present there at night. As a result, they used to cook sweet rice with fried fish48 and place it near a rock that they thought she used to sit on it, in order to satisfy her.49 Moreover, natural springs had been widely used by Bahrainis for laundry activities. Ain Qassari, as a name, was found on the ornamentations on Al-Khamis Mosque–a historic mosque near both 47 Khatoun Abdulla Abd Ali Bin Rajab, Interviewed by Mohamed Alqari, July 2015. 48 Traditional Bahraini dish. 49 Khatoun Rajab. 2015.

Figure 28. Ain Qassari in 1999. Source: Jassim Al-Abbas, Al-Jareesh.

Ain Qassari and Ain Adhari–as “Ain Qassarin”, which means the Ain of the laundry. It was split into two parts due to the construction of Sheikh Salman Avenue by BAPCO–Bahrain Petroleum Company–that passed through it. The larger part was reclaimed by the municipality and reused as a football ground. Conversely, the smaller part was used as a traditional laundry for the laborers that are mainly from India, and that is why its name was changed to Ain Aldoubiya, which means laundry in Urdu.50 During the time people were using Ain Qassari for laundry, the washing soaps were not available in Bahrain. So, people used some kind of mud called Tabal and the available rocks in the springs.51 See figure 27. In addition, wedding ceremonies were robustly attached to the natural springs in Bahrain. In these ceremonies, the springs were classified as private and public. In other words, the public spring is the exposed large spring, while the private one is usually smaller, hidden, and privately owned.52 The bride used to be taken by family and friends to the private spring three days prior to the wedding, and it wasn’t for the bath itself; it was rather for the associated rituals. As Bahrainis believed that many springs were haunted, during the wedding bath, an egg was often broken by the attendees in order to prevent the spirits from harming the bride or the groom. Also, on the way back from the bath, some rice used to be thrown away throughout the trip 50 Mohamed. “Natural Springs,” 51 Khatoun Rajab. 2015. 52 Abbas Qattan, interviewed by Mohamed Alqari, July 2015.

Figure 29. Ain Qassari completely buried in 2015, some tiles of the renovated pool can still be seen in this picture. Taken by: Mohamed Alqari, July 2015.

in order to satisfy the spring’s spirits after using their spring.53 The groom, likewise, used to be taken by family and friends to the public spring a night before the wedding. The men performed similar rituals to the ones of the women, but with the addition of the Bukhoor54 ritual, that was accompanied by traditional prayers and hymns.55 “The natural spring was the soul of the community.”56 This is how a resident of A’ali village described the natural springs in the past. In his own words describing the natural springs in relation to the community: Most of the interviewees expressed their sadness with the current conditions of the natural springs. They spoke passionately about how they miss their simple and healthy lives in the past, before the oil was unearthed and the whole life style changed dramatically. The natural springs resemble a harmonious collaboration among the Bahraini citizens. For example, since privacy is a fundamental element of the Bahraini culture, whenever

53 54 55 56

Mohamed. “Natural Springs.” Traditional wood incense. Mohamed. “Natural Springs,” Abdulla, 2015.

women used the springs for Kashteh or wedding preparations, men would never get close to those springs respecting the women’s privacy. Additionally, as people used the springs for irrigation, they developed a beautiful collaborative system among themselves to regulate the usage of the springs’ water. Each farm owner would have one or more Wadh57per day depending on the size of the land. During the Wadh, only the agreed upon owner would have the right to use the spring by water channels leading to his farm, and the other channels would be blocked.58

57 Wadh is a traditionally used period of time. It is around 12 hours and it was used to regulate the usage of the springs for irrigation purposes. 58 Abdulla. 2015.

political discourse

Figure 30. Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ali Burial Mounds. Source: http://blondeinbahrain.blogspot.com/

After exploring the cultural dimension of the natural springs, the political one needs to be solidly discussed. “Why are some historic resources preserved while others neglected?” This question has always been intriguing for preservationists and individuals who are interested in heritage as a whole. Until the late twentieth century, researchers called Bahrain “the country with 100,000 burial mounds” forming the largest prehistoric cemetery in the world. Scholars consider many of these burial mounds as vestiges of Dilmun civilization.59 Today, a great deal of these burial mounds has been diminished for the robust developments in the area. “Why did the government allow these developments to take place in these historic locations?” is a question that remains unanswered. Likewise, some religious shrines that are related to the Shiite group of Bahraini Muslims are abandoned and not considered as part of the country’s heritage, though the Shiite group themselves consider them as important as Dilmun sites.60 Going back to the natural springs, unfortunately, they do not receive appreciation and protection from the government. I think that one of the main reasons for this negligence is because these natural springs are associated with the farmers. These farmers belong to the low-income community, which does not represent the country honorably. In other words, Bahrain’s government is biased toward 59 Thomas Fibiger, “Heritage Erasure and Heritage Transformation: How Heritage Is Created by Destruction in Bahrain,” International Journal of Heritage Studies, (2014): 1-15. 60 Ibid.

portions of its cultural heritage that represent its rich image to the world. For example, the pearling project is listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, with the title “Pearling, Testimony of an Island Economy,” since it implies the wealthy and noble image of the country that the government is proud of. Bahrain has a complex heritage that should be displayed holistically, even though museums and other concerned entities might desire to describe their preferred side of the story.61 Further, the ownership of the natural springs is an ambiguously controversial issue in Bahrain. In other words, a natural spring is not considered a property by itself, but as part of the land surrounding it. For example, Ain Alhakim, which is located in Jerdab, was open for the public until recently, when it became owned by an anonymous private body. According to Hussain Madan62, most of the Ains in Jerdab dried up due to privatizing their ownerships, and therefore transforming them into private water resources for private palm groves.63 This issue needs to be resolved by the government, since many springs all over the country are privately owned and in a vulnerable condition.

61 Rachel MacLean and Timothy Insoll, “Islamic Identities and Heritage Presentation in Bahrain,” in Cultural Heritage in the Arabian Peninsula: Debates, Discourses and Practices, (England: Ashgate, 2014): 136. 62 Head of Jerdab’s Charity Committee. 63 Sadiq Alhalwachi, “Historical Ain Alhakim in Jerdab,” Al-Wasat, July 26, 2014.

Sir Charles Belgrave talks in his diaries about one of the springs’ ownerships incidents. In his own words: He brought in a paper from Sheikh Isa to be registered gifting him a certain spring and "the ground near it" so vague. It was dated a good many years ago. These gifts are one of the worst things that Isa did, he gifted away half the island to various relations who don’t do anything with the land but sit like dogs in mangers and won’t let anyone else do 64 anything with the land. The older generations of the royal family in Bahrain, whom Belgrave refers to as “Sheikhs”, have the right to gift lands from any part of the island to any citizen.

64 Charles Belgrave, “Papers of Charles Dalrymple-Belgrave, 1926-1957,” Scribd, 2009.

C u rr e n t C o n d i t i o n s a n d R e c o mm e n d at i o n s

The current condition of the natural springs in Bahrain is vulnerable. The springs are currently either empty pits filled with waste, wells with a low level of polluted water, or buried with no trace. The available water does not give an indication of the prosperous past of the springs. As Qattan stated in his own words, “I remember how pure the water was in Chawchab Al Sheikh, I used to throw a coin and watch it reach the bottom very clearly, even though the spring was very deep.”65 The government, however, showed some slight concern with some of the main springs recently. It executed some restoration and adaptive reuse projects of some of the springs and their surroundings. For example, the Ministry of Municipalities and Agriculture transformed Ain Adhari, which was in a poor condition, into a pool that can be used by the public in 2003.66 However, it is not as easily accessible as Ain Adhari used to be before. Scientifically speaking, it is quite challenging to revive a natural spring when the aquifer that feeds it is deteriorated. Bahrain depends mainly on Al-Dammam aquifers to supply it with fresh water. The high use of this water caused a decline in the water level. It, also, caused the fresh water to mix with the brackish and saline water.67 65 Qattan. 2015.. 66 Abduljalil Abdulla, “Restoration Work at Ain Adhari Costs 250,000 BHD,” Al-Wasat, March 29, 2003. 67 W. K. Zubari, “Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002,” Emirates Journal for Engineering Research 10, no. 1 (2005): 57-67.

Surprisingly, a recent article in Alyaum newspaper confirmed that Ain Adhari’s source is still intact, and it can feed the spring with fresh water again. This discovery critically questions the aforementioned scientific findings.68 Al-Gosaibi, in her research “History and Present Conditions of Natural Springs in the State of Bahrain” recommends that the treated wastewater is to be used temporarily in some of the springs after blocking their sources, in order not to cause further degradation to the groundwater and the aquifers. Using the treated wastewater in the springs will achieve two main results. The first is to revive the springs visually and help in preserving the spring and save it from drying up and then being buried and forgotten. The second is that the springs will reclaim their original function of irrigating the surrounding agricultural lands, which still exist in some areas, by the water channels that branch from them.69 The aforementioned strategies can work successfully in reclaiming the visual integrity of the degrading springs. However, these strategies cannot reclaim the people’s relationship with the springs. Since the springs shaped up the Bahraini society and the urban form, I do not recommend these solutions, since they will revive the springs only for the agricultural lands and not for the people. During an informal 68 Mohamed Al-Khatim, “A New Project to Improve Ain Adhari as Part of Manama’s Initiative of Improving the Tourists Sites,” Alyaum, March 31, 2015. 69 Al-Gosaibi. History and Present Conditions.

discussion I conducted with Prof. Waleed Zubari70 in December 2014, he suggested that the idea of blocking the sources of the springs is valid. However, he suggested using clean water, and transforming the spring into a pool that can be used by the public. Most importantly, the government should have a rigid strategy in preserving the locations of the springs, even the completely dried ones. Not only is the government responsible of preserving the natural springs, the community should have its own say, too. Unfortunately, the generations that witnessed the natural springs while they were intact, are generation X and older, which means in the next five or more decades they will no longer exist. Also, most of the younger generations do not appreciate the natural springs, since they do not feel they belong to them, because they do not have any memories associated with them. That said, if the springs dried up and were buried, the generations that are yet to come will not know that there used to be springs on the islands of Bahrain. Consequently, preserving the natural springs’ sites as they are is an important start. Further, in order to revitalize the natural springs’ sites, some activities should be introduced there. We can learn from the nearby countries and how they keep their heritage alive. For example, in Abu Dhabi,

70 Dr. Waleed Zubari, Professor of Water Resources at Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain. http://www.waleedzubari.com/

Figure 31. An illustration showing the main zones of the installation.: 1)The booths zone which focuses on the natural springs and their association with the urban fabric of Bahrain, it also shows videos that discuss the cultural dimension of the natural springs. 2)The pearling zone. 3)The path â&#x20AC;&#x153;Jadwal.â&#x20AC;? Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

the falconry71 is still practiced by locals and tourists, and therefore it brings visitors to the deserts which otherwise would be abandoned lands.72 Likewise, in Bahrain, some heritage festivals are held at Bahrain National Museum. In these festivals, some historic activities and objects are displayed. These festivals, for instance, can take place near some springs, in order to bring the community closer to springs as well as palm groves, which are sadly abandoned. By taking these steps, the springs will gradually be incorporated into the heritage realm in Bahrain. Before all of the aforementioned ideas and strategies, the first step is to raise the awareness among the local community. In order to do that, I propose an exhibit that discusses the importance of the natural springs in Bahrain. This exhibit will be advertised for properly in order to engage different demographics of the Bahraini community. Proposed Exhibit at Bahrain National Museum The exhibit covers three main topics that are 1) The Natural Springs and their impact on the surrounding settlements, 2) The Cultural Dimension of the Natural springs, and 3) Pearling as a Testimony of Bahrain’s Economy. Each of these parts is expressed individually at the installation, yet, related to the other parts (see figure 31). The installation design takes place at Bahrain National Museum. It 71 National sport that is recognized by UNESCO as intangible cultural heritage. 72 Sarina, Wakefield, “Falconry as heritage in the United Arab Emirates,” in World Archaeology, (UK: Open University, 2012): 280-290.

Figure 32. Floor plan. Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

comprises a main path that links the two entrances of the exhibition hall. This path resembles the Saab, which is the water channel. At each end of this path, where the visitors start their journey at the exhibit, there is a main introductory label that explains the general idea of the exhibit. After reading the introduction label, the visitors have two options; either keep following the path to explore the pearling section, or climb the four steps to proceed to the natural springs’ section. See figure 32. If the visitors walk along the path, they would experience the pearling section first. This section discusses the importance of the pearling profession in Bahrain’s history. It also, explains how the pearling depended on the submarine springs. See figure 33. This walkway is covered by a wooden structure that is full of circular openings of various sizes. These circular openings allow the existing ceiling light of the exhibition hall to penetrate them and add an interesting lighting effect on the sea-like floor. The concept behind these circular openings is to resemble the bright pearls that Bahrain’s economy once depended on. Furthermore, the shaded part of the path houses some historic photographs that I collected during my research phase. After experiencing the pearling zone, the visitors would climb four steps, to the springs’ section. The spring section consists of 3 booths

Figure 33. Tha path â&#x20AC;&#x153;Jadwalâ&#x20AC;? cutting the exhibition into half. Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

on each side of the path. Each of these booths consists of a sunken ground that is 2 steps lower. These steps are used as seats for the visitors to sit and watch the interviews. Each booth has a projector in its ceiling that projects short videos on the sunken grounds. These videos are the interviews that I conducted with people who witnessed the natural springs while they were thriving. So, they share their memories and cultural associations with these springs. See figures 35,36. Also, the exhibit will be an excellent opportunity for a wide range of people to tell their own stories. Thus, there will be a story booth where people can share their stories and memories, which can be added to the documented history during the research phase. Furthermore, the curvy wall in each booth is used to exhibit maps of Bahrain with the springsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; locations. Hence, as the maps show these locations with the settlements around them, people would make sense of the impact of these springs on the old urban fabric of Bahrain. Clearly, when they sit on the steps, watch the interviews, and look at the historic maps, they would get a holistic idea of the natural springs and their importance in Bahrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history. See figure 36.

Figure 34. The pearling section. Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

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Figure 35. People watching interviews and seeing maps in the booths. Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

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Figure 36. People watching interviews and seeing maps in the booths. Designed by: Mohamed Alqari, 2015.

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Conclusion

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To summarize, the natural springs in Bahrain have been influential in Bahrain’s history as well as its present. During Dilmun civilization, the natural springs formed the paradisiacal picture of Bahrain, which consists mainly of dense vegetation and profound natural springs. These natural springs, moreover, were spatially influential and vigorously affected the patterns of settlement on the island. Unfortunately, these influences, and this power have dramatically diminished. This decline is because of the rapid developments in the area mainly due to the discovery and trade of oil.73 Further, the spirituality of these natural springs has unfortunately lost its importance and significance among people. In order for the government and the public to be aware of the importance of the natural springs before taking any strategic decisions, I aim to raise the awareness by this project. When the awareness is raised, the Bahraini perspective towards the natural springs will change, and the younger generations who do not feel any connection with the springs will develop an appreciation when they realize the importance of these springs in forming their ancestors’ lives. When the government and the public work hand in hand, they will protect these precious vestiges just as they did with the pearling project. Only then, Bahrain will reclaim its rich reputation as the oasis among its arid context, and it will revive Dilmun, the Land of Immortality. 73 Al Khalifa, “An Urban Healing Agenda.”

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