What to Expect of Early Childhood Students……………………………………………………...Page 3 What to Expect: Physical Development……………………………………………………….Page 3 & 4 What to Expect: Language Development………………………………………………………….Page 5 What to Expect: Cognitive Development…………………………………………………………..Page 6 What to Expect: Social & Moral Development…………………………………………………….Page 6 Classroom Activities: Physical Development……………………………………………………...Page 7 Classroom Activities: Cognitive Development…………………………………………………….Page 7 Classroom Activities: Language Development……………………………………………………Page 8 Classroom Activities: Social & Moral Development………………………………………………Page 8 Cognitive Development Theories……………………………………………………………..Page 9 & 10
Cognitive Development in the Classroom………………………………………………………..Page 11 Language Development Theories…………………………………………………………..Page 12 & 13 Language Development in the Classroom……………………………………………………….Page 13 Supporting Social & Emotional Development in the Classroom……………………………….Page 14 Shaping Morality…………………………………………………………………………………….Page 15 Influencing Moral Reasoning & Self Control……………………………………………………..Page 15 Effects of Maltreatment & Neglect as seen in the Classroom……………………………Page 16 & 17 Effects of Learning Disabilities as seen in the Classroom……………………………………...Page 18 Effects of Mental Health Issues as seen in the Classroom…………………………………….Page 19 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………..Page 20 References…………………………………………………………………………………….Page 21 & 22
[Children Playing with Blocks Photo]. Retrieved from: http://ece120.wikispaces.com/importance+of+play 2
Early childhood spans from about age two to age six. There is a lot of change and development occurring during these years. Changes not only in a child’s physical appearance and their abilities, but also changes in how they learn and what they know, changes in how a child deals with everything emotionally, how their language and understanding grows and how they develop socially and morally. This guide has been put together to assist teachers in recognizing developmental milestones and other issues that may impact the proper development of a child during early childhood and beyond.
According to Levine and Munsch, 2014, physical development “includes the biological changes that occur in the body, including changed in size and strength, as well as integration of sensory and motor activities.” Once a child’s body is physically ready to learn, Piaget’s theory of development can apply to physical development. Children see what is happening around them and begin to experiment and react to those things. Erickson’s theory and stage of Autonomy versus Doubt/ Shame is a time in early childhood when children are wanting to be more independent and they try to do things for themselves. The following are physical milestones that children reach
at different ages and stages of early childhood development.
They are good at rolling, crawling, creeping and walking.
They are starting to run, jump, climb and kick.
They can catch a ball rolled their way.
They are beginning to try and throw a ball.
They can use utensils and escape by turning doorknobs.
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They are much more coordinated with running, climbing and walking.
They are able make a tricycle go.
They can pump a swing by themselves.
The can catch a ball with two hands.
They have better dexterity which allows them to hold crayons, put together puzzles and make balls out of clay.
They are better and more steady with running, jumping and climbing.
They are now also skipping, marching and galloping.
They are getting more proficient at throwing, catching, kicking and bouncing balls.
They no longer grab a crayon with their fist, but can hold it correctly within the fingers.
They have better hand/ eye coordination.
They have better balance and coordination.
Many are able to learn to ride a two-wheel bike.
They can swim.
They have the coordination to jump rope.
They are better able to control writing and painting utensils. 4
They can understand two stage commands like “Get your socks and put them in the basket”.
They understand contrasting concepts or meanings like hot/cold and stop/go.
They can form sentences with a subject and predicate as well as multiple sentences at a time.
They notice sounds and recognize what those sounds mean like the telephone ringing.
In sentences more elements are added and prepositions are used.
They can understand simple who, what, and where questions.
Sentences are becoming longer and speech is a bit more fluent and clear.
They ask for items by naming them such as elephant or dog.
They can construct long detailed sentences.
They enjoy telling stories and are engaging in conversations with peers.
They speak clearly and fluently in an easy to listen voice.
They communicate easily with other children and adults – they understand the unwritten rule for taking turns and closing a conversation. 5
First looking to see if a child’s cognitive development builds on prior knowledge. Meaning new knowledge must be built on prior knowledge for students to achieve understanding. Nothing new can be explained for someone unless that person has some starting place for the explanation.
Also, teachers should expect that all of the child’s representational thoughts and symbols that stood for objects, people and events that began in toddlerhood, should now start to become more complex.
Teachers should expect the child to use more logic to think about things around them.
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development explains what a teacher should expect at the early childhood stage. Children of this particular age group are in the Initiative vs. Guilt stage. According to the text, during this stage a child is conflicted between "exuberant activity vs. over control" (Munsch & Levine, 2014).
A teacher should expect to witness a child learning how to take control over their surroundings through play.
A child may show initiative by playing within groups and exploring different types of play. Successfully displaying initiative will lead to a sense of high self esteem and confidence. Failing at initiative will lead to a sense of guilt in the child.
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Finger Play—”The Itsy Bitsy Spider”.
“Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes”.
Rolling, throwing and kicking balls.
Simple structured games.
Going for walks.
Outside unstructured free play.
Playing with riding toys such as tricycles to eventually bicycles.
Playing on outside play structures including slides and swings.
Painting, drawing, writing.
Playing with clay.
Make-believe play for example a block may be a pretend phone.
Read a story that encourages a child to reflect on it afterwards with some type of activity.
Matching games that help with memory skills.
Stringing beads and making patterns.
Sorting objects.
Simon says.
Charades.
Lego sets.
Obstacle courses.
What do you feel? When you blindfold a child, and put objects in their hands and ask the question, “What do you feel?”, they guess based on touch. 7
Nursery Rhymes and Sing N Play
Educational television shows with interaction
Talk while you play and encourage your toddler to talk back
Hide and Seek – “Where are you”
Talk and play with other children (social interaction)
Teaching social skills and morality to children this age should consists of activities that teach children how to care, nurture and that teaches the importance of rules.
Some classrooms have a class pet that teaches children how to care for others outside of themselves. Having a pet teaches the student about the importance of care and nurture which builds moral value within the child.
Read and share children’s stories that place an emphasis on caring for our friends or those around us. Stories that center around character building may also be beneficial for this age group. A discussion may follow the story when the teacher explains the importance of caring for others and how that makes the student and the other person feel.
Teach simple rules such as walk, don't run, don't hit friends, etc. should be expressed and explained
to the child so that they understand why they are important.
Reward students for following the rules. Positive reinforcement will encourage the behavior in the future promoting moral reasoning.
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Three theories of cognitive development that are applicable in early childhood include, Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, Erickson’s psychosocial stages and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. These stages are useful as they are easy to understand and to measure
children’s mental and social development and progression.
Piaget’s stages of development would be useful because children in the preoperational stage of development build on skills learned and mastered during the sensorimotor stage. During this stage, young children’s play becomes increasingly imaginary and filled with fantasies. As children begin to develop more, their play goes from make-believe to plots involving more characters and scenarios, and children are also able to play games with more sophisticated rules. According to Piaget, playing isn't just fun; it is an important part of brain development.
Erickson’s psychosocial stages are useful because they have psychological and social aspects. He also proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. So, that is how he feels each of his stages are. With completion of each task, it results in a healthy personality, and failure to complete or master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. Erickson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development. Trust vs Mistrust – which infants are dependent upon their caregivers, autonomy vs shame/ doubt – which begins in ages 1-3 when toddlers begin to explore their world and learn to control their actions, and initiative vs guilt which ranges in age from 3-6. These ages children develop selfconfidence, and a sense of ambition and responsibility. If at this stage, the child is unsuccessful due to over-controlling parents they may develop feelings of guilt. 9
Bronfenbrenner's ecological model helps with cognitive development in early childhood because he stressed the importance of studying a child in the context of his multiple environments. He believes that a child is enmeshed in different ecosystems from the home, to school, to the most expansive system, which is society and culture. He has five environmental systems which are the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the microsystem, and the chronosystem. An example would be in the mesosystem; if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing a positive attitude towards his teacher. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of
peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
[Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model Visual]. Retrieved from https://clarityrising.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/ecological-model-3.gif 10
In an article by Kelly McLendon entitled, “Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development in the Classroom”, the author shares the following list that was a suggested list from the University of Arkansas as to how to apply Piaget’s theories in the classroom.
1. Using concrete props and visual aids whenever possible. 2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words. 3. Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else’s point of view. 4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented. 5. Give children a great deal of hands on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills like reading comprehension.
6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language. (McLendon, 2010)
In addition this is another helpful classroom tool: 7.
In infancy, teachers should use a lot of learning and repetitive things to helps infants with imitation, memory and thinking skills because it usually begins in the preoperational stage from 0-2.
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There are several theories pertaining to language development but the theories of behaviorism and social cognitive, nativism, and interactionism are the main components of language development. Theorist like Albert Bandura and B.F Skinner were behaviorist who believed children learned through interactions in their environment such as imitation and operant conditioning. Noam Chomsky had a different theory in mind known as nativism which proposes that the human brain is innately wired to learn language. Finally, interactionism blends both behaviorism and nativism, which is a child’s readiness to learn language and their experiences with language in their environment come together to bring about language development .
Bandura’s social cognitive theory of behaviorism is based on behavior mechanisms and learning styles that are shaped by environmental influences. Children gain knowledge of language and speech by observing and imitating their environment. He refers to this as “Observational Learning” or modeling. This theory is relevant to language development be
cause children learn the spoken language by imitating sounds and words from their parents and surroundings.
Chomsky believed that language acquisition is an innate structure or function of the human brain. There are structures of the brain that control the interpretation and production of how we talk. He did not believe environment controlled or enhanced the spoken language. Speech is not something that is taught. This theory is relevant to language development be cause it focuses on children being born with the tools to speak. It is something that happens in early childhood between the ages of 2 – 3 and it happens on its own. This theory is known as nativism. 12
This component is a combination of both behaviorism and nativism. In order for chil dren to develop language both are necessary and must work together. This type of language
development is created in a social atmosphere and mostly between child and parent. This component is relevant to language development because it combines two theories and ex plains how children can learn speech by socially interacting with peers and parents.
Teachers can support the stages of language development by participating in activities that will enhance the speech and encourage interactive play among children. According to Bandura’s modeling process teachers can make sure students are paying attention, retaining the information, and staying motivated to learn. Teachers should be willing to reinforce the good and bad spoken language of the child.
[Child Learn Photo]. Retrieved from: http://classroom-assessment-theory-into-practice.wikispaces.com/Assessment+for+FASD
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"Preschoolers tend to have high self-esteem because they do not compare themselves to other people" (Munsch & Levine, 2014). Teachers should keep that in mind by not comparing children to their peers in order to preserve optimal emotional health. Play is an extremely interactive activity that teaches children how to successfully engage with others promoting social skills. A teacher should address development through structured and unstructured activities. Structured play could consist of children playing as a part of group. This is beneficial to development because it will aid in teaching young children to work together in effort of achieving a common goal. Unstructured play (like playing house or other imaginative games) relates back to Erikson's theory which will promote successful completion of the conflict and limit the feeling guilt. Another beneficial component of play, according to Freud's Psychoanalytic theory, is that play give children an outlet to work out their inner emotional conflicts which also encourages healthy social and emotional development.
[Whole Child Development visual]. Retrieved from: http://www.lovelycommotion.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/whole-child -development-social.gif 14
Teachers shape morality by being open to guiding young children into the direction of what is right, but at the same time allowing children to make the ultimate decision on their own. One of the most important questions a child this age asks themselves is, "Am I bad or good?" In effort to shape morality a teacher can ask this question to the child and cause them to think about their behavior prior to engaging. Hopefully asking this question will allow the child to think about if their actions will be right or wrong.
[Morals Self-Control Graphic]. Retrieved from: http://www.teachingwithtlc.com/2007/10/teaching-your-child-about-gossip_30.html
The theory of Behaviorism explains that children learn what's right and wrong from their environment. A teacher can positively influence the development of moral reasoning and self control by maintaining an environment that is honest, ethical and nurturing. When a child does an act that is morally correct then the child should be praised. Positive the reinforcement from the praise should encourage the child to want to behave similarly in the future.
The Social Cognitive Learning theory also explains how teachers can positively influence this group. With this theory, children learn through imitation. A teacher should monitor their own actions so that if the children do mirror their behavior then it is behavior that is morally acceptable.
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“In the United States 48 in 1,000 children are reported for possible maltreatment (abuse and neglect) to Child Protective Services (CPS) each year”. (van Tilburg et al. (2010). However, it is suspected that this is just a small sample of many cases that go unreported. Teachers spend a large portion of a day with their students. Signs of abuse or neglect are likely to show themselves in the classroom. Being aware of certain signs and symptoms can help a teacher identify when something might not be right with a student and possibly help in identifying when a child needs help. The following are a list of common indicators of abuse and neglect that would be a warning sign to seek out further assistance.
Physical Indicators
Bruises (on the face, legs, back).
Fractures especially in children younger than two.
Burns.
Lacerations and welts.
Consistent medical problems left unattended.
Severe uncleanliness.
Behavioral Indicators
Constant fatigue.
Fear of punishment.
Serious withdrawal or acting out.
Showing uncharacteristic aggression.
Abnormal hunger.
Shyness of physical contact with adults.
Reporting abuse.
Giving inconsistent or outrageous stories as explanations for injuries. 16
Behavioral Indicators
Difficulty walking or sitting
Constant fatigue
Self-destructive behavior
Not eating
Serious withdrawal or acting out
Showing uncharacteristic aggression
Avoiding or being nervous of contact with adults
Artwork depicting sexual themes
Talks about sexual contact
Reports having to keep secret an activity with an adult of older child
Reports fear of being left alone with an adult or older child
Behavioral Indicators
Self-abusive behavior
Serious withdrawal or acting out
Showing uncharacteristic aggression
Extreme submissiveness and compliance, socially unresponsive
Rocking and thumb sucking
Does not play
Describes themselves in negative terms (Kemple & Kim, 2011) 17
Detecting a learning disability is a difficult task. All children are different and while tend to develop at similar rates, still may accomplish certain learning skills at different times. Children that realize they have an issue do not want to be discovered and may try to hide the fact that something is not working for them. The following list are some possible signs to take notice of in suspecting a possible learning disability in a student.
Lack of enthusiasm for reading or writing
Trouble memorizing things
Working at a slow pace
Trouble following directions
Trouble staying focused on a task
Difficulty understanding abstract ideas
Lack of attention to detail, or too much attention to detail
Poor social skills
Disruptiveness
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An article by Gleason, Zeanah & Dicksten (2010) stated, “In primary care settings, approximately 10% of preschoolers have serious mental health problems that interfere with their current functioning in family, childcare, and peer contexts. These problems are also associated with an elevated risk of future emotional, academic, and relationship problems.” One of the first places an issue with mental health may be discovered is in the classroom. In order to be able to help a student having issues, teachers should be aware of the following warning signs.
The “Talk About Mental Health For Educators” (n.d.) website suggests the following signs to watch for:
Extreme feelings of sadness that last for more than two weeks
Talk of harming oneself, or making plans to do so
Sudden overwhelming fear for no reason, sometimes with a racing heart or fast breathing
Involvement in many fights or desire to badly hurt others
Severe out-of-control behavior that can hurt oneself or others
Not eating, throwing up
Intense worries or fears
Extreme difficulty concentrating or staying still that puts the student in physical danger or causes problems in the classroom
Severe mood swings that cause problems with friendships
Drastic changes in the student’s behavior or personality 19
While there are many different aspects of what to expect when in the classroom and leading children at the early childhood stage, this guide was created to some basic topics to assist teachers in handling and understanding situations that may be presented to them. Understanding theories of development in all aspects including physical, cognitive, language, social, emotional and moral areas
can help a teacher decide what to do next. The suggested classroom tips, ideas and activities are just a base for understanding what can and should be practiced in a classroom during early childhood. Teachers are sometimes the front line in observing behaviors that point out maltreatment or neglect, learning disabilities and mental health issues. Knowing the warning signs is a good way to be ready to seek assistance for the child if there seems to be an issue at hand. Learning, practicing and understanding these theories and tips will help to make time in the classroom beneficial to the teacher and the children.
[Early Childhood Teacher and Students Photo]. Retrieved from: http://middlechildhoodinfo.wikispaces.com/home 20
[Whole Child Development Visual]. Retrieved from http://www.lovelycommotion.com/wp-content/ uploads/2013/06/whole-child-development-social.gif [Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model Visual]. Retrieved from https:// clarityrising.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/ecological-model-3.gif Mclendon, Kelly. Jean Piaget:Cognitive Developmentin the Classroom. Funderstanding.com. 26 Apr. 2011. Oswalt, Angela. Early Childhood Cognitive Development. Child Development and Parenting. Mentalhelp.net. 16 Jan. 2008. van Tilburg, M. L., Runyan, D. K., Zolotor, A. J., Graham, J. C., Dubowitz, H., Litrownik, A. J., & ... Whitehead, W. E. (2010). Unexplained gastrointestinal symptoms after abuse in a prospec tive study of children at risk for abuse and neglect. Annals Of Family Medicine, 8(2), 134140. doi:10.1370/afm.1053 Kemple, K.m., & Kim, H.k. (2011). Suspected Child Maltreatment: Recognize and Respond. Dimen sions Of Early Childhood 39, no. 2: 3-11. ERIC, EBSCOhost (accessed January 28, 2017). Bhandari, S. (2016). Web Md Medical Reference, Retrieved from http://webmd.com/children/guide/
detecting-learning-disablities#1 Gleason, M. M., Zeanah, C. H., & Dickstein, S. (2010, May/June). Recognizing children in need of mental health assessment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 31(3), 335-337. Re trieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.contentproxy.phoenix.edu/ehost/detail/detail? sid=34fdf7d1-2d5f-420b-aa73-78965a2460dd% 40sessionmgr102&vid=25&hid=130&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d% 3d#AN=50316747&db=a9h Talk About Mental Health for Educators. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mentalhealth.gov/talk/ eductaors/index.html
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Child Development Tracker. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/parengts/ childdevelopmenttracker/one/physicalhealth.html [Morals Self-Control Graphic]. Retrieved from: http://www.teachingwithtlc.com/2007/10/teaching-yourchild-about-gossip_30.html
[Child Learn Photo]. Retrieved from: http://classroom-assessment-theory-intopractice.wikispaces.com/Assessment+for+FASD Driscoll A., Nagel, N.G. (2010). Stages of Language Development. Retrieved from http:// education.com/reference/article/stages-language-development Bowen, C. (1998). Ages and Stages Summary: Language Development 0-5 years. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy-.com/ Krawford, K. Developmental Psychology Bandura and Piaget Cognitive Development in Language. Retrieved from http://academia.edu/2365077/ Developmental_Psychology_Bandura_and_Piaget_Cognitive_Development_in_Language. Khalidah, N. (2014). Chomsky’s and Skinner’s Theory of Language Acquisition. Retrieved from http://slideshare.net/nurkhalidah1/chomskys-and-skinners-theory-of-language-acqusition. [Early Childhood Teacher and Students Photo]. Retrieved from: http:// middlechildhoodinfo.wikispaces.com/home [Children Playing with Blocks Photo]. Retrieved from: http://ece120.wikispaces.com/ importance+of+play
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