SEPTEMBER 7 — DECEMBER 17, 2023
MONTEREY MUSEUM OF ART
NARRATIVE LABELS
SAARTJIE BAARTMAN
(1789-1815)
Saartjie Baartman (aka Sarah Baartman) was born around 1789 in the Eastern Cape region of South Africa, belonging to the Khoikhoi ethnic group. Her distinctive African features–a curvaceous body and elongated buttocks–were seen as both alluring and primitive to European audiences, leading to her objectification and exploitation. In 1810, William Dunlop (a British ship's doctor) convinced Saartjie to travel with him to Europe, promising her fame and fortune. Once in Europe, Saartjie was exhibited in a degrading manner at various events and venues, particularly in Britain and France. She was showcased as a “freak show” attraction under the derogatory nickname “Hottentot Venus.” Saartjie's tragic tale came to an end on December 29, 1815, when
she passed away at the young age of 26. After her death, her body was dissected and displayed in Paris, France, for scientific and anthropological purposes. Her remains, including her skeleton, genitalia, and brain, were exhibited in museums and studied for nearly two centuries as supposed “scientific evidence” of racial inferiority, perpetuating racist stereotypes and attitudes. In 1994, the former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, formally requested the repatriation of Saartjie's remains. In 2002, her remains were finally returned to her homeland and laid to rest in the Gamtoos Valley of the Eastern Cape, ending a long and painful chapter in history.
Saartjie Baartman, from the Halo series, 2020, gold leaf and acrylic on wood panel, 24 x 24 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
QUEEN NZINGHA MBANDE
(1583-1663)
Nzingha Mbande was queen of the Ambundu kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba, located in present day northern Angola. Born in 1583, she received military and political training as a child. She ruled during the growth of the Portuguese slave trade and fought against the Portuguese for the independence of her kingdom in a reign that lasted 37 years. She was known to carry a hatchet into battle and knew how to use it. Inheriting the rule of Ndongo in 1624, Queen Nzingha Mbande allied herself with the Portuguese, which simultaneously halted Portuguese and African slave raiding in the region. To achieve this,
Nzingha had herself baptized with the Portuguese colonial governor serving as her godfather. Nonetheless, she was soon betrayed by the Portuguese and was forced to flee and reorganize her militia. She adopted a form of military organization known as kilombo, in which youths renounced family ties and were raised communally in militias. By the time of her death, she had developed her region into a formidable commercial state. Today, she is remembered as the Mother of Angola and protector of her people.
Queen Nzingha Mbande, from the Halo series, 2021, gold leaf and acrylic on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
LETITIA MUNSON
(ca. 1820-ca. 1882)
Letitia Munson was born around 1820 on a North Carolina plantation but emerged as an influential herbalist, fortune-teller, and midwife. By the 1870s, Letitia had become a confidante for women facing unwanted pregnancies and seeking privacy and support during their pregnancies. She provided not only physical care but also emotional comfort to those in need; her compassionate approach earned her the trust and gratitude of numerous women who sought her help. Tragically, in 1882, Ellen Weingardner was found dead in Letitia's adjacent house, having suffered a possible abortion in the eighth month of her pregnancy. Suspicion fell upon Letitia, and the townspeople recalled half-remembered stories of alleged horrors connected with her family. The evidence at the inquest pointed to Letitia's involvement,
and she was charged with conducting or assisting in the abortion. During the trial, Letitia vehemently denied performing any abortion, explaining that the instruments found in her home were used for medical purposes such as lancing boils. Although Leticia was acquitted by the jury, her life then became shrouded in mystery. Her immense contribution to the community and her groundbreaking journey from slavery to respected healer and confidante remained largely unrecognized and overshadowed. Letitia Munson's story is a testament to the strength of the human spirit and the unyielding determination of those who rose above adversity to make a positive impact on the lives of others.
Letitia Munson, from the Halo series, 2023, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
CARLOTA LUCUMÍ
(n.d.-1843)
Carlotta of Cuba, also known as Carlota or La Negra Carlota, was a significant figure in Cuban history. Carlotta was born into slavery in the early 19th century and held at Triunvirato, a sugar plantation in Matanzas, Cuba. In the year 1843, Carlotta's life took a momentous turn when she became a key figure in the Triunvirato rebellion (a slave uprising against plantation owners and white overseers of this sugar mill). This rebellion was the last in a series of uprisings known as La Escalera, where enslaved Africans and free people of color fought against the oppressive Spanish colonial rule and brutal conditions of slavery in Cuba. Historical accounts suggest that Carlotta played
a central role in organizing and leading the rebellion at Triunvirato. Despite her bravery, the rebellion was crushed, and she was executed. Over time, Carlotta's legacy has grown to represent the wider struggle for emancipation and social justice in Cuba. For example, in 1974, Cuba intervened in Angola to support its struggle for independence, naming the operation “Operación Carlota” after her. Her story continues to be celebrated in literature, music, and other forms of art, cementing her status as a revered figure in Cuba’s history of independence.
Carlotta of Cuba, from the Halo series, 2022, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery
RICHARD POTTER (1783-1835)
Richard Potter was a magician, hypnotist, and ventriloquist in early 19th New England and is widely considered the first African American celebrity. He was born in Massachusetts to a white father and a Black mother who had been captured by enslavers along the Guinea coast. He married a Native American woman and had three children. His son Henry (also called Harry) died at age seven. His next son, Richard Jr., had less success than his father as a magician. Richard Sr. was a
Mason of the first African Lodge No. 459, purchased land and built a large estate near Andover, New Hampshire. When he died in 1835, his will dictated that he be buried standing upright. Potter’s story intrigued Harry Houdini, who included Potter in his popular Magazine of Magic. His life also inspired Grace Metalious’ character Samuel Peyton in the novel Peyton Place (1956) as the town’s founding father.
Richard Potter, from the Halo series, 2021, gold leaf and acrylic on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
JOHN HORSE (ca. 1812-1882)
John Horse, also known as Juan Caballo, Gopher John, and John Cowaya, was a prominent figure in the history of the Seminole people and the African American community in Florida during the 19th century. During the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), John Horse and his community fought alongside the Seminole Indians against the U.S. Army in a series of conflicts and guerrilla warfare tactics resisting the forced removal of the Seminole people from Florida to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). John Horse's leadership skills and military prowess earned him respect within the Seminole
community, and he was eventually recognized as a chief and diplomat, representing the interests of the Black Seminoles in negotiations with the U.S. government. John Horse's legacy lives on as a resilient leader who fought for the rights and freedom of his people. He was a symbol of resistance against slavery and oppression, representing the complex and intertwined history of African Americans and Native Americans in the struggle for autonomy and dignity.
John Horse, from the Halo series, 2023, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
CATHAY WILLIAMS
(1844-ca. 1893)
Cathay Williams defied societal norms and historical expectations. Enslaved in Missouri, she gained her freedom after the Civil War when the Union Army accepted African American recruits. In 1866, Williams disguised herself as a man under the name William Cathay and enlisted in the United States Army. She became the first documented African American woman to serve in the U.S. military, facing immense challenges and risking discovery. Despite efforts
to conceal her identity, she contracted smallpox, leading to her discovery as a woman. In 1868, Cathay Williams received an honorable discharge from the army due to her health issues. Today, Cathay Williams is acknowledged as a trailblazer and a symbol of resilience, highlighting the often-overlooked contributions of African American women in shaping American history.
Cathay Williams, from the Halo series, 2023, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
LOPE MARTÍN
(ca. 1520s-n.d.)
Lope Martín, an extraordinary Afro-Portuguese mariner, played a pivotal role in exploring and opening the Pacific Ocean (a feat often overshadowed by Christopher Columbus's famous voyage across the Atlantic Ocean). Born into challenging circumstances, Martín found his calling as a sailor and rose through the ranks to become a licensed pilot, despite the prejudices and barriers he faced as a Black man in an era dominated by white European naval officers. In 1564, King Phillip II of Spain chose Martín to pilot the ship San Lucas in a fleet of four ships sent on a secret venture from the little-known harbor of Navidad (far north of the established port of Acapulco, Mexico), to the Philippines to establish a base and return home. Leading the smallest and least equipped ship in the
fleet, Martín became separated from the others early in the journey, drawing suspicion from the expedition's leaders. Controversy and false accusations of treason tainted Martín's achievements, leading to his erasure from various historical records. Nonetheless, the extent of his accomplishments and legacy cannot be overlooked, as his journey established the route that Spanish vessels retraced for the next two centuries, making the Pacific a viable trading and exploration route. Martín’s story stands as a testament to the resilience, intelligence, and groundbreaking accomplishments of those who have been marginalized and overlooked throughout history.
Lope Martin, from the Halo series, 2023, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery
JAMES ARMISTEAD LAFAYETTE
(ca. 1748-1830/32)
James Armistead Lafayette was an enslaved African American who played a pivotal role in the American Revolutionary War. Born into slavery in Virginia, he was recruited by the Marquis de Lafayette, a French military officer supporting the American cause. Armistead volunteered to serve as a spy for the Continental Army, and while working undercover, he gathered valuable intelligence from the British forces, including their troop movements and strategic plans. His efforts were instrumental in the American victory at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, a turning point in the war. After the war, James Armistead Lafayette successfully petitioned the Virginia legislature for
his freedom, which he was granted in 1787. He then took the last name "Lafayette" as an expression of gratitude and respect for the Marquis de Lafayette. James Armistead Lafayette is celebrated as a hero of the American Revolution and a symbol of the bravery and resilience of African Americans who fought for their country's freedom. His story highlights the often-overlooked contributions of African Americans during the Revolutionary era and serves as an inspiring example of courage and dedication in the face of adversity.
James Armistead Lafayette, from the Halo series, 2023, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
JEAN-JACQUES DESSALINES
(ca. 1758-1806)
Dessalines was a key figure in the fight for Haitian independence and the abolition of slavery. Born into slavery around 1758 in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), he was inspired by the French Revolution's ideals and joined the slave uprising led by Toussaint Louverture. Following Toussaint's capture and deportation, Dessalines continued the struggle against French forces. In 1804, he declared Haiti's independence and became the nation's first ruler, taking the title of Emperor. Under
his leadership, Haiti became the first independent nation in Latin America and the Caribbean, but his rule was cut short when he was assassinated in 1806. Despite this, his legacy as a symbol of Haitian independence and resistance against oppression endures. His significant contributions to the fight for liberty and emancipation continue to be revered in Haitian history and the broader struggle for human rights.
Dessalines, from the Halo series, 2022, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
CALIFIA
Califia is the mythical Black warrior Queen and inspiring character in Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo’s 16th century epic poem, Las Sergas de Esplandián (The Adventures of Esplandian). In Montalvo’s tale, Queen Califia rules on the fabled island of California, a utopia brimming with pearls and gold and inhabited solely by her menacing army of Black Amazon women. Commanding a Naval fleet and an aerial flock of five-hundred winged Griffins, the pagan Queen is a fierce adversary for the Crusaders. Still, she is eventually conquered, converted to Christianity, and married off to a chivalrous Spaniard.
She returns to California with her husband to establish a new Christian dynasty, where further adventures ensue. Familiar with Montalvo’s novel, when Spanish explorers, under the command of Hernán Cortés, learned of an island off the coast of western Mexico rumored to be ruled by Black Amazon women, they named it California. The title stuck as the state’s namesake even after the “island” was discovered to be a peninsula, now known as Baja California Peninsula.
(c. 1510)
Califia, 2022, gold leaf and acrylic on wood panel, 30 x 56 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
MOSES THE BLACK
(330 AD-405 AD)
Saint Moses the Black, also known as Saint Moses the Ethiopian, was born in Egypt during the 4th century in the region of modern-day Sudan. He is best remembered for his dramatic transformation from a notorious thief and brigand to a devout and respected monk. From an early age, Saint Moses the Black led a life of crime, forming a gang of bandits infamous for their violent raids on travelers and caravans passing through the area. One day, Moses encountered a group of monks on their way to a monastery in the desert. Instead of attacking them, Moses was intrigued by their peaceful demeanor and decided to observe
them from a distance. He witnessed their devotion to prayer, simple lifestyle, and commitment to a higher purpose. Overwhelmed by their compassion, he renounced his criminal past and embraced the monastic way of life. Moses' reputation as a holy man spread far beyond the monastery, and he is remembered now for his journey from a life of sin to one of holiness. Saint Moses the Black's life is a powerful testament to the belief that no one is beyond redemption and that one can find a new path of righteousness and grace through faith and repentance.
Saint Moses the Black, 2020, acrylic and gold leaf on wood panel, 36 x 24 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
BALTHAZAR
(c.
54 BC - 55 AD)
One of the three biblical ‘magi’ or ‘wise men,’ King Balthazar gave the highly prized gift of liquid myrrh to the Baby Jesus upon his birth. Balthazar was an African king and was described in the 8th century by Pseudo-Bede as being “[of] black complexion, with [a] heavy beard,” and yet it would be one thousand years before artists began representing him as a Black African. It was only around 1480/90 that his
depiction as a Black African emerged, coinciding with the beginning of the Portuguese slave trade on the west coast of Africa. In Greenfield’s depiction, an observatory alludes to his scholarship in astronomy and the star of Bethlehem, which guided the Three Wise Men to the manger.
Balthazar, 2021, gold leaf and acrylic on wood panel, 20 x 16 in. Courtesy of William Turner Gallery.
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