مصادر للباحث العلمي الرياضي2

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Dr mouwafak almola documents ‫مبادئ التدريب الرياضي‬ mouwafak.mola@aspire.qa

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PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING This first issue of Coaching Science Abstracts reviews articles concerned with principles and factors associated with training program content.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SUMMARY OF TRAINING EFFECTS Shepard, R. J. (1978). Aerobic versus anaerobic training for success in various athletic events. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 3, 9-15.

2. ADAPTATIONS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.

3. CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS AND PERFORMANCE Rodahl, A., O'Brien, M., & Firth, P. G. (1976). Diurnal variation in performance of competitive swimmers. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 16, 72-76.

4. DETRAINING Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1988). Physiological adaptations to physical training. In Training for sport and activity, Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.

5. RETRAINING Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1988). Physiological adaptations to physical training. In Training for sport and activity, Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.

6. TRAINING AND DETRAINING Rundell, K. W. (1994). Strength and endurance: Use it or lose it. Olympic Coach, 4(1), 7-9. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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7. WHEN CEILING LEVELS OF FITNESS ARE REACHED IN SWIMMING Rushall Thoughts (1993).

8. EXERCISE AND BODY COMPOSITION IN WOMEN Ullrich, I., Bryner, R., Toffle, R., & Yeater, R. (1993). The effects of exercise intensity on body composition in women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 316.

9. EXERCISE AND IMMUNOLOGY Nash, M. S., Nieman, D. C., Pedersen, B. K., Davis, J. M., Hoffman-Goetz, L., & Mackinnon, L. T. (1993). Exercise and immunology. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 123.

10.TRAINING RESPONSES IN SWIMMERS Bonen, A., & Kemp, N. H. (1977). Physiological, metabolic and practical considerations for training swimmers. Research Papers in Physical Education, 3(3), 10-15.

11.TRAINING LEVELS FOR SWIMMERS Sharp, R. L. (1993). Prescribing and evaluating interval training sets in swimming: a proposed model. Journal of Swimming Research, 9, 36-40.

12.AEROBIC TRAINING Madsen, O. (1983). Aerobic training: not so fast, there. Swimming Technique, November 1982-January 1983, 13-18.

13.AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC IMPROVEMENTS AT THE SAME TIME Goforth, H. W., Jacobs, I., & Prusaczyk, W. K. (1994). Simultaneous enhancement of aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 171.

14.AEROBIC TRAINING IS LIMITED IN CHILDREN

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Rowland, T., & Boyajian, A. (1994). Aerobic response to endurance training in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 468.

15.CROSS TRAINING SUPPORTED FOR GENERAL FITNESS Loy, S. F., Holland, G. J., Mutton, D. L., Snow, J., Vincent, W. J., Hoffmann, J. J., & Shaw, S. (1994). Effects of stair-climbing vs run training on treadmill and track running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(11), 1275-1278.

16.CROSS-TRAINING FOR AVERAGE PERSONS IS HELPFUL Mutton, D. L., Loy, S. F., Rogers, D. M., Holland, G. J., Vincent, W. J., & Heng, M. (1993). Effect of run vs combined cycle/run training on VO2max and running performance. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 25(12), 1393-1397.

17.COMMENTS ON TRAINING CATEGORIES AND TRAINING PARAMETER VARIATIONS Rick L. Sharp (personal communication 30 August, 1994).

18.CHILDREN HAVE ONLY GENERAL METABOLIC RESPONSES Bar-Or, O. (1983). Pediatric sports medicine for the practitioner (comprehensive manual in pediatrics). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

19.STRENGTH AND ANAEROBIC RESPONSES IN YOUNG FEMALE RUNNERS Thorland, W. G., Johnson, G. O., Cisar, C. J., Housh, T. J., & Tharp, G. D. (1987). Strength and anaerobic responses of elite young female sprint and distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 56-61.

20.TRAINING EFFECTS IN YOUNG BOYS (11-13 YR) Mero, A., Jaakkola, L., & Komi, P. V. (1991). Relationships between muscle fibre characteristics and physical performance capacity in trained athletic boys. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9, 161-171. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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21.TRAINING EFFECTS ARE GENERAL IN YOUNG MALES Overend, T., Paterson, D., Cunningham, D., & Taylor, A. (1985, October).

Interval and continuous training: A comparison of training effects. A paper given at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences, Laval University, Quebec.

22.FITNESS VARIATIONS IN ELITE ATHLETES Koutedakis, Y. (1995). Seasonal variation in fitness parameters in competitive athletes. Sports Medicine, 19, 373-392.

23.CRITICAL VELOCITY TEST FOR RUNNING Florence, S. L., & Weir, J. P. (1995). Relationship of critical velocity to marathon running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 43.

24.ENERGY COST OF RUNNING MIDDLE-DISTANCES Hill, D. W. (1995). Energy cost of middle distance running races. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 45.

25.TIME OF DAY AND ANAEROBIC PERFORMANCE Lieferman, J. A., Jones, N. A., Dangelmaier, B. S., Dedrick, G. S., Burt, S. E., Swetmon, J. K., & Hill, D. W. (1995). Temporal specificity in exercise training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 124.

26.ENERGY COST OF OLYMPIC KAYAKING EVENTS Fernandez, B., Perez-Landaluce, J., Rodriguez, M., & Terrados, N. (1995).

Metabolic contribution in Olympic kayaking events. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 143.

27.TRAINING NOT ALWAYS OF A PHYSIOLOGICAL NATURE Myburgh, K. H., Lindsay, F. H., Hawley, J. A., Dennis, S. C., & Noakes, T. D. (1995). High-intensity training for 1 month improves performance but not ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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muscle enzyme activities in high-trained cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 370.

28.AN ENERGY METABOLISM DIFFERENCE IN WOMEN Esbjornsson, M., Bodin, K., & Jansson, E. (1995). Muscle metabolism during a 30-s sprint test (Wingate Test) in females and males. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 448.

29.BODY SEGMENTS AND ROWING ERGOMETRY Kleshnev, V., & Kleshneva, E. (1995). Relationship of total work performance with part performance of main body segments during rowing ergometry. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 511.

30.SEX DIFFERENCES SHOWN IN ANAEROBIC RUNNING POWER TESTS Nummela, A., & Rusko, H. (1995). Gender differences in the determinants of maximal anaerobic running power. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 776.

31.TRAINING PRINCIPLES FOR MASTERS ATHLETES Rushall Thoughts, 1995.

32.ATTRIBUTES OF MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING Brandon, L. J. (1995). Physiological factors associated with middle distance running performance. Sports Medicine, 19, 268-277.

SUMMARY OF TRAINING EFFECTS Shepard, R. J. (1978). Aerobic versus anaerobic training for success in various athletic events. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 3, 9-15.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES BASED ON PERFORMANCE DURATION Single Maximum Contraction Events ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Examples: throwing a baseball, jumping for a basketball rebound, lifting a weight in a power-lifting competition.

Important Features 1. Explosive force is the principal capacity that is used. It is determined by the following characteristics: (a) the total number of muscle fibers that can be recruited (predominantly slow-twitch fibers with as many fast-twitch fibers as can be enlisted for the effort level); (b) the magnitude of the force beyond the 50 percent effort level (this will be mainly influenced by the number of fast-twitch fibers that are used); and (c) the activity of the enzyme ATPase and the resultant rate of energy transfer from phosphate stores to the bonding of the muscle proteins actin and myosin.

2. The mechanical resistive forces that exist in the body are: (a) muscle viscosity (which is greatly affected by core temperature and to a lesser extent the degree of hydration in the body); (b) the degree of relaxation in the antagonist muscles; and (c) the inertia of the body parts that are to be employed in the action (this has direct bearing on when body segments are initiated in any movement, for example, the quicker a segment needs to be employed the greater is the energy cost to mobilize that segment).

3. The performance capacities which surround biomechanics and skill learning are timing, skill, and agility. These combine to form a coordinated smooth movement that produces an efficient explosive force.

Training for single maximum contraction events is determined more by learning and practice characteristics than physical changes which occur within the muscle or body. Such training is best achieved through maximally specific practice trials with adequate between-trials recovery. The provision of performance feedback that can be used to improve the quality of the skill efficiency is equally important.

The volume of correct performances at competition intensity, that is, specific skill learning, is the major training determinant for performance improvement in this class of activity. A relatively well-trained non-specific endurance capacity could assist the development of stress tolerance, application to training, and recovery rates.

Since most improvement in these events comes from skill-learning sources, one should expect to continually improve throughout a sporting career provided the skill training is correct and stimulates continual efficiency development. As long as ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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the physiological capacities associated with the sport are sanely developed and maintained, an extensive career in high-level performance is possible.

Very Brief Events (less than 10 seconds) Examples: Running a 50 meter dash, performing a long jump, sprinting in cover defense in football, running between bases in baseball.

Important Features 1. The anaerobic power that is available. This is affected by: (a) the energy transfer ability of ATPase and CPase to the bonding of actin and myosin in muscle contraction; (b) the total number of muscle fibers used; (c) the proportion of fast-twitch fibers used in each single action in the total event; and (d) towards the upper limit of this type of activity there may be some demand placed on the lactacid energy system so that some lactic acid is formed although it will not reach very high levels.

2. The mechanical resistive forces in the body are: (a) muscle viscosity, (b) the degree of relaxation in the antagonist muscles, and (c) the inertia in the various body parts that are moved. The mechanical resistive forces outside of the body are (a) energy loss due to friction with the ground and/or performance medium (water and/or air), (b) air resistance, and (c) the raising and lowering of the center of gravity (the less the better).

3. The performance capacities which surround biomechanics and skill learning are timing, skill, and agility. These combine to form a coordinated smooth movement that produces an efficient explosive force. Each individual action needs to be cyclically performed so that the most efficient and productive movement is repeated. This requires much training of a specific nature so that evenness of force application at a maximum intensity is learned. Since performance determinants are primarily based in skill learning, auxiliary training using simple activities (e.g., weight training, rebounding) and unrelated activities are not likely to influence any performance improvements. The major learning task is to develop and control forced movements that exceed the normal ballistic velocity of the limbs that are used. Since that is unnatural, the amount of exact and specific training that occurs will determine the ability to execute efficiently. From a physiological viewpoint, there should be sufficient training performed to overload the alactacid energy system so that it improves (the amount of improvement may be as much as 20 percent but that will translate into extending maximum performance by only a few seconds). ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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The best forms of training for these activities are specific repetition and ultra-short training. An emphasis on all types of general physiological training will have no benefit and could even be detrimental because of the development of excessive general fatigue and inappropriate movement patterns.

Training at specific maximum intensities with sufficient recovery between trials is the major conditioning principle for these events. The most significant performance improvements are likely to result from skill enhancement. This means that performance improvements should be expected throughout an athlete's career.

A relatively well-trained endurance capability could assist the development of stress tolerance, application to training, and recovery rates.

Brief Events (10 to 60 seconds) Examples: Running a 400 meter race; cycling in a 1000 meter sprint; swimming a 100 meter butterfly race; participating in a goal-line to goal-line move in rugby.

Important Features 1. The alactacid energy system is exhausted early in the event performance (usually within 10 seconds).

2. The lactacid energy system breaks down glycogen in the absence of oxygen to form lactic acid and hydrogen protons. Maximum lactic acid values can be reached within 40 seconds and after that performance deteriorates very rapidly. Thus, with activities that last longer than 40 seconds it is not possible to perform maximally for the duration of the event, consequently, some compromise in effort intensity will have to be made to endure to the completion of the task.

3. The trained capacity of the alactacid and lactacid energy systems will influence performance. The alactacid system can only be improved with marginal consequences (usually no more than an extra two seconds). The lactacid system can be trained to improve by as much as 20 percent depending upon the initial level of training. This means that maximum performances can be extended by no more than about 10 seconds as a result of physiological conditioning.

The physiological components altered by training are: (a) the ATP and CP stores in the muscles, (b) the amount of glycogen (stored in the muscles and liver) and blood glucose that can be used, (c) the activity of the glycolytic

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enzymes in the muscles, and (d) the ability of the body to buffer (tolerate) higher levels of lactic acid.

4. The resistive forces within and external to the body are similar to those incurred in very brief events (described above).

5. Performance capacities which surround biomechanics and skill learning are timing, skill, and agility. These combine to form a coordinated smooth movement that produces the highest level of skill efficiency and an optimal level of effort while appropriating the limited capacities of the alactacid and lactacid energy systems in the most efficient manner. Each individual action needs to be cyclically performed so that the most efficient and productive movement is repeated. This requires much training of a specific nature so that the evenness of force application is learned at the highest intensity that can be maintained for the event. Since these activities are largely influenced by skill learning, auxiliary training using simple activities (e.g., weight training, rebounding) and unrelated activities are not likely to contribute to any performance improvement value in intermediate or higher level athletes.

The amount of exact and specific training that occurs will determine the ability to execute with the greatest mechanical efficiency. From a physiological viewpoint, there should be sufficient training performed to overload the alactacid energy system so that it improves. Training the lactacid energy system is also necessary. Its improvement is best achieved by experiencing 100 percent effort levels at training. However, such training is particularly exhausting and its repetition will be governed by the rate of recovery between training stimuli. In order to experience a sufficient number of skill repetitions so that efficiency of movement can be learned, ultra-short training would seem to be the most appropriate form of conditioning. The ceiling level of training for these two energy systems can be achieved in a relatively short time (from five to seven weeks) so coaches should be very wary of overtraining. Since skill learning is still important as a training emphasis, it would seem to be advisable to condition the energy systems at a rate that is slower than maximal. Such a conservative approach would reduce the possibility of accrued fatigue interfering with skill learning and development.

It is still unlikely that auxiliary simple or unrelated training activities will have any effect on performance improvement in these events. Unrelated activities, if done at a low intensity, could serve as active recovery pursuits and in that role could be beneficial. The development of a general endurance capacity would also increase the ability of an athlete to recover more quickly between repetitions of training ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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stimuli and to perform greater training volumes. However, if that endurance capacity is developed using the same activity as the event itself it could be counter productive (e.g., endurance running reduces the capacity to sprint). Thus, endurance needs to be developed in a multilateral activity (e.g., runners should row, cyclists should run).

The best form of training is specific repetition training and ultra-short training. All types of general physiological training will not be beneficial and could even be detrimental because of excessive general fatigue and the development of inappropriate movement patterns.

The importance of physiological training is greater for brief events than for the two previous performance classifications. Significant functional changes can be achieved by using correct applications of training stimuli. However, the skill of executing the most efficient action for the longest duration is still a learningdetermined phenomenon. Thus, the factors that surround skill learning, and the repetition of correct trials should dominate the focus of training for these activities and will be the greatest contributors to performance improvements.

Sustained Events (60 seconds to 60 minutes) Examples: Playing a game of rugby football; swimming 1500 meters; running 10,000 meters; playing a game of basketball.

Important Features 1. The greatest proportion of energy in these events is contributed by the aerobic energy system. At various stages during and often at the end of an event high lactic acid levels can be incurred. If they occur during the event there usually needs to be some recovery period to return lactic acid to tolerable levels (normally 4 mM or less). In sustained cyclic events such as running, swimming, cycling, and cross-country skiing, there is an exaggerated use of the lactacid energy system at the start and end of the event. There is also some exploitation of the alactacid energy system but its overall contribution to such an extended performance is virtually negligible.

Thus, performance improvements through physical training should come from the aerobic and, to a lesser extent, the anaerobic energy systems. (a) Aerobic power can be improved by 5 to 20 percent depending upon the initial fitness level of the athlete. Even an improvement of five percent is of ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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greater influence when compared to what can be contributed by the lactacid energy system. Thus, the principal emphasis of training should be on aerobic adaptation which will produce marked changes in the physiological structure and capacity of an individual. (b) The lactacid system is influenced by the original strength of the individual. Theory suggests that the greater the strength of a person, the fewer the number of fibers that need to be contracted to perform a certain level of work (this means the less anaerobic work that needs to be performed per standard unit of performance). Alternatively, a higher working capacity can be maintained if a stronger individual is required to perform at a standard effort level. This contention may be true when general training is initiated but it probably is not relevant once specific training commences. It is best to plan to achieve strength improvements before starting specific training for these events. (c) The choice of fuel for the exercise will determine the magnitude of the performance. Although the major fuel will be fat, the amount of stored glycogen and blood glucose will affect the amount of work that can be done (particularly in anaerobic conditions). Thus, carbohydrate loading is important for events at the upper extreme of this classification.

2. The resistance forces involved are the same as those discussed for the previous two performance classifications.

3. Skill factors are still important. The factor which differentiates champions from lesser performers of like capacities, is the ability to perform work with greater efficiency, that is, at a reduced oxygen cost. The training of smooth actions which limit unnecessary movements and produce the greatest direct forces for the least energy cost are features of the skill of performing that need to be taught and learned. Training the skill characteristics should emphasize periodic assessments of the metabolic cost of performing at various intensities. Once physiological capacities have been shown to have reached their ceiling levels, the training emphasis should be altered to produce higher performance standards for the same metabolic cost. If there is no change in physiological adaptation once it has been maximized and there is no attempt to change the skill and efficiency of movement then one should not expect performance to improve to any marked degree. Once physiological capacities have been maximized, further performance improvements can only be achieved through skill and psychological factors. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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An "experience" factor that needs to be developed is the ability of the athlete to allocate resources so that maximum exhaustion occurs as the finish line is crossed or the final whistle is blown. This capacity can be learned and should be an outcome of the type of training that is programmed.

The best forms of training for these activities are (a) those which establish an aerobic base through various forms of continuous training in the principal activity of the sport; (b) training stimuli which allow aerobic adaptation to occur at the intensity of the intended performance (e.g., various forms of specific interval training); and (c) repetition training of varying durations that also require competition-specific intensities (some of these may go to exhaustion as a means of promoting anaerobic adaptation).

The use of auxiliary training in conjunction with specific training will be of no value. Specific training is essential for developing performance efficiency which should be the main focus of the total training program. Although conditioning is important, skill and psychology will be the avenues for taking athletes beyond the level of performance that can be supported purely through maximized physiological adaptation.

Training at less than competition intensity is beneficial as long as it is balanced by at least an equivalent amount of time spent on specific-performance intensity training. A coaching emphasis on the development of the most efficient form of movement and energy resource allocation will be the major determinant of performance improvements in superior athletes.

Prolonged Events (60 minutes and longer) Examples: playing a game of soccer; running a marathon; competing in a triathlon; cycling in a road race; a 2-hour training session in swimming.

Important Features 1. The factors concerned with this class of activity are similar to those of the previous classification. What does become increasingly important is the ability to spare and conserve energy resources so that glycogen depletion does not occur during the performance. A large amount of energy will be supplied through fat metabolism but glycogen will still be used to a lesser degree. However, since the body only has sufficient stored carbohydrates to fuel about 90 minutes of work (120 minutes under carbohydrate-loaded ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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conditions) there still is the possibility that glycogen supplies can be exhausted. Diet and the type of training that is followed will be critical for fine-tuning the relative use of fat and glycogen for aerobic work.

2. Temperature regulation, heat acclimatization, clothing, diet, fluid replacement, altitude, pollution, and fatigue are features which moderate the level of training quality and volume as well as competitive performances.

Appropriate adjustments and acclimatization procedures need to be taken to minimize the impact of these factors.

3. Of all the activity classifications prolonged events require the greatest amount of training. This means that psychological factors, particularly motivation, goal-setting, feedback, and knowledge of progress will be very influential for maintaining a sustained application to training. Psychological problems and overuse injuries are usually indicators of an overtrained state.

The monitoring of the adaptive responses of athletes to the training volumes and frequencies is particularly important to avoid overtraining.

The skill of performing the task-relevant activities still remains an ominous factor for determining ultimate success in prolonged events. As athletes mature and their physiological capacities no longer develop, performances can still improve further because of changes in skill and efficiency of movement. These features should become the major focus of training once a training work-ethic and extensive history of training have been established in mature athletes.

EFFECTS OF TRAINING Skill 1. Skill development is neurologically based and therefore, in advanced athletes, is specific to each and every minor variation of activity. If a highlevel athlete attempts to deliberately transfer some elements of one skill to another then the target activity will be adversely affected, that is, made worse rather than better. On the other hand, in beginning athletes general concepts and gross skill-pattern elements from one activity can be transferred to another to form a starting point for new learning. For example, if someone has never played squash but has considerable background and competency in tennis then some tennis elements can be used in the initial squash lessons. An observer watching the player's first attempts at squash will be left with the impression that the "new" player has a good "innate ability" or "natural flair" for the sport. Usually, such an initial positive transfer from a "similar" activity gives a new participant an advantage in the ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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early stages of learning but that advantage is lost over other "disadvantaged" players as they experience learning in the new activity (i.e., they catch up).

In some circumstances, the initial positive transfer elements can be detrimental if they are retained rather than adjusted to exactly what is required in the new activity. That phenomenon leads to the situation where an athlete appears to be good in the early stages of sport involvement but later on does not improve as much as might be expected.

2. The training of skills must be specific. Repetition of the exact intensity required for competition performance is the only option that should be contemplated by the coach once the quality and technical features of a skill have been maximized. Where skill is a major determinant of sporting success when compared to the importance of physical conditioning, competition-specific skill practices should take precedence over any other form of non-specific physical conditioning. Consequently, the physical conditioning of skill-dependent sports should use forms of training that allow the exact skill to be practiced while undergoing physiological stimulation. The forms of conditioning that are most appropriate in such cases are interval and ultra-short training. Interval training should be designed to maintain the exact skill performance quality by adjusting recovery and task durations.

3. There are some sports where the gains in performance will be markedly more than in others. When a participant engages in an "unnatural" activity (e.g., swimming, kayaking) there is a large potential for improvement because of the low baseline from which training commences. On the other hand, for sports which are already part of an individual's life-style activities (e.g., running, throwing) the scope for improvement is more restricted since participants are already partially adapted and their level of baseline performance competency is much higher than those for "unnatural" sports.

4. When the mechanical efficiency of a sport is naturally low (e.g., swimming) minor gains in efficiency translate into large gains in performance. This leads to the perception of a beginning athlete having some "natural" flair for an activity because of rapid and obvious improvements. Noticeable performance changes that occur during conditioning and the repetition of skills will seem to be a direct result of programming. However, such impressions are based on the false premise that training is directly responsible for the observed improvements. Usually, the real reason is that the potential for improvement is so great that virtually doing anything will produce an improved performance, particularly in the early stages of skill development. For example, the sheer repetition of a skill pattern that is erroneous will produce an improvement through the reduction in skill ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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pattern variance (which is a factor involved with inefficiency). Thus, training with poor technique will produce improvements but only to a reduced ceiling level. Many coaches are lulled into a false sense of security because of athletes' quick performance changes that result from an initial emphasis on physical conditioning that involves many repetitions of a single skill. Since that emphasis appears to be very productive and reinforcing to the coach's behavior and program, it continues to be emphasized long after improvements have ceased. The result of that unproductive persistence is that many athletes are subjected to monotonous training that does not result in performance improvements. This occurs despite the fact that complex and unnatural sporting activities provide the greatest opportunities for improvement. Athletes in such sports should expect to continually improve in performance as skill efficiency is elevated. Coaches in sports such as swimming, pole-vaulting, rowing, triathlon, and most team and court games, who do not stimulate performance improvements in athletes can usually be charged with incorrect and improper coaching methods and content (even at the highest levels of performance).

Body Build There are some general features of body-structure that are worthy of consideration when planning training programs.

1. Excess fat is usually a hindrance to performance except in very long distance swimming. Some target event athletes have been fat and successful but that has usually been achieved despite obesity, not because of it.

2. In contact and combative sports, increased or superior levels of muscle mass are an advantage. As well as being directly related to the potential for strength and power movements, the increased mass also serves to create greater momentum and obstacles for opponents. This feature justifies the cliche "a good big athlete will always beat a good small athlete."

3. In sports where explosiveness and power are important, weight gains that are achieved through increases in muscle mass are best when restricted to the muscles used to produce the power for the activity. This means that "bulking-up" in muscles that do not contribute to performance productivity is counter-productive to improvement. Thus, the nature of the capacities that are required in a sport will dictate what developmental emphases should be stressed.

4. Somewhat allied to the above point is the principle that excessive muscle development (particularly bulk) can be a hindrance to performance. This is ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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very important for activities where the extra bulk has to be transported for a considerable period of time (e.g., in a football game, in a long race).

5. It is possible that strength gains which produce increased capillarization in prime-mover muscle groups used in sustained activities (e.g., the quadriceps in cycling) could be an advantage because increased blood flow during intensive effort would be facilitated. Research evidence suggests that endurance performance is not enhanced by strength gains (e.g., Hurley, Seals, Ehsani, Carter, Dalskey, Hagberg, & Holloszy, 1983) so this possibility should not be used as a justification for strength programs.

6. Heavy endurance training may produce small (30-40%) increases in the cross-section of active muscle fibers but can also lead to protein loss from inactive muscle areas. This means that overall body weight may not change but body shape will. For example, long-distance runners tend to lose or have diminished muscle mass in the torso and arms while their legs appear to be quite well-developed. A similar appearance is also often attributed to roadrace cyclists.

7. The loss of muscle mass is particularly noticeable in muscles that are not exercised after they have been specifically adapted through training. This often occurs during a period of inactivity caused by injury or ritualized detraining (e.g., a winter of inactivity). Performances cannot return to previous levels until those losses and in particular, muscular development, are corrected. This has direct relevance to performance expectations placed on athletes returning from periods of inactivity. Those expectations are often excessive and unrealistic.

Cardiorespiratory Power A fitness base of endurance training is a modern requirement for almost all sports.

Aerobic fitness affects temperament, mental capacities, and work capabilities. An athlete can perform longer and better both mentally and physically when the aerobic system is trained. Aerobic training only needs to be specific when it is an important capacity for performance (e.g., running, swimming, rowing, triathlon, and intermittent team and court games). It does not need to be specific for activities such as yachting, shooting, and baseball, where mental persistence and acuity are large determinants of sporting success.

1. Aerobic capacity (usually measured through maximum oxygen uptake-VO2max) can be increased by as much as 20 percent depending upon the initial level of fitness and the use of graded-stepped overloads as training ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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stimuli. On the other hand, the better the initial level of aerobic fitness, the less it will contribute to performance improvements.

2. Some of the major adaptations that occur through aerobic training are: (a) increased tone of peripheral veins; (b) greater contractility in the heart (it can pump more forcefully); (c) increased stroke volume (more blood is pumped per beat); (d) more effective blood flow distribution between active and inactive muscles, (e) increased mass in the heart muscle (it has better endurance capabilities by having more muscle to pump longer); and (f) the number and size of mitochondria are increased within each working muscle which facilitates a greater use of oxygen to produce ATP. 3. Endurance adaptations do not only occur in the muscles that are involved with generating force in a specific activity. In the early stages of training, adaptation primarily occurs in the muscles that support breathing and cardiovascular system function. Consequently, early gains in endurance occur mainly because of training effects in central oxygen transport system features. That adaptation makes it possible to then adapt peripheral structures.

Tissue Adaptations When describing training changes it is assumed that diet is adequate. Sufficient carbohydrates have to be presented to replenish depleted stores and sufficient protein has to be ingested to allow strength development. In normal diets, fat intake is usually sufficient, and in many cases, may be excessive.

1. Muscle hypertrophy results from intense stimuli which increase the synthesis of new protein. It only happens after sufficient training and skill development have used existing physical resources maximally (a result of the neurological reorganization that occurs with the introduction of strength training programs). Hypertrophy cannot occur if protein intake is too low.

Light work loads may induce some hypertrophy in untrained individuals but it is usually of such a minute nature that it is not readily noticeable.

2. Some of the most important and influential factors that result from physical conditioning occur at the cellular level in the muscles, that is, the majority of training effects are peripheral. The number and size of mitochondria, the amount of myoglobin, the amounts of ATP and CP that are stored, and the concentrations of key enzymes associated with particular energy systems are increased.

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3. Training is specific and selective of the types of muscle fibers used. That selectivity will determine the nature of training effects and the type of performance that is improved.

4. The type of activity that is pursued will use different forms of fuel. Aerobic training will use fat and glycogen as its principal fuel sources. Lactacid training will use glycogen and to a lesser extent ATP and CP. Alactacid training will use ATP and CP. This means that the carry-over from one form of training to another is small and that specific training needs to be repeated to maximize the improvements that are possible from each energy system 5. ADAPTATIONS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA 6. Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.

7. Mitochondria produce ATP. When they increase in size and number as a result of aerobic training, exercise can be prolonged for a much greater period of time than in an untrained state. Changes in the mitochondria only occur in trained muscles. That results in the absolute specificity of endurance training within an activity. This phenomenon does not support any form of cross-training or transfer of peripheral training effects that result from other forms of aerobic work.

8. Enzymatic increases that occur within the mitochondria as a result of aerobic endurance training are as follows: 1) those associated with the Kreb's cycle and respiratory chain; 2) those associated with the shuttle systems that transfer protons developed through glycolysis into the mitochondria for use in the respiratory chain; and 3) those associated with fatty acid metabolism (by 200 to 400%). This latter feature is important because it permits the body to use more available fats for energy production, that is, more fat is extracted from normal blood to fuel exercise.

9. Except at the very highest levels of exercise intensity when carbohydrates serve as the main source of fuel, the oxidation of free fatty acids by the mitochondria takes precedence over all other forms of energy supply. This substitution of fats over glycogen use as fuel as a consequence of aerobic training is known as "carbohydrate-sparing." Glycolysis is reduced so the rate of pyruvate production is decreased which results in less lactic acid being produced for a given level of exercise intensity. That translates into athletes being able to perform longer and more intently without incurring any significant increase in lactic acid production. This is known as shifting the lactate turnpoint or anaerobic threshold, a phenomenon that occurs through aerobic training. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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10.Changes in VO2max increase within a week of exposure to a constant aerobic training stimulus. After three weeks of exposure the stimulus no longer overloads the system resulting in the cessation of aerobic capacity development. It is good practice to increase the overload factor in aerobic endurance training every 7 to 14 days to allow an athlete to progress at an optimal rate of adaptation.

11.When training for aerobic endurance ceases, there usually is a rapid fall in capacity within the first two weeks and then the decline is more gradual.

12.In athletes who have an extensive history of aerobic training (a considerable number of years) the mitochondrial regression occurs at a much slower rate than that which is demonstrated by individuals without a good training background.

13.Once an athlete's aerobic capacity has been developed fully for a specific sport, the adaptation level can be maintained with less training. As long as the intensity of the training stimuli remain the same as that which existed in the last stage of change training, the number of aerobic training sessions can be reduced to one third of the change-training amount without any diminution in aerobic capacity.

14.CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS AND PERFORMANCE 15.Rodahl, A., O'Brien, M., & Firth, P. G. (1976). Diurnal variation in performance of competitive swimmers. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 16, 72-76.

16.Swimmers performed significantly faster in the late afternoon than early in the morning. Evening practice swims should be expected to be faster than those at a morning practice. [Baxter, C., & Reilly, T. (1983). Influence of time of day on all-out swimming. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 17, 122-127.]

17.When performances were measured at five different times of the day between 6:00 and 22:00 hrs, a steady improvement was demonstrated.

[Sinnerton, S., & Reilly, T. (1991). Effects of sleep loss and time of day in swimming. In D. Maclaren, T. Reilly, A. Lees, & M. Hughes (Eds.), Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VI. London: E. and F. N. Spon.]

18.Swimmers performed better in the evening at 17:30 hrs than in the morning at 6:30 hrs. Front crawl improved by 3.6% over 400 m and 1.9% over 100 m. [Reilly, T., & Marshall, S. (1991). Circadian rhythms in power output on a swim bench. Journal of Swimming Research, 7, 11-13.

19.Circadian variation in power output (as performed on a biokinetic swim bench) and its relation to circadian rhythms in body temperature and subjective alertness were measured in 14 competent swimmers at six ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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equidistant times (starting at 2:00 hr) of the day. Peak and mean power on a 30 s test were noted. Subjective scale responses for alertness and preexercise rectal temperatures were recorded.

20.Distinctive circadian rhythms for pulse rate, rectal temperature, alertness, and both power measures were exhibited. The general time for the peak values was after 16:00 hr. The difference between the highest and lowest values in the rhythm was 14% for mean power and 11% for peak power. It was suggested that the amplitude of circadian rhythms increases with the complexity of motor tasks because of the size of the values obtained.

Complex activities are affected to a greater degree by circadian rhythms that are simple activities.

21.The circadian rhythm in power output on a swim bench was closely related to the rhythm for body temperature and alertness. The existence of these rhythms should be taken into account when planning strength and power training stimuli.

22.Another implication of this finding is that comparative performances and test results must be gathered at the same time of day. Otherwise, test differences could solely be the result of circadian predispositions 23.DETRAINING 24.Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1988). Physiological adaptations to physical training. In Training for sport and activity, Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown 25."Recent studies have made it clear that a few days of rest or a reduction in training will not impair, but may even enhance performance. . . . However, at some point a reduction in training or complete inactivity will produce a deterioration in performance." (p. 200) 26.The point is made that it is important to distinguish research that involves bed rest, and research that involves a reduction in specific physical activity (e.g., when an athlete is injured, during an off-season).

27.Loss of Muscle Strength and Power 28.Skeletal muscles undergo a considerable decrease in size with inactivity, and are accompanied by a loss in strength and power. Reduced activity over a long period of time can cause small diminutions to accumulate so that eventually they will become substantial.

29.Reductions are relatively small during the first few months following cessation of training. Some researchers have shown: 30.(a) no loss of strength was noted after cessation of a three-week training program; and ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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(b) only 45% of the original strength gained from a 12-week training program was lost after one year's removal from the program.

31.Similar results have been found with muscular endurance. Swimmers were shown to retain shoulder strength after four weeks of the termination of training.

32.There is the possibility that losses in strength, power, and muscular endurance depend upon the activity used for training and testing. For example, swimmers have been shown to have no change in strength or power on a land-based power bench, but did decrease in power by 8 to 13.5% during four weeks of reduced activity. This suggests that functional strength may be lost relatively quickly while general strength is retained.

33.Nonspecific strength/power measures may not reflect the loss of specific functional use in performance. It suggests that swimmers by detraining may lose the ability to apply force during swimming, that is, they lose the "feel" for the water.

34.For swimmers, it has been shown that strength and muscular endurance gained during a training period may be fully retained for periods of up to six weeks, and approximately 50 percent will be retained for up to a year following the cessation of training. (p. 202) 35.There is far less effort required to regain strength, power, and muscular endurance than that required to first develop it.

36.Any loss in strength or power may be caused by a loss of ability to activate some muscle fibers. This theory is supported by the fact that a sizable strength gain is achieved with only a few training sessions, a period too brief to accommodate any significant structural development. These losses may be interpreted better by considering them as neuromuscular forgetting and reminiscence.

37.Only a minimal stimulus is required to retain the strength, power, endurance, and size of a muscle or muscle group.

38.Land-based strength can be maintained by one full workout every 10 to 14 days. However, water-based strength would need to be stimulated more frequently because the specificity of the water-action would not be remotely stimulated by any non-water activity.

39.For injured athletes, any stimulation will be beneficial to the affected areas.

Isometric contractions have been found to be very effective for retaining strength and muscle tone.

40.Loss of Muscular Endurance 41.When swimmers stop training there is no change in their muscle glycolytic enzymes (phosphoralase and PFK) for at least four weeks. On the other hand, the oxidative energy system declines much more rapidly. This ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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explains why sprint times are virtually unaffected by brief lay-offs (up to a month) but endurance performances decline significantly within a period as short as two weeks.

42.Muscle fiber composition does not appear to change during short periods of inactivity. The major change that does occur is an alteration in glycogen content. Endurance-trained muscles store substantially more glycogen than untrained muscles.

43.". . . the muscle's oxidative and anaerobic energy systems change rather slowly, and are probably unaffected by only a few days of rest. Only during periods of complete inactivity (immobilization) do the changes impair performance within the first week or two." (p. 204) 44.Loss of Speed, Agility, and Flexibility 45.The loss of speed and agility with physical inactivity is relatively small.

Peak levels can be maintained with limited amounts of training. (p. 204) 46.Flexibility is very transitory, and must be trained for the whole year.

Reduced flexibility may leave athletes more susceptible to injury.

47.Loss of Cardiovascular Endurance 48.The cardiovascular system detrains rapidly with inactivity. The decline is due largely to a reduction in blood volume which diminishes the stroke volume of the heart. That decline reduces the VO2max.

49.Highly trained individuals will not be able to afford long periods of inactivity with little or no endurance training. An abstinence from training following a full season will produce much fitness regression and will require much training to recover the previous season's level of fitness.

50.The reduction in aerobic adaptation is considerably greater than for the other performance capacities.

51.Training stimulus intensity plays the major role in maintaining aerobic adaptation during periods of reduced activity. The level of beneficial volume can be reduced to as little as 60% of the original without diminution occurring. However, when intensity is reduced, VO2max declines rapidly.

Efforts requiring 90-100% of VO2max are needed to maintain VO2max.

52.For land-based activities, three intense workouts per week will probably maintain endurance adaptation. However, in the water, the number would have to be increased because of the lack of stimulation of the capacity that occurs during normal land-based activity.

53.The maintenance of endurance capacity is an important objective for periods of reduced training. It is lost quickly, but takes considerably more time to regain and so is a capacity that should be maintained at a high level all year.

54.Changes in Body Composition ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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55.Lean body weight decreases and total body fat increases with inactivity.

Substantial variations in skinfold thickness occurs with these changes.

Optimal body composition levels can be maintained during periods of reduced training by engaging in a moderate level of activity and controlling the diet. Athletes must watch their weight carefully when the demands of training are reduced.

56.RETRAINING 57.Wilmore, J., & Costill, D. (1988). Physiological adaptations to physical training. In Training for sport and activity, Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown 58.The speed with which trained states are recovered after inactivity is governed by the status of the individual's physical conditioning and the duration of the inactivity.

59.With highly-trained athletes, the situation is worst. Short periods of detraining produce marked losses in physiological capacity and require extensive periods of activity to regain previous fitness levels.

60.The earlier an athlete can resume physical activity, the quicker will be the recovery of muscle function, and the shorter the period of retraining.

61.The practice of reinserting previously injured athletes into a competition situation has to be looked at carefully. It could be that too many athletes are rushed back into the "fully-trained" environment when they are only partially retrained. That has serious potential consequences for the physical, mental, and performance states of an athlete.

62.TRAINING AND DETRAINING 63.Rundell, K. W. (1994). Strength and endurance: Use it or lose it. Olympic Coach, 4(1), 7-9.

64.An injury or illness which keeps an athlete from training for as brief a period as 10 days can have a serious effect on performance. This is referred to as the "reversibility concept" (of detraining), which means that the positive changes from training (adaptations) are lost as a result of the body adjusting to a lesser physical demand and peak condition deteriorates rapidly. (p. 7) 65.The amount of blood that the heart can pump to working muscles is the cardiac output. This is assisted by the following exercise induced changes: 66.(a) increased capillaries in the exercised muscles; and (b) increased mitochondria and mitochondrial enzymes which aid in the use of fuel sources.

67.These two effects allow muscles to decrease the amount of lactate produced for a given workload, that is, the anaerobic threshold is improved. These ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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circulatory and muscle adaptations result in increased aerobic capacity and increased endurance.

68.Coyle, Martin, and Holloszy (1984) studied endurance athletes who had been training for 10 years. VO2max decreased by 7, 13, and 15 percent after 12, 56, and 84 days. Stroke volume decreased by 11% after 12 days.

Exercise stroke volume and HRmax did not change any further after 12 days, with maximum cardiac output remaining 7-9% below that of the trained state. Thus, maximum cardiac output reduction occurs mostly in the first 12 days, while VO2max and mitochondrial activity continue to decline for some time after that before stabilizing.

69.Thus, features of circulation used to indicate a trained state may be misleading because of their differential response to exercise and exercise cessation when compared to other facets of aerobic adaptation (particularly peripheral adaptations).

70.[Coyle, E. F., Martin W. H., & Holloszy, J. O. (1984). Cardiovascular and metabolic rates of detraining. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 15, 158. (abstract)] 71.Ready and Quinney (1982) showed that AnT drops as fast as VO2max in detraining almost in concert with mitochondrial enzyme decrease. However, after 9 weeks the detrained level was still well above the pre-trained level which indicates that not all gains are lost through detraining.

72.[Ready, A. E., & Quinney, H. A. (1982). Alterations in anaerobic threshold as the result of endurance training and detraining. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 14, 292-296.]

73.It is often proposed that previously endurance-trained athletes rebound faster than non-athletes after detraining. That is not the case. Even though the heart's ability to pump additional blood is restored within days after resuming training, enhanced enzyme production in the cells takes longer.

Regain rates are much slower than loss rates. If an athlete stops training for 12 days only 75 percent of enzymes lost will be regained after 24 days of retraining.

74.Once again, circulatory indices could mislead inferences about a trained state because of their different reaction to exercise stress when compared with peripheral reactions.

75.Since a complete stop to training has a much more negative effect than merely reducing training volume capacity, it is important for athletes to have as little down time as possible.

76.Maintenance Training 77.Training for as little as two days per week is enough to maintain endurance performance, provided that the exercise intensity is high (85-100% VO2max). ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Anaerobic threshold can be maintained during periods of reduced training by as few as one high intensity training session per week.

78.As with endurance training, the maintenance of resistance training adaptations appear to be related to exercise intensity rather than exercise frequency or duration. During the competitive season, strength can be maintained by one heavy session per week.

79.Maintenance programs are useful for periods of travel adaptation, high stress levels from other sources, and when localized injury prevents total body use.

It is sufficient to perform fewer high intensity programs to prevent training adaptation loss (one to three per sessions per week). However, such a reduced training program cannot be sustained indefinitely without some eventual detrimental loss.

WHEN CEILING LEVELS OF FITNESS ARE REACHED IN SWIMMING Rushall Thoughts (1993) All physiological capacities have a limited level of development. Once maturational growth stops there is no possibility of improving VO2max or anaerobic capacity any further. In fact, the various physical capacities achieve their inherited limits at various times. For example, an athlete's ability to do endurance work is set in the early stages of the adolescent growth spurt. At the end of the adolescent growth spurt, anaerobic capacity is set.

When conditioning programs are experienced, the physical capacities are stimulated in various amounts. The type of conditioning will affect the level of each capacity that is achieved. Usually, in swimming it is of the greatest benefit to increase physical capacities to their maximum levels in a certain order.

1. In the transition and basic preparatory phases, the anaerobic threshold (ANThreshold) should be trained to its highest level. Its development will directly effect the volume of all types of training that can be completed. It will also contribute to the quality of continuous training tasks that can be sustained (e.g., overdistance training of 2000 m or more) as well as enhance recovery.

2. The next emphasis in the basic preparatory phase should be to develop the aerobic capacity (VO2max) to its fullest. It will complete the stimulation of all the beneficial changes that are derived from aerobic training. It will also allow some proportion of the fast-twitch muscle fibers to be "converted" to ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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oxidative functioning. For maximum aerobic performance (e.g., 800 and 1500 m events) this capacity needs to be developed fully.

Since the endurance capacity of an athlete cannot be improved once these ceiling levels are achieved, the only recourse for further performance improvement is to adapt these finite resources specifically to particular performances. In other words, the "tank" of aerobic energy is set. The coach and athlete together have to fine-tune aerobic energy use to fit the exact needs of particular events.

3. The latter part of the basic preparatory phase should include an increase in the intensity of work. Lactate tolerance or peak lactate training develops the body's ability to use anaerobic energy sources and to tolerate high lactate levels. This capacity will govern the contribution to performances where energy production is a limiting factor (e.g., 200 m butterfly). Individuals can improve this ability to tolerate the pain of lactic acidosis but only up to a point. There comes a time when the acidity is so extreme that it seriously disrupts an individual's capacity to perform. At the most extreme point (the ceiling level), the body will shut down and the athlete will lapse into unconsciousness. It is wise not to push oneself to that ultimate state because of health risks. In sports it is of no advantage to get to that level because skills and performance will be so poor that acceptable conduct will not occur. Thus, most competitive sports with their emphasis on skill, speed, and power do not foster or encourage excessive levels of lactate tolerance. Even if an athlete could tolerate high levels of lactic acid it will not be beneficial for achieving high levels of performance. That is particularly so in the skill dominated sport of swimming.

If the ability to tolerate lactic acid is stimulated fully in one form of activity, for example swimming at 1.8 m/sec in crawl stroke, it is incorrect to assume that it will be maximum when swimming at 1.8 m/sec in butterfly. Lactate tolerance training should only be performed at race-specific velocities for each of the competitive strokes and their events. It makes little sense to talk of a general capacity of lactate tolerance when the sport of swimming contains very specific events each with their own levels of demand for use of anaerobic energy.

It should be noted that in this hierarchy, anaerobic work is developed on an aerobic base. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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4. The final capacity that should be stimulated in the hierarchy of physical conditioning is anaerobic power. Anaerobic power training refers to developing the capacity of the body to generate as much energy as possible per unit of time. It traditionally is discussed in terms of anaerobic energy production, although an aerobic component is always involved. Anaerobic power is particularly important for 50 and 100 m events. A large portion of this capacity is not physiological but rather involves a neural reorganization and refinement of existing physical structures developed by previous training stimuli.

When the physiology of the body is conditioned, the need to refine swimming performance in terms of the exact skill for a particular pace, how the energy capacities that exist are used in their correct proportions, and the familiarity of the athlete with the task to control the performance in the most efficient manner possible are what need to be achieved in the specific, pre-competition, and competition phases of training.

The point behind this explanation is that the physical conditioning of a swimmer is not an ongoing process. It only takes a relatively short period of time to become physically fit. The type of training that produces those changes is aptly named "change training." After a time physiological tests do not change even though performance continues to do so. That is because performance is influenced by many factors other than the heart, lactic acid, and various chemicals in the blood.

In fact, in swimming, the influence of physical capacities is quite minor when compared to the importance of the technical skills of the sport.

When athletes are conditioned as much as they can be, further heavy training can only cause the athlete to overtrain (excessive fatigue from specific training) or to be maladapted (excessive fatigue from training that is not specific/beneficial to performance). Coaches who continue to stress heavy training virtually all year really are doing their athletes a disservice. Once ceiling levels of physiological capacities are achieved, (commonly termed the attainment of the "athletic state"), the only option for sane coaching is to produce specific refinements for particular events. During that altered training emphasis, the physiological conditioning of the athlete involves "maintenance training" which has very different requirements and parameters to change training.

It is important to develop the athletic state early (by the time the specific training phase commences is recommended) so that all technique refinements will occur with 100% of energy resources available. The possibility of developing the ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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nuances of "feel" for the water is quite high in that case. If technical refinements were to occur while the physiology was changing then the athlete would be cast into the dubious situation of constantly feeling different. Feel for the water is not developed under those circumstances. What is more likely to occur is that the swimmer will become desensitized to any particular feelings for minor but extremely important technique factors. That will likely be a limiting factor of how far that swimmer would go in the sport.

There is a common fear expressed by coaches that one brief respite from hard training will cause conditioning/fitness to be lost. It is now known that such a fear is unfounded. To the contrary, brief respites from swimming training are often beneficial to athletes, particularly if they have any degree of accumulated fatigue.

The following are guidelines that should influence the programming of training stimuli.

1. Physiological capacities achieve ceiling levels in a relatively short period of time.

2. The development of physiological capacities should occur in a particular sequence: (a) anaerobic threshold, (b) aerobic capacity, and (c) lactate tolerance. Once they are attained, speed and power can be developed.

3. Once ceiling levels have been attained a continued emphasis on hard training can only threaten the welfare and performances of the athlete.

4. Instead of continued hard training, coaches should consider emphasizing more specific training with an exaggerated emphasis on technique refinement. Basic trained physiological capacities can be retained through maintenance training.

5. The belief that continued hard training for most of the swimming year is beneficial is unfounded.

6. EXERCISE AND BODY COMPOSITION IN WOMEN 7. Ullrich, I., Bryner, R., Toffle, R., & Yeater, R. (1993). The effects of exercise intensity on body composition in women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 316.

8. Low intensity exercise without dietary restriction will not result in weight loss or body composition changes in young women. High intensity exercise will result in body composition change, but not weight loss.

9. EXERCISE AND IMMUNOLOGY 10.Nash, M. S., Nieman, D. C., Pedersen, B. K., Davis, J. M., HoffmanGoetz, L., & Mackinnon, L. T. (1993). Exercise and immunology. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 123.

11.A review of the literature suggests that moderate exercise may reduce the incidence and severity of infection. This position has been bolstered by epidemiologic and laboratory studies which have demonstrated a linkage between moderate exercise and either heightened immune function or reduced disease incidence. However, that relationship is reversed with excessive exercise.

12.Implication. Illnesses in serious athletes in hard training may be due to excessive exercise stress reducing the body's ability to withstand infection and diseases 13.TRAINING RESPONSES IN SWIMMERS 14.Bonen, A., & Kemp, N. H. (1977). Physiological, metabolic and practical considerations for training swimmers. Research Papers in Physical Education, 3(3), 10-15.

15.As soon as swimming begins, the volume of air that is inspired increases from about 5-7 L/min at rest up to 100-150 L/min at maximum effort. At the same time the rate of blood flow from the heart to the muscles is increased from about 4-5 L/min to about 25-30 L/min. This increase in blood flow results from an increased heart rate (e.g., 70-190 bpm) and increased volume of blood pumped per beat (70-150 ml). As well, the blood flow is distributed more efficiently.

16.During swimming the local muscle temperature rises and the acidity around the cells increases. Under those conditions O2 can be extracted more rapidly and completely than at rest. This results in an increase in capacity to use O2 by as much as 1000-1500% when going from rest to maximum swimming.

17.The cardiac stroke volume of the trained swimmer is greater both at rest and during swimming. The volume increase is extensive in that it offsets a decrease in maximum heart rate as a result of training. These adaptations result in a greater blood flow, and thus, oxygen supply, to the muscles. Trained swimmers are capable of extracting more oxygen from the blood than untrained swimmers.

18.Training increases the number of units within the muscle cells (mitochondria) where oxygen is used to produce ATP. The enzymes associated with O2 metabolism are also increased. The muscle cell also metabolizes proportionally more fats than when the swimmer is ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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untrained. That use results in a slower rate of glycogen use (it is "spared") and thus, lactic acid production is reduced.

19.The anaerobic capacity of swimmers can be increased by as much as 20%. However, the levels of lactic acid in children are lower than in adults because of growth and developmental differences.

20.Physiological capacities achieve a ceiling level (Astrand, P. O., & Rodahl, K. (1970). Textbook of work physiology. McGraw-Hill: Toronto). In many world class mature swimmers the only room for improvement comes from further refinements in technique. Skill development is the secret for development in mature swimmers. In that regard, the specificity of training is paramount.

21.As a general rule for training swimmers, the shorter the distance the fewer the number of repeats. Research has repeatedly shown that the rate of physiological adaptation occurs primarily in response to the intensity of effort rather than the total amount of effort. Therefore, the principle concept for swim training is effective yardage.

22.TRAINING LEVELS FOR SWIMMERS 23.Sharp, R. L. (1993). Prescribing and evaluating interval training sets in swimming: a proposed model. Journal of Swimming Research, 9, 36-40.

24.Unless appropriate paces and intensities of work are prescribed for individuals, some swimmers may under-work while others will overwork. The task is to prescribe optimal training activities which involve the correct mix of aerobic endurance, aerobic power, lactate tolerance, and sprint ability. Each of those forms requires different intensities, duration of repetitions, and rest intervals.

25.Sprint ability. This is one's maximum velocity and is a function of muscle fiber type, level of creatine phosphate in the muscles, activity of creatine kinase in muscles, maximum muscle power, and neuromuscular recruitment patterns. A swimmer has to develop the skill of reaching maximum velocity as soon as possible in a race, to maintain maximum velocity for as long as possible, and develop the ability to call upon sprint ability in the middle and at the end of longer (>30 sec) races.

26.Lactate Tolerance. When muscles contract they produce lactic acid because of incomplete oxidation of carbohydrate used as fuel. After its formation, it immediately splits to form lactate and hydrogen ions (H+).

The H+ ions alter the acidity of the blood, lowering its pH value depending upon their concentration. This reaction is why the terms lactic acid and lactate often are used interchangeably. Thus, the pH of blood is a measure of the amount of H+ in the body. When the H+ ions are ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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allowed to accumulate, the pH in the muscles falls, that is, the environment in the muscles increases in acidity. A normal resting measure of pH is 7.0 whereas in very strenuous work that predominantly uses anaerobic energy sources the level can drop to a value of 6.3. As the acidity level changes (the pH level is lowered), the muscles become weaker, often tighter, and contractile force is reduced. As blood and muscle acidity increase, so does the feeling of fatigue.

27.At low intensities of exercise, for example, ANThreshold training, the rate at which lactic acid is produced is balanced by the rate at which it can be removed from muscle and blood. However, as a swimmer speeds up, for example, at aerobic capacity speeds and faster, the use of carbohydrate as fuel is greatly increased, and the production of lactate is greater than the ability of the lactate-removal mechanisms. Thus, after a certain intensity of work, that is, swimming at a particular speed for a minimum duration, lactate accumulates.

28.Resting or normal activity levels do not tax the capacity to remove lactate. Exercise can increase the production of lactate from 3-5 times above the resting level without any appreciable change in a muscle's pH. This is because the body has buffers which combine with the H+ ions and remove them from bodily fluids. The greater the amount of buffer capacity, the greater can be the intensity of work before H+ ions accumulate and lower the blood pH. The buffering capacity of muscle determines its ability to tolerate lactate before the pH is altered noticeably. Fast twitch muscle fibers have a greater buffer capacity than slow twitch fibers. Buffer capacity can be increased through training. It is very helpful to assess a swimmer's ability to tolerate lactate accumulation because it will indicate the changes derived from training designed to increase the amount of anaerobic work that can be sustained.

29.Aerobic power. This is a person's maximum ability to use oxygen. It is the upper limit or ceiling for aerobic endurance. Endurance athletes have a high capacity but it does not differentiate between them. It is a requirement for achieving an elite status but is not related to performance among an elite homogeneous group.

30.Aerobic endurance. This is a measure of an athlete's ability to perform prolonged, continuous exercise and depends upon physiological, biomechanical, nutritional, and psychological factors. The best measure currently available is the lactate or anaerobic threshold. It determines the maximum speed a swimmer can sustain without experiencing progressive accumulation of lactate in the blood. However, there are no pool races ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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that use this capacity. Thus, its contribution to race quality is questionable. Rather, it serves as the basis for a general conditioned state.

31.Two reasons justify aerobic endurance training. It contributes to accelerated recovery from fatiguing work and it extends one's ability to tolerate the demands of lactate tolerance, aerobic power, and speed training. This form of training may be the easiest and most efficient way of improving a swimmer's stroking economy which in turn, means that a swimmer can swim at faster speeds before reaching lactate threshold.

32.AEROBIC TRAINING 33.Madsen, O. (1983). Aerobic training: not so fast, there. Swimming Technique, November 1982-January 1983, 13-18.

34."The greatest problem in all endurance sports, including swimming . . . is to find the correct intensity of training for each individual. . . . . A sprinter must devote approximately 30% and a distance swimmer 60% of all training to the improvement of aerobic capacity . . . . If training is undergone at too low or too high an intensity, it will have a particularly negative effect on total conditioning." (p. 14) 35.Anaerobic Energy Sources 36.ATP-CP (Alactacid) system. Theoretically, this can only sustain work from 7 to 10 seconds. Thus, for efforts of greater duration, performance cannot be as fast as that for very short periods. In efforts that require a greater level of energy, the glycolytic or lactacid system opens up almost immediately to partially preserve the status of the alactacid system. The ATP level remains almost constant in the muscles, but CP drops considerably lower.

37.Lactacid or glycolytic system. The disadvantage of this system is that it generates lactic acid which accumulates as lactate and H+ ions, causing an increase in cellular and blood acidity. It takes some time before the acidity in the blood balances that in the cells. Because of that time lag, blood samples must be taken some time after work stops to record the highest blood lactate level. In extreme cases, the blood lactate level can reach 25 mM. Work is sustained by this system somewhere between 45 and 60 seconds.

38.Aerobic Energy Sources 39.All training and competing in swimming are primarily dependent upon aerobic functioning. The anaerobic systems serve a helping function.

They make it possible to commence a performance and sustain it until the aerobic system reaches maximum functioning and takes over as the supplier of energy. In all body movement, part of the energy need will be ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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supplied by anaerobic sources. During work, it is possible for energy from the glycolytic system to be restored, thus, lactate production and removal is balanced. The highest level of that "balancing" is the anaerobic threshold. The intensity of that level can vary greatly but is commonly described as being 4 mM although that is subject to error.

40.Below the ANThreshold level, the aerobic system needs to not work fully. Above it, there is lactate accumulation. Each condition decreases the maximum functioning of the aerobic system.

41."Race results are bettered primarily by moving the lactate/speed curve to the right and not by improving tolerance to higher lactate levels." (p. 16) 42.Thus, there is a limit to how much a swimmer should extend him/herself.

To exceed a capacity will decrease the volume of training that is possible.

To experience a lactate level of 16-20 mM does not lead to much performance improvement. This is because the increases in lactate that occur, happen in such a narrow band of swimming speed that to all intents and purposes training at one lactate level is not that much different to training at the highest level.

43."Our experience is that one enters an overtrained state if one trains for a long period of time always at speeds which give 4 mM or more. . . .

Classic overtraining results from too much anaerobic work and is characterized by the typical loss of appetite, sleeplessness, loss of weight, etc. The result, as we know, is poorer race performance than should be expected. . . . . The second form of overtraining is called adisonoides overtraining, and reflects increased neurological inhibition. It usually results from too much quantity training at slightly too high a level for too long. This form is often hard to recognize in time to correct. The athlete feels good, trains relatively well, but cannot swim fast in competition." (p. 17) 44."If one wants to improve aerobic capacity it is therefore important not to swim interval series as hard as possible in every workout. In some workouts the intensity should be at the threshold (4 mM). In others it should be just over that (e.g., 5-6 mM) and still in others a little lower (23 mM). In this way we avoid the above mentioned overtraining. The body has time to regenerate from the harder endurance training and replenishes the substances which are depleted in training." (p. 17) 45.Testing must be repeated every three to four weeks to determine the speeds which correspond to the new level of enduranc 46.AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC IMPROVEMENTS AT THE SAME TIME ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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47.Goforth, H. W., Jacobs, I., & Prusaczyk, W. K. (1994). Simultaneous enhancement of aerobic and anaerobic capacity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 171.

48.Three groups, each with a different training condition, (a) continuous (70% VO2max), (b) intermittent (both aerobic and anaerobic sets), and (c) supramaximal (maximal effort sprints) trained three times per week for 30 minutes.

49.VO2max did not change for any group. Anaerobic work (maximal oxygen deficit) increased in intermittent and supramaximal groups but not the continuous one. Time to exhaustion increased and La at 180 W decreased for all groups.

50.Implication. Aerobic and anaerobic adaptations are possible within the one training program/session. Thus, it should be possible to perform maintenance training on one factor and change training on another.

51.AEROBIC TRAINING IS LIMITED IN CHILDREN 52.Rowland, T., & Boyajian, A. (1994). Aerobic response to endurance training in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 468.

53.An in-school 12-week aerobic training program was designed for girls (N = 24) and boys (N = 13). Three 30-min training sessions were offered per week.

54.It was found that training changes occurred but were of less magnitude than would be expected of adults. This finding supports the general literature contention that children are more limited in aerobic training adaptations than adults.

55.Implication. Prepubescent children should be trained aerobically but expectations for improvement should be less than that afforded adults.

56.CROSS TRAINING SUPPORTED FOR GENERAL FITNESS 57.Loy, S. F., Holland, G. J., Mutton, D. L., Snow, J., Vincent, W. J., Hoffmann, J. J., & Shaw, S. (1994). Effects of stair-climbing vs run training on treadmill and track running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(11), 1275-1278.

58.Active college women (N = 23) completed nine weeks of training (four days per week for 30 min progressing to 45 min). Two groups, one performing running, the other running and stair-climbing, were formed.

The run group improved VO2max by 16% and run time by 11%. The stair group improved VO2max by 12% and the run time by 8%. These ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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differences were not significant. It was suggested that stair-climbing exercise is an alternative mode to running for training. This supports the concept of cross-training.

59.Implication. Although cross-training was supported it is reasonable to assert that the subjects were not highly trained athletes and that they fell into the category of individual that will improve in the measured factors by any form of physical training. Cross-training is supported as a fitness activity but not as an activity for highly trained or very serious athletes.

60.CROSS-TRAINING FOR AVERAGE PERSONS IS HELPFUL 61.Mutton, D. L., Loy, S. F., Rogers, D. M., Holland, G. J., Vincent, W. J., & Heng, M. (1993). Effect of run vs combined cycle/run training on VO2max and running performance. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 25(12), 1393-1397.

62.In 12 moderately fit males, after 5 weeks of 4 x 75 min practice sessions, changes in running parameters were evaluated. Although the aerobic capacity changes were significant, the relatively small change may reflect the duration of the study and initial fitness level of the subjects.

63.The run and the cross-trained (run plus cycle) groups were able to run significantly faster at submaximal treadmill speeds without significant increases in heart rate, % VO2 used, blood lactate, or RQ values over pretraining submaximal training data.

64.Implication. These results support the use of cross-training as an alternative to increasing performance while adding variety to training programs and perhaps reducing the potential for injuries due to overuse or high intensity activity. This result cannot be generalized to athletes as it was performed on recreational fitness persons.

65.COMMENTS ON TRAINING CATEGORIES AND TRAINING PARAMETER VARIATIONS 66.Rick L. Sharp (personal communication 30 August, 1994) 67."One problem with the traditional recommendations [classifications] is that one can never target and train one energy system exclusive of the others as implied in the charts, etc. Another weakness of the traditional approach is that very little was known about high intensity training at the time the recommendations were developed. Consequently, the recommendations were broad guesses at best, but because they appeared in textbooks, these recommendations had the deceptive attraction of truth. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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68.The more recent approach of dividing intensity of training into categories (A1, A2, AT, etc.) has some merits and many devoted followers. However, as you have suggested, this approach has not been validated nor does the background research support such a system. . . . Even if 4 mM was the magic level at which everyone should train, one could never be certain if they were always at this level unless blood samples were taken often during the swims. This is because of the fact that we may do a test (e.g., 8 x 200 m) to find the 4 mM velocity, but when the swimmer swims at that interpolated pace during practice, blood lactate may be anywhere between 2 mM and 8 mM. This large range occurs because of dietary influence on blood lactate (a low carbohydrate diet decreases blood lactate concentration), day-to-day variations in the swimmer's stroke economy, differences in exercise and recovery durations between the testing set and training set, and perhaps mood state (anxiety may result in increased lactate accumulation). Why is there so little research on this problem? It also strikes me that day-to-day variation in the heart rate response is also quite large. Consequently, using a heart rate test to define categories would also be practically useless."

69.He then goes on to comment about the utility of training categories.

70."It seemed to me that coaches and athletes would be better served by thinking of training in terms of physiological categories that clearly define the primary capacity that is stressed within a range of intensities, durations, and work:recovery ratios. I also felt that coaches should give consideration to the degree of residual stress that can be expected from these intensity ranges. . . . . This model [his Journal of Swimming Research article] has not been validated as a whole package, however, the individual categories have been. . . . The real question should be what produces the greatest performance gain in the largest percentage of the swimmers."

71.Implication. Training programs should be constructed to mainly target a category of energy stimulation recognizing that elements of other energy systems and response classifications will also be invoked but to a lesser degree. This more liberal interpretation of the employment of training classifications allows more swimmers to be stimulated roughly according to the intentions of the program. It reflects better what will occur and is possible in the real world of coaching swimming.

72.CHILDREN HAVE ONLY GENERAL METABOLIC RESPONSES 73.Bar-Or, O. (1983). Pediatric sports medicine for the practitioner (comprehensive manual in pediatrics). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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74.The objective information in female youth energy responses in sprint activities is quite scant. However, it appears that children who specialize in sports do not exhibit a specialized metabolic response. They appear to be "metabolic non-specialists." Children do not seem to display the wide variations in metabolic response capabilities seen among adults, nor do they appear to have high levels of response in any one metabolic system.

75.Implication. It may be a false premise to concentrate on developing specific energy systems in children as young as 12 years of age. Rather, what exercises they do should be energized by training responses to a variety of stimuli which, if applied to adults, would not produce specialized metabolic responses.

76.STRENGTH AND ANAEROBIC RESPONSES IN YOUNG FEMALE RUNNERS 77.Thorland, W. G., Johnson, G. O., Cisar, C. J., Housh, T. J., & Tharp, G. D. (1987). Strength and anaerobic responses of elite young female sprint and distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 56-61.

78.Young female track runners (N = 31), at least half of whom were between 9 and 12 years of age, the remainder in the average age range of 14+ years, were classified as sprint (<= 400 m) or middle distance runners (up to 3,200 m). They were well-trained and of national junior level.

79.They were tested on a Cybex II dynamometer for peak torque during leg extension, and on a Monarch bicycle ergometer to determine anaerobic power and capacity as revealed by the Wingate Anaerobic Test. Body composition was determined by underwater weighing.

80.Results. Among physical characteristics, there was a relationship to age but not to event classification. Sprinters were no different to distance runners in stature.

81.Fat-free weight was significantly related to performance measures. When other variables were corrected for fat-free weight variance, their associations with performance variables were reduced considerably.

82.In terms of performance, older subjects were stronger at all Cybex II velocities. Event related differences only occurred at higher speeds (240 degrees per sec).

83.Among anaerobic power values, only older athletes demonstrated substantially higher levels than the other subjects. There were no significant differences in anaerobic capacity. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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84.Implications. One would expect successful sprinters to be characterized by the ability to generate high levels of anaerobic power relative to some measure of body size. However, this study suggests that distinguishing characteristics only become evident in the upper age groups of competition. The final stages of maturation appear to separate out distinguishing physical capacities.

85.Growth of fat-free weight and maturation appear to augment high proficiency (anaerobic power) in sprint events. Consequently, it is reasonable to assert that in younger performers the metabolic characteristics of either sprinting or distance runners are general and similar. Sport specific capabilities only appear at upper age levels.

86.It would be wrong to predict sprint or distance capabilities from anaerobic measures taken on young children because at that age they do not predict any performance classification 87.TRAINING EFFECTS IN YOUNG BOYS (11-13 YR) 88.Mero, A., Jaakkola, L., & Komi, P. V. (1991). Relationships between muscle fibre characteristics and physical performance capacity in trained athletic boys. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9, 161-171.

89.Boys (11-13 yr, N = 18) from different sports (4 endurance runners, 7 tennis players, 4 weightlifters, 3 sprinters) were divided into two groups according to a "fast" group (M = 59% Type II fibers) and a "slow" group (M = 60.6% Type I fibers). A variety of tests were performed. Fibers were divided into (a) Type I slow-twitch oxidative, (b) Type IIA fasttwitch oxidative, and (c) Type IIB fast-twitch glycolytic.

90.The fiber distributions were as follows: Category

Fast Group

Slow Group

Type I

40.8%

60.4%

Type II

59.2%

39.4%

Type IIA

36.5% (61.6%)

22.8% (57.9%)

Type IIB

22.7% (38.4%)

16.6% (42.1)%

91.Few significant differences were revealed. Reaction time to sound and choice reaction time were faster for the fast group and it also had a greater rate of force development. A weak significant relationship ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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between Type II fiber area and blood lactate levels (r = .53) was revealed. There were no differences between running velocity, maximal oxygen uptake, or anaerobic characteristics.

92.The similarity in aerobic capacity stemmed from the training program of the boys (general endurance within each sport). The Type IIA fibers made up the inherent difference by adapting to oxidative work. It was shown that even though the "fast" boys inherited 66.5% more Type II fibers, a greater percentage of them switched to oxidative functioning so that between the groups the fast group had 77.3% and the slow group 83.2% of fibers functioning oxidatively. This suggests that in young boys, the adaptability of fibers allows individuals to perform a variety of tasks, particularly of an endurance nature.

93.Implication. In young boys, the adaptability of the inherited fiber distributions to different types of training makes measures of aerobic or anaerobic capacity relatively useless as a performance predictor.

However, reaction time and power development rates may discriminate between fast- and slow-twitch dominant pubescent boys. This is about all that can be used to identify capacity talent that will not be revealed in a current sporting performance.

TRAINING EFFECTS ARE GENERAL IN YOUNG MALES Overend, T., Paterson, D., Cunningham, D., & Taylor, A. (1985, October). Interval and continuous training: A comparison of training effects. A paper given at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences, Laval University, Quebec.

Young males using the same average power output to control for amount of work done, were tested under two conditions of workload distribution. Training lasted for 10 weeks, was performed four times per week for 40 min duration.   

Continuous training consisted of working at 80% of VO2max; lower power interval training consisted of alternating 3 min at 100% of VO2max with 2 min at 50%; and high power interval training consisted of alternating 30 s at 120% of VO2max at 120% with 30 s at 40%.

All training results were similar. There were no differences in training effects between the groups. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Implication. In accordance with the non-differentiated physiological responses of growing adolescents, no particular physiological or training effects were detectable with traditional measures under three very different forms of training. It is likely that a general program will produce the same adaptive responses as would a specialized program in this population.

FITNESS VARIATIONS IN ELITE ATHLETES Koutedakis, Y. (1995). Seasonal variation in fitness parameters in competitive athletes. Sports Medicine, 19, 373-392.

This review generalizes from all research. It is easy to find specific instances and even a minority of studies which contradict the generalizations proffered.

However, given the exceptionally large bibliography of the article, the strength and directions of its conclusions are justifiable.

Specific Notations Although there are great variations among sports, physical fitness is a composite which is principally dependent on the aerobic and anaerobic efficiency of muscle, on muscle speed and strength, and on body composition. (p. 374) Anthropometric measures do not appear to be consistently sensitive to sport participation and therefore, are of limited usefulness in understanding the response to challenging exercise stimulation.

Aerobic fitness. Novice athletes or competitors with relatively low aerobic capacities, usually demonstrate noticeable fluctuations in aerobic fitness variables between seasons of training and non-participation.

When young athletes train seasonally (3-6 months of non-participation) fitness gains from training and participation are lost in inactive periods. However, when athletes spend an extensive amount of time training, particularly over 12-months, a resistance to losing certain VO2max determinants, such as muscle mitochondrial and capillary density, is evidenced when compared to those who train less. This supports the principle that the more one trains, the longer it takes to detrain and to lose at least some training adaptations. [A reference for this observation is: Coyle, E. F., Martin, W. H., Sinacore, D. R., et al. (1984). Time course of loss of adaptations after stopping prolonged intense endurance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 57, 1857-64.] ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Athletes with adequately developed aerobic capacities generally show no seasonal variations in respiratory parameters, despite the fact that performances very often continue to improve.

A tentative explanation for the observed lack of seasonal variation in respiratory parameters may be that athletes begin training at a level of fitness suitable for the structural and functional demands of their respective sports, and maintain rather than change their aerobic fitness over seasons. It is unclear whether the athletes had developed an efficient respiratory system after several years of practice, whether the training stimulus was not high enough to bring about measurable changes, or whether there was an inability in the testing methods to detect changes resulting from training and competition. (p. 379) In sports where performance is principally determined by skill ("technical" sports), conditioning normally takes place during preparatory periods, aiming to bring competitors to their peak condition just before the competitive season. During that season, training concentrates on skills and tactics and aerobic fitness either remains stable or declines.

Athletes in physically demanding sports show a different response to that of technical athletes. In-season training and competition may result in either increased or unchanged maximal respiratory parameters. Reductions are rarely, if ever, found.

Aerobic fitness is only maintained or stimulated by activity. If that activity declines or ceases, then fitness will regress.

Anaerobic threshold. Anaerobic threshold (ANThreshold) may be defined as the work load just below which steady-state exercise can continue for a prolonged time. It is used extensively for predicting aerobic performance. ANThreshold adaptation is stimulated by a certain amount of work. Extra work above that level will not result in any further adaptation and may even be harmful.

After periods of detraining, whether intentional or unintentional (e.g., injury), aerobic fitness and the ANThreshold level are quickly regained in athletes who perform training for most of the year.

Anaerobic fitness. To assess aspects of anaerobic fitness, all-out cycle ergometer tests, standing broad jumps and vertical jumps are examples of evaluation tools commonly used. Components of anaerobic fitness show little seasonal variation in ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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men and women of different competitive abilities. It is suspected that most tests currently used to evaluate anaerobic fitness do not appear to be sensitive enough to detect seasonal variations. More sophisticated tests are usually able to detect changes from untrained to moderately trained states but are not sensitive to changes in higher levels of fitness.

Muscle strength. With lower level athletes, off-season training that includes a considerable amount of strength training usually provokes an increase in muscular strength. However, when the competitive season commences and strength training is de-emphasized, there is usually a decrease in the off-season gains. Other training features, particularly technique and tactics, are given priority over strength and conditioning activities which, at least, partly detrain.

Even in elite competitors, the trend to fail to maintain the gains made in off-season strength work during the competitive season is evident. The duration and intensity of the off-season work and the change of mode of in-season training could account for this phenomenon.

If off-season gains in strength are not maintained in the competitive season, it is possible that the gains were excessive for the level required for satisfactory participation in in-season training and competitions. On the other hand, in many sports major championships are held mid-season, with competitors aiming to peak at that time. After them, training might be more relaxed (less stimulating) and so end-of-season testing may reflect this reduction in training intensity and could also account for declines.

Flexibility. Sport training and competition do not enhance muscle flexibility.

Specific programs are required to produce increases in movement ranges that exceed those which occur naturally in a sport. Some sports, for example, gymnastics and wrestling, emphasize specific flexibility programs and their performers display greater than normal movement ranges. That greater-thannatural range could serve as an injury prevention measure as well as facilitating some extreme movements.

Cardiac parameters. Resting and exercise heart rates are generally not affected by seasonal training or detraining. This could be due to either of two reasons. First, there may be insufficient stimulation to alter cardiovascular fitness in most athletes and so serious questions should be raised about training practices. Second, the heart rate criterion may not be sensitive enough to detect seasonal changes in fitness and, therefore, may not be particularly useful as a training tool. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Measurement procedures and timing of testing sessions may also account for some research inconsistencies.

Cardiac dimensions usually do not change in elite athletes but do in individuals who go from inactivity to regular serious activity. Improvements in fitness parameters, such as VO2max and respiratory factors, may occur with or without cardiac changes. Research evidence on this feature is not clear and is often limited.

Blood tests. Maximal lactate measurements have been introduced on the justification that during exercise to exhaustion, the majority of energy supply is provided by anaerobic glycolysis. Increases in blood lactate are assumed, among other things, to represent the capability of muscle to operate in a highly acidic medium. However, maximal lactate measurements give no information on lactate turnover, which may be higher in better trained individuals. That limits their utility as a fitness monitoring tool in sporting environments. Research includes varied results and because of the lack of control of possible causal variables in natural sport settings, a true understanding of why lactates do not change in some individuals and studies but do in others is obscured. This variable is probably best left for use in controlled research laboratories.

Hemoglobin (Hb) normally is measured to determine if there is a reduced concentration of Hb in the blood from physiological hypervolemia. Reduction in circulating Hb during training appears to be unfavorable for aerobic performance and resistance to fatigue. Inadequate diet, rather than seasonal exercise, may be the more likely cause of this decrease. Generally, in elite athletes, there is little seasonal change in Hb concentration due to exercise stress.

Children and adolescents. In children and adolescents, discriminating between the processes of conditioning and growth is a challenging task. Certain physiological changes often attributed to exercise are an inherent part of normal growth. For example, in pre-adolescent male swimmers, physiological changes occurred despite seasonal changes in training cycles to allow for competition and resting. In young runners significant increases in VO2max and running performance occurred despite the training stimulus being primarily anaerobic.

Changes in physiological variables in young performances are more likely to be caused by growth than training stimulation.

Implications. In elite competitors, anaerobic parameters, heart rates, subcutaneous fat, flexibility, and hemoglobin levels remain relatively unchanged through 12‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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month periods of training. Aerobic metabolism and muscular strength may demonstrate noticeable (mostly unfavorable) changes, and plasma hormonal levels normally follow changes in training intensities. What changes do occur could be the result of methodological problems in testing. Observed alterations may purely reflect incidental fatigue produced by a previous training session rather than a longer-term effect. As well, aspects of genetics, long-term fatigue, and the appropriateness of training are other possible explanations for measurement variations.

It is not known whether greater fitness gains attainable with longer off-season training programs can be successfully maintained over the duration of a competitive season. A tentative consensus would seem to be that specialized training (based mostly on technique and competition tactics) and competitions themselves are inadequate for fitness maintenance and/or improvements.

In novices and athletes at low competitive levels, a training season may lead to considerable functional improvements in the cardiorespiratory system, occasional increases in muscular strength, decreases in body fat, but no changes in flexibility.

Exposure to training stimuli associated with definite periods of training and nontraining mostly account for these fluctuations.

Changes similar to novices and seasonal participants are seen in children and adolescents although they are largely associated with normal patterns of growth and development rather than exercise stimulation. Response differences between males and females at all levels of participation have not been identified.

In any field testing of athletes, physiological changes which are observed cannot be reliably attributed to training effects. Growth, seasonality, and assessment designs are just as valid explanations for observed variations.

Measurement for measurement sake, convenience, and/or program justification, is particularly misleading since most physiological indices are affected by the state of fatigue or rest in an individual. This is a principal concern with taking physiological measures at select sports camps or non-major competitions when the entry status of athletes is neither known nor controlled.

The value of fitness measures for generating information that can be used to enhance coaching decisions is undermined by the content of this review. It would be desirable to be able to accurately report changes due to training through objective measures to validate training objectives. However, the diversity of sports, ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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types of participation, and coaching programs, which, in turn, interact with the individual characteristics of each performer make inferences from common physiological measures particularly suspect. This concern is heightened even further with elite athletes.

A number of fitness tests are sensitive to changes from untrained to moderately trained states. However, it is incorrect to infer that those same tests will be valid for detecting changes from moderate or general fitness states to high levels of sport-specific fitness. Few tests, if any, are available for assessing maximum beneficial fitness.

CRITICAL VELOCITY TEST FOR RUNNING Florence, S. L., & Weir, J. P. (1995). Relationship of critical velocity to marathon running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 43.

Ss (N = 12) completed several physiological and performance tests (CV - critical velocity) prior to competing in the New York marathon. It was found that critical velocity (CV) was related more to marathon time than either VO2max or ventilatory threshold.

Implication. CV involves the total integration of all systems in its determination to the same extent as required in the criterion variable, marathon run time. However, VO2max and VT are only partial variables in the complex mix of factors involved in running. Therefore, it is not surprising that the more limited variables are less associated with running because they do not contain or convey as much information as CV. CV has several definitions the more common ones being the speed or intensity of performance associated with anaerobic threshold or with VO2max.

ENERGY COST OF RUNNING MIDDLE-DISTANCES Hill, D. W. (1995). Energy cost of middle distance running races. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 45.

Estimates of the energy contributions to performing three middle distance races were obtained by combining both laboratory and field measurements on Ss in multiple races. The estimates were: ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Distance

% Anaerobic

% Aerobic

400 m

68 +- 6%

32 +- 6%

800 m

42 +- 5%

58 +- 5%

1500 m

20 +- 4%

80 +- 4%

Implication. These estimates are similar to those for swimming and kayak races of a like duration. It would appear for 800 m races and longer that aerobic training will be a greater determinant of success than anaerobic (sprint) training because aerobic energy makes the dominant contribution.

TIME OF DAY AND ANAEROBIC PERFORMANCE Lieferman, J. A., Jones, N. A., Dangelmaier, B. S., Dedrick, G. S., Burt, S. E., Swetmon, J. K., & Hill, D. W. (1995). Temporal specificity in exercise training.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 124.

Morning and afternoon responses to anaerobic work were measured in college women before and after a training program that was performed at only one time of day.

Time to exhaustion and anaerobic capacity were greatest at the time of training.

Either training at a particular time of day results in greater adaptations at that time of day, or it influences the phase of the circadian rhythm response to exercise.

Implication. The time of day when training is performed affects performance at that time. In serious athletes who compete at specific times in the day/night, the last phase of training should be performed at the same time as the anticipated competitive efforts.

ENERGY COST OF OLYMPIC KAYAKING EVENTS Fernandez, B., Perez-Landaluce, J., Rodriguez, M., & Terrados, N. (1995).

Metabolic contribution in Olympic kayaking events. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 143.

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Nine world-championship finalists were tested on water over 250, 500, and 1000 m distances and physiological parameters noted. The duration of each performance was then replicated on a kayaking ergometer and the metabolic costs analyzed (demand, uptake, oxygen deficit, and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit). The results indicated that energy requirements were similar to those for swimming and running events of similar duration.

Distance

Duration

% Anaerobic

% Aerobic

250 m 500 m 1000 m

56.8 sec 2:04 min 4:15 min

56.5 37.1 20.3

43.5 62.9 79.7

Implication. For most Olympic kayak events, aerobic functioning will provide a greater proportion of energy than will anaerobic functioning. However, it must be remembered that both systems must be trained but with an understanding of the very different roles that each plays in an athlete's development and competitive performance.

TRAINING NOT ALWAYS OF A PHYSIOLOGICAL NATURE Myburgh, K. H., Lindsay, F. H., Hawley, J. A., Dennis, S. C., & Noakes, T. D. (1995). High-intensity training for 1 month improves performance but not muscle enzyme activities in high-trained cyclists. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 370.

This study determined whether a sustained high-intensity interval training (HIT) program would change muscle enzyme activities and performance of six competitive cyclists. Baseline enzyme activities did not correlate with performance in these highly-trained Ss. Changes in performance were not related to enzyme alterations. Improved performance after one month of HIT in highly-trained Ss either precedes, or is unrelated to enhancement of muscle glycolytic and oxidative enzyme capacities.

Implication. The notion that fitness levels reach a ceiling value in highly-trained athletes is supported by this study. Once that level is obtained, performance improvements have to come from resources other than further intense fitness work.

It was shown that further improvements in performance levels of highly-trained ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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cyclists resulted from factors that did not alter the conditioned, functioning state of muscles. Such factors, for example, could be skill improvements, increases in movement economy, and psychological focusing on only task-relevant variables AN ENERGY METABOLISM DIFFERENCE IN WOMEN Esbjornsson, M., Bodin, K., & Jansson, E. (1995). Muscle metabolism during a 30s sprint test (Wingate Test) in females and males. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 448.

Whether the glycogenolytic rate and alactic ATP turnover rate could explain the sex difference in anaerobic performance, expressed as total power output related to body weight (Wingate Test), was determined. It was found that:   

the glycogenolytic rate in the type II fibers was of similar magnitude in males and females, the glycogenolytic rate in the type I fibers was lower in females than males, and there was no sex difference for the alactic ATP turnover rate during sprint tests.

The glycogenolytic rate but not the alactic ATP turnover rate may be one factor explaining the lower total power output in females when compared to males.

Implication. This is one feature that accounts for the energy supply and subsequent anaerobic performance difference between females and males. They have a capacity to use ATP that is similar to males, but when glycolytic activity is required, their function is diminished. When females are expected to do "anaerobic" training, a greater proportion of their response will be aerobic, rather than anaerobic, when compared to the response of males.

BODY SEGMENTS AND ROWING ERGOMETRY Kleshnev, V., & Kleshneva, E. (1995). Relationship of total work performance with part performance of main body segments during rowing ergometry. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 511.

How total work during rowing ergometry relates to the performance of three main body segments (arms, legs, trunk) was analyzed. A strong positive relationship was ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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found between each segment and total performance. However, when all data were combined and partial correlations computed, there was a strong and significant relationship between total work and trunk action, a weak negative relationship with the legs, and a non-significant relationship with the arms.

Implication. The major focus for force production in the technique of rowing should be the trunk action. To emphasize either the legs or arms over the trunk would be to coach a style that is not associated with the most effective power. The arms and legs should be used to facilitate the complete and most effective action of the trunk possible SEX DIFFERENCES SHOWN IN ANAEROBIC RUNNING POWER TESTS Nummela, A., & Rusko, H. (1995). Gender differences in the determinants of maximal anaerobic running power. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 776.

Gender differences in neuromuscular and metabolic components of maximal anaerobic running power were investigated. Sprinters (M = 10, F = 13), who had competed in 400 m events, were evaluated on a treadmill using a step-increased speed until exhaustion.

Males had significantly higher maximal anaerobic power than females but the ratio between power at 10 mM of blood lactate (a test of sprinting economy) and maximal anaerobic power was significantly higher for females. Statistically, for males sprinting economy, peak blood lactate, and speed for 30 m were associated with 400 m performance. However, in females 400 m performance was only related to sprinting economy.

Implication. The determinants of 400 m running performance were different for males and females. More factors were related to male than female performances.

Sprinting economy was related in both sexes indicating that running form is an important coaching focus. Females would be better served by coaching programs that focus on technique while males also would be well served with a technique emphasis as well as some development of particular physical capacities.

TRAINING PRINCIPLES FOR MASTERS ATHLETES Rushall Thoughts, 1995 [In response to a question from Brian Browne.] ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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The following are features of adaptive and beneficial training.

1. Enjoy what you are doing. If it gets hard or provokes negative thoughts, ease off.

2. Small gains over a long time are better than large gains over a short time.

Very gradual adaptation stays with you longer and reaches a higher ceiling than does short and fast exposure.

3. There is an optimal amount of distance that needs to be covered at a particular race pace in interval training. My "guestimate" is as follows: o For events 400 m and less, three times the racing distance is enough.

Too much anaerobic work will precipitate overreaching and if continued, overtraining. o For events more than 400 m, two to two and a half times racing distance is enough.

Remember, the interval sets included in these interval-set distances are at intended race pace, not slower nor faster.

What if you complete sets easy when you are doing 2000 m for and intended 800 m race? Speed up the race pace equivalent, reduce the distance, and start building up to the maximum distance again.

4. Never continue when the work is perceived to be very hard, your pace has dropped off the target, and your technique has changed (it has become a "slog." Work done beyond adaptive work is counter-productive and negates the benefits of useful training. This is the tough part of training for individuals who have strong work ethic. Always remember part III of roux's Principle: "Excessive work is harmful."

5. Work intervals should be: o For 100 m repetition distance or less, one time period for work (race pace), half a time period for recovery (a one to a half work:recovery ratio). o For 200 m repetition distance or more, one time period for work, and two time periods for recovery (a one to two work:recovery ratio).

6. Keep the non-specific filler work of practice at or below the anaerobic threshold (the pace you would swim for a 3000 m time trial).

7. When you are not doing race specific work, the remainder of swimming should be building or maintaining aerobic base or recovery.

8. Some people would question why never get into the "agony" zone at practice. The "hurt-pain-agony" sequence that Jim Counsilman made famous in the 1960s was appropriate when swimmers, particularly US age-groupers, ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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were not doing enough work. That no longer is true so the concept is no longer relevant. There just is no place in beneficial work for damaging fatigue states to be endured. There is no scientific evidence to support it although there is a growing volume evidence that will support the contention of moderate stimulation being the most beneficial (Roux's Principle Part II: "Moderate work is beneficial"). I rely heavily on German research to support this contention with backup from David Costill's laboratory at Ball State University. My on-going associations in Australia give practical verification to these principles.

9. ATTRIBUTES OF MIDDLE-DISTANCE RUNNING 10.Brandon, L. J. (1995). Physiological factors associated with middle distance running performance. Sports Medicine, 19, 268-277.

11.Middle distance running is completed at higher intensities than long distance running and lower intensities than sprint events. It involves distances from 800 to 3000 m. It is influenced by a number of physiological variables.

12.Owing to the high intensity and duration of middle distance races, runners incur an energy cost that is larger than the capabilities of either aerobic or anaerobic metabolism. Energy contributions from the two systems are made simultaneously during an event.

13.It has been shown that: the energy cost per meter run during competition in a 400 m event (46.5 sec) was 30% greater than the energy cost of running a competitive 800 m (1:46.1). [Lacour, J. R., Bouvat, E., & Barthelemey, J. C. (1990). Post-competition blood lactate concentrations as indicators of anaerobic energy expenditure during 400-m and 800-m races. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 6, 172-176.]

14.The importance of the two energy systems changes, not only for different events but also for the same distance for runners who possess different physiological abilities.

15.The average VO2max for elite middle distance runners ranges between 68 and 77 ml/kg/min. These values are lower than those of long distance runners but middle distance runners compete at a higher percentage of VO2max and incur a greater energy cost for unit distance run. They have the ability to compete at intensities up to 110% of VO2max for as long as 10-11 minutes, while long distance runners typically compete at intensities between 75 and 90% of VO2max. The relationship of VO2max to middle distance performance is lower than it is for long distance performance. This relationship is lowest at 800 m and highest at 3000 m, because of the greater importance of anaerobic contributions at the shorter distance. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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16.The ability to work efficiently at a high fraction of VO2max without an accumulation of lactic acid can determine success among runners who are relatively homogeneous with respect to other aerobic factors. There are limitations to the increases possible for VO2max and gains in endurance performances can be independent of VO2max. Runners with high anaerobic thresholds (ANTh) are capable of performances that are superior to those of runners who have an even higher VO2max, but a lower ANTh. 17.ANTh has been shown to relate to running velocity for distances over 5000 m but not to relate to distances such as 800 m. Therefore, it is considered to be less important for middle-distance events than for long-distance events.

18.Anaerobic capacity (the maximum capacity to deliver anaerobic energy) is more important for the longer middle distance events while anaerobic power (the maximum rate of delivering anaerobic energy) allows runners to compete at a faster velocity for a longer period of time. Generally, middle distance runners have a larger anaerobic capacity than do long distance runners.

19.Implication. Middle distance runners are not restricted to a set of defined physiological attributes for performances. Various mixes of aerobic and anaerobic variables produce champions. However, those same champions are usually higher than normal in both aerobic and anaerobic capacities, which contributes to their superiority. The major factor that distinguishes elite from lesser performers is the economy of movement exhibited at racing speeds, a phenomenon which is not reflected at slower speeds. The technique of running fast has a lot to do with middle distance running success. Running economy is the determinant of success among runners with very similar VO2max values.

20.Contributions from running economy are different for middle distance runners than for distance performers. They can run at higher velocities with a better economy than at lower velocities.

SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING This edition of Coaching Science Abstracts reviews articles concerned with the Principle of Specificity as it applies to training. The general thesis is that the most important form of training for elite athletes is that which matches the biomechanics, energy system use, and psychological control factors of an intended competitive performance. However, it is recognized that such training cannot be endured for extended periods. Its best use in an annual plan is in the latter part of the specific preparatory phase of training and during the competition phase. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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The articles represented in this issue serve as a scientific basis for not recommending cross or auxiliary training as an avenue for improving elite athletes' performances. By contrast, two articles using normal individuals as subjects do demonstrate a fitness effect from cross training.

It should be understood that a strong emphasis on specific training is appropriate for elite and mature athletes, a programming emphasis which is directly opposite that which is desirable for young and developing athletes. It would not be beneficial to overemphasize this form of training to the detriment of variety and general capacity training in youngsters.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. TRAINING SPECIFICITY Alcevedo, E. O., & Goldfarb, A. H. (1989). Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 563-568.

2. TRAINING SPECIFICITY - NO VALUE IN WEIGHTS Bell, G. J., Petersen, S. R., Quinney, A. H., & Wenger, H. A. (1989). The effect of velocity-specific strength training on peak torque and anaerobic rowing power. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7, 205-214.

3. THEORY BEHIND SPECIFICITY Stegeman, J. (translated by J. S. Skinner). (1981) Exercise physiology.

Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers (p. 267).

4. A SUMMARY OF SPECIFICITY Rushall Thoughts, 1992.

5. THE FUTILITY OF AUXILIARY EXERCISES De Boer, R. W., Ettema, G. J., Faessen, B. G., Krekels, H., Hollander, A. P., De Groot, G., & Van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1987). Specific characteristics of ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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speed skating: implications for summer training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 504-510.

6. DESIGN OF SPECIFIC TRAINING REPETITIONS International Center for Aquatic Research. (1988). Interval training design.

The Coaches' Newsletter of United States Swimming, 4(5).

7. RESISTANCE TRAINING AND SWIMMING Toussaint, H. M., & Vervoorn, K. (1990). Effects of specific high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 228-23.

8. LAND AND WATER STRENGTH TRAINING Bulgakova, N. Z., Vorontsov, A. R., & Fomichenko, T. G. (1987).

Improving the technical preparedness of young swimmers by using strength training. Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, 7, 31-33.

9. ALTERATIONS IN TECHNIQUE RESULTING FROM TRAINING "EXERCISES" Maglischo, E. W., Maglischo, C. W., Zier, D. J., & Santos, T. R. (1985). The effects of sprint-assisted and sprint-resisted swimming on stroke mechanics.

Journal of Swimming Research, 1, 27-33.

10.TESTING SWIMMING STRENGTH, POWER, AND SPEED Costill, D. L., King, D. S., Holdren, A., & Hargreaves, M. (1983). Sprint speed vs. swimming power. Swimming Technique, May-July, 20-22.

11.EVENT SPECIFICITY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Troup, J. P. (Ed.). (1990). Energy contributions of competitive freestyle events. In International Center for Aquatic Research annual: Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research 1989-90. Colorado Springs, CO: United States Swimming Press.

12.FAILURE OF STRENGTH TRAINING TO IMPROVE THROWING VELOCITY ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Bloomfield, J., Blanksby, B. A., Ackland, T. R., & Allison, G. T. (1990).

The influence of strength training on overhead throwing velocity of elite water polo players. Australian Journal of Since and Medicine in Sport, 22(3), 63-67.

13.SPECIFIC TRAINING EFFECTS IN SWIMMING Kame, V. D., Pendergast, D. R., & Termin, B. (1990). Physiologic responses to high intensity training in competitive university swimmers. Journal of Swimming Research, 6(4), 5-8.

14.SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF ADAPTATION RESULTING FROM TRAINING ON DIFFERENT FORMS OF SWIMMING EXERCISE EQUIPMENT Sexsmith, J. R., Oliver, M. L., & Johnson-Bos, J. M. (1992). Acute responses to surgical tubing and biokinetic swim bench interval exercise.

Journal of Swimming Research, 8, 5-10.

15.SPECIFICITY OF SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY TESTING Beneke, R., Hofmann, C., Strauss, N., Hartwig, F., Hoffmann, K., & Behn, C. (1993). Maximal lactate steady state depends on sports discipline.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 365.

16.A QUESTION THAT EVALUATES SPECIFICITY Rushall Thoughts, 1994.

17.TYPES OF SWIMMING TRAINING AT ODDS WITH EACH OTHER -WHICH IS BEST? Payne, W. R., & Lemon, P. W. R. (1982, October). Metabolic comparison of tethered and simulated swimming ergometer exercise. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences, Victoria, British Columbia.

18.FEATURES OF THE SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE

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Heusner, W. (no date). Specificity of interval training. Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI (p. 13).

19.TRAINING AND ANAEROBIC CAPACITY Pizza, F. X., Holtz, R. W., Mitchell, J. B., Gast, L., Starling, R. D., Braun, T. A., & Forrest, M. (1994). Anaerobic capacity: influence of training status.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 600.

20.TRAINING SPECIFICITY -- NO BENEFITS OF UNDER- AND OVERLOAD STIMULI Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1994). Under- and overload training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 631.

21.PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS NOT ALL THAT IMPORTANT IN SLALOM PADDLING Kearney, J. T., McDowell, S., Litschert, J., & Fleck, S. (1994). Physiological determinants of performance is slalom paddling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 670.

22.CROSS TRAINING NO DIFFERENT TO SPECIFIC TRAINING Flynn, M. G., Carroll, K. K., Hall, H. L., Kooiker, B. A., Weideman, C. A., Kasper, C. M., & Brollinson, P. G. (1994). Cross training, indices of training stress and performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 858.

23.SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING EFFECTS Mahler, D., Andrea, B., & Ward, J. (1987). Comparison of exercise performance on rowing and cycle ergometer. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58, 41-46.

24.SPECIFICITY OF ENDURANCE TRAINING Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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25.THE SPECIFICITY OF MOTOR ABILITIES Fleishman, E. A. (1958). An analysis of positioning movements and static reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 213-246.

26.RUNNING PREDICTS RUNNING BETTER THAN PHYSIOLOGY Noakes, T. D., Myburgh, K. H., & Schall, R. (1990). Peak treadmill running velocity during VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 8, 35-45.

27.RUNNING IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS ELICITS DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES Town, G. P., & Bradley, S. S. (1991). Maximal metabolic responses of deep and shallow water running in trained runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 238-241.

28.SPECIFICITY OF THE TAPER - RUSSIAN MARATHONERS Velikorodnih, Y., Kozmin, R., Konovalov, V., & Nechaev, V. (1986). The marathon (precompetitive preparation). Soviet Sport Review, 22(3), 125-128.

29.SUGGESTED READING Rushall, B. S., & Pyke, F. S. (1990). Training for sports and physical fitness.

Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan Educational.

30.CROSS-TRAINING IN SPORTS Loy, S. F., Hoffmann, J. J., & Holland, G. J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross training in sports. Sports Medicine, 19, 1-8.

31.HARNESS TO IMPROVE RUNNING SPEED NOT BENEFICIAL Macaulay, M. R., Keener, J. R., & Rothenberger, R. (1995). Effect of overspeed harness supported treadmill training on running economy and performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 136.

32.RANGE OF TRAINING LOADS ON BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1995). Under- and overload training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 126.

33.ROLLER SKI, RUNNING TREADMILL, AND RACE PERFORMANCES Hill, M. R., Osbeck, J. S., Amico, V. J., & Rundell, K. W. (1995).

Predictability of roller ski race time in elite female biathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 589.

34.ROLLER SKI AND RUNNING TREADMILL PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES NOT RELATED Hill, M. R., Gregory, R. W., Amico, V. J., Osbeck, J. S., Goodwin, G. T., & Rundell, K. W. (1995). Differences in physiological parameters between treadmill running and treadmill roller skiing in nordic skiers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 590.

TRAINING SPECIFICITY Alcevedo, E. O., & Goldfarb, A. H. (1989). Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 563-568.

Eight males who normally trained 50 to 65 miles per week were subjected to eight weeks of increased training intensity. Heart rates were increased to 90 to 95 percent of maximum by completing one day of interval training. On each of three other days fartlek training of 8 to 12 miles that required a similar effort intensity was performed. The remaining training bouts maintained the previous intensities and distances.

There was no change in VO2max, ventilatory threshold, or lactic acid measures at 65, 70, 75, or 80 percent of VO2max exercise intensities. The training alteration produced significant decreases in lactic acid at 85 and 90 percent of VO2max as well as performance time for a 10 kilometer run.

These results showed that in trained athletes, training effects will be specific. The increased intensity better matched the performance attributes associated with maintaining 85 to 90 percent of VO2max and the speed required to run a maximum effort 10 kilometer event. These changes were associated with specific ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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performance parameters and not the general measure of aerobic capacity (VO2max) or lowered training intensities. Lactic acid improvements only occurred at the experimental training intensity. Physiologically this means that high intensity glycolytic training does not alter glycolytic activity at lower training intensities.

Thus, when an athlete is in a highly trained state, performances will reflect the type of training that has been done. To produce best performances, training intensities have to be equal to those which will be attempted in the competition.

Implication. All training that attempts to increase racing level endurance capacity should replicate the level of aerobic demand that is race specific. Training below racing-level aerobic demands does not serve as a race performance enhancement stimulus. The practice of training at various percentages of race pace intensities would seem to have no specific transfer benefits to racing. Work intensities and paces that exceed those required in a race also have been shown to have little beneficial carry-over to racing.

TRAINING SPECIFICITY - NO VALUE IN WEIGHTS Bell, G. J., Petersen, S. R., Quinney, A. H., & Wenger, H. A. (1989). The effect of velocity-specific strength training on peak torque and anaerobic rowing power.

Journal of Sports Sciences, 7, 205-214.

Eighteen varsity oarsmen from the University of Victoria were divided into three training groups: (a) high-velocity repetition (HVR) training, (b) low-velocity repetition (LVR) training, and (c) a no-training control. Rowing-specific exercises were performed on Hydra-Fitness machines in a repeated circuit format with the HVR group performing 18 to 22 repetitions and the LVR group performing six to eight repetitions of each exercise.

Training effects were measured on a rowing ergometer. A 90-seconds maximum performance was measured every 15 seconds with the 15 to 30 seconds interval being used as the measure of peak power output. The high lactic acid levels recorded in the subjects validated the test as being a measure of anaerobic capacity and power output.

It has been estimated that the contribution of anaerobic energy to rowing ranges from 14 to 23 percent. Usually, those contributions are greatest in the starting and finishing efforts of a race. The point behind this study's resistance training program was that it should increase power and rowing ergometer performance should ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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improve since the exercises used the muscles that are involved in the sport. The investigation assessed how much of the specific-resistance training effects transferred to ergometer work and thus, reflected the benefit of such training for rowing performance.

The results showed that there were specific changes in the performance of the specific resistance exercises, that is, the athletes became better resistance exercisers. Those changes were specific to the velocities of training. The HVR group performed better in the high velocity range of movements while the LVR group was better at low velocity actions. Contrary to what has been reported by Moffroid and Whipple (1970), each of the training groups changed specifically, that is, the high-velocity group did not show any improvement in low-velocity movements.

The control group worsened in performance. There was no change in either training group in peak power output or lactic acid levels. This finding was surprising because the strength program was specifically designed to enhance the strength of the muscle groups involved in rowing. Since power is dependent on both force and velocity, the observed improvements in torque with resistance training should, theoretically, have contributed to an increase in rowing power.

That theoretical position was not supported by the results of this study in these high-caliber athletes. The lack of improvement contradicts the recommendations of many coaches and the content emphases of many rowing training programs. This negative finding might be explained by the fact that the movement patterns involved in rowing are very complex and require a high degree of skill. The training effects that were observed in this study were specific to the resistancetraining mode and did not transfer to the more complex action involved in the sport. This restriction supports the training principle that training effects achieved on simple activities (such as specific resistance exercises) do not transfer to complex activities.

This study failed to show performance benefits that are supposed to result from resistance training programs. It supports the absolute specificity of training principle and suggests that an emphasis on resistance training in high-level athletes is not useful for improving performance. Such programs may even restrict the volume of beneficial specific training that can be achieved because of the level of fatigue that results from their execution. Neither modern training theory nor the mounting evidence of the ineffectiveness of specific resistance training programs supports the continued emphasis on this type of training as a means of generating performance improvements in high-caliber athletes. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Implication. Traditional use of resistance training programs that are "meant" to improve performance should be questioned. The only time that resistance training may be of value would seem to be in the transition (off-season) for basic preparatory training phases. There is the possibility that fatigue generated by strenuous resistance activities will: (a) diminish the physical resources that can be applied to specific beneficial training; (b) detract from the amount of available training time so that the volume of specific beneficial training is reduced; and (c) the training effects from resistance training will be incompatible and interfere with beneficial specific training effects (principally those of aerobic THEORY BEHIND SPECIFICITY Stegeman, J. (translated by J. S. Skinner). (1981) Exercise physiology. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical Publishers. (p. 267) As muscle adapts to exercise stress it cycles through a diminution in performance capacity caused by a training stimulus and recovery and overcompensation caused by the body's attempt to adapt to that specific stress. This leads to a continuous cycle involving natural breakdown and gain in performance capacity that results from functional stimuli of a specific nature. If strength stimuli are applied then only strength is improved; if endurance stimuli are applied, then only endurance is improved. The body adapts to adequately cope with the specific forms of exercise stress which are applied. The adaptive process does not include any capacity that extends beyond the specific training stress. Thus, there is no basis to expect training effects from one form of exercise to transfer to any other form of exercise.

Training is absolutely specific (Noakes, 1986).

However, training is not very beneficial when stimuli are mixed. When training tasks vary and do not provide important repetitions or volume of an experience, the body continually attempts to adapt to changing conditions. While adaptations of a specific nature do not occur, general fatigue (e.g., reduced glycogen levels, accrual of lactic acid) usually increases. If the volume of mixed work is sufficiently high, a general change in the physical status of the body is achieved requiring restitution during recovery. Unfortunately, there is no accompanying skill or resource utilization improvement. Mixed programs are satisfactory for general fitness improvements. They are not beneficial for specific performance improvements. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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The best description of the effect of mixing training stimuli is "mixed training produces mixed results." When specific training objectives are desired, no matter what the phase of training, training stimuli should feature repetitions or extensive volumes without interruptions from other stimuli which disrupt the adaptation signals being generated. Consistent stimulus demands need to produce a level of fatigue that debilitates performance to the level that a particular quality can no longer be sustained because of technique degradation and despite increased effort.

That level is often termed the "training threshold." It is harmful to fatigue athletes beyond that threshold or "cut-off" stage.

A SUMMARY OF SPECIFICITY Rushall Thoughts, 1992.

It is obvious that as a general rule, the principle of specificity remains dominant in almost all facets of sport conditioning and training. However, there are some anomalies that have been reported in the literature which need to be considered.

1. When training has occurred through participation in large-muscle total-body activities, such as running, rowing, or Olympic weight-lifting, there can be a partial but minor transfer of training effects to simpler activities. For example, aerobic improvements derived from running (a complex activity) have been shown to produce improvements in the aerobic work of cycling (a simpler activity where the work occurs in fewer large muscle groups). The amount of the transfer is marginal at best. For example, the aerobic benefits that could be derived from 100 hours of endurance running might translate into the equivalent effect of 10 hours of endurance training for cycling. It would seem to be more expedient and economical to just train for 10 hours on a bicycle rather perform 10 times as much running training to get an improvement in cycling. As well, cycling produces specific endurance effects plus other associated benefits (which would not result from relying on the transfer of the running-training phenomenon).

2. When training has occurred on a relatively simple activity, the benefits of that training are specific and do not transfer to more complex activities. The reverse of what has been explained above in point #1 does not occur. When an individual trains aerobically for cycling and shows marked training effects there is no transfer of aerobic benefits to running. Similarly, specific weight exercises do not cause improvements in the more complicated Olympic lifts (which, incidentally, require a high degree of complex skilled ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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movement). Thus, when a coach considers auxiliary training exercises that are supposed to benefit a particular sport, if those exercises are simple, they will not be beneficial for an athlete. If they are performed with sustained intensity, they actually could prove to be counter-productive, primarily because of the development of unnecessary fatigue that could hinder more beneficial recovery.

3. There are four circumstances where auxiliary training is beneficial. o Rehabilitation from injury is facilitated by general activities and specifically designed localized programs to promote particular tissue growth; o general resistance exercises and other forms of training can be used to prepare the body for unusual circumstances that can occur in competitions and thus, serve as a method for lessening the likelihood of injury; o general endurance training has general behavioral effects that are beneficial to target sports, and sports where attention and decision making are crucial elements (e.g., yachting, playing in-goal in icehockey); and o general activity training involving most capacities is beneficial if the fitness levels of participants is particularly low. This is true of young performers or adults starting new activities. When the new performer is so low in general fitness characteristics any improvement in them, whether or not they are specific, will be beneficial. However, those benefits are only displayed when the level of performance is very low.

As performance improves in the sport, the value of any transfer of general or unrelated training effects diminishes rapidly.

The principle of specificity has one further implication for coaching. If an athlete enters a training program with fitness capacities already in a high degree of general adaptation, it makes no sense to pursue further general development (any further improvements will be of no benefit to the specific competitive activity). Thus, athletes who are already in a high state of training when training commences, such as when they are selected to a national or representative team, should not have to go through further exhaustive general or basic training. They should be able to embark on a program which encourages the maintenance of the general fitness capacities but emphasizes the development of specific fitness attributes and skills.

THE FUTILITY OF AUXILIARY EXERCISES

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De Boer, R. W., Ettema, G. J., Faessen, B. G., Krekels, H., Hollander, A. P., De Groot, G., & Van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1987). Specific characteristics of speed skating: implications for summer training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 504-510.

14 well-trained speed skaters performed all-out exercise tests during ice speed skating, low walking (walking-like movement in skating position), and dry skating (side-to-side deep sitting push-offs). These dry-land activities are popularly used during the summer period.

1. Physiologically (VO2max) low walking was the same as skating but dry skating was significantly less demanding (62 ml/kg versus 48 ml/kg).

2. The biomechanical aspects were vastly different in both auxiliary activities (aspects of the leg actions in low walking and the convulsive leg actions in dry skating).

It was concluded that neither low walking nor dry skating can be considered as specific training activities for speed skaters. There are no valuable training effects that will enhance speed skating from the enactment of these activities. They are useless activities for competent skaters. They could even be counter-productive if emphasized too heavily (probably would cause disruption of high-level neuromuscular patterns).

Implication. One can analogize to other activities, for example, rowing and swimming, where exercises are practiced considerably. Such exercises are of no use to advanced athletes and have the potential to be harmful.

DESIGN OF SPECIFIC TRAINING REPETITIONS International Center for Aquatic Research. (1988). Interval training design. The Coaches' Newsletter of United States Swimming, 4(5).

When swimming repetitions at a certain intensity level (speed x duration), the amount of recovery will determine the total effect of that set on improvement in the energy systems. The longer the rest, the more specific will be the training effect to the particular pace that was held in the set. With short rest periods and associated slow swimming pace, the more nonspecific to race pace the swimming will be. For example, if one were training for a 200 m event, 100 m repeats with a ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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work: recovery ratio of 1:2 should encourage more specific training effects to the event than would occur with a 1:1 ratio. Swimming 200 m repetitions provokes too much of an endurance response at the expense of race-pace specificity for 200 m competitions. Thus, repetition work will likely be at distances that are at least half the race distance and that can accommodate the maintenance of race-specific pace.

As an athlete adapts to the training stress, the volume of race-pace efforts should increase. That is a good field test of how conditioning is improving. When the volume ceases to increase then maximum fitness has been attained and performance improvements should be sought through other training effects (e.g., skill efficiency, psychology).

Implication. It makes little sense to perform large volumes of non-specific pace work in training programs other than in the transition and basic preparatory phases.

RESISTANCE TRAINING AND SWIMMING Toussaint, H. M., & Vervoorn, K. (1990). Effects of specific high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 228-23.

The MAD-system, which measures active drag, was used as a training device providing fixed push off points (POP) in the water for arms-only crawl stroke swimming. Well-trained swimmers were divided into matched pairs for 1) a training group, and 2) a control group. All swimmers performed the same training program for 10 weeks with the training group receiving three sessions of training on the POP device instead of normal sprint training. The training group improved in force (3.3%), velocity (3.4%), and power (7%) as measured on the MAD system. The training group also reduced the number of strokes taken in 25 m and 50 m sprints and improved significantly in race times for distances of 50 m (27.2 to 26.6 s), 100 m (59.3 to 57.4 s), and 200 m (129.6 to 127.3 s). The control group only improved in the 100 m time.

This article proposes that MAD-POP training benefits swimming. The distance covered in each stroke and the evenness of stroking were improved after training on the device. Performance parameters that result from using the device were improved when measured on the device (the specificity of training effect).

Performance times also improved but the differences between the groups were not as great as the MAD-POP parameters. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Implication. There is a suggestion that there might be minor amounts of carry-over from this device training to actual swimming performances. If that was so, then it supports the contention that overloading while actually swimming is a feature that needs to be incorporated into resistance training in the sport. It should also be noted that with this system the swimmer propels him/herself forward rather than moving water backward (as happens in tethered swimming). That could be the factor that accounts for the effectiveness demonstrated in this study.

LAND AND WATER STRENGTH TRAINING Bulgakova, N. Z., Vorontsov, A. R., & Fomichenko, T. G. (1987). Improving the technical preparedness of young swimmers by using strength training. Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, 7, 31-33.

Most young swimmers cannot perform correct technical actions because they lack fundamental physical capacities (e.g., strength, endurance, joint mobility). Strength changes developed in the water in adults have been shown to be associated with performance changes. This study investigated the effects of two forms of strength training on good 11-12 years-old swimmers. Exercises were performed twice a week over a six-month period. Water exercises were mainly tethered, rubber-band swims, while the land exercises used a pulling swim bench. The same amounts of interval training were used for each group on the exercises. A variety of measures were taken in and out of the water.

Strength and muscular endurance for the device activities increased in both groups.

The dry-land group actually increased more in the water than did the in-water group. However, the in-water group improved to a greater degree in actual swimming speed. The in-water group displayed significantly better mechanical improvements in the application of the strength than did the dry-land group. It was found that the mechanical actions of the dry-land machines, which were not the same as those done in the water, had a negative impact on swimming technique.

Implication. It would seem that strength developed in the water is more useful for swimming development in age-group swimmers. Dry-land training has the potential to negatively effect swimming performance because of disruptive transfers to swimming technique as well as not being associated with performance improvements.

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ALTERATIONS IN TECHNIQUE RESULTING FROM TRAINING "EXERCISES" Maglischo, E. W., Maglischo, C. W., Zier, D. J., & Santos, T. R. (1985). The effects of sprint-assisted and sprint-resisted swimming on stroke mechanics.

Journal of Swimming Research, 1, 27-33.

Four male and two female age-group swimmers were filmed sprinting butterfly.

They swam approximately 40 feet under three conditions: 1) normally, 2) partially tethered by a swim belt, and 3) sprint-assisted using a tethered belt. Biomechanical and stroking factors were evaluated.

1. Sprint-resisted training caused shorter and slower stroking.

2. Sprint-assisted training increased stroke rate but only by shortening stroke length and not by changing hand velocity.

3. Stroke mechanics were changed in both forms of training, casting doubt on the efficacy of both forms of training.

4. This study could be considered an indictment of these training methods.

Each encouraged swimmers to adopt less efficient mechanics.

Implication. It was contended by the authors that the changes promoted by these training methods might not be transferred if they only constituted a small part of the training program. They also suggested that there might be other, but not yet recognized, values to these forms of training. It is recommended that these methods of training be treated cautiously and used sparingly. Their value might best be maximized early in basic training phases but could become counterproductive in more specific phases of training.

TESTING SWIMMING STRENGTH, POWER, AND SPEED Costill, D. L., King, D. S., Holdren, A., & Hargreaves, M. (1983). Sprint speed vs. swimming power. Swimming Technique, May-July, 20-22.

Swimmers were tested using a tethered isokinetic force measuring device that allowed forward progress, rather than maintaining a static position, while freestyle swimming. The amount of work, peak force, and duration of test was recorded. It was found that small differences in sprinting speed were associated with measurable differences in swimming power and peak force. The correlation ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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between a 25-yard sprint and power swim trial in the water was r = .84 while in another study using a land-based isokinetic swim bench it was only r = .62. It is interesting to note that in high performance swimmers the relationship between land-based power and speed drops to an insignificant amount (r = .25). This stresses the value of testing in the performance medium as opposed to away from it.

A major finding was that the technique of force application caused performance variation, not absolute power. The water-based power measures fluctuated with performance times over the season whereas land-based measures did not. The water-based measures better reflected the technique of power application.

Pulling alone produced only 51% of the power that was produced when the whole stroke was tested. Strong kickers were found to gain substantially more than weak or two-beat kickers when kicking was integrated into the stroke. It is erroneous to conclude that kicking contributes 49% of swimming power. Rather, the addition of the kick allows the arms to perform more powerfully. The contribution of the kick and its main function is to maintain body position while developing additional power.

Implication. The application of power in sprint swimming is important. Therefore, the technique of sprinting should be a primary focus of training. Ultra-short training would appear to be the training form that would accommodate practicing race-pace sprinting form.

EVENT SPECIFICITY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING Troup, J. P. (Ed.). (1990). Energy contributions of competitive freestyle events. In International Center for Aquatic Research Annual: Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research 1989-90. Colorado Springs, CO: United States Swimming Press.

This study substantiates the fact that the specific nature of energy contributions made in each freestyle swimming event makes it difficult for athletes to train for multiple events without sacrificing performance to some degree for a specific event.

Swimming appears to have a much greater endurance component than that reported for running or in theoretical energy capacity curves. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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This study produced a number of significant findings and implications.

1. All swimming events require a solid aerobic conditioning base. This should be established first since the rate of energy use is affected by this component.

2. All swimming events will be enhanced if, at the very least, the swimmers maintain and develop an anaerobic component.

3. Close attention should be given to the actual energy contributions, since the most specific type of training would include workouts that mimic these same percent contributions (how that is done is not easily determined).

4. FAILURE OF STRENGTH TRAINING TO IMPROVE THROWING VELOCITY 5. Bloomfield, J., Blanksby, B. A., Ackland, T. R., & Allison, G. T. (1990).

The influence of strength training on overhead throwing velocity of elite water polo players. Australian Journal of Since and Medicine in Sport, 22(3), 63-67.

6. The relationship between muscular strength and morphology with overhead throwing velocity was examined in elite water polo players (N = 21). A strength training and no-training control group were formed.

7. An 8-week program using "Nautilus" equipment and emphasizing upper body strength development was employed. Regular swimming and game practice continued.

8. Significant relationships were found between throwing velocity and standing height, body mass, lean body mass, stem length, bicromial width, arm girth, and forearm extension strength.

9. Following strength training, No change in throwing velocity was observed in either group. In the strength training group there were significant increases in arm girth, mesomorphy, and arm medial rotation strength.

10.The authors explained the results this way: 11."It is more likely that this homogeneous group of elite water polo players already possessed optimum levels of upper body strength . . . and that diminished strength returns were gained from the extra training. More substantial strength gains would have been expected from players of lower calibre with poorer overall physiques." (p. 67) 12.Implication. The study really shows strength training on unrelated activities does not improve speed actions. Strength training had no carry over to the skill tested because it was neither neuromuscularly specific nor modality specific. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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SPECIFIC TRAINING EFFECTS IN SWIMMING Kame, V. D., Pendergast, D. R., & Termin, B. (1990). Physiologic responses to high intensity training in competitive university swimmers. Journal of Swimming Research, 6(4), 5-8.

"Numerous studies have shown that increases in swimming capabilities can only be facilitated via a program of swim training. . . . . These studies have consistently demonstrated that increases in VO2max resulting from other forms of exercise training are not reflected when the subjects were tested swimming." (p. 7) [Important references used in the article are:  



Holmer, I., & Astrand, P-O., (1972). Swimming training and maximal oxygen uptake. Journal of Applied Physiology, 33, 510-513.

Magel, J. R., Foglia, G. F., McArdle, W. D., Gutin, B., Pechar, G. S., & Katch, F. I. (1975). Specificity of swim training on maximal oxygen uptake.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 38, 151-155.

McArdle, S. D., Magel, J. R., Delio, D. J., Toner, M. & Chase, J. M. (1978).

Specificity of run training on VO2max and heart rate changes during running and swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 10(1), 16-20.]

Because swimming has such a high degree of specificity of training, the physical conditioning of swimmers is not maximized by "general" or "mixed" programs of swimming. The most beneficial form of conditioning will be that which mimics the actual energy requirements of each competitive race (p. 7). This agrees with the principles proposed by ICAR. University swimmers (N = 17) were tested before, at mid-point, and after a full season of training and competition. Although there were increases in VO2peak, this was not reflected in any increases in the swimming efficiency of the subjects.

Performance improvements reflected only those attained through conditioning. No changes in skill were evidenced. "The data suggest that high intensity training brings about optimal changes in physiological parameters, but other factors, such as skill of the athlete must be addressed to facilitate maximal performance." (p. 8) Implication. A swimmer's progress will not be maximized by programs which only or primarily emphasize conditioning. The skill component needs to be emphasized

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to produce further progress since physiological adaptations are limited to each individual's inherent capacities.

SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF ADAPTATION RESULTING FROM TRAINING ON DIFFERENT FORMS OF SWIMMING EXERCISE EQUIPMENT Sexsmith, J. R., Oliver, M. L., & Johnson-Bos, J. M. (1992). Acute responses to surgical tubing and biokinetic swim bench interval exercise. Journal of Swimming Research, 8, 5-10.

Elite male swimmers(N = 22) performed three sets of five, 60 s repeats at 38 strokes per minute interspersed with 30 s rest intervals using surgical tubing (ST) and a biokinetic swim bench (SB). A five-minute recovery was provided between sets. HR, minute ventilation, and oxygen consumption were measured for the final 30 s of each set. Venous lactate was assessed at rest and four-minutes after the last repeat. Surgical tubing evoked lower HR, ventilation, and oxygen consumption at all measurement times. HR increased for both exercises. HLa was increased for both exercises but was lowest for ST. Power output, oxygen consumption, and ventilation were relatively constant during the three exercise sets. This meant that exercise intensity did not change over the course of either exercise sets. Since those measures were stable, the HR probably increased due to increased blood pressure and thermoregulatory factors, such as skin blood flow and sweating.

The different responses to the exercises may be due to their dissimilar force generation requirements, and hence, unique motor unit use (synchronization) and recruitment. For example, a large force is required at the commencement of the pull on the swim bench but is delayed with tubing due to its elastic "give" in the initial pull stages. Also the tubing recovery requires resistance to slow the elastic "snap" back while the bench has only the movement of body parts to control. The bench also employs isometric contraction of the legs and back against the restraining belt. The extra bench factors exercise a greater muscle mass and produce a greater metabolic cost, hence the higher values.

Implication. These two exercises are supposed to be beneficial for swimming but each evokes a very different response. Which is the more useful? Is either useful?

The different responses mean that both cannot be equally useful to the same degree. If responses are this specific, would not it seem possible that swimming ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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itself is equally specific and UNLIKE either exercise? This study supports the specificity of training principle.

SPECIFICITY OF SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY TESTING Beneke, R., Hofmann, C., Strauss, N., Hartwig, F., Hoffmann, K., & Behn, C. (1993). Maximal lactate steady state depends on sports discipline. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 365.

Maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) has been defined as the highest blood lactate concentration, which increases less than 1.0 mM during the last 20 min of a 30 min constant load.

The value of MLSS was different for rowing to what it was for cycling.

Implication. Different sports require different oxygen transport demands and therefore, yield different VO2max levels. However, exertion levels occur at similar percentages of the different VO2max levels.

A QUESTION THAT EVALUATES SPECIFICITY Rushall Thoughts, 1994.

1. In a 100% race effort certain combinations of physiological capacities are used (e.g., 60% aerobic, 40% anaerobic). What muscle fibers are used? Are those fibers controlled by the brain?

2. If, in the "same" sporting task, an 80% effort is performed, certain combinations of physiological capacities are used (e.g., 95% aerobic, 10% anaerobic). What muscle fibers are used? Are those fibers controlled by the brain?

3. Since both activities are performed with the intention of improving a specific performance, which of the very different energy system usages, different muscle fiber recruitments, and discretely different neural control patterns is correct for the competition (race) performance?

4. What is the mechanism for telling the body that both forms of exercise are supposed to benefit the swimmer in the race performance?

5. How does the body know it is performing an 80% effort that is INTENDED to benefit the 100% race effort? ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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WRITE THE ANSWER: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (There is only one answer that is correct for this question).

TYPES OF SWIMMING TRAINING AT ODDS WITH EACH OTHER -WHICH IS BEST? Payne, W. R., & Lemon, P. W. R. (1982, October). Metabolic comparison of tethered and simulated swimming ergometer exercise. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences, Victoria, British Columbia.

Two types of swimming auxiliary activity were analyzed for physiological responses: 



simulated swimming was performed on a modified ergometer using a freestyle action (alternate, cyclic arm movements), with the legs stationary; and tethered swimming was performed stationary in the water with legs tied and buoyed.

Both activities were performed under similar protocols of continuous one-minute load increments.

It was found that (a) tethered swimming developed significantly greater VO2max and lactate accumulation levels; (b) simulated swimming produced a greater VE/VO2; and (c) HRmax and VEmax did not differ between the conditions.

Implication. Despite the apparent similarities of HRmax, VEmax, and subjective assessments of effort expended, as well as popular usage of these two activities, energy requirements, at least during maximal exercise, are quite different. This poses a problem for coaches. If both are deemed to be useful, but their energy use is very different, which one is correct and which is incorrect for swimming? It is also highly likely that neither is appropriate for specific swimming enhancement FEATURES OF THE SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE Heusner, W. (no date). Specificity of interval training. Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. (p. 13)

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Training has a specific action in relation to lactic acid production during heavy muscular work. The specificity is located in the muscles.

Training specificity applies between sports, events within sports, and between precise skills, paces, and effort levels. It is the neuromuscular patterning which differentiates the different actions, intensities, and muscle fiber recruitment. It has been shown that a training program which will increase elbow flexor strength at the waist has no effect on the muscles when the arm is overhead (Heusner, p. 13).

Minor adjustments in technique in trained athletes produce a loss in efficiency.

Thus, it is important to determine when and when not to change techniques because of the degrading effect upon performance.

As long as technique remains unchanged, an energy expenditure plateau in performance is reached. Thus, unless technique is changed performance peaks and then does not improve any more from a biomechanical or physiological perspective.

As technique changes are implemented, athletes oscillate between improving and decreasing levels of efficiency. This could account for non-perceived improvement. Indications of non-specific or unrelated training are:    

muscle soreness in recovery, acute localized fatigue, subjective appraisal of work being harder than usual, and quick onset of fatigue.

Implication. Training increases skill for the activity at the particular work intensity that is practiced. It does not generalize such training effects.

TRAINING AND ANAEROBIC CAPACITY Pizza, F. X., Holtz, R. W., Mitchell, J. B., Gast, L., Starling, R. D., Braun, T. A., & Forrest, M. (1994). Anaerobic capacity: influence of training status. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 600.

Resistance, endurance, and untrained individuals were compared on anaerobic capacity and extracellular buffering capacity (ECBC). Leg muscle mass and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit were also measured. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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No significant differences were revealed when maximal accumulated oxygen deficit was expressed relative to body weight or leg muscle mass. It was concluded that anaerobic capacity and ECBC were not affected by endurance or resistance training. It might be more meaningful to report maximal accumulated oxygen deficit relative to muscle mass to better understand anaerobic training effects.

Implication. Neither endurance nor weight training affects specific anaerobic function.

TRAINING SPECIFICITY -- NO BENEFITS OF UNDER- AND OVERLOAD STIMULI Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1994). Under- and over-load training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 631.

Young men (N = 18) trained for 5 weeks using 3 sets of ballistic elbow extensions with a load equal to 10% of maximal isometric strength. Additional training (3 sets of 5 repetitions) was performed at loads of 0, 10, or 20% of load.

Neither the underload nor overload supplementary ballistic training provided any benefit beyond that attained by training with the target performance.

Implication. Movement training is very specific. Effects gained from other "like" activities do not transfer or benefit target actions. Much training time could be wasted performing activities which do not transfer.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS NOT ALL THAT IMPORTANT IN SLALOM PADDLING Kearney, J. T., McDowell, S., Litschert, J., & Fleck, S. (1994). Physiological determinants of performance is slalom paddling. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 670.

Although some relationships were identified between physiological factors and performance, variables other than those tested (30-sec upper body Wingate; 3 min post lactate; body composition; anthropometric profile; 10 m flat water sprint; grip strength; pulmonary function; post-race lactates) are major determinants of slalom paddling. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Implication. When training elite slalom paddlers, physiological conditioning will not be the capacity that discriminates good from lesser performers.

CROSS TRAINING NO DIFFERENT TO SPECIFIC TRAINING Flynn, M. G., Carroll, K. K., Hall, H. L., Kooiker, B. A., Weideman, C. A., Kasper, C. M., & Brollinson, P. G. (1994). Cross training, indices of training stress and performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 858.

Fit subjects were assigned to two groups. One performed normal training while in the other, normal running training was supplemented by similar amounts of track or bicycle ergometer work three times per week. After 6 weeks of maintenance training it was found that both groups responded similarly and improved 5 km performance.

Implication. Extra training is not beneficial, whether specific or "cross," when a maximum trained state has been attained. Cross training at that time is not detrimental because it does not detract from maximal stimulation. However, if the extra load of cross training excessively stresses an athlete then maladaptation will result.

SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING EFFECTS Mahler, D., Andrea, B., & Ward, J. (1987). Comparison of exercise performance on rowing and cycle ergometer. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58,4146.

It was found that both trained and untrained rowers had lower VO2max on a Concept II ergometer than on a bicycle ergometer. This suggested that the cramped body position during rowing might limit ventilation.

Physiological variables at anaerobic threshold were consistently greater for trained rowers which indicates that rowers achieved a specific training effect which was not observed from VO2max variables on the bicycle ergometer.

Implication. This study indicates that testing for aerobic variables has to be sport specific and that it is wrong to infer training statuses from one form of exercise ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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(e.g., treadmill or bicycle) to another form (e.g., swimming or rowing). VO2max testing must be sport specific SPECIFICITY OF ENDURANCE TRAINING Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.

In aerobic endurance training, mitochondrial adaptations occur only in muscles stimulated by activity. The response is further limited to those fibers which are activated in the activity. Thus, white fibers are very unlikely to be stimulated to produce a training response in work that is consistently at or below anaerobic threshold. These adaptations are only specific and do not generalize to other forms of activity that may use the muscle, and therefore muscle fibers, differently. For example, endurance gained from flat-track running does not generalize or facilitate hill running.

Different training intensities use different physiological mechanisms and therefore, produce different training effects. These are what might be expected in running.   

Sprinters aim to increase the rates of the creatine kinase reaction and of glycolysis, middle-distance runners attempt to adapt the muscle so that they become progressively more resistant to low pH levels, and marathoners attempt to shift the lactate turnpoint (AnThreshold) to a higher speed, increase the capacity for fat oxidation so that carbohydrates can be "spared" or "saved", maximize the ability to store liver and muscle glycogen before exercise, and increase the capacity to absorb carbohydrate during competitive performances.

Response systems are also dependent upon the mechanical function doing the work. For effective training at least the appropriate biomechanical actions (technique and its constituent neuromuscular pathways) must be maintained and repeated while the appropriate energy system is fatigued. Irrespective of the development level of an athlete's technique, when in a non-fatigued state, an athlete usually works as efficiently as possible, even though the technique might include some "errors." With the onset of fatigue caused by a training stimulus, muscle fiber and then muscle recruitment occurs, eventually resulting in a degradation of movement efficiency no matter what the standard of technique that ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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originally existed. In the very early stages of fatigue, a loss of efficiency can be stalled by the athlete consciously striving to maintain essential technique elements, a compensatory activity that lasts only for a short time. Physical fatigue gradually becomes more general and reduces movement efficiency. Consequently, it is not worthwhile to persist with excessive fatigue that causes technical inefficiency when attempting to get the optimum benefit from a practice activity.

Once the activity's biomechanics are degraded, further physiological overload is not warranted because the body will be learning to energize an inappropriate and, very likely, counterproductive action. Thus, for specific training to be beneficial it has to include both the biomechanics and energizing system of the intended competitive performance.

Implication. When a program mixes training stimuli, it is likely that the body's response will be general and diminished over that which could be achieved through blocked, repetitive stimuli. A response system can only be stimulated optimally when it is exposed to repetitive work that requires skill technique maintenance in the face of increasing fatigue. Mixed work does not achieve that because both techniques and energizing capacities are varied, none being stimulated optimally, and so responses are not maximal. For effective coaching it is essential that "types" of work are programmed to provide optimal stimulation through the preservation of exact techniques with appropriate physiological overload.

There comes a time in a training segment where further work is counterproductive.

That point is where performance and technique have deteriorated despite increased effort by the athlete. Coaches have to be "brave" enough to terminate training at that point rather than completing the segment as programmed.

THE SPECIFICITY OF MOTOR ABILITIES Fleishman, E. A. (1958). An analysis of positioning movements and static reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 213-246.

High independent levels of specificity existed between 24 fine motor ability static and movement tasks. The low correlations between the factors established the basis for the study of specificity in motor ability. Abilities were found to be specific in nature, non-transferable, and task-specific related.

RUNNING PREDICTS RUNNING BETTER THAN PHYSIOLOGY ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Noakes, T. D., Myburgh, K. H., & Schall, R. (1990). Peak treadmill running velocity during VO2max test predicts running performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 8, 35-45.

Marathon runners (N = 20) and ultra-marathoners (N = 23) were tested for VO2max, peak treadmill running velocity, velocity at lactate turnpoint, and VO2 at 16 km/h using an incremental (1 min) treadmill test.

Results. Race times at 10, 21.1, and 42.2 km of the specialist marathoners were faster than those of the ultra-marathoners, however, only the 10 km time differed significantly. Lactate turnpoint occurred at 77.4% of VO2max and at 74.7% of peak treadmill velocity. The average VO2 at 16 km/h was 51.2 ml/kg/min which represented 78.5% of VO2max.

1. For all distances, performance time in other races was the best predictor of performance (r = .95 to .98).

2. The best laboratory predictors were: (a) peak treadmill running velocity (r = -.89 to -.94); (b) running velocity at lactate turnpoint (r = -.91 to -.93); and (c) fractional use of VO2max at 16 km/h (r = .86 to .90). The predictive value of the lactate turnpoint measure increased as the distance increased.

3. The poorest predictors were: VO2max (r = -.55 to -.81) and VO2 at 16 km/h (r = .40 to .45).

Conclusion. There may be no unique physiological characteristics that distinguish elite long-distance (10 km or longer) runners as is often promoted. Other factors determine success in high level sports among exclusive groups of superior athletes.

Implication. Running performance is the best predictor of running capability in elite long-distance runners. Physiological laboratory testing gives less information than does actual performance. Even the fastest speed of running on the treadmill is a better predictor than any physiological measure. This suggests that for at least endurance-dominated sports, actual performances in a variety of performancespecific situations will give more useful information than that which can be obtained in any physiology laboratory test.

RUNNING IN DIFFERENT MEDIUMS ELICITS DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

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Town, G. P., & Bradley, S. S. (1991). Maximal metabolic responses of deep and shallow water running in trained runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 238-241.

Maximal metabolic responses of competitive runners (N = 9) were compared for treadmill running, deep water running, and shallow water running.

Results. Treadmill running elicited higher VO2max and HRmax than either water test. VO2max was higher for shallow water than deep water running. Respiratory exchange ratio and lactic acid measures did not differ between the conditions.

Implication. Even though trained runners "ran" in three different milieus, the metabolic costs and response patterns were different. It would appear that there would be no specific benefit to running in any of these conditions because of the incorrect energy supply mechanisms for pure running. The actual benefits of such training, other than in the most basic/general phases of training have to be questioned SPECIFICITY OF THE TAPER - RUSSIAN MARATHONERS Velikorodnih, Y., Kozmin, R., Konovalov, V., & Nechaev, V. (1986). The marathon (precompetitive preparation). Soviet Sport Review, 22(3), 125-128.

The precompetitive activities of 30 Russian marathoners were analyzed after an important marathon in Vilnuse when it was thought that many of them would perform in the 2.10 - 2.11 region. However, despite previous very fast sub-60 min 20 Km races five weeks before the marathon, none of them came close to the predicted and expected levels of performance. Thus, a retrospective analysis of training was performed.

When training during the last four weekly microcycles it is best to stabilize the achievements of previous training. No attempt should be made to develop any lastminute gains (this was done by many athletes in the study).

The most common mistake was trying to raise the speed potential with the use of 400 - 1,000 m repetitions at speeds significantly higher than would be performed in a marathon race. All athletes who tried this speed work failed. It is felt it disrupted more than enhanced established performance capacity. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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The successful athletes trained at the speeds that would be experienced in the race.

Since a marathon has a variety of speeds, depending upon conditions, stage of race, terrain, and climate (wind and heat), one should train over that range rather than only at the single predicted average time. For marathons it was suggested to develop the average predicted speed and vary training between -8 - +10 sec around the mean in the first microcycle but gradually reduce the range to -3 - +5 sec by the last microcycle.

This leads to the concept of "performance range tapering." It involves considering the range of speeds to be performed in a race and then training across them all during a taper. One should not train outside that range because it is likely to be disruptive because of its lack of appropriate specificity. This is a relatively new concept because most tapers that are specific focus very restrictively on the average time and that may not be general enough to accommodate all the paces of the event. This retrospective analysis shows the foolishness of ultra-speed training which is commonly pursued in many sports. The specific range of performances are what should be practiced in a taper.

For a marathon, the authors suggest that the range of training intensities should be restricted over the last four weeks with the volume of work decreasing weekly.

This way the athlete will be primed for a particular range of performance capabilities but will also be rested.

Implication. Exaggerated speed training in a taper for a marathon has no value for enhancing performance or preparing properly. The speeds of training should be restricted to the range that is likely to be experienced in the event but as the taper progresses even that range should be reduced further to about 50% of the original range. Rather than being exactly (one speed) specific, the concept of performance range tapering should be employed. Any taper speeds outside of those expected to be performed in a contest are likely to be destructive and predispose the athlete to poorer performances CROSS-TRAINING IN SPORTS Loy, S. F., Hoffmann, J. J., & Holland, G. J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross training in sports. Sports Medicine, 19, 1-8.

The following abstract reflects a re-interpretation of some of the points made in this extensive review. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Cross-training is usually discussed with a view to enhancing performance by posing two questions:  

is there an advantage to exclusively using an alternative mode of training, and should primary training be alternated with training in another mode or activity?

It is generally accepted that training effects are specific in cardiorespiratory and muscle adaptation.

With cross training, several modifying factors have to be considered.

1. The fitness level of the individual will alter training sensitivity and the nature of effects. o For particularly unfit individuals, any overload exercise experience is likely to increase physiological indices and performance in any activity. o For moderately fit individuals, for example, those interested in fitness, any overload exercise is likely to marginally increase central measures of cardiorespiratory fitness, but effects on performance are likely to be inconsistent. o For extremely fit individuals, cross-training overloads usually will not influence specific fitness because it already is likely to be maximal. In very demanding training programs, cross-training experiences might be a respite from excessive overloads and stimulations and could act unwittingly as a safeguard/rest activity. On the other hand, a case could be made to assert that target performance could be affected detrimentally by cross-training because of fatigue and competition for resources.

2. The amount of muscle stimulated in the cross-training activity has a moderating effect on transfer benefits. Marginal training effects in general adaptations (e.g., resting heart rate, VO2max) sometimes occur when the cross-training activity uses large muscle masses (e.g., running) and the principal activity is localized (e.g., swimming, cycling). However, transferred performance benefits in the target activity are not revealed once fitness in that activity approaches maximum. When the cross-trained muscle mass is limited, as in swimming, transfers of general adaptations or performance benefits to activities which use greater amounts of muscle are very unlikely. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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3. The intensity of training stimuli are likely to effect specific training effects in the cross-trained and target activities, each having no benefit for the other.

If the intensity is sufficiently high, both forms of training will compete for the body's finite resources consequently, neither activity will be developed optimally.

4. When the modes of training are dissimilar (e.g., cycling - a legs-dominant activity, and kayaking - an arms-dominant activity) there generally is little benefit from one activity transferred to the other unless fitness levels are low and the cross training activity uses greater muscle mass than the target activity. For elite athletes, although the research is far from comprehensive, there does not seem to be any benefit to be gained from fitness or performance improvements demonstrated in dissimilar cross-training modes.

5. When cross-training employs similar modes of training to the target activity (e.g., rowing ergometer work with sweep-oar training) there usually is little derivable benefit once fitness reaches its ceiling level. There is every possibility that the technique features of one activity will migrate into the technique of the other and reduce skill efficiency.

It generally is conceded that if a cyclist wants to become maximally fit then cycling is the best and only activity that will produce that state. For example, trained runners will generally have higher treadmill VO2max levels than trained cyclists.

6. There are some potential uses for cross-training: (a) relief from boredom, (b) recovery from sport-specific injury, (c) prevention of injury, and (d) achievement of moderate levels of general fitness. Studies do support these uses but it must be remembered that only for injury rehabilitation and prevention are such activities likely to have potential use for elite athletes.

Triathlon training is not cross-training as it is used in this summary. It is more akin to training for three different sports than analogous to cross-training.

Implication. Cross-training is likely to have marginal effects on lower level, lessthan-maximally-fit individuals. It is a viable prescriptive possibility for individuals interested in general fitness. However, it has no founding research for showing benefits for elite athletes, although more research is warranted. An argument could be made that cross-training has a greater potential to be detrimental to elite athlete performance than of benefit.

HARNESS TO IMPROVE RUNNING SPEED NOT BENEFICIAL ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Macaulay, M. R., Keener, J. R., & Rothenberger, R. (1995). Effect of overspeed harness supported treadmill training on running economy and performance.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 136.

Ten trained male runners preparing for competition in 21 or 42 km road races used either an overspeed training harness (body weight reduced by 25%) or normal procedures for peaking two days per week. Training intensity was matched using Borg's Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE). OST training was all at speeds faster than normal.

Benefits normally ascribed to overspeed training were not evident in this study.

Failure of weight supported OST to produce significant changes may have been due to the use of RPE to set training loads. RPE may not be sensitive to physiological stress during weight supported activities.

Implication. Overspeed training showed no benefit for performance improvement over normal running. This is one of the first analyses of this form of training and more research is needed. If one believes in the Principle of Specificity as a true phenomenon, the results of this study are likely to be upheld RANGE OF TRAINING LOADS ON BALLISTIC PERFORMANCE Bauer, K., Sale, D. G., Zehr, E. P., & Moroz, J. S. (1995). Under- and over-load training effects on ballistic elbow extension performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 126.

The effectiveness of under- and over-load ballistic training on ballistic performance was compared in young men (N = 16). A custom made device allowed the training loads to be performed at defined levels. Training was twice per week for 10 weeks. A set of ballistic elbow extensions was performed at a load of 10% of maximal isometric strength. An additional set of exercises was performed at 0, 10, or 20% maximal isometric strength.

By the end of five weeks of training, an average of 80% of improvement had occurred. Neither the under- nor over-load supplementary ballistic training provided any benefit beyond that attained by training with the target performance load.

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Implication. Doing an activity with reduced load to increase speed or heightened load to increase strength, is not supported by this study as a sound training stratagem. Since the activity was ballistic in nature, it can be asserted that using heavy and light bats for batting practice, light or heavy balls for throwing or hitting, etc. will not produce beneficial results over those that will be obtained by using the exact game equipment. For ballistic exercises, training is specific in its effects. Supplemental work does not increase the nature of the specific trained response.

ROLLER SKI, RUNNING TREADMILL, AND RACE PERFORMANCES Hill, M. R., Osbeck, J. S., Amico, V. J., & Rundell, K. W. (1995). Predictability of roller ski race time in elite female biathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 589.

Running and roller-ski treadmill performances (measures were lactate profile, VO2peak) were correlated with the results of a 15 km international roller ski biathlon race. Roller-ski endurance-test and VO2peak correlated highly with event performance and together accounted for 97% of the variance in the race data. No relationship was observed between running treadmill and race results.

Implication. Any physiological testing in roller-skiing is likely to be only valuable if it is sport specific. The convenience of running treadmills and testing situations will not make results any more valuable. No inferences can be drawn from running treadmill laboratory data and biathlon roller-ski race performances. The principle of specificity is particularly well-supported in this investigation.

ROLLER SKI AND RUNNING TREADMILL PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES NOT RELATED Hill, M. R., Gregory, R. W., Amico, V. J., Osbeck, J. S., Goodwin, G. T., & Rundell, K. W. (1995). Differences in physiological parameters between treadmill running and treadmill roller skiing in nordic skiers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 590.

Peak physiological parameters for ski skating on roller skis are different to those obtained during treadmill running. This suggests that sport specific testing should be done when determining sport specific training intensities. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Implication. The physiological factors involved in roller skiing are very specific for the activity and cannot be inferred from running treadmill tests.

OVERLOAD AND OVERTRAINING This issue of Coaching Science Abstracts relates research and thoughts associated with how hard an athlete should work (overload) and under what conditions a persistent overload cannot be tolerated (overtraining). The two concepts are intermixed since one is a cause of the other.

The impact of these abstracts is to support the Roux Principle: light training loads are useless, moderate loads are beneficial, and excessive loads are harmful.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS AND FORCE Rushall Thoughts (1992).

2. DALDA AND TRAINING MEASURES Rushall Thoughts (1992).

3. MACROCYCLE PLANNING FOR TEAM SPORTS Rushall Thoughts (1992).

4. HELL WEEKS Costill, D. L., & King, D. S. (1983). Workout evaluation. Swimming Technique, August-October, 24-27.

5. WHEN TO APPLY OVERLOADS Carlile, F. (personal communication, July 8, 1991).

6. SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING STRESS

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Parker, J. (1989). Wiping your swimmers out. Swimming Technique, MayJuly, 10-16.

7. TRAINING OVERLOAD Costill, D. L., Flynn, M. G., Kirwan, J. P., Houmard, J. A., Mitchell, J. B., Thomas, R., & Park, S. H. (1988). Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 249-254.

8. EXTRA SWIMMING TRAINING PRODUCES NO ADDED BENEFITS Kirwan, J. P., Costill, D. L., Flynn, M. G., Mitchell, J. B., Fink, W. J., Neufer, P. D., & Houmard, J. A. (1988). Physiological responses to successive days of intense training in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 255-259.

9. REDUCED TRAINING AND EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE Neufer, P. D., Costill, D. L., Fielding, R. A., Flynn, M. G., & Kirwan, J. P. (1987). Effects of reduced training on muscular strength and endurance in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 486-490.

10.TRAINING AND STIMULUS REQUIREMENTS FOR SWIMMING Troup, J. P. (Ed.). (1990). Selection of effective training categories. In International Center For Aquatic Research annual: Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research 1989-90. Colorado Springs, CO: United States Swimming Press.

11.ON HOW HARD TO WORK Time, 3 August, 1992, pp. 58-63.

12.MUSCLE THEORY Phillips, E. (1992). No simple explanation for Kenyan's dominance-running. San Diego Union-Tribune, 17 June, p. D-2. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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13.COMMENTS ON TRAINING Rushall Thoughts, 1993.

14.DETRAINING, HEART RATES, AND STROKE VOLUME Neufer, P. D. (1989). The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Medicine, 6, 302-321.

15.OVERTRAINING Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1988). Training for sport and activity.

Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.

16.CARBOHYDRATES AND OVERTRAINING Snyder, A. C., Kuipers, H., Cheng, B., Servais, R., & Fransen, E. (1993).

Indices of over-reaching following intensified training: role of carbohydrate intake. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 966.

17.TAPERING Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1988). Training for sport and activity.

Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.

18.SERUM FERRITIN AND INJURIES Loosli, A. R., Requa, R. K., & Garrick, J. G. (1993). Serum ferritin and injuries in female high school cross country runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 129.

19.IRON DEPLETION PROBLEM Kluger, M. J., Ashtron, H. A., Doshi, J. B., Hein, P. S., Newby, J. S., & Philips, R. S. (1992). Letters to the Editor-in-chief. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24, 303-304.

20.HORMONAL RESPONSES TO OVERTRAINING IN SWIMMERS

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Hooper, S. L., MacKinnon, L. T., Gordon, R. D., & Bachman, A. W. (1993).

Hormonal response of elite swimmers to overtraining. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 741-747.

21.RUSSIAN SWIMMERS, WEIGHT TRAINING, LEVELS OF WORK, AND CENTRALIZED TRAINING Ewald, R. (1994). The Russian capitalists. Swimming World and Junior Swimmer, 35(3), 33-42.

22.TESTING FOR OVERTRAINING Rushall Thoughts, 1993 (from a commentary to Forbes Carlile).

23.FURTHER ON HEART RATES Rushall Thoughts (1993).

24.PSYCHOLOGY INDICATES OVERTRAINING IN SWIMMING Lowensteyn, I., Signorile, J. F., Kwiatkowski, K., Caruso, J., Ferris, D., Salhanick, D., Perry, A., & Mancino, C. (1994). Examination of various biological parameters in response to a season of training in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 669.

25.TRAINING VOLUME DECREASES PRODUCE AN EFFECTIVE TAPER Zarkadas, P. C., Carter, J. B., & Bannister, E. W. (1994). Taper increases performance and aerobic power in triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 194.

26.TAPER BY DOING THE ACTIVITY Houmard, J. A., Scott, B. K., Justice, C. L., & Chenier, T. C. (1994). The effects of taper on performance in distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), 624-631.

27.COMPONENTS OF A SWIMMING TAPER

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Houmard, J. A., & Johns, R. A. (1994). Effects of taper on swim performance: practical implications. Sports Medicine, 17, 224-232.

28.INSTITUTIONALIZED OVERTRAINING Rushall Thoughts (1994).

29.PERCENTAGE OF VO2max USED IN ENDURANCE EVENTS Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press. (p. 40).

30.REDUCED RUNNERS' WORKLOAD MAINTAINS TRAINING EFFECTS Houmard, J. A., Costill, D. L., Mitchell, J. B., Park, S. H., Hickner, R. C., & Roemmich, J. N. (1990). Reduced training maintains performance in distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 46-52.

31.TRAINING STRESS MARKERS Flynn, M. G., Pizza, F. X., Boone, J. B. Jr., Andres, F. F., Michaud, T. A., & Rodriguez-Zayas, J. R. (1994). Indices of training stress during competitive running and swimming seasons. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 15, 21-26.

32.WHAT VO2max MEASURES Boulay, M. R., Barbeau, P., Giroux, M., Prud'homme, D., & Simoneau, J. A. (1992). Peripheral and central adaptations in cyclists during a training and competitive season. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24(5), Supplement abstract 566.

33.ONE MORE TIME: ARE THERE MEASURES THAT ARE SENSITIVE TO OVERTRAINED OR HIGHLY FATIGUED STATES? Hooper, S. L., MacKinnon, L. T., Howard, A, Gordon, R. D., & Bachmann, A. W. (1995). Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 106-112.

34.OVERTRAINED STATE NOT RELATED TO GLYCOGEN STATE ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Snyder, A. C., Kuipers, H., Cheng, B., Servais, R., & Fransen, E. (1995).

Overtraining following intensified training with normal muscle glycogen.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1063-1070.

35.A MEASURE OF STRESS RESPONSE IN ATHLETES Rushall, B. S. (1990). A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes.

Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 51-66.

36.SUGGESTED READING Rushall, B. S., & Pyke, F. S. (1990). Training for sports and physical fitness.

Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan Educational.

37.PSYCHOLOGY MEASURES TRAINING STRESS AND FATIGUE Theriault, D., Lacoste, E., Gadoury, M., Richard, D., Tremblay, A., Labrie, A., Leblanc, C., & Theriault, G. (1995). Early detection and prevention of stress and fatigue in elite athletes: The use of psychological and clinical measurement instruments. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 167.

38.BLOOD FEATURES AND OVERTRAINING Urhausen, A., Gabriel, H., & Kindermann, W. (1995). Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining. Sports Medicine, 20, 251-276.

39.EXCESSIVE ANAEROBIC TRAINING CAUSES OVERTRAINING Urhausen, A., Gabriel, H., & Kindermann, W. (1995). Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining. Sports Medicine, 20, 251-276.

40.AFFECTS OF INCREASED TRAINING VOLUME Costill, D. L., Thomas, R., Robergs, R. A., Pascoe, D., Lambert, C., Barr, S., & Fink, W. J. (1991). Adaptations to swimming training: influence of training volume. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 371-377.

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBERS AND FORCE

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Rushall Thoughts, (1992).

There are generally three types of muscle fibers found in skeletal muscles.

1. Slow twitch fibers respond slowly to stimulation, produce the least tension, and have good aerobic endurance.

2. Fast twitch A fibers are fast twitch fibers that have been "converted" primarily through VO2max training to function in an aerobic manner. They have moderate endurance not quite reaching the endurance capacity of true slow twitch fibers.

3. Fast twitch B fibers are used for maximal contractions and have poor endurance qualities.

These fibers are used at different times depending upon the amount of force that is attempted. It is the amount of force required by the muscle which determines the type and amount of fibers that are turned on, NOT the speed at which the muscles shorten.

Force:   

 



is affected by the percentage of each fiber present in the activated muscle; is affected by the number of force developing units within the muscle, that is, myofibrils located inside each fiber, and most importantly, is established by the nervous system (it is a learned response).  DALDA AND TRAINING MEASURES Rushall Thoughts, (1992).

The Daily Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) measures can be used to understand training responses. Since its measures are those of the general response to life stresses of which training is one, it reflects the overall reactions to what is occurring in an athlete's life. If an individual's life style is constant then only changes in training loads will be reflected in the measures because it is the only life style factor that has increased in its stress value.

Perfect overload increments should occur in a step-like fashion. To facilitate the maximum adaptation to stepped overloads, the absolute stress of a training session should be constant. However, as adaptation occurs within a microcycle the perceived stress of training lessens. One would expect that

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





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the DALDA symptom measures would gradually decrease during a microcycle because of that phenomenon. Thus, for each microcycle within a window the set of DALDA symptom recordings should decline. With each successive increase in overload when microcycles change, the size of the increases should be the same except for the unloading microcycle. Perfect overload planning would always produce DALDA measures that fall within the window but show phasic declines.

If the DALDA symptom measures do not decline but stay steady or are erratic then that indicates a training program has employed different training stresses. Under such conditions an athlete's adaptation will be far from optimal because of the varying stresses which are presented. In such cases, an athlete's responses will constantly change rather than being refined through familiar adaptation. Constant overload changes violate the principle of specificity and are therefore, of little to no value for an athlete. The DALDA measures reflect a coach's competency for programming training loads for individual athletes. If the DALDA measures are phasic and fall within a window then adaptation is optimal. If they are erratic and display little desirable patterning then the training program can be deemed to be very inefficient.

It is popular to talk of training sessions of varying intensities (e.g., hard, moderate, and light). If varying degrees of training stress are currently in vogue then how can stepped overloads be correct? There is a simple answer to such a question. The reason that varying loadings are required is that incorrect loadings are being used. An excessively hard training session needs to be followed by a light session to allow recovery and prevent excessive fatigue. If that excessive load had not been programmed then it would not have been necessary to use the lighter session. Thus, the use of varied training loads is a result of poor programming and should be avoided.

Implication. The DALDA measures give the coach feedback as to the effectiveness and desirability of overload programming when all other life stresses are normal.

References: Rushall, B. S. (1990). A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes.

Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 51-66.

Rushall, B. S., & Pyke, F. S. (1990). Training for sports and fitness.

Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan Educational.

Rushall, B. S.(1988). Daily analyses of life demands for athletes. Sport Science Associates, 4225 Orchard Drive, Spring Valley, CA 91977.

MACROCYCLE PLANNING FOR TEAM SPORTS

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Rushall Thoughts, (1992).

Effects of Competitive Performances The competitive experience in many sports, and in particular team sports, is not a stimulus for performance improvement. Playing games neither increases skill performance nor physical conditioning. This assertion surprises many because most serious athletes are tired after playing a full game. The reasons for this assertion are several.

1. The type of fatigue that is developed in a game is of a general nature. It is the result of performing many different activities, intensities, and durations in a varied sequence. This produces overall fatigue that cannot be attributed to any one particular activity.

General fatigue does not improve performance. All that it allows is the possibility of the performer developing some coping capacity for performing while fatigued. It still requires adequate time for recovery. Such recovery is accelerated by specific recovery activities and diet.

For a training effect to occur, trials have to be repeated in blocks to produce specific forms of fatigue as part of the overload phenomenon. It is known that single trials do not produce sufficient stimuli to produce training effects, particularly in trained athletes. Unless, physically demanding activities occur in blocks of repetitions to produce accumulated specific fatigue, specific training effects will not happen. The types of efforts that are produced in team games are intermixed and varied. The lack of blocked specificity does not allow specific training effects. Thus, one should not expect specific conditioning effects from participating in a competition.

2. The sequencing of trials of particular skills that occur in games is quite irregular. For skill learning to occur, the learning has to take place in blocks so that feedback from one trial can be used to modify the next trial. That feedback gradually causes good elements to be retained and poor elements to be altered. The essential feature of learning is that the proximity of trials allows the learning benefits from one trial to transfer to the next. However, when other activities intervene between repetitions of a skill, the benefits of feedback are disrupted. This interference means that what is experienced in one trial eventually becomes masked by the intervening irrelevant activities. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Consequently, sporadic trials with irrelevant trials in between does not foster learning. This is a major reason for skill development not being an artifact of the competitive experience.

The number of trials of particular skills in a game is usually not that many. When an Australian football player handballs in the vicinity of 15 times in a game of approximately two and half hours duration, insufficient repetitions occur to make any difference to the volume of trial practices that are necessary to produce a noticeable performance improvement. When this low number of trials is compounded by the poor sequencing, one should not expect skill improvements to result from competitive experiences.

Skill learning is hindered even further when the "type" of skill varies considerably.

In a game, 15 handballs requiring different postures, targets, distances, and degrees of preparation is tantamount to 15 different skills being executed although they can all be categorized under the label of "handballs".

Yet another factor hinders learning in competitive performances. The general fatigue that accrues in the competition inhibits any new learnings or modifications of skills. Since this is a very common occurrence in serious team game competitions, one should not expect competitive experiences to provide a learning environment.

The learning or improvement of skills cannot be a worthy outcome from competitive experiences.

Requirements for Performance Improvements Sporting performances can improve through skill, conditioning, or psychological developments. In the context of this discussion, only skill and conditioning will be considered.

1. For skills to improve, a certain volume of blocked trials of specific practice need to be performed. The higher the level of performer, the greater the number of trials that are needed.

2. For conditioning to improve, a certain volume of blocked repetitions of specific training stimuli have to be experienced to produce an overload.

When a serious demanding competitive performance is experienced weekly, the accrued general fatigue that results requires some time for recovery (as much as 48 hours). Typically, in a sport that has a weekly competition one day is consumed by ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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the competition and a minimum of two to two and half days are consumed by resting prior to and in recovery from the competition. This means that at most, only four days are possible for serious training sessions. When those sessions are limited to a generous two hours the amount of training that can be accomplished is restricted.

In four two-hour practice sessions, it is not possible to successfully attempt to produce conditioning and skill development training effects. The restricted volume of specific training stimuli does not allow either i) sufficient trials of skill practice in skill learning conditions, or ii) sufficient volume of specific conditioning trials to be experienced for physical capacities to be enhanced. Thus, a coach who attempts to improve both conditioning and skills at weekday practices will achieve little that can contribute to player improvement.

A Solution There is a solution to this dilemma. It resides in the phenomena associated with change and maintenance training.

What a coach has to do is alternate macrocycles that emphasize i) conditioning while undergoing skill retention, and ii) skill development while following maintenance training of conditioning. This means that the training emphases over a competitive period alternate between skill training and conditioning. Since maintenance training and skill retention activities require vastly reduced volumes of training, the time that is released when either is programmed can be applied to increasing the volume of training in the other domain. That increase could be sufficient to provide adequate volumes for the production of beneficial training effects.

For example, consider skill development while undergoing maintenance training for conditioned states. It is known that endurance can be sustained by participating in as little as one third of normal endurance training. In a typical four day training program, that means that endurance will not be lost if it is only stimulated twice during the week. Strength training can be maintained by only one training session per week. Thus, by programming maintenance of conditioned states much time is released. That extra time can be applied to increasing the volume of skill practice trials. It should be expected that a definite emphasis on skill development over a four-day period while avoiding excessive fatigue will cause skills to change.

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The reverse is possible for conditioning improvements while maintaining skills.

Skills can be retained even if performance occurs in fatigued states. Thus, an emphasis on increasing the conditioning aspects of training while performing skills at an adequate level (e.g., when doing interval skill drills) should provide sufficient specific overloads to produce training effects.

As a rule-of-thumb, macrocycles that stress skill development and physical conditioning maintenance should last no more than one month. This recommended schedule means that players will be expected to improve in performance throughout a competitive season. In the skill macrocycle, skills should contribute to performance enhancement. In the conditioning macrocycle fine tuning of physical capacities should also produce a performance benefit. Given the individual variations in physical prowess that exist within a team, it is possible that in a few athletes some conditioning in one or more physical capacities may be lost during the skill macrocycle. The subsequent conditioning macrocycle will allow recovery of those capacities. If each athlete's capacity has undergone sufficient background training (as usually occurs in a 12-month training program) relatively long periods of "light" training can be sustained without noticeable loss in physical status. Thus, the threat of losing condition by not training excessively hard is minimal.

The cyclic presentation of skill and conditioning macrocycles should change the nature of performance expectation of players. Those expectations will produce definite goals for game performances since training effects will have been planned to be achieved. This feature should serve as a motivational impetus to both training and competitive performances throughout an extended period of weekly competitions.

When planning the sequencing of the two forms of macrocycle, it is best to plan backwards from scheduled playoffs. The macrocycle prior to the playoff period should be a skill macrocycle. The conditioning maintenance provision will serve as an unloading macrocycle which will foster recovery should any athlete be excessively fatigued or overtrained. The playoffs should be entered with players rested and honed in terms of skill efficiency.

Implication. Macrocycle alternation is a relatively new concept for team sport programming. It should contribute to enhanced performances in players and the production of more beneficial training experiences throughout very extended seasons of once per week competitions. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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HELL WEEKS Costill, D. L., & King, D. S. (1983). Workout evaluation. Swimming Technique, August-October, 24-27.

Costill and King directly commented on the value of "hell-week" programming where athletes are subjected to repeated days of intense and large volume swimming. Those experiences do not produce training effects because:   

recovery is not provided; their continuation is not possible because of the usual depletion of energy sources (particularly muscle glycogen); and the susceptibility of the athletes to injury is increased because of the deterioration in an athlete's ability to repair minor tissue damage.

Implication.The practice of subjecting athletes to excessive amounts of training as a method for developing "character" or locating the "mentally-tough" athletes in a squad is irresponsible and could be construed as physical abuse. There is enough evidence to support the contention that "hell-week" forms of training are sufficiently threatening to the well-being of athletes that litigation asserting negligence on the part of a coach demanding participation in such an experience is a distinct possibility.

WHEN TO APPLY OVERLOADS Carlile, F. (personal communication, July 8, 1991).

Pressing at the right time, at a time of "overcompensation" seems to be the key.

Few in Australia in practice think of this principle and have to deal as a rule with ever-increasingly fatigued swimmers who should be suing for MAL-PRACTICE. SYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING STRESS Parker, J. (1989). Wiping your swimmers out. Swimming Technique, May-July, 1016.

The process of the destruction of muscle (rhabdomyolysis) is commonly found in runners, particularly after completing a marathon. There is little evidence that ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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rhabdomyolysis causes performance decrement. Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in muscle cells which catalyzes the formation of phosphocreatine from creatine and ATP. It is not normally found in the blood in large quantities unless muscle cells have been damaged. Increased CK activity is a marker for excessive strain.

In one day, an elite swimmer burns more calories than a runner in a marathon.

Since many swimmers train at least 3-5 hours a day six days per week, a great strain is placed on their bodies. Muscle degeneration could result from consistent exercise at elevated intensities. Muscle problems can exist with degeneration and inflammation occurring while discomfort is tolerable (low pain). Overuse injury syndrome is frequently seen in "swimmer's shoulder" (a pathology of the rotator cuff) and "breaststroker's knee" (injury to the medial colateral ligament and/or medial patellar facet due to the highly unusual action in the breaststroke kick).

Possible other causes are protein and iron deficiencies, the oxidative capacity of muscle cells, and glycogen stores. Psychological conditions result in "burn-out."

Implication. The threat of overtraining can be reduced without it affecting the performance of the athlete. Yardage can be reduced and the training stimulus changed to interval work of greater quality and less volume.

TRAINING OVERLOAD Costill, D. L., Flynn, M. G., Kirwan, J. P., Houmard, J. A., Mitchell, J. B., Thomas, R., & Park, S. H. (1988). Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 249-254.

Highly trained swimmers (N = 12) were studied before, during, and after 10 successive days of increased training in an attempt to determine the physical effects of training overload. Training was increased from 4,266 to 8,970 meters per day while intensity was maintained at 94% of VO2max. Subjects experienced local muscular fatigue and difficulty in completing the training sessions. Swimming power, sprinting, endurance performance, aerobic capacity, and muscle (deltoid) citrate synthase, were unchanged at the end of the 10-day period. Four individuals could not maintain the training quality and were forced to swim slower to complete the training distance (they were found to have significantly reduced muscle glycogen levels that resulted from an abnormally low carbohydrate intake). ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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This study suggests that chronic fatigue may be the result of inadequate carbohydrate ingestion as well as overwork. However, for overwork to be detrimental it probably has to last longer than the period used in this investigation.

Carbohydrate ingestion appears to be a critical factor involved with training tolerance. It is interesting that complaints of muscle soreness and inability to finish or difficulty in completing training sessions are behavioral symptoms and may be the precursors of physiological breakdown.

Implication. There was no improvement in either physiological tests or swimming performance when the training distance was doubled and intensity kept constant.

This suggests there is a maximum distance that can be covered to produce beneficial effects on performance. Further improvements can then only come from changing intensity, not adding more distance EXTRA SWIMMING TRAINING PRODUCES NO ADDED BENEFITS Kirwan, J. P., Costill, D. L., Flynn, M. G., Mitchell, J. B., Fink, W. J., Neufer, P. D., & Houmard, J. A. (1988). Physiological responses to successive days of intense training in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 255-259.

No improvement in either physiological tests or swimming performance was evidenced when the training distance was doubled and intensity kept constant.

Implication. Once an optimal training distance (volume) is achieved, the only avenue for further improvements through physiological conditioning is through an increase in swimming intensity (quality).

REDUCED TRAINING AND EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE Neufer, P. D., Costill, D. L., Fielding, R. A., Flynn, M. G., & Kirwan, J. P. (1987).

Effects of reduced training on muscular strength and endurance in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, 486-490.

Following five months of competitive training (9,000+ yards, 6 days per week) which produced a 14.3% increase in VO2 over an entire season, three groups of eight male swimmers performed four weeks of either reduced training (3,000 yards ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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per session) or inactivity (RT0). One group (RT3) did three sessions while another (RT1) did one session per week.

Biokinetic swim bench strength did not change while swim power, as measured in tethered swimming, was reduced significantly in all groups (-13.6% by week 4), over the 4-week detraining period. Blood lactate after a standard 200-yard swim increased 1.8, 3.5, and 5.5 m/mol in RT3, RT1, and RT0 respectively. VO2max was not altered for RT3 but was reduced slightly for RT1. Stroke rate increased for RT1 and decreased for RT3. RT0 was not tested for stroke mechanics.

This study suggests that aerobic capacity was retained in well-trained swimmers with three workouts a week while applied power was reduced. Strength measured on the swim bench was unchanged which suggests that its measurements are not specific to swimming. Swimming power is diminished by the reduction in workout frequency.

The reduction of workload to 30% of the change training load is sufficient to maintain aerobic capacity. That is in accord with known values for maintenance training. The increase in lactic acid values may have been caused by a shift in lactate kinetics, mainly clearance, during recovery. However, it could also mean that there was insufficient stimulation for this capacity even in the RT3 group. The reduction in power in the water and the change in stroke frequencies, particularly in RT1, suggests that the swimmers were losing their "feel" for the water. The RT3 group did not alter its stroke mechanics.

Implication. Since all groups lost a similar amount of power, it is possible that a higher frequency of training is necessary to maintain applied strength in the water.

Could power be more short-lived than endurance in terms of its permanence after change training is completed?

TRAINING AND STIMULUS REQUIREMENTS FOR SWIMMING Troup, J. P. (Ed.). (1990). Selection of effective training categories. In International Center For Aquatic Research annual: Studies by the International Center for Aquatic Research 1989-90. Colorado Springs, CO: United States Swimming Press.

The relationship between speed increases and energy requirements is linear. Four levels of training effects are described: ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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1. Endurance one is the level where lactate is produced and removed at an equal rate (AT). This is the minimum speed for endurance development.

2. Endurance two is the level where VO2max is attained, that is, the maximum pace at which endurance can be developed.

3. Anaerobic one occurs at the speed which produces lactic acid and accommodates race-specific pace. This is also known as lactate tolerance training.

4. Anaerobic two occurs at race-specific speed, develops the highest amount of lactate, and trains maximum power (a 100% effort).

The use of an individual's swimming economy profile (O2 uptake as the measure of energy cost related to swimming speed) allows these values to be determined.

Their use is for determining what sort of training is needed to produce the capacity change in the proportion required for an event.

Among proficient athletes, the use of oxygen is the major factor in a swimmer's profile for determining success. The swimming economy test provides information on that ability. The test also shows improvements in training and mechanics. Once physical capacities are trained they cannot improve. If a leveling-off occurs and mechanical changes are introduced, then a change in the economy curve should result from being more or less efficient.

The relationship between endurance capacity and performance is relatively low (r = .40), however, economy with performance is much greater (r = .88).

Swimming economy is particular with each stroke because each has specific requirements. Other swimming activities also vary in economy. Pulling with a pull buoy costs less energy than free swimming at submaximal paces. Because of that: i) pulling must be done at slightly faster paces for pace training, and ii) for maximum endurance training it should be done at slower paces.

Long course and short course swimming are very different, short being easier.

Short course training can be made to approximate long course training by adding 15% to training distances.

Implication. For all swimmers, programming of training for each stroke should be considered from the viewpoint of each being a different event. The parameters for one are not appropriate for another. (Many interesting tables and graphs are supplied).

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ON HOW HARD TO WORK Time, 3 August, 1992, pp. 58-63.

"The pulsating industry of sports science is pushing the outer limits of human performance. The new formula: less pain, more gain. But beware of the hype and the hokum. Sweat still counts." (p. 58) "Sports science undeniably contains some hype and hokum. Even its advocates are wary of excessive claims and complexity. Alois Mader, a professor at the German University of Sport Sciences in Cologne, points out that the highly successful Kenyan running program is as simple as can be. 'It goes: run every day from youth on. And run so that you still enjoy it the next day. Everything else will follow automatically.'" (p. 63) Implication. The implication of these statements is obvious. Moderate amounts of exercise and beneficial. They are the overload levels which retain enjoyment in physical training.

MUSCLE THEORY Phillips, E. (1992). No simple explanation for Kenyan's dominance--running. San Diego Union-Tribune, 17 June, p. D-2.

This excerpt is taken from a report on the research conducted by Bengt Saltin during his visit to Kenya and his observations of Kenyan runners.

Only the slow-twitch muscle-fiber theory was found to be totally unfounded.

Saltin's research involved comparing a group of seven elite Swedish runners with a group of Kenyan runners, and he found that they all had the same muscle makeup.

Saltin's research involved mainly high school runners, ages 15 to 17, on the Kenyan side. On his trip to Africa, he estimated that 500 of the young Kenyans who showed up for one meet were as good as or better than the Swedes, who were not identified but were considered the very best from their country.

He also found that the high schoolers were doing incredibly simple -- and apparently incredibly effective -- workouts. Each morning they'd run 4 to 6 ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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kilometers (about 2.5 to 3.5 miles) over rolling terrain, with the first kilometer done easily and the last 3 to 5 as fast as possible.

Afternoons, they would do 8 kilometers -- 4 out easy, 4 back as fast as possible.

They'd do these workouts six days a week, starting and finishing at their school.

The first ones back to school would be the ones to represent the school in competition.

No messing around with anaerobic thresholds, lactate thresholds, intervals, on long, slow distance. They'd just lace 'em up -- or not even bother to put them on -and go. Fast.

Implication. Simplicity of training removes the possibility of maladaptation due to erroneous prescription of training stimuli. One is led to ponder whether modern coaches have made training so complex in order to fit many unfounded theories that, more than ever, athletes are subjected to excessive overloads in irrelevant activities.

COMMENTS ON TRAINING Rushall Thoughts, (1993).

Given the still predominant tendency in swimming to do miles to make champions, and the obsessive interest in and emphasis on heart rates, there has been an exaggerated emphasis on the central circulation and its importance for affecting swimming performances.

People have forgotten that it is not the heart which limits performance in swimming races and training. As Tim Noakes [the most respected South African physiologist and sport scientist] has said "After a couple of hours of [training], the heart doesn't say, 'Well, I've had it for the day; I'm just not going to beat quickly anymore."

Fatigue occurs in the muscles, not the cardiovascular system, and the way to make the muscles more impervious to fatigue is not to slog through a lot of slow kilometers. To make the muscles fatigue-resistant, you have to stress them by training fairly intensely.

The feeling among swimming scientists and in particular, those at the International Center for Aquatic Research in Colorado Springs, is that the emphasis on training ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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VOLUME has peaked. Future improvements will come from training with better EVENT SPECIFIC QUALITY, more judicious use of rest and recovery procedures, and high carbohydrate diets.

A traditional belief has been touted among swimming coaches: even though swimmers are always tired, training hard, and their performances not changing or even getting worse, good things are still happening to them. THAT IS WRONG. Constant fatigue states do not make a better swimmer. Better swimmers come from continual improvement derived from training effects. If swimmers are not improving, then they are not experiencing beneficial training.

Implication. The avenue for swimming improvement in the 1990s is through maintained volume, but with increased intensity and appropriate recovery.

DETRAINING, HEART RATES, AND STROKE VOLUME Neufer, P. D. (1989). The effect of detraining and reduced training on the physiological adaptations to aerobic exercise training. Sports Medicine, 6, 302-321.

Even if an individual has a good history of prolonged aerobic training, performance decreases at both the submaximal and maximal levels within weeks of training cessation. Losses coincide with declines in cardiovascular function and metabolic potential. The initial rapid decline in VO2max is related to a decline in maximum cardiac output, which appears to be a functional decline in stroke volume with little or no change in heart rate.

This means that if heart rate testing is used to monitor training states, it will not be sensitive to these initial declines in performance potential. Thus, it could be said that because the heart [rate] is normal, physical potential should be normal, but, however, the athlete's system is in decline.

Implication. Heart rate monitoring could be the cause of erroneous diagnosis of trained states and could contribute to faulty coaching decisions.

OVERTRAINING Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1988). Training for sport and activity. Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.

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"Numerous investigators have used assorted physiological measurements in an effort to objectively diagnose overtraining in its early stages to prevent its occurrence. Unfortunately, none has proven totally effective. It is often difficult to differentiate whether the measurements are abnormal and related to overtraining, or simply the normal physiological responses to heavy training.

Measurements of blood enzyme levels have been used to diagnose overtraining with only limited success. Such enzymes as CPK (creatine phosphokinase), LDH (lactate dehydrogenase), and SGOT (serum glutamic transaminase) are important in muscle energy production . . . . . and muscle damage. . . . Although the effects of muscle damage on performance are not fully understood, experts generally agree that they may be, in part, responsible for the localized muscle pain, tenderness, and swelling associated with muscle soreness. There is, however, no evidence that this condition is linked to the symptoms of overtraining. . . . . blood enzyme levels do not appear to be a valid indicator of overtraining." (p. 196) ". white blood cell count tends to rise during exhaustive exercise . . . it is not clear whether this change is a sign of overstress or simply a normal reaction to intense training." (p. 196) "It has also been suggested that unusually high resting, blood lactate concentrations may be a sign of overstress. Many swimmers have been found to have high resting blood lactate concentrations when they are swimming poorly, and have normal concentrations when they are swimming well. Recent studies by Maglischo (1987), however, have failed to support this idea." (p. 197) [Maglischo reference not included in the chapter reference list.] ". no single physiological measurement has proven 100 percent effective. Since performance is the most dramatic indicator of overtraining, it is not surprising to find that overtraining has a dramatic effect on the energy demands for a standard, submaximal exercise bout. When runners show symptoms of overtraining, their heart rates and oxygen consumption during the runs are significantly higher."(p.

197) ". overtrained runners do not lose their conditioning, but they may demonstrate a deterioration in running form. . . .overtraining may cause some local muscular fatigue through selective glycogen depletion, forcing runners to alter their mechanics to achieve the same pace."(p. 198)

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"We are inclined to feel that athletes recover faster when they rest completely for three to five days, or engage in some other form of low-intensity exercise."(p. 198) "Unless the athlete consumes extra quantities of carbohydrate-rich foods during these periods [of heavy training], muscle and liver glycogen reserves may be depleted." (p. 199) Implication. These arguments give support to the use of the economy profile as a means of determining energy delivery breakdown or inefficiency as a symptom of overtraining.

CARBOHYDRATES AND OVERTRAINING Snyder, A. C., Kuipers, H., Cheng, B., Servais, R., & Fransen, E. (1993). Indices of over-reaching following intensified training: role of carbohydrate intake.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 966.

The purpose of this study was to determine if consumption of appropriate amounts of carbohydrate during a period of increased exercise training would protect against becoming over-reached (overtrained).

Cyclists (M = 8) were measured during three training periods: (a) normal (moderate intensity, long duration, 7 days), (b) overtraining (high intensity, 15 days), and (c) recovery (minimal training, 6 days). Carbohydrate ingestion was similar, between 60 and 70 percent at all times. Markers for overtraining were: (a) work maximum, (b) HRmax, (c) HLa:RPE, (d) cortisol, and (e) responses to a questionnaire.

All subjects had at least four of the five indicators of over-reaching but no variation in muscle glycogen levels.

Implication. Overtraining (over-reaching) occurs independent of muscle glycogen levels.

TAPERING Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1988). Training for sport and activity. Chapter 11. Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.

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Many coaches fear the loss of conditioning and performance if they reduce training for such a long period [two to three weeks] before a major competition. A number of studies make it clear, however, that this fear is totally unwarranted. (Costill, D. L. (1985). Practical problems in exercise physiology. Research Quarterly, 56, 2933.)

VO2max can be maintained at the training level with a two-thirds reduction in training frequency. It appears that a greater amount of work is needed to increase VO2max than to maintain its trained level. The rate of decline in physical conditioning is much slower than the speed with which it can be developed.

Implication. The most notable change during the taper period is a marked increase in muscular strength. Swimmers demonstrated increases in arm strength and power ranging from 17.7 to 24.6 percent SERUM FERRITIN AND INJURIES Loosli, A. R., Requa, R. K., & Garrick, J. G. (1993). Serum ferritin and injuries in female high school cross country runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(5), Supplement abstract 129.

Female runners (N = 101) were assessed for Hgb, serum ferritin levels, and timeloss injuries. Hgb averaged 13.4 gm/ml (range 11.6 - 15.2). Serum ferritin ranged from 7 ng/ml to 62 ng/ml with an average of 20.5 ng/ml.

There was no relationship between Hgb and injuries. The average ferritin levels in the no-injury group was 36 - 40% higher than the injury group. The third with the lowest ferritin values had twice as many time-loss overuse injuries as the runners with the highest values.

Implication. It is suggested that low total-body iron is related to sports injuries in some populations and its role in sports injuries should be examined further.

IRON DEPLETION PROBLEM Kluger, M. J., Ashtron, H. A., Doshi, J. B., Hein, P. S., Newby, J. S., & Philips, R. S. (1992). Letters to the Editor-in-chief. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24, 303-304.

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When serum ferritin is low, attempts to treat and prevent iron deficiency anemia are warranted. However, when serum ferritin is normal or high but iron is low (hypoferremia), the response is more likely to be a host-defense to underlying injury or infection. One of the initial responses to infection is a rapid reduction in the concentration of circulating iron. Attempted iron repletion exacerbates many diseases.

Implication. Before suggesting that athletes should augment their diets with supplemental iron, it is best to determine the real cause of observed hypoferremia HORMONAL RESPONSES TO OVERTRAINING IN SWIMMERS Hooper, S. L., MacKinnon, L. T., Gordon, R. D., & Bachman, A. W. (1993).

Hormonal response of elite swimmers to overtraining. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 741-747.

Elite Australian swimmers (N = 14) had measurements of stress hormones taken at early-, mid-, late-season, during taper, and 1-3 days after trials. Training details and subjective ratings of fatigue were recorded daily.

No significant differences were seen in norepinephrine or cortisol concentrations between the times.

Symptoms of overtraining were identified in three of the athletes, based on performance deterioration and high prolonged levels of fatigue. In each swimmer norepinephrine levels were higher than non-stressed swimmers from the midseason on. They were significantly higher during taper. [Overtrained swimmers did not respond to the taper whereas the others did.]

Implication. Norepinephrine could provide a useful marker for overtraining.

RUSSIAN SWIMMERS, WEIGHT TRAINING, LEVELS OF WORK, AND CENTRALIZED TRAINING Ewald, R. (1994). The Russian capitalists. Swimming World and Junior Swimmer, 35(3), 33-42.

Viktor Avdienko, 35, who was named Russian "Coach of the year" in 1992 and 1993, was interviewed through an interpreter. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Avdienko thinks the Unified Team's vast improvement at the 1992 Games was due to a change in philosophy at the national level. During the '80s, the Soviet swimming program declined because the top prospects were taken away from their club coaches to a training center to be trained by national team coaches. Club coaches didn't have any incentive to develop swimmers and were forced to follow training methods of a central authority.

As far as Avdienko's own training methods, he thinks it's more important to build coordination between muscles to develop force than lift weights purely to increase strength. He says his team does more repetitions with lighter weights than U.S. swimmers.

"We have some considerable differences (from the U.S.) in the concept of preparation for championships," he said. "In dryland training when working on power abilities, we don't use an overwhelming amount of weight. And in the water, it is necessary to train the swimmer for competition. The swimmer doesn't have to work to the limit in training. He just has to accumulate the buildup of his resources. You do not want to wear the swimmer out." (p. 37) TESTING FOR OVERTRAINING Rushall Thoughts, (1993 -- from a commentary to Forbes Carlile).

"I am sure that the parameters which indicate overtraining will be argued until the cows come home. The controversy has largely been muddied by academic overkill.

1. We need to establish a hierarchy of factor influences. What are the most important factors? If we could only do three tests, which would be the best?

When does extensive testing become overkill?

2. Test simplicity and redundancy needs to be established. A single best test may be replaced by four tests which yield much more information.

3. If a swimmer swims poorly, I do not need to test for serum ferritin. I only need to time him/her and ask him how he/she feels. I am sure there are also symptoms associated with low serum ferritin. I conclude from those symptoms that the athlete is low in serum ferritin. I do not need to test serum ferritin to find out if my diagnosis is correct with regard to poor performance, particularly if serum ferritin is only part of the problem.

Doing the testing could be construed as unnecessary testing, something which puts money in laboratories' coffers. It is overkill. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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4. If the mental state and behavior of an athlete are normal but performance is poor, that is the time to see what is causing the problem. But for 99% of cases, poor psychology and performance are good enough for diagnosing overtraining. All other factors are for knowledge sake and add nothing to the diagnosis, they only explain underlying physical states of the diagnosis."

Implication. There normally is no need to conduct "scientific" testing to determine if an athlete is excessively fatigued or overtrained. If performances have worsened and the athlete's complaints and negative expressions have increased, reduced overloads and extra recovery are usually warranted. Usual sport science tests will not reveal any new information but will only "explain" in more complex terms that which can be simply observed.

FURTHER ON HEART RATES Rushall Thoughts, (1993).

"HRs are not all that valuable for monitoring training adaptation. How many times will we go over this? HRs are a measure of central adaptation to training. Central adaptations occur early and stabilize earlier than do peripheral (cellular) adaptations. Thus, when an athlete is reasonably trained, the central circulation no longer adapts. People seem to forget that circulation is not a limiting factor in exercise. In the biological hierarchy of things, it is fully adapted so that more refined (specific) peripheral adaptations can occur. HR does not change any more once a reasonable level of fitness is achieved (probably after aerobic capacity is fully adapted). Incidentally, it is my observation that triathletes and rowers here in San Diego all invested in sophisticated HR monitors and now have largely discarded them because they no longer reflect training changes that are experienced by the athletes."

Implication. It is very unlikely that HRs will change in athletes who are adapted (trained) over the year. Let's get serious about what is important for swimming.

This obsessive preoccupation with a trivial and dubious measure is a waste of time.

PSYCHOLOGY INDICATES OVERTRAINING IN SWIMMING Lowensteyn, I., Signorile, J. F., Kwiatkowski, K., Caruso, J., Ferris, D., Salhanick, D., Perry, A., & Mancino, C. (1994). Examination of various biological parameters in response to a season of training in competitive swimmers. Medicine and Science ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 669.

Ten collegiate swimmers were studied over six months. Eight active college students who were not training served as controls. Measurements were taken: (a) the first week of training, (b) mid-season, (c) during peak training, (d) at the beginning of taper, and (e) following the taper. Good markers of overtraining were considered to be those which showed a dose-response relationship between the variable and training yardage in the swimmers with no change in controls. A repeated measures factorial ANOVA was used to analyze the data.

The only variables to change significantly were: (a) the rating of daily functioning, (b) the rating of general state of well being, and (c) illness. Non-significant variables were percent body fat, orthostatic heart rate, maximal oxygen consumption, hemoglobin concentration, peak lactate, Profile of Mood States (POMS), and rating of sleep quality.

A decrease in performance and a significant increase in the POMS were used as criteria to indicate excessive (acute) training fatigue or staleness (symptoms had to persist after two weeks of decreased training or rest). No swimmer exhibited staleness but three did exhibit acute fatigue. No variables showed consistent changes for all three swimmers. A number of markers tracked well with increases and decreases in yardage for the group, however, when applied to the three individuals no markers proved reliable.

Implication. Perceptions of fatigue, well being, daily functioning, and illness were better than standard physiological measures for locating responses to training across a group of trained swimmers TRAINING VOLUME DECREASES PRODUCE AN EFFECTIVE TAPER Zarkadas, P. C., Carter, J. B., & Bannister, E. W. (1994). Taper increases performance and aerobic power in triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 194.

Higher volume training in the immediate days preceding an event may be detrimental to performance while a slow decay in volume will have a beneficial effect on maximizing competition preparation. This is one strategy for manipulating the workload levels during a tapering procedure. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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TAPER BY DOING THE ACTIVITY Houmard, J. A., Scott, B. K., Justice, C. L., & Chenier, T. C. (1994). The effects of taper on performance in distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), 624-631.

Trained runners performed a 7-day systematic reduction in training volume. One group ran, the other used a cycle ergometer, and a control group continued with normal running. The running group improved in 5 km time and running economy while the other two groups did not.

Implication. Doing other activities in taper is a waste of time and may impede recovery benefits. This does not support cross training in taper COMPONENTS OF A SWIMMING TAPER Houmard, J. A., & Johns, R. A. (1994). Effects of taper on swim performance: practical implications. Sports Medicine, 17, 224-232.

This is a review of the physiological factors associated with tapering in swimming.

1. An incremental, stepwise reduction in training volume (>60%) over a period from 10 to 21 days results in an improvement in performance. This contrasts to a minor reduction (<30%) in training volume which appears to maintain performance.

2. Interval training work (>90% VO2max), with sufficient recovery between bouts to maximize exercise intensity, is desirable. This may be necessary to maintain training-associated adaptations with the reduction in training volume.

3. Weekly training frequency should be reduced by no more than 50 percent, although it is more conservatively suggested as being 20 percent (a substantial reduction results in loss of "feel" for the water and specific movements). It appears that rapid reductions in training frequency reduce performance rather than improve it.

4. The effects of prolonged tapers have not been examined although it does seem that tapers of longer than 21 days would contribute to performance maintenance rather than improvement.

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5. Summary: a successful taper involves a substantial (60-90%) graded reduction in training volume and daily high-intensity interval work over a 7 to 21 day period. Training frequency should not be reduced by more than 50 percent although a more conservative reduction would be 20 percent.

Physiological Effects 1. Improvements in performance during taper occur without changes in VO2max. This suggests that the primary physiological changes are likely to be associated with adaptations at the muscular level rather than with oxygen delivery. VO2max does not reflect the positive effects of taper in swimmers.

2. Taper does not affect submaximal post-exercise measurements (lactate, pH, bicarbonate, base excess) and heart rate.

3. Blood measures have not been conclusively documented as being related to the taper phenomenon.

4. Although not measured in swimmers, muscle glycogen and oxidative mechanisms have both been observed to increase in tapers.

5. Improvement in power is probably the major factor responsible for the improvement in competitive swimming performance through taper.

Taper and Performance 1. A 3 percent improvement in performance is the average change that results in swimmers.

2. The first stage of a taper often produces a "bloated" feeling because of extra water retention in the muscles. For every gram of glycogen, 3 gm of water is stored. This often produces a feeling of being heavy or sluggish.

3. Shaving has been shown to have mechanical and consequent physiological benefits.

4. Positive psychology and realistic expectations (i.e., +3%) are very important.

INSTITUTIONALIZED OVERTRAINING Rushall Thoughts, (1994).

Overtraining has been of concern to coaches over the past few years since training loads have been increased to the point of often being excessive. The avoidance of overtraining has been a central focus of sports science and sports medicine ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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education. There are two common scenarios with regard to coping with overtraining in sports.

1. If a coach develops an annual plan that includes predicted periods of lessened training stress as a precaution to avoid overtraining or maladaptation, it is possible that athletes will come to expect periods of reduced strain. They usually learn that they must have such "recovery" periods otherwise they cannot perform well.

2. If a coach frequently quizzes athletes about the symptoms of overtraining or maladaptation, it is possible that athletes will be sensitized to such symptoms and will exaggerate their slightest existence. In more extreme cases, they become neurotic and imagine the symptoms even though they really do not exist at a critical level. Athletes learn to be weaker rather than stronger in the face of continued exercise stress and overtraining symptom emphasis.

Both the above illustrations exaggerate the symptoms and onset of overtraining.

The institutionally validated emphasis on appropriate symptoms and the state causes athletes to expect to feel stress symptoms, often in a neurotic manner. Some athletes even become obsessed with transitory and minor symptoms, particularly those which originate from stresses outside of the sport. That obsession often becomes strong enough to the point that activity is limited because of the way the athlete feels even though assertive activity may be the best therapy to alleviate the outside-of-sport stress symptoms themselves. Thus, the well-meaning coach who does not want to push athletes into excessive and unnecessary long-term fatigue states may actually be producing a counter-productive psychological state in athletes. An athlete's ability to work to the fullest potential is compromised by anticipations of the symptoms and fear of overtraining.

The term "institutionalized overtraining" is used to label this effect. That label recognizes that the origin of the complicating sensitization and expectation is derived from the directing body (i.e., the coach).

Modern coaching actually requires athletes to endure greater amounts of relevant work because the overall volume of training is still one of the most significant factors associated with sporting success. Institutionalized overtraining is counterproductive to this aim.

To avoid its occurrence, the following steps can be taken. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Do not plan periods of decreased overload for "recovery" purposes.

Do not plan transitional training phases where fitness is partially lost.

Instead, demand consistent high quality technical performance at practices.

When performance quality deteriorates, allow athletes to terminate participation in that practice segment. This facilitates each individual's capacity to tolerate particular levels of strain, avoids performing in detrimental excessive fatigue states, and allows athletes better in-session recovery.

The orientation of athletes is turned from trying to complete all training, to completing the greatest volume of quality training possible. This is particularly beneficial for avoiding maladaptation and has the concomitant benefit of increasing the volume of quality performance and decreasing the volume of inferior performance.

Since athletes are encouraged never to enter excessively fatigued states, the likelihood of their entering an overtrained state is greatly reduced. With that reduction, it becomes unnecessary to plan for unloading macrocycles.

Athletes are continually challenged to do more quality training. The neurotic imagination of symptoms that happens with institutionalized overtraining is avoided.

The success of this approach is dependent upon the sole criterion for cessation of a training stimulus: When performance decreases, despite a compensatory increase in effort, the practice item should be terminated.

For the coach, the following decision making activity is appropriate: o Take note of the performance standard that is initially displayed in the training segment. o When an athlete's technique begins to deteriorate note its effect on performance. o When performance deteriorates despite increased effort on behalf of the athlete, terminate the athlete's involvement in that segment.

This procedure will stimulate athletes to perform the greatest possible amount of quality training while avoiding overtraining or excessive maladaptation. They will not become neurotic about overworking, but rather, will be encouraged to continually "push the envelope" of performance capacity by (a) overriding natural and/or cultural inhibitions, (b) increasing performance efficiency so that a greater volume of work can be accommodated given a finite performance capacity, and/or (c) increasing the volume of beneficial training and reducing the amount of irrelevant training. It is the last item that is perhaps the most important. Since an athlete has a finite capacity for exercise and performance, it is in his/her best interest to use as much as possible of that capacity in relevant training. Many ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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modern sports programs are being side-tracked by "circus" training, that is, activities which have little to none to counter-productive relationships with intended competition performances. Examples of circus training are: attending "specialized training" camps where programs are not related to the long-term program of development hopefully being undertaken by serious athletes; altitude training camps where the requirements for performance are altered from those required at sea-level; performing "test sets" of training stimuli which have no relationship to actual competitive performances; training with heavy weight programs when such activities have been shown to have little benefit for or relationship to performance and may even be the seeds of injury; competing in contests which do not fit with training objectives; and performing activities to indulge sports science "testing." These examples of dubious activities which are creeping into modern training programs all interfere with consistent training and detract from the opportunities to indulge in relevant activities.

This alternative approach to training will not produce overtrained states because athletes should never be overstressed. Each training stimulus will terminate when its benefits (the repetition of a particular quality of work) are no longer evident.

Even when outside-of-sport stresses are transferred into practice, the diminished capacity of an athlete on that day will be accommodated by this approach.

This procedure contrasts markedly with the consistently excessive training program, the extended program that eventually produces overtraining, and the neurotic expectation of overtrained states and symptoms. With the consistent expectation to perform with quality there may be no ceiling to possible performance improvement.

This training orientation is very dependent upon the motivation of athletes to do quality training. It demands that if quality performances cannot be produced then recovery is the next best option. Large percentages of training time performing less than optimal exercises and technique would be forsaken. Some critics would claim that this description is a disguise for a high quality -- low volume orientation.

Nothing could be further from the truth. It is a method for generating the greatest volume of quality training.

Appropriate motivation will be developed if contingencies that support quality performance are constructed. This most probably will need at least some behavioral goal to be set for every training segment, and at a minimum, perhaps a weekly evaluation of performance change (improvement). Athletes need to have the incentive to constantly strive for the greatest volume of quality training ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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possible. As soon as a below-quality performance occurs they are encouraged to recover rather than to persist with degraded quality while accruing greater levels of detrimental general fatigue.

There are two high profile coaches who program this form of training. Mike Spracklen, arguably the best rowing coach in the world, the current Head Coach of Men's Sweep for US Rowing, and Gregg Troy, the Head Coach of Swimming at The Bolles School in Florida, employ each ingredient of the model.

In San Diego, California, prospective members of the US Men's Eight-oar Crew train mainly in pair-oar boats. At most training sessions all crews row together and are able to see how they are faring in comparison to each other. That competitiveness is an incentive to perform with quality. Each week, all crews perform a time-trial over racing distance. Over time, those athletes with the best technique, physical capacity, and psychological strength will be identifiable. It is those athletes who will be selected for the USA's main boat.

Within Mike Spracklen's program there is nothing said about athletes who drop out of a segment of a training session or have a practice off to have extra recovery. The system that finally locates the athletes with the greatest capacity to do the highest quality of race-simulation type training, will eventually discover those athletes with a lesser capacity. It also should be recognized that Coach Spracklen also programs periods of moderate stress so that the volume of quality rowing actually performed in a season is extremely large when compared to other high profile rowing programs. This is not a "survival of the fittest" program for it is remarkable how many young men are able to adapt to the increased volume of high quality work, something which they have never before experienced.

Coach Spracklen goes further. He attempts to program training sessions which avoid excessive debilitating fatigue. Instead of falling into the traditional pattern of training early and late in the day with long sessions, he ensures opportunities for his rowers to get adequate night and between-practice-sessions rest. Recognizing that in a two-hour practice session it is usually the last half-hour that is of the worst quality but the greatest fatigue, he often programs three practice sessions a day, each being approximately one and a half hours. The detrimental latter portion fatigue of the two-hour practice is avoided, the less stressful shorter practices require less recovery between sessions, and so a greater volume of adaptive and quality training is performed each day and across the particular training phase.

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The underlying feature of Mike Spracklen's coaching is the relentless pursuit of vast amounts of excellence in technique. No weakness is institutionalized into the US Men's Sweep Rowing program.

Gregg Troy attempts to extend the work capacity of his swimmers to their greatest levels (Rushall, 1994).

1. He does not allow his swimmers to ever lose conditioning. There are no days off for recovery.

2. During the winter he does not like his swimmers to enter many competitions.

If there are too many races, then swimmers do not get the opportunity to "set up" properly for racing," which he implied, is an important skill and set of procedures.

3. Coach Troy's programs are long-term oriented. He wants his swimmers to compete well on only a few identified occasions. He stressed that it is of no value to sacrifice training for lesser level competitions.

4. Any recovery that occurs is done on an individual basis. There is no planned "team" recovery period.

5. During a taper or period of rest, Coach Troy and the athlete work together to determine the most successful course of training. He cited the example of how little work Greg Burgess does in the last week of a taper and yet he still performs well in races.

This alternative perception of overtraining, on the surface, appears to contradict popular approaches to the phenomenon. However, it is an improvement. Current practice usually has athletes working hard for the full duration of a training session. When the session is completed, usually because no more time remains, athletes are then released to recover before the next scheduled practice. There is no guarantee in this form of time management that: (a) athletes will recover between practice sessions; (b) the total work of the individual practice session is beneficial; (c) the physical stimuli experienced are accommodated for each individual; and (d) athletes will not become preoccupied with tolerating general fatigue and its personal manifestations. Those weaknesses are removed by this alternative approach to handling training stress and the phenomenon of overtraining.

If a sporting program emphasizes overtraining and the fear of it, the ability to sustain quality training and to explore alternative methods for extending exercise tolerance capacities will be weakened.

Reference: ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Rushall, B. S. (1994). Impressions from US Swimming's 1994 National Team Coaches' Meeting. NSWIMMING Coaching Science Bulletin, 5(2), 1-7.

PERCENTAGE OF VO2max USED IN ENDURANCE EVENTS Noakes, T. (1986). Lore of running. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press. (p. 40).

The longer the run, the less the percentage of VO2max that can be sustained. In a marathon it is roughly 85%, in a doubREDUCED RUNNERS' WORKLOAD MAINTAINS TRAINING EFFECTS Houmard, J. A., Costill, D. L., Mitchell, J. B., Park, S. H., Hickner, R. C., & Roemmich, J. N. (1990). Reduced training maintains performance in distance runners. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 46-52.

Trained runners (N = 10) were monitored for four weeks to establish a baseline for normal responses to typical training. Training volume was reduced by 60% (60 to 24 km) and sessions by 17% (6 to 5 sessions). The proportions of moderate and fast work remained the same. Weekly 5 km races on an indoor track were conducted.

Results. No significant differences occurred in body weight, % body fat, overall 5 km race times, VO2max, or muscular power. Submaximal effort physiological indices did not change. Time to exhaustion in the VO2max test was shortened (9.5%) and HRmax increased (4 bpm).

Implication. A reduced training load did not affect racing performance in welltrained runners. le marathon 75%, and in a 24-hour race it is 45% -Zayas, J. R. (1994). Indices of training stress during competitive running and swimming seasons. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 15, 21-26.

Male college cross-country runners (N = 8) and swimmers (N = 8) were tested at the start of the training season, after 3 weeks of increased training, 3 weeks prior to championships, and 4 days after the championships. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Previously identified markers of training stress, resting heart rate, blood pressure, serum cortisol, and testosterone to cortisol ratio were not significantly altered at any time. Free testosterone and total testosterone may be effective endocrine markers in swimming but only when there is a substantial increase in volume or intensity of work. This response was not observed in runners.

Implication. Since these potential markers were not very sensitive, their value for monitoring training stress is questionable. Performance and psychological measures seem to better reflect training dosage than minute markers. As with any hormonal or blood parameter, markers are hard to differentiate from being instantaneous as a result of one very hard training session or long-term as in continued excessive fatigue.

WHAT VO2max MEASURES Boulay, M. R., Barbeau, P., Giroux, M., Prud'homme, D., & Simoneau, J. A. (1992). Peripheral and central adaptations in cyclists during a training and competitive season. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24(5), Supplement abstract 566.

Cyclists were tracked from November to August in training and competition. They improved in performance and VO2max but did not change in the actual VO2 of the knee extensor muscles. The changes observed in VO2max over the entire season were similar in magnitude to those observed in maximal cardiac output, lending support to the theory that maximal aerobic power in highly trained subjects is centrally limited.

Implication. VO2max tests reflect central mechanisms more than peripheral mechanisms and therefore, are not a total measure of aerobic adaptation ONE MORE TIME: ARE THERE MEASURES THAT ARE SENSITIVE TO OVERTRAINED OR HIGHLY FATIGUED STATES? Hooper, S. L., MacKinnon, L. T., Howard, A, Gordon, R. D., & Bachmann, A. W. (1995). Markers for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 106-112.

Physiological measures (resting and exercise heart rates, blood pressure, oxygen consumption, blood levels of various enzymes and hormones), and subjective ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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assessments of staleness, were monitored at five stages (early-, mid-, and lateseason, in taper, and post-competition) of a six-month training program to determine if any were markers of overtraining and recovery. Ss (N = 14) were elite M and F Australian swimmers.

Staleness was defined as: a) a failure to improve in maximum effort training performance, b) a failure to improve in performance at the main annual competition, c) reports of excessive fatigue, d) a self-report of poor training response, and e) a self-perception of illness despite normal blood markers. Three of the Ss suffered all these symptoms.

Well-being ratings were recorded in log books. Evaluations of sleep quality, fatigue, stress, and muscle soreness were scored on a 1-7 scale with the high end being the worse recording. These ratings accounted for the greatest proportion of staleness measure variance. Late season stress ratings and plasma catecholamine levels at rest accounted for 85% of variance. During tapering, measures of wellbeing accounted for 72% of the variance in performance improvements.

It was concluded that self-reports of well-being may provide an efficient means of monitoring both overtraining and recovery. Plasma catecholamine levels at rest, the only blood/physiological variable to hint at a response, may provide an additional measure to cross-validate the psychological indications of the states.

Since physiological parameters change as a normal response to training, it is difficult to differentiate them from abnormal response associated with overtraining.

The authors observed the predictive validity of self-report psychological variables as being a major tool for assessing staleness. ". . . athlete's ratings of sleep and fatigue at the mid-season time point predicted the staleness score before the deterioration in performance became apparent several weeks later in the season." (p. 111) Implication. Once again, psychological measures have been shown to be more sensitive and related to staleness and overtraining in swimmers than physiological and biochemical measures. Monitoring psychological variables is a more fruitful and accurate direction for training stress assessment than using physiological measures. Psychological self-reports predict the occurrence of eventual performance declines.

OVERTRAINED STATE NOT RELATED TO GLYCOGEN STATE ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Snyder, A. C., Kuipers, H., Cheng, B., Servais, R., & Fransen, E. (1995).

Overtraining following intensified training with normal muscle glycogen. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 1063-1070.

Low muscle glycogen levels can impair exercise performance at intensities primarily between 65 and 85% of VO2max, the exercise intensity at which most endurance athletes train. This study assessed whether the consumption of adequate amounts of CHO to maintain glycogen levels would protect athletes (trained cyclists; N = 8) from entering an overtained state.

Since no single physiological symptom or set of symptoms has been found to be associated with overtraining (p. 1065), five of the most observed symptoms were measured. If a subject displayed three of these five, it was inferred that an overtrained state had been achieved. The five symptoms were: a) decreased maximal workload, b) reduced HRmax, c) reduced resting plasma cortisol levels, d) reduced HLamax to RPE ratio, and e) an increased number of affirmative responses to a daily questionnaire about exercise stress symptoms.

Fourteen self-report questions assessed if Ss were: more quickly fatigued, not completely recovered, irritated more, less motivated, unable to complete the total training program, and were enjoying the sport less. Also evaluated were: performance decline, stiffness or pain in the muscles, problems with falling asleep, and diminution in appetite.

The supplementation of 160 g of CHO during all phases of training maintained consistent glycogen levels even when Ss indicated signs of overtraining. Ss had normal resting muscle glycogen levels but still became overtrained. Some mechanism other than resting muscle glycogen levels must be responsible for the occurrence of overtraining.

HRmax for exercise was significantly lower. A possible mechanism for this symptom could be a decreased maximal sympathetic drive. The reduction was also associated with reduced oxygen uptake. At low work levels, stroke volume was able to compensate for the lower HR and maintain oxygen uptake.

The psychological well-being of the Ss decreased during the period of heavy training. The question content with the largest increases in response embraced the following: a) more quickly fatigued, b) stiff and sore muscles, c) incomplete

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recovery, and d) greater difficulty in completing the training program. Six days of recovery was insufficient to promote full recovery of the self-report factors.

RPE did not differentiate similar workloads across the different training periods and was therefore, not sensitive to overtraining.

Implication. Overtrained states occurred despite maintaining consistent levels of muscle glycogen. Other factors, varying according to the individual, were associated with overtraining. Psychological reports of well-being were the most consistent indicators of overtraining.

A MEASURE OF STRESS RESPONSE IN ATHLETES Rushall, B. S. (1990). A tool for measuring stress tolerance in elite athletes.

Applied Sport Psychology, 2, 51-66.

A tool for measuring elite athletes' responses to life-style stresses, Daily analyses of life-demands for athletes" (DALDA) was described. The evolutionary nature of its developmental process indicated that the accuracy and reliability of results are high and stable. The tool requires a self-assessment of situations and symptoms.

An example of use with Olympic athletes in a game situation was provided.

It is not possible to measure training stress reactions independent of all other lifestresses. Good and bad events from outside of sport migrate into the sporting environment to modify training responses. To accommodate the concept of the totality of life-experiences affecting an athlete's performance, the following sources of stress are measured as Part A of the DALDA: diet, home-life, school/college/work, friends, sport training, climate, sleep, recreation, and health.

Each of these is evaluated to as whether it is normal, worse than normal, or better than normal. An athlete's responses indicate how various parts of his/her life are perceived in terms of their stressfulness.

Part B of the tool lists 25 symptoms of stress that can be measured reliably using the self-report format. It is contended that the more symptoms that are reported the more stressed is an athlete. However, the point was made that responses to the DALDA cannot be compared between athletes. Each of the symptoms is evaluated as to whether it is normal, worse than normal, or better than normal.

A central thesis of the paper is that as life stresses increase in their severity, then so do the number of stress symptoms. For elite athletes, it is in their best interests to ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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keep all life-stresses constant and manageable so that the only extreme stress will be that of training. If that is possible, and the responses to Part A of the DALDA will indicate that, then changes in stress symptoms will reflect the overload of and recovery from training stress.

Examples are given as to how the DALDA can be used to monitor:      

training responses which are adaptive or either too stressed or understressed, the ideal amount of stress to promote the optimum level of training effort, the influence of outside-of-sport stresses that interfere with the training response, preliminary features of overtraining, reactions to jet-lag and travel fatigue, and peaking responses.

Implication. The interpretations and import of the DALDA are subtle and extensive.

It is contended that it is appropriate for talented athletes who are training seriously and conscientiously. Training prescriptions can be designed as a consequence of athlete's responses to this tool.

SUGGESTED READING Rushall, B. S., & Pyke, F. S. (1990). Training for sports and physical fitness.

Melbourne, Australia: Macmillan Educational.

Chapters 4 ("The principle of overload") and 8 ("The abuse of training principles") of this text are devoted to overload and overtraining/maladaptation as they pertain to training. They could serve as further background on the topics in this issue of Coaching Science Abstracts.

PSYCHOLOGY MEASURES TRAINING STRESS AND FATIGUE Theriault, D., Lacoste, E., Gadoury, M., Richard, D., Tremblay, A., Labrie, A., Leblanc, C., & Theriault, G. (1995). Early detection and prevention of stress and fatigue in elite athletes: The use of psychological and clinical measurement instruments. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 167.

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A psychological stress measurement tool and a clinical checklist to evaluate fatigue symptoms were completed periodically during a 10-month training program by 23 elite swimmers. The sensitivity to fatigue states of both tools was related. Higher scores were associated with greater fatigue and stress ratings as well as differences in resting plasma catecholamines.

Implication. Psychological tools are valuable for assessing stress and fatigue in athletes undergoing serious training. They have the potential to be used alone as analytical tools or as cross-validation tools for other measures of detrimental trained states.

BLOOD FEATURES AND OVERTRAINING Urhausen, A., Gabriel, H., & Kindermann, W. (1995). Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining. Sports Medicine, 20, 251-276.

This excellent review covers most features analyzed in blood when attempts are made to associate biochemical factors and overtraining.

A distinction is made between overreaching, short-term accumulated fatigue that can be erased by longer than normal rest periods, and overtraining, a result of continued exposure to excessive training stimuli without adequate recovery.

Overtraining is generally characterized by a decrease in performance when training load is maintained or increased, enhanced fatiguability, disruptions to sleep, rest, and social behaviors, and complaints of poor well-being.

Performance Testing Using performance testing to diagnose overtraining is difficult because of the problem with standardizing procedures, the rarity of valid sport-specific tests, and the lack of generalization between laboratory test and field test performances.

Laboratory performance factors associated with overtraining are a reduction in short-term endurance and maximal anaerobic lactic capacity. These can only be tested when performance tests are maximal, something overtrained athletes are hesitant to perform. The level of exertion that should be sought in performance tests is at least 110% of anaerobic threshold, or 10% above maximum lactate steady state.

Hormonal Testing ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Periodic hormonal assessments are difficult because of the potential to confuse readings with possible causes. Generally, most changes in blood parameters are caused by incidental exercise fatigue, such as that generated by a hard training session, and by psychological stress. Altered hormonal levels recover with adequate rest or stress removal and/or coping. It is incorrect to assume that these transient changes will become more permanent with overtraining.

Catecholamines Plasma levels of free catecholamines indicate sympatho-adrenergic activation due to exercise. Catecholamines modulate metabolic and circulatory reactions and adaptations to physical and psychological stresses.

Catecholamine levels, commonly epinephrine and norepinephrine, are associated with the duration and intensity of exercise. However, a relationship with overtraining is not clear. It appears that the type of overtraining (sympathetic or parasympathetic dominant) will alter the response and habitual status of catecholamines. Because of this confusion, it is unlikely that this could be a universal field-sensitive measure.

Catecholamines and Psychological Stress Exercise forms with high nervous stress components (e.g., sprints, high lactate activities) are probably more likely to induce overtraining syndrome, especially if adequate periods of recovery are neglected. The hypothesis that adrenaline reflects mental stress and noradrenaline reflects physical stress is not supported by modern research.

Implication. The measurement of free plasma catecholamines in the diagnosis of overtraining is unclear and usually unreliable because of measurement problems due to the lack of agreement between different assays. Essentially, this means that there is no one reliable measure of this index and that it has yet to be shown to be a marker of overtraining in any consistent manner.

Testosterone and Cortisol Depending on the intensity and duration of physical work, hormones with anabolic or catabolic properties, such as testosterone and cortisol, show changes signaling a catabolic state which reverses with rest. This has led to this being considered a potential marker for recognizing overtraining. ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Testosterone. Several relationships have been investigated.

1. Findings with strength athletes. An increase in strength is not necessarily associated with a simultaneous increase in the testosterone/cortisol ratio.

2. Findings with endurance athletes. Only a few studies are available relating these factors. At best, one could tentatively assert that testosterone increases with adaptive training and decreases with overtraining. However, this is partly conjecture since no studies have been conducted with overtrained athletes.

3. Findings with female athletes. There is no consistent relationship between these hormones and extended physical activity in females, primarily because insufficient research work has been completed.

4. Overtraining studies. Resting levels of testosterone, cortisol, and sexhormone-binding globulin (SHBG) are not altered with overtraining nor are they correlated with performance in overtrained states. It is probable that the behavior of free testosterone and cortisol is a physiological indicator of training load stress rather than overtraining. The testosterone/cortisol ratio is occasionally overinterpreted.

In most studies, SHBG showed no changes during overtraining. Total testosterone mainly parallels changes of free testosterone.

5. During and after training. Serum testosterone shows a two-phase behavior in exercise: after short-duration stimulation it increases in relation to intensity, volume, and muscle mass. On the other hand, after extended duration exercise (e.g., three hours) it decreases.

Testosterone levels are decreased by endurance training or work during overtraining. To what extent decreased testosterone levels influence energy-supply cannot be definitely answered at this time.

Cortisol. The behavior of cortisol during overtraining has been inconclusive in the literature. There is no consistent finding. However, the type of training (aerobic or anaerobic) leads to different hormonal adaptations. An exercise-induced cortisol increase depends upon the duration and intensity of exercise. Short intense activity causes the change. After exercise, it decreases rapidly and will be "normal" after a few hours.

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Summary. Although testosterone and cortisol are the most frequently investigated hormones as a measure of overtraining, hormonal monitoring of overtraining does not yet seem to be justified.

Pituitary Hormones Gonadotrophins (Luteinising hormone - LH and follicle-stimulating hormone). It is uncertain whether isolated measurements of hormonal levels in peripheral blood are sensitive enough to investigate these complex mechanisms.

Corticotrophin (ACTH). Few studies relating this hormone to overtraining are available. Corticotrophin secretion depends on the intensity and duration of exercise and is stimulated by different stresses, particularly blood glucose depletion. There is a hint that in an overtrained state, an increase in ACTH during exercise might be impaired.

Somatotrophic hormone (STH). The most common factor in this hormonal group, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and its function in exercise, is not clearly understood and controversially reported. <B.BETA-ENDORPHIN.< b>No pattern of association with overtraining has been established. Conflicting and confounded reports do not provide support for the logical postulation of Beta-Endorphin being associated with responses to exercise or overtraining.

Prolactin (PRL). The response of PRL to exercise reveals large individual differences. There are no grounds for using it to monitor training or diagnose overtraining.

Other Hormones Insulin. Hardly any well-founded data with respect to athletes in intensive training periods or in a state of overtraining exist for the other hormones. Even with insulin, which theoretically should demonstrate a lowered maximal exercise-induced level independent of blood glucose or exercise duration, results have been conflicting.

Thyroid-stimulating hormones and estradiol/progesterone. No findings that would suggest an applicability in the monitoring of training or diagnosis of overtraining exist at present.

Special Conditions ‫مباشرة من مكتب الدكتور موفق مجيد مولى‬

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Diet. After many months of low-fat high-CHO diets, ice-hockey players showed increased free testosterone, cortisol, and LH in comparison to controls. Similar changes are not evidenced with short-term diets even when performances change.

An inadequate caloric intake or eating disorders, impair central hormonal regulations including a reduced pulsatile LH secretion. An imbalance in caloric intake decreases the metabolic clearance of steroid hormones.

Hormonal drugs. One of the major reasons for using testosterone and anabolic steroids, growth hormone, clenbuterol, erythropoeitin, and releasing factors during training seems to be the supposed prevention or treatment of overtraining. After withdrawal of sustained steroid use, pituitary function can be affected leading to long-lasting impairment of testicular endocrine function. The concentration of growth hormone and estradiol are reported to increase after the administration of testosterone or aromatisable anabolic-androgenic steroids in men.

Altitude. Hormonal responses at altitude are modified by the degree of hypoxia, climate, duration of exposure and stage of acclimatization, individual experience with altitude training, plasma volume changes as well as reduced absolute exercise intensity. However, if these factors are controlled and relative workloads are established, acute moderate hypoxia does not seem to affect metabolic and hormonal responses to short bouts of exercise.

Pathophysiological Considerations Energy supply in recovery. The impaired secretion of centrally or peripherally acting hormones during overtraining contrasts with the usually increased hormonal levels induced by training. A decreased exercise-induced rise of pituitary hormones, cortisol and insulin as well as lower resting levels of testosterone possibly affects the resynthesis of protein and glycogen during regeneration after exercise. The lower respiratory quotient repeatedly described in overtraining probably indicates a shift of the energy-supplying processes in favor of an increased fat and decreased CHO utilization.

Immunofunctions. The increased susceptibility for infections of overtrained athletes will likely find an explanation in a fine but complex regulation of both closely interacting hormonal and immune systems.

Research Problems

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This topic is particularly difficult to research in the field. It requires careful control, repeated monitoring to set individual levels and response patterns, and standardized testing procedures probably of a level that is not possible in field or applied settings. Some of the confounding difficulties in researching this aspect of the overtraining response are as follows:   

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lack of reference values and considerable individual differences; limited knowledge about regulation (supra-hypothalamic level) and peripheral modulation (receptor level); methodological limitations such as relatively high inter- and intra-assay variability, the need for quick results, the relatively large sample volumes required, and expense; circadian and pulsatile rhythms; influences of external modifying factors (diet, altitude, etc.); different plasma half-lives; and in female athletes, physiologically low testosterone levels and menstrual cyclic variations.

When these factors are considered, it is understandable why the "field" use of hormonal measures is extremely unreliable as well as having revealed few worthwhile criteria when related to overtraining.

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The testosterone/cortisol ratio indicates the physiological strain of training load rather than overtraining syndrome.

The frequency of competitions or training sessions with higher anaerobic lactic demands, should be carefully limited in order to prevent overtraining syndrome.

The role of hormones in the recovery phase and their effects on the receptor and intracellular level remain to be better established.

External and measurement factors influence hormonal blood levels and need to be controlled very well before any test results can be considered for the diagnosis of overtraining  EXCESSIVE ANAEROBIC TRAINING CAUSES OVERTRAINING Urhausen, A., Gabriel, H., & Kindermann, W. (1995). Blood hormones as markers of training stress and overtraining. Sports Medicine, 20, 251-276.

Anaerobic lactic exercise forms are one important trigger mechanism for inducing overtraining. The frequency of competitions or training sessions

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with higher anaerobic lactic demands, should be carefully limited in order to prevent overtraining syndrome.  AFFECTS OF INCREASED TRAINING VOLUME Costill, D. L., Thomas, R., Robergs, R. A., Pascoe, D., Lambert, C., Barr, S., & Fink, W. J. (1991). Adaptations to swimming training: influence of training volume. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 371-377 An attempt was made to assess the contributions of increased training volumes on swimming performance. Two matched groups of college male swimmers were studied before and during a 25-week training period. One group practiced one and a half hours a day. The other practiced once a day for weeks 1 through 4, twice a day each for one and half hours for weeks 5 through 11, and once a day for the remaining 14 weeks. Stroke length, heart rate, long and short swim performances, and various blood parameters were measured periodically.

Over the 25-week period there were no differences between the groups.

However, during the increased period of training, the extra-loaded group exhibited a decrease in sprinting velocity while the other increased. Both groups showed little change in swimming endurance and power after the first eight weeks of training, although performances did change after two taper (rest) periods.

The need for extensive training to maximize conditioning and enhance swimming performance was not supported. Extra training did not produce any benefits that were different to those attained in once a day training.

Actually, increased training was associated with no improvements in swimming power and a decline in swimming velocity. The loss of muscular strength with intense training recovered after a few days or weeks of reduced training (particularly in the taper).

Implications. The changes in endurance that occurred in the first eight weeks were independent of the training load (they were similar for both groups).

From then on, there was no appreciable change in endurance fitness. One has to question the value of excessive training for sprinters if speed is reduced as was demonstrated in this study.

These findings may not be applicable to age-group (< 16 yrs) or female swimmers. In considering the lack of demonstrated effects that are generally attributed to increased training by coaches the authors suggest: . . our knowledge of the need for specificity in training might lead us to assume that such training may not provide the adaptations needed for optimal swimming performance. Since the majority of the competitive swimming events last less than 3 min, it is difficult to understand how

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training at speeds that are markedly slower than competitive pace for 3-4 hr/day will prepare the swimmer for the supramaximal efforts of competition. (p. 376)

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