PSI Journal 2019 - 2020 by MPSA Undergraduate Research Journal

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The McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

ISSUE X December 2020 (Published April 2022)

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Foreword Dear Reader, I would like to start this foreword by saying that this issue of the PSI journal is a very special one, not only for the insightful articles that are included in this edition but for it came together during a very special time that was the first few months of COVID-19. I would like to acknowledge the incredible amount of effort, dedication and perseverance that have gone into this issue of the journal from everyone involved in the process, and extend my thanks to all the amazing editors and exec members whom I had the pleasure of working with throughout this process. I would also like to thank all the students who submitted their articles to be included in this issue for their great work and for making this project possible. I am truly grateful for having the continued support and guidance of Dr. Mathieu Roy who was the supervising professor for the journal this year. And lastly, on behalf of everyone involved, I thank you, the reader, for engaging with these brilliant students’ work and I wish you an enjoyable time reading these articles. Karin Cinalioglu Journal Coordinator, Editor-in-Chief

ON THE COVER Imagery by Fakurian Design via Unsplash

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Journal Committee JOURNAL COORDINATOR & EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Karin Cinalioglu MANAGING EDITOR

Joyce Wu EDITORS

Amanda Dennie Caroline Ruskin Dara Liu Harshaada Deshpande Janet Zhao Jessica Haight Joyce Wu Julia Milad Justine Ronis - Le Moal Michaela Field Quinta Seon Zoe Karkossa DESIGN DIRECTOR

Megane Pepin

2019-2020

Issue X | December 2020

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Table of Contents i ii

Foreword Journal Committee [2019-2020]

1-9

[by Onur Kocek]

10-16 [by Sabrina Rao] 17-23 [by Juliette Ryan-Lortie] 24-37 [by Julia Trolio and Adrienne Tsilividis] 38-48 [by Mana Moshkforoush and Eliane Roy] 49-62 [by Anne-Marie Saucier] 63-67 [by Marina Nysten] 68-75 [by Maïté Skowronski] 76-82 [by Xinyi Zhang] 83-96 [by Alexandra M. Mactavish]

iii

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Dopamine’s Role in the Reinforcement of Feeding Onur Kocer

PSI Journal

Abstract Dopamine regulates a vast number of functions in the brain, and it is primarily known to play a role in locomotion and reinforcement learning. Previous research has also shown that dopamine is involved in the encoding stimuli that predict the food and the nutritional values of the consumed food. However, the role of dopamine in the reinforcement of feeding behavior is not clear. In this study, we investigated whether dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area play a role in the reinforcement of the feeding using optogenetics in a free feeding assay. We hypothesized that mice would increase the number of consummatory bouts during periods of dopamine neuron photostimulation, however we only observed feeding is an exception to the reinforcing property of dopamine on behavior.

Introduction Dopamine regulates a vast number of functions is the Reward Prediction Error theory, in which midbrain dopamine neurons show increased activity following unexpected reward delivery or

al., 2009; Qi et al., 2014).

its conditioned stimulus, and decreased activity following a non-rewarded conditioned stimulus, pars compacta (SNc) project to dorsomedial choice of actions for future states (Schultz et

striatum (DMS) and dorsolateral striatum (DLS). Presentation of a rewarding stimulus increases

to receive optogenetic stimulation of Dopamine

jections innervate the two distinct populations of

expressing D1 or D2 dopamine receptors. (Cox, preference with the side that was paired with

Issue X | December 2020

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role with feeding. Dopamine is also involved in

hibited the natural reward consumption (Mikhai-

encoding the nutritional value of the food (Mc-

lova et al., 2016). It suggests that dopamine in

Cutcheon, 2015). Sham feeding in rats, where

the perception of taste is intact while the ability

ral rewards such as feeding. However, another

to sense nutritional level is not, show increased

study concluded an increase in the dopamine water (Liang et al., 2006). Similarly, mice show that the effect of dopamine is not antagonistic to

tritive sweeteners but not to non-nutritive sweet-

Previous research has also demonstrated

eners (Beeler et al., 2012).

that dopamine plays a role in encoding stimuli that predict the food. Presentation of a sucrose

dopamine plays a role in encoding stimuli that

reward predictive cue evokes phasic increases

predict the food and the encoding of the nutritional value of food, there are discrepancies

fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in rats; however,

across studies based on the region dopamine

the same cue not paired to reward fails to elicit a

level is recorded, technique used to manipulate

similar response (Roitman et al., 2004). Chemo-

dopamine activity, and the experimental para-

presentations which was also accompanied by change in feeding. Infusion of ghrelin, which is an orexigenic neurotransmitter that stimulates

activity did not show a similar response during

food intake, into the lateral ventricle increases

free feeding assay even though the food was

the magnitude of dopamine spikes evoked in the Salamone, 1992). Besides, different types of the magnitude of spikes stayed the same during

recordings/manipulations seem to give different

the presentation of food stimuli for non-infused

results regarding the role of dopamine. Both fast-scan cyclic voltammetry recordings and

Whereas, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, an anorexigenic factor that reduces food intake,

shell showed increased dopamine level activity upon food-predicting cues (Roitman et al., 2004;

dopamine levels and a reduction feeding in rats

Bassareo et al., 2015). Interestingly, no research has studied the

dopamine levels seem to play an antagonistic 2

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

free feeding assay. We used contact lickome-

implanted bilaterally 200 µm above the injection

ters to measure the effect of dopamine neuron photostimulation time-locked to bouts of feeding demonstrated to reinforce a number of actions, we hypothesized that mice would increase the number of consummatory bouts during periods

used in place of the opsin. For all virus injections,

of dopamine neuron photostimulation.

the pipette was left in the place for 10 minutes

Methods

were inserted, and dental cement was used to

Animals

then left on a heated pad for facilitated recovery.

Behavioural testing Mice were housed in groups of 1-4 with a 12-h

Prior to test day, all mice were habituated to the experimental setup in daily 30-minute sessions

were food restricted to 85-90% of their body

to an experiment box (8.5” x 17”) with a bottle

weight starting at one week before the experi-

of freely accessible liquid sucrose (10% w/v)

to achieve a stable baseline consumption, fol-

ed in accordance with the Canadian Council

lowed by another habituation period to optical tethering. For stimulation of dopamine neurons

Committee. lick bouts in alternating 8 minute periods, with

Surgery

the order of stimulation counterbalanced across -

a cocktail of ketamine (Ventoquinol, 100mg/ kg) and xylazine (Bayer, 10mg/kg), placed in stereotaxic surgery apparatus, and prepared for intracranial virus injection according to the

of lick bouts were randomly stimulated. Laser (473nm, 10-15mW) was illuminated at 20 Hz, 5 ms-pulse width.

pamine neurons, bilateral holes were drilled in

ino Uno contact lickometers. Lick bouts were

lick bouts was used as a measure of the reinforc-

Issue X | December 2020

PSI ing or motivational aspect ley, 2013) Licks per bout for a mouse is calculated as the average number of licks across bouts made in a given session.

was used for the place preference task that contained two 9-in x 9-in compartments, one of which had striped walls while the other had spotted walls. detected in real time with the Ethovision 10.0 softsition was used to control the laser stimulation,

yses were performed using Graphpad Prism

which was counterbalanced between the striped and spotted compartments across mice. Laser (473nm, 10-15mW) was illuminated at 20 Hz, 5 ms-pulse width for the duration that the mouse

total licks and licks per bout across conditions.

remained in the laser-paired compartment throughout a 30-min session including a 10-min

baseline period with no stimulation. Place preference was calculated by comparing 10 minutes of baseline and the last 10 minutes of the ses-

Histology

sion to account for an innate preference for one anesthetized with 340 mg/kg Euthanyl (Bimeda)

compartment.

and transcardially perfused with 4% paraformal-

Data analysis and statistics Data were extracted, processed, and analyzed 4

dehyde in phosphate-buffered saline. Brains were removed and incubated in the 4% paraformaldehyde solution for an additional 24h. Brains McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

stimulated (Figure 2D), and indeed observed no decrease in licks per bout (Figure 2E). We are in the process of testing feeding behavior in a two-bottle choice task, in which one of the bottles is paired with photostimulation, to extract information on licks per bout as well as the num-

Results Photostimulation of DA VTA neurons does not reinforce feeding

ber of bouts.

Discussion reinforce feeding behavior, we injected DIO-

pamine in the reinforcement of feeding. Since

mine cells in alternating 8-minute periods at 20

manipulations paired to consumption, we used

Hz, counterbalanced across two days (Figure

optogenetics in a simple free feeding assay to

observe the role of dopamine signalling on con-

ly decreased licks per bout, likely due to repeat-

sumption in real time. We found that photostim-

has been demonstrated to terminate feeding

did not increase the number of bouts, contrary to our expectation that food consumption paired

Surprisingly, number of bouts was unaffected,

suggesting the photostimulation did not rein-

served no change in LPB with photostimulation

force the act of initiating a photostimulated bout, as would be expected from self-stimulation be-

collecting data on its effect on the number of

havior (Figure 1E) (Steinberg et al., 2014).

bouts. However, this negative result has some

Photostimulation of VTA DA input to the NAc does not reinforce feeding

consistency with what we know about dopa-

We hypothesized to observe increased feedof the chamber paired with photostimulation of

tion since previous research has demonstrated its pivotal role in the reinforcement of behavior.

the disruptive effect of D1 activity on feeding as switched from alternating 8-minute periods of photostimulation to a random one-third of bouts Issue X | December 2020

the number of bouts, but decreased the licks per bout, highlighting its disruptive effect on on5

PSI and water (Inutsuka et al., of opioid receptors increase consumption as well as the hedonic impact of food (Olszewski et al., 2011).

stimulation, we proceeded to

that is mostly studied in terms of the dopamine reinforcement, playing a role in reinforcement. We found a place preference for the side that was paired with

the

photostimulation.

However, the simulation did in LPB, which again did not comply with our hypothesis. going consummatory bouts. Perhaps both the decrease in licks per bout and unchanged bout stream stimulatory actions on D1 neurons in the nor et al., 2015)

preference for feeding behaviour even though one-time exposure cocaine, which increases preference. (Runegaard et al., 2019) Whereas real-time place preference is shown to be in-

It is possible that other signalling neurotrans-

duced easily, maybe the reinforcement of feed-

mitters, such as orexin and opioids, played a

ing requires stronger laser stimulation, stronger

role in the reinforcing, or motivational, aspect

cues (we used the laser at the same strength for

of consumption. For example, photostimulation of orexin neurons increases the intake of food 6

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

a change in feeding for this experimental para-

regarding what we currently know about the role

digm since it takes a longer time for the virus to

of dopamine in feeding. Considering countries like the US, which has obesity levels as high as 32.2% of the adult population, the study of

dopamine with regards to feeding is essential

rons). In addition, we did not analyze the bouts

in how we perceive the betterment of this high

since we randomly stimulated 1/3rd of the bouts for this experimental paradigm, instead of an

several papers which claim that the increased food intake in individuals with obesity is due to

In both stimulation settings, we used one

the decreased sensitivity of the dopamine system. (Volkow et al., 2017) One study showed

of the experiments, we realized there might

that the BMI levels of individuals predicted the

have been two issues with this setup. First, the

ventral striatal levels of dopamine, claiming that these low levels of dopamine in obese individ-

may have led to some carry-over effects that

uals might be leading them to overeat. (Wang

added noise to our data. In explanation, even us to overestimate the role of dopamine in the schedule, the mice have attributed some value

regulation of the feeding and underestimating

(negative or positive) to the beginning of the

other systems that might be playing a role in

experiment depending on whether it was stimulated or not-stimulated the day before. Second,

the dopamine level manipulations do not alter feeding behaviour in mice. Maybe the use of

of the 8-min cycles. Whereas, for a two-bottle

dopamine alone to understand the obesity is not

experimental setup, it probably easier for mice

enough to provide a complete understanding

to associate one bottle with the stimulations and

that underlies feeding. For the future, we are planning on using two

8-min cycles might not have been easy to keep

bottles to test the effect of the same stimulation

track of might have affected the timing of the bouts, hence leading to noise in the data. to possible issues we might have had with one

Conclusion and Future Directions

bottle experiment setup.

Even though we were not able to show any

Statement of Contribution

we think that this negative result is important Issue X | December 2020

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State and Phasic Dopamine Signaling.

JNEUROSCI.4404-13.2014 learning and decision-making.

s41583-019-0189-2 of hedonic responses in rodents.

(2017). Role of dopamine projections from ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex in reinforcement behaviors assessed using optogenetic manipulation. ,

References role of ghrelin in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. , 26

peridol microinfusion into three striatal subregions.

doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2011.652969

0023-3

robust regulation of feeding behaviors and metabolism by orexin neurons. , 85, 451–460.

BF03332072 Insights from nucleus accumbens control of feeding.

in astrocytes regulates hypothalamic neuronal circuits and feeding. , 17(7), 908–910.

org/10.1007/s00213-007-0741-z Bassareo, V., Cucca, F., Musio, P., Lecca, D., Frau, R., ing Is Required to Initiate and Maintain Feeding. of response contingency and discriminative/conditioned cues. ,

org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0197-10.2010 tion of parkinsonian motor behaviours by optogenetic control of basal ganglia circuitry. , 466(7306),

inforcing properties of food.

j.1460-9568.2012.08167.x

ing corn oil increases accumbens dopamine in the rat. , 291(5), R1236–R1239.

dopamine neurons promote or reduce feeding?

doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2017.74

of nucleus accumbens dopamine in the motor activity and behavioral study.

, 592(1), 29–36.

po, M. (2014). Direct and indirect pathways of basal

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3823-03.2004 pursuit of nutritional value.

beh.2015.05.003

er, U. (2019). Initial rewarding effects of cocaine and amphetamine assessed in a day using the single-exposure place preference protocol. -

Optogenetically-induced tonic dopamine release from

org/10.1111/ejn.14082

consummatory behaviors.

, 333, 54–64.

ward.

genetic activation of amygdala projections to nucleus accumbens can arrest conditioned and unconditioned alcohol consummatory behavior. , ence.2017.07.044 thorize Feeding. org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.038 Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. of Overweight and Obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. org/10.1001/jama.295.13.1549

inforcement mediated by midbrain dopamine neurons requires D1 and D2 receptor activation in the nucleus accumbens. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094771 tween prediction errors, dopamine neurons and learning. org/10.1038/nn.3413 lation by glutamatergic mechanisms. 4522(96)00450-2

be rewarding?

, 104(1), 105–

Prado, L., Luis-Islas, J., Sandoval, O. I., Puron, L., Gil,

ly Stops Feeding.

, 36(50), -

ioral Conditioning.

, 324(5930), 1080–1084. -

addiction.

, 18(12), 741–

CI.1605-16.2016 cumbens shell releases dopamine and reduces feeding motivation in rats. , 306,

from Glucose Intake. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101585

to ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons. ncomms6390 Roitman, M. F., Stuber, G. D., Phillips, P. E. M., Wighterates as a Subsecond Modulator of Food Seeking.

Issue X | December 2020

Co-Occurring Autism and Deafness: Characteristics of Language Development Sabrina Rao

PSI Journal

Abstract

development. Existing research on children who are both deaf and autistic shows the atypical and delayed

haviours displayed by typically developing deaf

velopmental disorder associated with impaired

social communication and repetitive behaviours.

tistic children may not react to someone calling

teracting with others and may show language

their name. Deaf children can similarly struggle

delays or abnormalities. Repetitive behaviours,

with interaction because they cannot under-

stand what is being said. Even the self-stimulatory movements commonly associated with -

or one to two percent of children (Public Health shared behaviours can prevent professionals is diagnosed in 1 in 59 cases (Szymanski, Brice,

from detecting hearing loss in autistic children.

condition are known as diagnostic overshadow-

nosis later than their hearing peers (Szyman-

ing (Eshraghi et al., 2015).

It can be challenging to diagnose deaf chil10

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

agnostic tools is accompanied by accessibility

signed languages, and the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS).

issues. One set of parents reported that their

son was provided with an interpreter during his of speech. For many hearing parents, it is imto accommodate, a child who had never had

portant that their deaf children receive cochlear

an interpreter was left confused (Wiley et al.,

implants – devices that can allow some deaf individuals to hear – in order to promote speech

nostic overshadowing and inadequacies in the

and autistic individuals, outcomes of cochlear

diagnostic process. acquiring speech after receiving his cochlear the two conditions have a differential impact

implant. His speech therapist, who had worked

on language development. Many deaf children

with many deaf children, soon suspected that he

born to hearing parents present with a language

had autism, leading to him to receiving a diag-

delay because speech is inaccessible to them -

post-implantation outcomes described the vari-

dren of signing Deaf parents have comparably

ability in how deaf and autistic children acquire ga-Itano, 2014). For instance, a child developed

delay commonly found in deafness is due to a

speech slowly, as he struggled to sequence

his articulatory movements, and learned words

ent to the condition, with both hearing and deaf acquired speech after getting a cochlear implant velop language slower than their typical peers, -

these three children are all autistic, the impact of cochlear implants differed across them.

amining data from various communication mo-

Generally, after receiving a cochlear implant,

dalities, we indeed see evidence of delayed and

deaf and autistic children demonstrate less prog-

atypical language development. Despite these

ress in their speech outcomes relative to other

barriers, deaf and autistic children can commu-

deaf recipients. In terms of speech perception, typically developing children and those with oth-

Issue X | December 2020

PSI er disabilities, such as cerebral palsy (Daneshi are nonetheless limited compared to those of Esraghi et al., 2015). However, all three studies

typically developing deaf children (Donaldson et

they had received their implants. Consequently,

cochlear implants can improve speech production, a sizeable number of participants did not

language delay.

show improvements. For example, one-third of

Post-implantation, deaf and autistic children were also able to improve their comprehension

(2015) remained nonverbal similarly to some

and production of speech, though again not as much as their typical peers (Donaldson et al., 2004; Esraghi et al., 2015). In the study by Esraghi and colleagues (2015), the children with speech develops with cochlear implants. With respond to spoken instructions after implanta-

a lower rate of progression in speech produc-

tion. Despite these improvements, it should be

tion post-implantation compared to typically

noted that these did not occur in all children.

developing children, deaf and autistic children

For instance, Donaldson et al. (2004) reported

demonstrate the language delay is often the re-

that one of their seven participants could not understand speech both before and after im-

Moreover, deaf and autistic children also -

and autistic children improves after they receive

though signed languages are easier for deaf

their cochlear implant, but the language delay

children to acquire than speech, Shield and Meier (2014) noted in their review that features of

progressing as quickly as typical peers. In terms of speech production, deaf children

produce gestures at a lower rate than typically

developing children, which could complicate the

ter getting their cochlear implant. Most autistic participants in the Eshraghi et al. (2015) study

also struggle to imitate motor movements pro-

could progress to speaking simple phrases and sentences. Similarly, around half of Donaldson

explained by problems in self-other mapping,

test evaluating spoken vocabulary after implan-

body in order to replicate them. Nonverbal com-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

munication, such as reading facial expressions

to reverse their palm orientation when signing. -

hold items, autistic participants spelled with their

es, where questions can be expressed by raised

palm facing themselves, instead of outwards

brows, it is important for learners to pay atten-

as is the norm. Given that typically developing deaf children do not make these mistakes, these reversal errors may parallel pronoun rethe self-other mapping challenges that make

languages. In addition to showing how atypical language

be responsible for reversal errors. Signing with

development is shared across speech and sign-

the wrong palm orientation is thus not only an

example of the atypical language development

noun use and sign orientation demonstrates the Shield and Meier (2014), the speech of hearing autistic children commonly includes pronoun

and autistic individuals. Given the importance of facial expressions in

reversals, which can consist of using the secstruggle to understand and produce nonverbal appropriate. No pronoun reversals have been

cues can impact their signing. In signed lan-

observed in deaf and autistic native signers

guages, faces are used to express grammatical elements such as questions and adverbs, as well

as noted by Shield and Meier (2014), some feaequivalent to spoken pronoun reversals. Palm orientation reversal errors constitute

one potential equivalent to pronoun reversals

nition has been observed in deaf individuals too.

signed either with the inward or outward ori-

had to name the emotion conveyed by a signer

entation of the palm, and this orientation can sometimes be used distinctively. In the recent

literature reviewed by Shield and Meier (2014),

ducing emotion labels, and typically developing

native-signing autistic children have been shown

participants could more adeptly identify whether

Issue X | December 2020

the signer was happy, mischievous, and angry.

PSI 41 percent of autistic participants produced sign

Denmark and colleagues (2014) have compared

Otherwise, they were similar to their non-echo-

IQ, and age (Shield et al., 2017). Based on the

ed similar impairments in producing the facial

results of this study, it seems that echolalia is

expressions that should accompany signing.

a feature of the atypical language development

fy vocal emotions.

In one case mentioned by Shield and Meier (2014), a deaf and autistic child omitted using -

acquisition of signed languages, we can broad-

tions (e.g., questions beginning with a wh-word,

ly see that both deaf and hearing children with

have been described above (Denmark et al.,

can communicate through speech or signed languages, some children are unable to ex-

language development in the domain of facial

press themselves through either communication modality. In that case, alternative methods of

spoken pronoun reversals, deaf and autistic

communication such as the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) can be imple-

ences (Denmark et al., 2014).

mented. In this system, individuals with limited functional communication abilities are taught to exchange picture cards that convey their needs

demonstrate echolalia, where they repeat what children has been linked to outcomes such as which is a distinctive characteristic of language mixed, especially regarding the long-term mainbe prevalent among hearing autistic children study conducted recently by Shield, Cooley, and

For autistic children with co-occurring con-

Meier (2017) demonstrates that deaf and autis-

ditions such as deafness, there is a lack of re-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

(2007) case study of a deaf and autistic child re-

ceiving a PECS intervention is the main work in

lidou (2007), there is some anecdotal evidence of PECS being used with deaf and autistic children. In one study examining the experiences

Deaf parents communicated with him through -

one child communicated through a combination

duce and understand a limited number of signs.

of signing and PECS, with signing dominating

write some words. Despite his exposure to GSL

Other authors have discussed the utility of using PECS in promoting more communication (Brad-

skills before the PECS intervention were thus

deaf and autistic children can use PECS to communicate, it seems that this modality is not the

2007), illustrating the atypical and delayed lan-

one predominantly used by such children. By reviewing literature on deaf and autistic

During the PECS intervention implemented

by Malandraki and Okalidou (2007), instructors

guages, and alternative methods such as PECS,

He practiced communicating more spontaneously and forming sentences, both to respond

demonstrated by data in the above communication modalities, a combination of deafness and

communicated with others using PECS cards

cating. Overall, it seems that deaf and autistic

also allowed him to increase both his production and comprehension of GSL. He looked at his communication partners more and became

rather than typically developing children, be they deaf or hearing.

observed up to six months after the intervention language development was atypical and pro-

References there a “language of the eyes”? Evidence from normal -

foundly delayed at the start of the intervention, his instruction in PECS allowed him to progress in his communication, showing the usefulness

mendations.

(4), 284-290.

of this modality in aiding language acquisition. Issue X | December 2020

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works in teaching students with deafness and autism. (1), 1618.

tation in prelingually deaf persons with additional disability. (7),

Serving and supporting young children with a dual di-

Measuring progress in children with autism spectrum disorder who have cochlear implants. (5), 666-671.

the picture exchange communication system intervention.

J. (2014). How do typically developing deaf children and deaf children with autism spectrum disorder use the face when comprehending emotional facial expressions in British sign language? (10), 2584-2592.

report of the national autism spectrum disorder surveil-

chlear implantation in children with autism spectrum disorder. -

families.

(4), 379-

en/public-health/services/publications/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder-children-youth-canada-2018.html Roberts, J. M. (2014). Echolalia and language development in children with autism. , 55-74. guage echolalia in deaf children with autism spectrum disorder. JSLHR-L-16-0292

promising method for improving communication skills of learners with autism spectrum disorders.

language by deaf children with autism spectrum disorder. , 90-122. (1), 10-15.

and signed English by hearing-impaired children of hearing-impaired or hearing parents.

ders.

jshd.5302.136 (2013). Childhood vision impairment, hearing loss and co-occurring autism spectrum disorder. -

Enhancing the development of infants and toddlers with dual diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and deafness. In Seminars in speech and language (Vol.

dhjo.2013.05.003 nicative skills of children with autism spectrum disor(4), 478-485.

parents of children who are deaf/hard of hearing with autism spectrum disorder. ent044

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Prefrontal cortex and hippocampus interaction: memory guided decision-making Juliette Ryan-Lortie

PSI Journal

Introduction Memory and decision-making are arguably two

FC integrates the information it receives from

of our most important cognitive functions. We

the hippocampus to tailor decision-making.

get back home, to recall important information

Episodic memory and the hippocampus

about our friends and loved ones, to keep happy memories of past events, and much more. We

show that episodic memory and semantic memory were distinct forms of declarative memory.

a large part of our actions is the fruit of a decision, a choice to act or not to act, or a choice to act in a particular way. Most decision-making is based on value assessments of the options at hand, but this cannot be carried out in isolation because we need something to base our value

In her experiment, she studied three patients with early bilateral hippocampal damage and observed that they had intact semantic memory (when no context is required), but had severely impaired episodic memory (when events or facts were context-dependent). She concluded

assessments on, which is often where memory comes into play. Indeed, our past experiences, also called episodic memories, shape the way

dependent on, the hippocampus, unlike semantic memory.

we make decisions in the present, and this is the topic I will explore in this paper. I will start by going over background infor-

Value-based decision-making and the vmPFC

mation on episodic memory and decision-mak-

“Any process that leads to the selection of an

ing, and how they are represented in the brain

action from a set of possible actions is a decision.” (Redish and Mizumori 2015). From deciding which major to take in college, to

hippocampus and vmPFC interact to produce

deciding which cereal to eat at breakfast, we are constantly choosing some actions over other

decision-making, and then look at how the vmP Issue X | December 2020

possible by different computational and neural processes in our brain. Decisions, essentially,

Hippocampus-vmPFC anatomical connections

PSI

ternal information about the world, and internal

al temporal lobes and the frontal lobe. Some are

representations of personal experiences (Re-

direct and some are indirect, for example those through the thalamus. One relevant connective

of Phineas Gage and its subsequent develop-

tract is the uncinate fasciculus, which is a white

ments (Damasio et al. 1994), we know that the

matter tract that connects the frontal lobe to

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) plays a

limbic regions in the temporal lobe (Olson et al,

major role in decision-making. In 2007, Fellows

2015). Olson et al. suggest that this connection

tested healthy controls and vmPFC patients in a

could potentially be at play in memory-guided

pairwise choice task where patients had to state

decision-making by allowing episodic memories

which stimuli they preferred between the two

to modify behaviour with systems of the frontal

that were presented. Preference judgements

lobe involved in decision-making.

are a known form of value-based decision-making (Fellows 2007), as participants are asked and the consistency of these preference judge-

hippocampal mechanisms are involved in mem-

ments shows that this value attribution was not preference judgements, it was found that vmP-

general idea behind the retrospective mechanism is that we use memories of past decisions

in their preference judgements than other frontal

to guide decisions in the present. It postulates

lobe lesion patients and normal healthy controls.

that the hippocampus replays episodic memories to go over the results of past decisions, or

role in the value assessment component of de-

information that was processed in similar con-

texts, and to “integrate existing memories into a

portant for inferring the value of options during

framework of related experiences before a deci-

decision-making. In 2013, Barta published a

sion is actually faced.” (Shahomy et Daw 2015).

meta-analysis of 200+ fMRI experiments examining the neural correlates of subjective value.

mechanism is the hippocampal replay during different sleep states in rodents. In 2001, Louis

function of subjective value, showing that the

and Wilson found that sequences of neuronal

vmPFC is essential to encode subjective value, and contributes to decision making. 18

Eye Movement (REM) sleep, indicating traces McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

of episodic memory and “replay”. In 2002, Lee

patients with bilateral hippocampal damage to construct new imagined experiences and to de-

scribe a scene in response to short verbal cues

der during a spatial experience as during slow

(e.g., “Imagine you’re on a white sandy beach

wave sleep (SWS) immediately following the

in a beautiful tropical bay” or “imagine you’re in the main hall of a museum containing many

rodents replayed actions and decisions that had

exhibits”

already occurred, potentially in the aim of inte-

index to measure how good these individuals

grating them to better guide their future actions

were at imagining new situations, and how “rich”

and decisions. However, in the real world, it is rather rare

based on a wide variety of criteria such as spa-

that we are faced with the exact same decisions

tial, sensory and emotional references, spatial

as in the past. We are often faced with new de-

coherence, perceived vividness, and a quality

cisions with new outcomes, and we need to be

able to draw from our past experiences to choose

vealed that patients with hippocampal amnesia were markedly impaired relative to matched control subjects at imagining new experiences.

hippocampal

mechanism

for

decision-mak-

ing is used when the individual is faced with a

imagine new experiences is dependent on an

new decision, and when inferences have to be directly test decision-making abilities, I had fact, studies have shown that hippocampus is

posited that the prospective mechanism of de-

capable of “imagining” future situations. In 2001,

cision-making relied on the ability to “predict” or

“imagine” new situations that represent potential

ture thinking, which refers to “a projection of the

self into the future to pre-experience an event”.

ty to predict relies on the hippocampus, it would suggest an important role of the hippocampus in

requires the ability to, to a certain extent, predict

decision-making.

the future, by predicting the potential outcomes of each option in order to properly assess their value, and that the hippocampus plays a central

en the idea of a prospective hippocampal mech-

this idea is the Hassabis et al. 2007 paper in

anism for decision-making is the ground-break-

which they asked normal healthy controls and Issue X | December 2020

PSI could suggest a neural or electrophysiological basis of episodic future thinking, which is here shown to be mediated by the hippocampus and food could be found stayed the same over the

ultimately involved in decision-making.

course of a day, while in “cued choice maze”,

Interestingly, no correlation was found be-

the side where the food could be found was

tween the “possibility representations” and the

randomized for each trial, and was indicated

actual choice made by the rat. In fact, one could think that after “considering” the two possibilities,

experimenters recorded activity from neural en-

the rat would represent itself in the outcome that he chose, but no preferential or lingering representation of the chosen outcome was observed. the representations (more extensive within one arm than the other), this did not correspond to consideration suggests that the hippocampus

may only provide the “imagination” or “prediction” component of the decision-making process, and that the valuation and the actual choice may happen somewhere downstream, such as in

cates that the representation goes beyond the

information it receives from the hippocampus to tailor decision-making?

samples each arm, one after the other, making it a non-local representation at the decision-point. a nonlocal representation of space that is ahead

Integration of hippocampal projections by the vmPFC to tailor decision-making

gests a dynamic interplay between the frontal 20

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

cision-making, and consists of a series of steps that “getting where I need to go” has a superior this model, when faced with a decision, the lat-

value than “seeming painful”.

eral prefrontal cortex (PFC) generates possible scenarios about what could happen and sends

whole process happens in consecutive cycles, where each “action-memory simulation” is eval-

receives these possible scenarios, which are

uated one after the other, until one reaches a

inevitably full of contextual cues that cue related information stored in long term memory. From these cues, the hippocampus is able to generate

have to wait until all the possibilities are gener-

other simulations, which are more relevant than

ated before starting to assess their value.

mentioned, the vmPFC is known to be important

Conclusions

in attributing value and making the consequent

It is safe to say that memory and decision-mak-

decisions, and it is connected to other goal, val-

ing are two cognitive functions that do not play

ue and reward representing areas, such as the

out in a parallel manner, as they are related in

striatum and the amygdala. In collaboration with those regions, the vmPFC can select the best

in decision-making can be retrospective (going

simulation and send it to the motor cortex for the

over the outcome of similar past decisions) or

decision to be carried out.

prospective (imagining the future to draw nov-

Here is an example that walks through the

el inferences on the spot). It was shown that -

all possible scenarios to your hippocampus, such as taking the dirt path on the left, crawling, jumping, going over the river, taking the paved campus would receive these “action plans” and make the connections to stored episodic memdrowned”, or “last time I saw someone crawl and it seemed painful”, or “every day I walk on a paved path and that brings me where I need to Issue X | December 2020

sentation of potential future outcomes, which could potentially represent the neural basis of episodic future thinking. Moreover, vmPFC-hippocampus interactions can be modeled by successive cycles of “action-memory-simulation” that are triggered by the PFC, generated by the hippocampus, and evaluated by the vmPFC, and ultimately lead to the decision to carry out body of literature concerning the interaction of

PSI memory and decision-making and many converging theories have emerged. However, there is still a lot to uncover, especially in terms of pre-

at a decision point. J Neurosci, 27( 45), 12176-12189. edge during human decision making. (6),

cise anatomical connections between these two regions, and regarding the degree to which the until-now still theoretical models could be tested

nate Hippocampal–Prefrontal Interactions in a Spaorg/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030402

in naturalistic situations.

References thinking.

replay of awake hippocampal ensemble activity during rapid eye movement sleep. (1), 145-156.

(12), 533-539.

sis of BOLD fMRI experiments examining neural correlates of subjective value. , 412-427.

diction and imagination.

, 27-48,

clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. ence.8178168

Implications for theory and developmental disorders. , 50–61. man ventral frontal lobe in value comparison of complex objects based on attribute comparison. cision making.

gy of memory based predictions. past and imagining the future. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. -

rstb.2008.0306 -

rstb.2007.2087

under uncertainty or judgment per se? Gupta, R., Duff, M. C., Denburg, N. L., Cohen, N. J., ry is critical for sustained advantageous complex decision-making. (7), 1686-1693.

and decisions. ing the medial prefrontal cortex alters hippocampal sequences during deliberative decision making. -

imagine new experiences. after bilateral hippocampal lesions.

pnas.0610561104 -

sion.

(12), 1285-

ries to guide decisions.

, 85-90.

medial temporal lobe interactions in long-term memMcGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

ory.

(8), 637-648.

humans.

(2),

195-231. -

tial effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. (5324), 376-80.

esis of hippocampal-prefrontal interactions for adaptive behavior. , 22-33.

Supplemental Figures

paths forward of the animal at a decision point. J Neurosci, 27(45), 12176-12189. on the cued-choice task.

paths forward of the animal at a decision point. J Neurosci, 27(45), 12176-12189.

Issue X | December 2020

Going Green to Be Seen: Status, Reputation, and Conspicuous Conservation – A Replication Julia Trolio and Adrienne Tsilividis

PSI Journal

Abstract In order to assess the impact of altruism on purchasing effects, this report attempted to replicate the hypothesis that activating status motives lead individuals to be more inclined to buy products that are eco-friendly with lower quality than their equally expensive, but more luxurious, non-green products to indicate status. Buying green products would appear as a form of status by way of being seen as altruistic the replication, sought to demonstrate that individuals choosing eco-friendly products were more likely

green products. Data found that activating status motives did not lead individuals to be more inclined to choose eco-friendly products over the more luxurious non-green products compared to the control group. and Conspicuous Conservation. Further, our results found no association between likelihood of buying green products and scores on altruism.

Introduction Luxury is one of the key features to identifying

is as expensive as some of the more upgrad-

if one is able to afford such indulgences, they

When asking consumers why they chose the

likely have many achievements they can allot to this wealth so easily perceived in material

individuals that appreciated the fact the Prius “makes a statement” about the drivers, that to

with this wealth would choose to buy equally

Prius puts out a clear message” compared to

expensive products with much less evident ex-

other cars (Maynard, 2007). It is evident these

travagance; something we see quite frequently

drivers care more about how they are perceived

when it comes to eco-friendly products.

than their actual contributions to the environ-

Prius was one of the most successfully sold 24

of why people are willing to forgo the comfort McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

and explicit status that luxury provides; simply to

conscientiousness is through our behaviours as consumers.

Van (2010) then posited that perhaps the status

Previous research looking at motives be-

gains from the purchase of a green vehicle out-

hind environmental conservation and reputation

research on status motives focuses greatly on

presenting social status in forms of luxurious

ist behaviours. Milinski et al. (2002) observed

upgrades and brands, in contrast our replication

that in a public goods game to preserve the

is predicting that by activating status motives in-

environment, people are more likely to give

dividuals will be more inclined to prefer products

money when the offering is public, to a well-

known institution/charity, and advantageous

ronmental green products, than those of luxury, non-green products. Griskevicius et al. (2010) offer the position

signs with descriptive norms (e.g., “the majority of guests reuse their towels”) were superior

through the activation of status motives. Specif-

for environmental conservation compared to

ically, when individuals are given the choice be-

the traditional signs focusing on environmental

tween explicitly luxurious non-green products,

protection directly (Goldstein, N., Cialdini, R.,

that generally serve oneself and are chosen for their increased desirability and superior perfor-

quite sensitive to societal and reputational as-

mance, versus a green product that is less lux-

pects of preservation, many consumers may be more inclined to buy green products for social

status motives might produce prosocial/pro-en-

reasons rather than environmental altruism. Understanding these motivations can be of great

Environmental conscientiousness has be-

gain to society and the environment.

come detrimental over the last two decades alongside the rise of climate change. Numer-

control condition was more likely to choose the non-green car (62.8% chose the non-green

upon the urgency of encouraging individuals to

car versus 37.2% who chose the green car),

the non-green dishwasher (65.5% chose the

nadian government has gone as far as offering

non-green dishwasher), and the non-green

purchase incentives and a tax write-off for elec-

household cleaner (74.3% chose the non-green

cleaner). Consequently, these results show that

stantial way of engaging in such environmental

in the absence of status motives, each of the

Issue X | December 2020

PSI three non-green products were more desirable

al. for it would suggest that trait aspects play

than their environmentally friendly counterparts.

a larger role in green purchasing than reputa-

Further, when status motives were activated,

tion (2010), a feature they did not account for in their study. Consequently, their results may not be purely based on status motives, instead they could be from an underlying altruistic tendency of the sample that partook in the research.

plausible hypothesis we completed further research on altruism as a scale and its effects on green products were combined in a composite

environmentalism. Our investigation concluded that altruism and environmentalism occur to

be growing topics of study and that there was

ers were able to conclude that activating status

enough support in the concept to go forth with

motives could be effective to stimulate pro-envi-

our hypothesis.

Additional Hypothesis

and Stern, P. (2002), participants rated how im-

viduals choosing eco-friendly products would be more likely to have higher scores on the provided altruism scale regardless of having

portant certain value-statements were to them as guiding principles in their lives. In their conclusion, they indicate that due to the fact nearly all environmental problems implicate the possibility of harm to others, altruism appears closely

hypothesis was tested after the questions from the original replication.

that “altruism is the value most closely related

Our primary inspiration for this research

to environmentalism” in both empirical and the-

came from the original study by Griskevicius et. al., in which they mentioned personality dimensions possibly playing a role in the purchasing of ism being a leading factor of pro-environmental product preferences would add a confounding -

P., 2002). vironmental psychology, P. Wesley Schultz, conducted a study that included multiple surveys with varying topics and measurements of environmentalism, interpersonal reactivity, self-relationships with nature, social values, and

counter the argument made by Griskevicius et 26

pro-environmental behaviour. He demonstrated McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

that environmental concerns were positively

received a short story, the third condition did

correlated with perspective taking and empa-

not. Status motives were elicited by reading the

thetic concern (2001). Both features are often associated with altruism. and any testing effects related to social desirthat it was quite possible that a positive correla-

ability, a cover story was used when recruiting

tion between altruistic characteristics and an increased sense of environmentalism could be a

memory task analyzing memory recall after a

probable outcome of our research. Understand-

time delay in which they would work on anoth-

ing the role of altruism on consumer preferences

er survey on product preferences after reading

could help direct marketing of green products to-

wards those with a philanthropy-based person-

sented with a consent form that they read and

ality, thus increasing environmental awareness, preferences, and behaviour while being an in-

questions offering only two options, the less luxurious green product and the luxurious non-

a large impact of environmentalism on society. these questions relating to the original study

Methods Participants

were presented, a correlational research design was conducted. Participants were asked an additional 20 questions on a 5-point Likert scale to determine how altruistic in nature each

229 women, 1 preferred not to answer) at McGill University participated in the study for

versations did not reveal any suspicion that this

course credit. Exclusion criteria were graduate participants came to the lab in groups and were seated at computers with ample space between each participant.

Design and Procedure

second study not associated with our replication or additional hypothesis.

Motive Primes Participants read a short story of about 700 words to elicit status motives; this short story had been used in previous research to effective-

acted as a second control group to ensure poof the control story. We randomly assigned each

ly activate status motives (Griskevicius et al., graduating from college and taking a job in a

participant to the conditions. Motive conditions Issue X | December 2020

PSI

well-known and powerful company that pays well and is promising to move up in. It goes

control conditions to guarantee that no particular characteristics in the control short story

the end of the story, the reader learns about a

condition did not read any short story. Instead

promotion they will work towards and compete

individuals in this condition were told to press an

against their peers for.

arrow to continue the study at which point they were immediately presented with the product

produced similar levels of affect to the status

story. In this story, the participants imagined

dicted there would be no difference between the

they had worked a hard week and were looking

forward to the weekend as they had tickets to

sistent with this prediction, the two conditions

a concert with their friend. Before their friend

did not differ from one another and thus for the

comes, they decide to get the concert tickets

rest of the analysis the control conditions were

from their drawer, however they are unable to

combined.

Products up being with their friend and they both head out

ticipants were asked to consider three types of

to the concert.

products with two options each (green versus -

Griskevicius et al. note in their original study that both stories were carefully matched and controlled for gender so that the individual reading it associated their peers in the story as hav-

one of the two options for each product type that they would be more inclined to buy when shop-

ing the same gender as them (2010). and features as the original study. Previous testing of this manipulation showed that compared to the control condition used, this story stimulated a “desire for social status” and a

Each of the three types of products presented to the participants were accompanied by two

“desire for prestige” (Griskevicius, et al., 2009). luxurious non-green choice. Both options were was the ambiguity of the company and how one

consistently the same price, manufactured by the same company, and had three key features

vironmental behaviour which could have elicited a predisposition for the green products. 28

of the product to describe it. Of note, the features of the non-green product were superior on both luxury and performance dimensions, whereas McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

the green product features were superior only on the environmental conservation dimension.

point Likert Scale. -

green cars were priced at $30,000 and manu-

vator door open for a stranger to helping push a 20 statements, the participant was to check off

244-horsepower engine, leather seats, GPS

if they had done this Never, Once, More than

navigation system and a full stereo system, and

Once, Often, or Very Often.

averaged 22 miles per gallon. In comparison, included a low-emission hybrid 120-horsepower engine, standard cloth seats and standard

been previously examined for reliability and found to have extremely high internal-consistency, inter-rater reliability, and item-reliability for measuring altruism (Rushton J., Chrisjohn, R., and Fekken, G., 1981) and is one of the most

products used in the survey). In the original study, Griskevicius et al.

community having been cited over 1000 times.

presented the products to individuals prior to

ucts presented in this study were seen as more prosocial than the non-green products. Each of the three green products were determined to be

peer-rated-global altruism scales (p<0.01) and

associated with prosocial perceptions of their owners (2010). In the current experiment, each of the prod-

values (p<0.01) (Rushton J., Chrisjohn, R., and Fekken, G., 1981).

uct types were presented in a randomized or-

In the present experiment, participants were

der for participants. For each of the three types

asked “Please check the category on the right

of product, the participants were asked “If you

that conforms to the frequency with which you

were out shopping for a car/dishwasher/house-

have carried out the following acts.” Underneath

hold cleaner, which of these two products would

they were presented with the 20 statements and

you buy?”.

Altruism Scale

Results were asked 20 questions associated with our

In a similar manner to the analysis of the original

chosen altruism scale, marking how consistent

study, the hypothesis was tested by analyzing

Issue X | December 2020

our results in a comparative manner of the two

PSI of participants in the control group; ultimately

between-subject groups. Further, the percentage of choices, chi-squared statistical results, the green dishwasher was chosen by 56.8% of Seeing as the non-green products were de-

the control participants and by 61% of the status

liberately selected for this study for their luxurious components, both the original study and our replication predicted that participants in the con-

chose the green household cleaner, whereas

trol condition would be more inclined to choose

54.9% of the participants in the status condition

the non-green products. However, as shown in Figure 1, our results did not support this pre-

same manner as the original study, the analy-

diction. Control participants were more inclined

sis examined the effects of status motives as a

to choose the less luxurious green car than the

composite of all three products together. Based

more luxurious non-green car (52.5% chose the

on the new results, a one-way analysis of vari-

green vehicle, whereas 47.5% chose the nongreen vehicle), less luxurious green dishwasher (56.8% chose the green dishwasher, whereas 43.2% chose the non-green dishwasher), and the less luxurious household cleaner (53.0% chose the green cleaner, whereas 47.0% chose

scores on the self-reported altruism scale leading to a greater likelihood of choosing green

of any status motives, green products were favoured over their more luxurious and higher performing non-green counterparts.

together to create a single score for each par-

tus motives activated would have a greater likeli-

the product choices. Using the Pearson correla-

hood of choosing the less desirable green prod-

ucts over the very desirable non-green products In summary, activating status motives made 1, the results in regard to the preferences of the

no difference in the likelihood of individuals

green vehicle were the opposite of the original

choosing pro-environmental green products over the more desirable non-green products in

participants chose the green car versus 52.5% 30

comparison to individuals without their status McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

motives activated. In order for the data to have

replicated the results of Griskevicius et al., the product choices in the control group would have

from a large public university, randomized the

needed to demonstrate that the majority of par-

condition in which they were placed, alongside

ticipants chose the luxury non-green car, dish-

the randomization of the order of items when

washer, and household cleaner. In contrast, the

majority of the participants in the status motive

pothesis was tested after the completion of the

group would have needed to choose the green

direct replication, looking at the correlations be-

products in all the categories. Unlike the original

tween scores on a self-reported altruism scale

and likelihood of choosing pro-environmental

als with status motives activated would be more

green products. It was concluded that with the use of a larger sample size, a modern sample,

luxury when offered the chance to choose an

and similar conditions as the original study, we

equally priced green product that was capable the additional hypothesis predicted that people

ally, the results from the additional hypothesis

who had more altruistic behavioural tendencies,

did not show a correlation between altruism and green spending.

Limitations -

Upon re-examining the survey that was given to participants after data analysis, it was observed

products.

by the research team that the control story was not properly conveyed to participants and was

General Discussion Ultimately, this replication tested the hypothe-

have been an issue; however, because the con-

sis originally presented by Griskevicius et al. in

trol story group and the no-story control condi-

tus, Reputation, and Conspicuous Conserva-

results and were ultimately combined, this limitation is a non-issue.

status motives would lead individuals to have an increased likelihood of choosing products that are eco-friendly with lower quality than their equally expensive, but more luxurious, non-

ipants. When the original study was conducted

Issue X | December 2020

PSI and published, eco-friendly products were only

est difference between the replication controls

beginning to become relevant. Eco-friendly products were limited on options and were more expensive than products of the same de-

activated status motives groups, original versus replication, only differed at most by about 14%

eco-friendly products are offered in both basic and luxurious form and are comparable in price

what the largest control group difference was.

and quality to their non-environmentally con-

ing climate change and encouraging activism

amongst every citizen is a probable confound

cle is replaced with the notion that electric ve-

to our results. Increased climate awareness

ever, and the purchaser does not have to sacriIf an adjusted hypothesis evaluating effects of

and half prior to data collection that brought out

status motives on equally luxurious green and

crowds of over 500,000 people; amongst them

non-green products was performed using more modern products (that were examined prior to data collection to ensure they were of the same luxury level) was tested, the results would be

control group choosing green products regardless of the lack of features.

used to target audiences for the product that was preferred based on status motives.

be in regards to the altruism scale used in the

By further evaluating history confounds, it is found that environmentalism is no longer a

Scale was created in 1981 and a handful of statements to self-measure altruistic behaviour

it is encouraged. Climate change is current-

are no longer as commonly occurring as de-

ly a constant topic of discussion in the media,

cades ago. For example, “I have made change

whereas in the time of the original study this was

for a stranger” ” is a statement on the scale that

the replication consistently demonstrated a pref-

debit cards, Interac, cell phones, and easier ac-

developing society could be affecting the rele-

ferred all the non-green products, with the larg32

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

tendencies.

able to say our results have a smaller likelihood of a type I or type II error compared to the orig-

of the Quebec population of Canada compared

inal study and are reliable outcomes of the two

to the original study that took place in Minneso-

hypotheses tested.

Future Directions and linguistically diverse than Minnesota (World Population Review, 2019; Statistics Canada,

include investigating political viewpoints of partic-

2016). Cultural differences and incentives could play a role in the difference of results. In 2013, a

likelihood of choosing pro-environmental green

Montreal-wide composting plan was started and

products. If a difference is seen, we could then

planned to provide compost bins and pickup to

target marketing strategies for green products

differently per each large political party and the

ment of Minnesota has not provided a statewide

states/provinces prominently associated with

composting initiative. Quebec has more public

them.

transit systems in place compared to Minnesota

offers electric vehicle incentives of up to $8,000

lication of the additional hypothesis tested and in other research possibilities. Items that tap into

Énergétique Québec, 2019); in comparison, the

altruism for people who are more reserved may

state of Minnesota offers nothing to incentivise

alter the results and show a relationship between

individuals to buy electric vehicles (Energy Sage, -

considered a very commonly associated feature

ence in value each location puts into environmen-

of environmentalism; thus, it would be interesting to see if a more accurately representative scale

and encouragement could explain the increased

would show different results.

preference of green products in our control group would be an adjusted hypothesis that is more equipped for a society that includes luxurious -

green products. With the many advancements in

nal study gathered one hundred and sixty-eight

green technology, the original hypothesis of this

students and the replication study obtained two

replication is, to an extent, no longer relevant. Choosing to live green does not need to be a

one hundred more participants, thus increasing Issue X | December 2020

PSI

lyzing the reasoning for choosing a pro-environmental product between two equally luxurious

environmental conservation in hotels.

strategy.

products. We should strive to determine why an individual would choose the green product when both are desirable; is it considered an upgraded feature, is it to “make a statement” about

, 980–994.

the owner, or is it purely based on an altruistic personality?

servation.

eses that can stem from this research, but they

(4), 15-30.

would certainly need to account for the growing societal concern for environmentalism.

Conclusion

Ultimately, although the research was unable to reproduce the results of Griskevicius et al., this replication still offers valuable information.

sit.org/home nors to charity gain in both indirect reciprocity and political reputation. (1494), 881-883. -

in general is seen, providing hope to our future generation; we are able to eliminate the use of

of-delays-montreal-has-the-green-light-for-city-widecomposting-1.1148161

chasing and we have contributed to the scientif-

Acknowledgements

altruism scale. 2

safety-rating-euro-ncap -

english/rabais/ve-neuf/programme-rabais-vehiculeneuf.asp -

References environmentalism. 353-364.

(1),

nologies/zero-emission-vehicles.html

sphere. 327-339.

(4),

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Appendices

Products and Product Features Sub-Zero ED40 Elite Dishwasher ($1,100) Sub-Zero Eco-Trend Dishwasher ($1,100) Has a standard 40-minute running cycle

Comes in choice of stainless steel or white exterior with black chrome trim

Uses a recirculating water system to save water

Features a revolutionary heated drying system that eliminates water spots

Is made with recycled components

Has powerful water sprays but produces no sound

Lysol Natural Household Cleaner ($7)

Lysol Industrial Strength Household Cleaner ($7)

Made from biodegradable nontoxic materials Contains no acids, dyes, or harsh chemicals Not tested on animals

Honda Accord HYBRID ($30,000) Has a low-emission hybrid 120-horsepower engine

Chemically engineered to cut through the toughest grease, rust, and mold

Honda Accord EX-L V-6 ($30,000) Has a high-performing 244-horsepower engine Fully equipped with leather seats, GPS navigation system, and a full stereo system

Issue X | December 2020

PSI Short Stories Never 1. I have helped push the snow. 2. I have given directions to a stranger. 3. I have made change for a stranger. 4. I have given money to a charity. 5. I have given money to a stranger who needed it (or asked me for it). 6. I have donated goods or clothes to a charity. 7. I have done volunteer work for a charity. 8. I have donated blood. 9. I have helped carry (books, parcels, etc.).

Once

More than once

Often

Very often

offered several jobs and decided to go work for a wellknown and powerful company. Besides paying well, this job offers you the greatest chance of moving up—assuming you can prove that you have what it takes. you immediately notice that the lot is full of expensive new cars. Walking to your building, you eye these impressive vehicles and think about the kind of car you should get

through town in a sparkling new car and you feel yourimpressed by how upscale everything looks—the antique furniture, the artistic decorations, the designer clothing. pany and you feel that this is exactly the kind of job you deserve.

10. I have delayed an elevator and held the door open for a stranger. 11. I have allowed someone to go ahead of me in a lineup (at photocopy machine, in the supermarket). 12. I have given a stranger a lift in my car. 13. I have pointed out a at the supermarket) in undercharging me for an item.

smiles slightly, and says hello. Both of them look a little nervous and you sense that these are probably your new colleagues. Looking at them out of the corner of your eye, how much fun it would be to have colleagues with whom you can talk about the new job. But looking at their facial expressions and their body posture, you feel a sense of

14. I have let a neightoo well borrow an item of some value to me (e.g., a dish, tools, etc.) 15. I have bought “charity” Christmas cards deliberately because I knew it was a good cause. 16. I have helped a classmate who I did not know that well with a homework assignment when my knowledge was greater than his or hers. 17. I have before being asked, voluntarily looked after a

company hires only a few people out of thousands of applicants each year.” Hearing that you beat out thousands of people to get here sends a rush of pride through your body. “In the next few months, all three of you will both work

to relax a little, you look around the room and everyone smiles.

children without being paid for it. 18. I have offered to help a handicapped or elderly stranger across a street. 19. I have offered my seat on a bus or train to a stranger who was standing.

20. I have helped an acquaintance to move households.

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

“the person who does the best will not only get a promotion, but they will get a large bonus and will be put on the

in all of you, but only one of you will make it into one of

no idea why the tickets would be there, but you need to

look in the grass, the bushes, underneath cars. But even

your boss stops and points at each of you in turn, “Go out

without them.

feel like letting out a yell and running out the door to get started. Seeing your two colleagues in the background,

hear her humming outside. What are you going to tell her?

hopes of achieving something that few people ever have the chance to do... open the door, ready for the worst. one of your friends have two tickets for a sold-out concert forward to this show for a long time. In fact, you had to

and remember that she wanted to show the tickets to an-

been talking about the concert every day for weeks now,

hours away, you can already feel your heart beating a little faster than normal.

even more now, knowing that you were very close to not and shake it. Nothing but junk. Now you start getting wor-

her euphoria is contagious. Both of you run out the door, turn up the stereo, and head off to the most thrilling show of your lives.

to think?

when you had the tickets and try to retrace your steps.

Issue X | December 2020

Correlations of Fundamental Social Motives with Personality Measures and Life History Variables Mana Moshkforoush & Eliane Roy

PSI Journal

Abstract Neel et al. (2016)1 study examining individual differences in fundamental social motives. Using the Fundamental Social Motives Inventory, we explore the relationships of the fundamental social motives to other individual differences and personality measures and the extent to which life history variables (e.g., age, sex, childhood environment) predict individual differences in the fundamental social motives.

motivational systems.

Introduction

all human, the fundamental social motives are also key to understanding individual differenc-

cognitively gifted human; what differentiates us cal motives of a Darwinian nature. Beyond the

by extension, the fundamental social motives

primitive goals of obtaining food and passing on

that drive the differences – are worthy of exten-

our genes to viable offspring, human motivation

sive research as key predictors of perception and behavior in human psychology2. In order to

have a descriptive/explanatory value in the study

though an over-arching aspect of what makes us

of personality, the biologically-informed funda-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

mental social motives approach is built upon

selves also plays a key role in the motivational

a multidisciplinary perspective of how humans

inclinations that then drive our behaviour and

have adapted to their social nature and are thus

responses to the adaptive challenges and op-

as “systems shaped by

portunities that social group living affords. For

our evolutionary history to energize, organize

example, a situation containing a sexually at-

and select behavior to manage recurrent social

tractive neighbor is likely to activate the funda-

mental social motive of Mate Seeking. However,

ness.” From existing literature and established

individual characteristics and social situations

theory, the fundamental social motives include

alone cannot be credited for eliciting social

Status Seeking, Mate Seeking, Mate Retention,

situations is also a function of life history vari-

ables such as age, sex, relationship status, and

middle-ground between few aggregative, broad

parent status that calibrate the trade-offs faced -

plied to the previously-mentioned example of a

ing both distinctive and overlapping motivational

sexually attractive neighbor, the prominence of

inclinations in response to adaptive problems

the Mate Seeking motive will likely vary between a 28-year-old single individual and a 58-year-old

predictability of human cognition and behavior, are accounted for by the social situation, as well fundamental social motives attunes social phe-

as the biological framework that describes how

nomena such as stereotyping, conformity, intergroup prejudice, economic decision-making,

the course of a life-time. Life history theory5,6

political beliefs, self-presentation, aggression1,4.

addresses the trajectories and timing of shifts

With such a wide range of functional applicabil-

in the prominence of social motives, which ac-

the fundamental social motives approach and

in motives.

its links to other individual differences and per-

In 2016, Neel et al.1 published a paper on the relations among the different fundamental social motives, the relationships of the motives to other

It is intuitive that mere individual differences,

individual difference and personality measures

as measured by various scales, would manifest

including the Big Five personality traits, the ex-

as between-person variability in social motives.

tent to which the motives are linked to recent life

experiences, and the extent to which life history

Issue X | December 2020

PSI variables predict individual differences in the fun-

advancement, growth, and accomplishment. Promotion-focused goals are about doing something

such relations exist addressed the prediction of

you would ideally like to do, theorized to ensure

individual differences in social motives based on

hits and minimize false negatives. In contrast,

factors that shape life history variables, thereby the avoidance focused motivation framework is providing a framework for understanding chang-

concerned with security, safety, and responsibil-

es in social motives over the life span. Our team at McGill University sought to determine whether

responsibilities and doing the things that you feel

a direct replication of the Neel et al.1 study – in-

you ought to do, theorized to ensure correct re-

cluding analyses of fundamental social motives,

jections and minimize false positives.

conceptually related scales, and life history vari-

We hypothesized that the Behavioral Inhibi-

ables – would bear similar enough results to constitute reproducibility of the original effects found

with the fundamental social motives in some way. Since no previous research had compared the two

is to provide a unifying, approach for examining

measures, it was not yet known which motives

individual differences at the level of fundamental

would correlate with either the inhibition or the

social motives. By testing the hypotheses with

activation systems, nor which direction these cor-

this purpose in mind, we seek to further extend

relations would take. Furthermore, the addition of

understanding of human motivation and personality. Our decision to conduct a replication as well

in that it adds validity to the fundamental social

serves as an effort to actively reorganize the dis-

would expect that a participant who scores high

ciplinary social structure that discourages repro-

on the Self-Protection motive would also score high on the Behavioral Inhibition Scale, and that a

Additional Variable Hypothesis 1

participant who scores high on the Mate Seeking

study had initially aimed for the motive would also score high on the Behavioral

both promotion and prevention of each of the seven motives. However, the distinctions between

motives inventory provides information about

approach and avoidance behavior were not borne

how the seven motives are similar and/or different from one another. Given that the current the-

by Ellen Crowe and E. Higgins7, the promotion

ory encompasses the largest set of motives ever

focused motivation framework is concerned with 40

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

stitute a limitation regarding the replication poa more restricted set of motives might be just as

tential of the study. Demographic data was collected amongst our participants and it was found that our sample consisted of roughly equal male and female participants, mostly Christian Cau-

of achievement of a fundamental goal versus

casians between the ages of 20 and 49 years

avoidance of failure to achieve that goal dependent on the fundamental social motive that

household income, and political beliefs, our

drives that goal?

sample showed great diversity.

Procedure

Methods their relationship status and parent status, so

Design & Participant Demographics search design where the kind of relationships

scales could be presented only to those in rela-

naturally occurring variables have with one an-

tionships and those with children, respectively.

other is sought to be understood. Naturally oc-

Participants completed the Fundamental Social

curring variables are those that have not under-

Motives Inventory (66-item set retained for anal-

gone any manipulation by the researcher; in this

yses reported in original paper), the Big Five

case, all fundamental social motives, individual

Inventory, and questions about their life experi-

differences, life history variables, and behavior-

ences. By random assignment, participants then

al inhibition/activation orientations.

completed one of two possible sets of measures of individual differences in constructs often -

sourcing website where participants receive monetary compensation for answering surveys and/or participating in studies. For this replication study, the participants were compensated with roughly $0.12/min. Given the fact that the participants volunteered for the study and that we did not control to get a representative sample of a certain population, the sample collected

used to measure fundamental social motives or One set consisted of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory8, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease Scale9, and the Dominance and Prestige Scales10; the other set consisted of the Belief in a Dangerous World Scale11, the Need to Belong Scale12, and the Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised Scale13.

is considered a convenience sample. However, since the original study used the same sampling

a number of life history variables, beginning with

method and the same platform, it does not con-

their age (continuous) and sex (male coded -1,

Issue X | December 2020

PSI female coded 1). Participants used the following response options to indicate their relacommitted relationship, dating one person, separated, divorced, and single. Only those who indicated that they were either married, in a committed relationship, or dating one person were considered “in a relationship” (coded 1), and only those who responded as single, divorced, or separated were considered “not in a relationship” (coded -1). Participants indicated whether they had children with a “yes” (coded 1) or “no” (coded -1). environments on life history strategies15 items (e.g., “Compared to the average person,

current resources scale consisted of two items

how [stable, predictable, hard] was your home -

agree). Finally, all participants completed the

able/hard], reverse-coded so that higher scores scale consisted of four items (e.g., “My family

usually had enough money for things when I was scales because they focus on different aspects of incentive sensitivity16. memories of childhood experiences14, and thus

Analytical Strategy

their self-reported memories of childhood likely contain some error, Neel et al.1 drew items used

elimination of a) any participant who did not com-

from past research that has successfully used

plete the study, b) two participants who “complet-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

ed” the study within 5 and 8 minutes – well below

the average time of 26.7 minutes – and c) two

cients between each fundamental social motive

suspected internet bots – one whose answer was

score and each additional scale, but only the

tremendously irrelevant to the survey question,

ones with meaningful relationships were further

and another whose reported age of conception

analyzed and compared with the correlation 1

study. Fur-

to eliminate these participants were made ac-

cording to the principle of eliminating data that we

puted between the fundamental social motives scores and the single item scores for the Life

is not considered p-hacking because the effects

History questions.

of removing versus retaining the data were never compared or considered in the decision-making

Results

process. Despite increasing our certainty regard-

Since the correlations of fundamental social

ing the remaining data, the elimination of some

motives with the behavioral inhibition/activation

data contributed to the low number of our sample

scales were not part of the Neel et al.1 study,

size, which has negative effects on the certainty of our replication conclusions.

data obtained can give us valuable preliminary

For the Fundamental social motives scale, se-

information on the relationships between the

lected items were averaged into eleven scores,

motives and this social motivation framework.

Beyond assessment of the correlations them-

tually related scales – Sociosexual Orientation

selves, two intriguing patterns can be discerned.

Inventory, Perceived Vulnerability to Disease, Dominance and Prestige, Belief in a Dangerous

highlighted are directionally consistent, where

World, Need to Belong, and Experiences in Close

Relationships (Revised) Scales – each gave a

relation signs are in the opposite direction of

single score corresponding to an average of all the seven questions yielded a single item score.

pattern is the emergence of two clusters of mo-

resources, and current resources were on a con-

correlated either negatively with BIS or positive-

and parent status were coded in a binary fashion, -

Issue X | December 2020

PSI and effect size requirements of r- and -values, the 2019 replication team committed to the folwhich includes motives that correlated either

lowing requirements for what is to be considered

be labelled as the Behavioral Inhibition group.

0.15 r/ -units of the original effect size reported; 2) correlations found must be in the same direction as the original results; with the exception of correlations within 0.15 r/ -units of one another

around r/

licated. 3) r/

cant in order to ensure validity of the correlation

Replication Criteria Using the Fundamental Social Motives Inven-

tory, our team explored the relationships of the

posite directions, the fundamental relationships

fundamental social motives to other individual

that they describe are diametrically different and

difference and personality measures; the ex-

therefore clearly not replications of one another.

tent to which fundamental social motives are

Similarly, if two correlations are far apart in ef-

linked to recent life experiences; and the extent

fect size, they are effectively descriptions of two

to which life history variables predict individual

different correlations, just like two differently an-

differences in the fundamental social motives.

gled diagonal lines on an x-y correlation graph (see Figure 1). ment of replication is related to the statistical effects of a small sample size. When the effect size of a correlation is as r/

0.5 – a small

sample size theoreti44

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

cally should not have a detrimental affect on the the strength of correlation to the small sample that a truly high strength of correlation would small sample size. Whenever the effect size of

Correlations of Fundamental Social Motives with their Conceptually Related Scales

thus question the validity of the strength of cor-

When comparing the Fundamental social motives and the related scales, we found that four

consider to be replication. Contrastingly, when the Self-Protection motive which correlates with -

as r/ <0.5 – a small sample size does indeed

ation (Exclusion Concern) which correlate with it is not expected that a truly low strength of corRetention (General) which correlates with the Retention (Breakup Concern) which cor-

Status motive with the Prestige scale is the only correlation found in the opposite direction of that reported by the original not meet the requirement of falling within 0.15 r/ -units of the original effect size reported.

Life History Predictors of Fundamental Social Motives Our team replicated more than half of the correlations of life history predictors of the fundamental

social

3). Out of the 74 corIssue X | December 2020

PSI

relations, 40 replicated and only 11 were in the opposite direction as 23 correlations did not meet the requirement of falling within 0.15 r/ -units of the original effect size reported by Neel et al.1 successfully replicated life history variable correlations are with the fundamental life variables of Status and Mate Seeking – both only one correlation away from perfect replication. Interestingly enough, the most poorly replicated life history variable correlations are with the fundamental life variables of Mate Retention – both General and Breakup Concern replicating in only one correlation out of the seven life history variables. Relationship Status in Mate Retention was not motive to retain a mate would as-

other individual differences. In our replication

sume relationship status to be “in a relationship” with a

-value of 1.00. Similarly, -

would assume parent status to be “parent” with a -value of 1.00.

Conclusion In Neel et al.1, a large sample of participants showed that individual differences in the fundamental social motives relate meaningfully to

study, a small sample of participants replicated tions between conceptually related fundamental social motives and scales of individual differences. Furthermore, Neel et al.1 found that individual differences in the fundamental social motives can be partially accounted for by life history variables. In the replication of the study, more than half of the correlations between life history variables and each fundamental social motive were

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

tral to this replication project, many other factors of achievement of a goal versus avoidance of failure to achieve that goal depends on the fun-

shall be discussed below.

damental social motive that drives the goal.

Limitations

study is the small sample size and lack of statis-

Overall, our replication team achieved partial

tical power. While the replication had a sample

replication of the Neel et al.1 results. However,

size of 34, the original Neel et al.1 study had

a sample size of 220–770. With such a clear

nition of what constitutes a replication and the

discrepancy in sample size, external validity

requirements that were put into place for anal-

concerns make us doubt the extent to which the

ysis of the effects found. For example, if the re-

results can be generalized to other populations,

quirement that correlations found must be within

other environments, other times, etc. Moreover,

0.15 r/ -units of the original effect size reported

in terms of internal validity, history effects of the

were narrowed to 0.10 r/ -units, many of the

3-year duration between the original study and

correlations considered replications would no

the replication must be considered. Since 2016, the world has changed, society has changed,

to below 50%. In that case, we most likely would not consider the replication attempt even partial-

ly successful, rather concluding non-replication

ly. Since then, message boards have appeared with discussions of payments and study fea-

noteworthy to mention that many of the data in

tures such as deception, etc. If the participants

the original study was not collected, and many

or tools of research themselves have changed

that were collected were not analysed. For ex-

between original and replication, then the data

ample, a major aim of the Neel et al. study was to build construct validity for the Fundamental formed any exploratory analysis on the items of the scale, nor having compared the Fundamental social motives to the Big Five, can place limitations on our conclusions since we may not be certain that the Fundamental social motive scale is working the same way as it was in the original paper. If these concerns are most cenIssue X | December 2020

report on the true variables being targeted. tions, some features of the correlational survey design also pose concerns about trusting the data obtained. One concern is the length of the study and large number of items that participants are expected to commit their undivided attention to. It may be the case that as participants work their way through scale after scale, the quality 47

and accuracy of the responses obtained diminishes progressively. In addition to this design

PSI

peting Motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bul-

limitation, order effects may be very prominent Fundamental Dimensions of Environmental Risk. Hu-

end of the list of scales in order to stay true to the original study design. Furthermore, testing

lution of Life Histories. Evolution and Development.

effects such a s polarization may threaten the

7. Crowe E, Higgins E. Regulatory Focus and Strategic Ining. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Pro-

scale after scale, repetition may lead to more

extreme and polarized responses merely due to the structural aspects of the study. Future di-

self-report instrument. Personality and Individual Differ-

resources to limiting the many threats to validity endured by this study. However, on a more op-

the evolutionary foundations of human social status.

timistic note, an unresolved question to explore is how to incorporate a parsimony objective in explaining the complex relationship between the fundamental social motives and all other vari-

ping the Nomological Network. Journal of Personality

ables addressed in this study. Acknowledgements

theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

autobiographical memories in the self-memory system.

References differences in fundamental social motives. Journal of

reproductive timing. Journal of Personality and Social -

907. tal principles for an integrative science of personality.

Schaller M. Goal-Driven Cognition and Functional Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science.

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Mindset and personality change goal success— a focus on conscientiousness and extraversion Anne-Marie Saucier Abstract

PSI Journal

extraversion). It was hypothesized that a growth mindset for extraversion and conscientiousness would be related to lessened goal progress at change along these traits, as well as that there would be more conducted over the span of one academic year. 379 students were asked to indicate whether they were

change goals.

Most people want to change on at least one di-

is sometimes unsuccessful, as seen in research

mension of the Big 5 personality traits. Indeed, previous research has found that at least 87% of

not change in accordance with their personality

people, depending on the trait, want to change on 2014). Past research has linked having a goal

also go a long way but do not explain why some

to change along the various Big 5 personality

people can achieve personality change goals

traits with changing in the aspired way (Hudson

more than others because failure can still occur even with these goal pursuit methods in place

issue that goal-compatible personality change Issue X | December 2020

PSI

aim of the present study was to determine the existence of other potential factors associated

Other correlates with having a particular growth

with successful goal achievement of change in

mindset or undergoing a growth mindset inter-

amine the construct of mindset, because there

reported depressive symptoms in clinically de-

is evidence of its linkage to greater progress and

pressed teens, and lower chances of substance

achievement relating to other personal char-

abuse in response to stressful life events (Clark, 2017). We have reason to believe that there is a

Mindsets describe personal beliefs in the

role of mindsets in change along two of the Big Five traits of personality, conscientiousness and extraversion, because these theories have been found to impact successful self-enrichment relating to other personal characteristics (Beer, 2002).

Extraversion and conscientiousness were

plored the relationship between personal beliefs

the traits selected to be studied among the Big Five traits because they are likely the most rel-

and being able to successfully develop the self

evant to the social and academic adjustment

(respectfully) of young adults to the universi-

set originates from Carol Dweck, a researcher on motivation, who uncovered a positive link-

provide meaningful constructs within which

age between beliefs about intelligence being

to explore personality change goal progress.

malleable and an improvement in academic grades, with beliefs about intelligence being

organized, planful, reliable, responsible, and thorough, and extraversion as being active, assertive, energetic, enthusiastic, outgoing, and

growth mindset on the subjective and objective

talkative (Robinson et al., 2015).

improvement of the self in the quality of shyness has also been found (Beer, 2002). Findings on

because it is inadequate to try to attribute too

the positive connection between growth mindset and advancement in ability and performance

be better assessed by the mindset for features

has been found in several other studies as well

that closely relate to the outcome being studied. For example, Jennifer Beer found that the mind-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

set held for personality as a general concept

inability) of change, that individuals believe oc-

is unrelated to whether a shy individual uses

curs for conscientiousness and extraversion.

avoidant strategies or not, but that mindset held that conscientiousness is more often believed to these self-destructive behaviours are performed

be malleable than extraversion is.

Mindsets are enduring, as evidenced when

(2017) work that used mindset for anxiety to

mindsets for intelligence were very stable, at

establish the link between mindset and level of

least in undergraduate students, which corre-

psychological anguish experienced in response

sponds to the average age and academic status

to stressful life events, instead of using mindset

demographics of the sample in our current study.

for intelligence or some other mindset that would traversion and conscientiousness in assessing goal progress of change along these traits.

We also plan to analyze autonomous motivation in the context of personality change goal progress, as well as in relation to mindset, due to its link to these factors. Research has repeatedly positively tied autonomous motivation Importantly, research has also provided evidence for contrasted perceptions of the nature of different personality traits (Haslam, Bastian,

Haslam et al., 2007, it was found that under-

autonomous motivation in conjunction with the

graduate students held beliefs that conscien-

theory of mindset, it has been found that stu-

tiousness changes to a greater degree than ex-

dents who held a growth mindset for intelligence were more likely to have autonomous motiva-

that students expected to occur around the late teens and early twenties, which is the typical

be noted in their motivation to do schoolwork

due to a perceived value of learning, which

ings of beliefs that conscientiousness changes

means that they found learning to be personally

more than extraversion does is similar, but not identical, to the notion that conscientiousness is

a trait that is believed to be more malleable than extraversion. It is important to clearly state this

at the amount of change, but not the ability (or

motivation that is internally derived and carrying

Issue X | December 2020

PSI

a sense of full personal endorsement (Hagger et al., 2014). It can be assumed that a growth

be higher in those with a growth mindset than

mindset for the personality traits of extraversion and of conscientiousness could potentially culti-

conscientiousness as well that these heightened

vate autonomous motivation to change in those

characteristics and that autonomous motivation

sonality change goal would be related to greater

in these change goals could possibly lead to goal

success in that goal. Lastly, we expected that growth mindset levels for conscientiousness

trait that is present before the goal is made to

would be higher than for extraversion.

change along extraversion or conscientiousness and therefore also before the presence of motivation for the goal.

Method Participants and procedure

The Present Study

who were enrolled over the 2018-2019 academ-

were registered to partake in the current study

was 400 students. 379 students (84% female

ence achieving personality change goal success

and 11% graduate students) mentioned goals to change on extraversion and conscientiousness.

mindset for extraversion and conscientiousness success for those traits; (3) does autonomous

goal motivation mediate the relation between growth mindset and successful change; (4) to what extent do people have a growth mindset for extroversion and conscientiousness. Students were followed through an academic year to investigate hypotheses related to their personality change goals. First, we hypothesized that that those with a growth mindset for extraversion and conscientiousness would make greater progress at personality change, when they have a goal to do so, in comparison to those holding hypothesized that autonomous motivation spe52

every assessment. Data collection for the 3-wave prospective study ran for 6 months. Participants were asked to complete three online questionnaires over the course of the study at incremental time points. Qualtrics software was used to administer the questionnaires (Qualtrics, Inc. Salt Lake City, ticipants were asked to indicate if they were pursuing goals to change in each of the Big 5 McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

personality traits. We collected data on what di-

rection and by how much participants wanted to

liable, responsible, and thorough, and extraver-

change in extraversion and conscientiousness

sion as being active, assertive, energetic, en-

as well as on autonomous motivation to change

thusiastic, outgoing, and talkative (Robinson et

and standing on each Big Five personality trait. -

a range of answer options from 1 (I have a goal to be a lot less like this trait) to 5 (I have a goal

change on extraversion and conscientiousness being used to measure goal progress are only from those participants who wanted to increase Ethics boards were followed. Subjects who par-

are too few who mentioned a goal to decrease to perform adequate statistical analyses with.

tion.

Measures -

a goal is related to greater success in that goal

al desire to change, as well as the degree and direction of change desired, on extraversion and

conscientiousness (separately) was measured

ality traits of extraversion and conscientious-

Robinson et al. (2015) for their own research on goals to change in the Big Five traits. For our

scales for the traits of extraversion and of con-

research, the response scale was broadened to

scientiousness from the original scale that mea-

include not only the presence of goal change in one or another, but also the degree of change

version, half of the items were positively-worded

desired (for example, the inclusion of wanting to

in the direction of a growth belief and the other

be somewhat more and a lot more like the trait

half were reverse-coded (negatively-worded), or

item asked participants to state whether one had

about personality trait change (Beer, 2002). For

a goal to become more like a certain trait, less,

example, a positively-worded question regard-

or possessed no goal to change along the trait.

ing extraversion was I can change aspects of my extraversion if I want to and a reverse-coded

models of each of the two traits were provided

question regarding extraversion was Extraver-

(Robinson et al., 2015). Conscientiousness was Issue X | December 2020

PSI sponse alternatives on 5-point scale that ranged

from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree)

tonomous motivation is linked to goal progress,

(Beer 2002), and that included the option Neither agree nor disagree. In the instructions, the

motivation for the separate goals of change in

examples of the trait being examined provided

extraversion and in conscientiousness was as-

were the same as provided in the measure of

sessed by 2 items on a 4-item questionnaire

mindsets of participants were scored as an aver-

of the scale was from 0 (completely disagree) to

age of the responses to the questions framed as

10 (completely agree). Participants were asked to rate their agreement with possible reasons for

average of responses to questions reverse-codI believe it is important and helped me express of each participant were assessed using the 44-item Big Five Inventory (BFI), which scores

degree to which an individual experienced au-

on the traits of openness, conscientiousness,

tonomous and controlled motivation in their

extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

goals to change along the dimensions of conscientiousness and extraversion using results of

5 trait taxonomy was used as a measure of

personality because it has a high likelihood of

er, 1995, 1998), which are standard measures

encompassing all the pertinent facets of personality in 5 straightforward dimensions. Fur-

for each participant was calculated by taking the

thermore, regardless of the variability of culture

average of the two relevant quantitative ratings

within our sample, the personality traits can still

of autonomous motivation which is how it has

be accurately assessed, due to the validity of the Big Five model across culture and language

2008). Goal progress of change in the

placed on the dimensions of conscientiousness

personality traits of extraversion and consci-

and extraversion.

entiousness was assessed. Participants were asked about their progress on the change goals.

of testing motivation was to examine the autono-

Each participant rated their perceived change

mous motivation of participants, because previ-

along extraversion and conscientiousness on

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

5-point Linkert scales that comprised direction of change (i.e. more or less), degree of change

deviations of mindsets. In our sample of univer-

(i.e. somewhat or a lot), as well as a selection

sity students, growth mindsets for extraversion

alternative of I have not changed on this trait.

and so were the growth mindsets for conscien-

Results Preliminary Analyses Participants wanted to change more on con-2.97, p <.001. In accord with this, we found that

Finally, being female, compared to male,

participants experienced a greater increase in

was unrelated to possession of a goal to change

conscientiousness than they did in extraversion

of a goal to change along conscientiousness der and conscientiousness change goals. It was also found that possessing goals to

Main Results

change along extraversion and conscientiousness were not correlated with actual change in

Correlational analyses were performed to ana-

these traits. Extraversion change goals were

lyze the association of mindset for extraversion

progress at change along extraversion, while

2 shows that having a growth mindset for ex-

conscientiousness change goals were not sig-

changing in conscientiousness. In support of past research on goals, we likely to have a goal to change in the relevant trait than those higher on the trait (Miller, Ba-

Issue X | December 2020

hypotheses of the positive association between a growth mindset for extraversion and greater goal progress at change along this trait and a for the trait and goal progress were not con-

PSI

is detrimental to goal progress in extraversion change goals. -

a trait that is just as malleable as conscientious-

Correlational analyses were performed to analyze the relationship of mindset for con-

a differential level of growth mindset for extra-

scientiousness with conscientiousness change conscientiousness is believed to be a more malmindset for conscientiousness was unrelated, r

leable trait than extraversion.

ing along conscientiousness. Furthermore, a

Discussion

mindset for conscientiousness and greater goal

and extraversion with personality change goal progress on these traits in a sample of university

.05. Hence, our hypothesis of the association

students in a prospective study over an academic

between greater goal progress at change along

year. We hypothesized that a growth mindset for

conscientiousness and a growth mindset for

extraversion would be positively linked to great-

conscientiousness was not supported, and our

er goal progress at changing along extraversion and that a growth mindset for conscientiousness

negatively associated with goal progress was

would be positively associated with greater goal

also not supported but instead the reverse was

progress at changing along conscientiousness. conscientiousness and extraversion would be

negatively related to progress in change goals -

ress of change along extraversion.

relations between growth mindset for each trait Paired t-tests were used to compare conscientiousness and extraversion in the level of their growth mindsets in particlevels of a growth mindset for extraversion and ent—meaning that conscientiousness was not

and greater goal progress in the relevant trait cant associations between mindset (growth nor an unanticipated positive association between

generally believed to be a more malleable trait 56

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

progress at changing along conscientiousness.

believed to be any more changeable than extraversion is. Interestingly,

even

though

personality

extraversion or conscientiousness to change

change goals have previously been found to

(growth mindset), is something that could poten-

be achievable within the time span of our study, goal progress of change along extraversion and

change goals in these traits. We also cannot

conscientiousness was not replicated here (Hud-

found was that possessing a goal to change in

set), is linked to less progress at changing along

extraversion is marginally associated with goal

these traits than if the individual believed the

progress at change along the trait. It is important

traits to be malleable. Previous research has in-

to mention that no cross-over effects were found

vestigated the role of mindset on shyness-relat-

in which a goal in one trait led to goal progress

ed behaviour and depressive symptoms (Beer,

of change in the other. It may be that the reason

replicated was simply because our measure of

tion between mindset and change goals for any

goal progress was based on perceived change instead of objective change such as if we were to have reassessed personality with the Big Five

between the level of growth mindset for consci-

Inventory. Past research supports the validity of

entiousness and extraversion means that when

a self-report measure of goal progress using a

people consider extraversion, they are just as

similar measure to the one used in this study

likely to believe that it is a characteristic that changes as they are about conscientiousness.

Nevertheless, when it comes to accurately con-

ceptualizing personality change, there is some

considered to be more malleable than extraver-

their past self, even from 2 months prior, as more

sion, was based off research by Haslam et al.

negative than they did when they had rated it at

(2007) who found that individuals believe that conscientiousness changes to a greater degree in emerging adulthood than extraversion does.

of personality change can be inaccurate, such

as from a misappraisal of how one was at the

scientiousness changes to a greater extent at

initial time point. Furthermore, a more objective

this point in the life course, it is not a trait that is

assessment of goal progress than self-report

Issue X | December 2020

has been proposed in past studies (Powers,

PSI versity students, goals to increase along conscientiousness are more desired than goals to

increase along extraversion. Furthermore, just

ing goal progress is a potential explanation for

over half of individuals managed to succeed at

the lack of results of a positive correlation be-

changing along conscientiousness when they

tween a growth mindset and goal progress in the

had a goal to do so while considerably less than

context of extraversion and conscientiousness

half did for extraversion. Due to more students

change goals when this set of beliefs tend to be

making change progress in conscientiousness

related to self-enrichment, as well as explaining

goals than extraversion, it can be inferred that conscientiousness may be easier to change

chance of goal progress when this belief tends

than extraversion, at least during this stage of

to be related to stunted improvement (Broda et distinguishing between goals to change on difIntriguingly, even though mindset was not

ferent personality traits instead of examining an

related in anticipated ways to goal progress in

overarching goal of changing personality. It also

this study, goal progress at change along extra-

indicates that further efforts should be taken to

version was correlated with being female, even

help university students achieve their change

though gender was not related to the likelihood

goals in extraversion in a time like this when it

of possessing a goal to change along this trait. to the adaptation strategies that females, more often than men, use to adjust to university. Fe-

for conscientiousness was found to be linked

male students are more likely than males to use

to greater goal progress of change in conscien-

socialization and friendships to adjust, which likely means higher exposure to positive social

mindset are more likely to be high on consci-

experiences for females in university (Enochs

entiousness. So, the fact that individuals who

may help cultivate an increase in extraversion

be high on conscientiousness means that indi-

even without a goal to have done so. Indeed, a

viduals with this mindset will on average make

goal was unnecessary when it came to differ-

more progress at change along the trait, sim-

ences based on gender in change along extra-

ply because they are the individuals who are

version. For researchers on goal progress, it would be important for them to know that, among Uni58

conscientiousness have a greater tendency of McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

making progress in agentic goals (Moore, Holdfor extraversion are unrelated to greater goal progress at change along these traits, but that goals because they are a matter of self-expanmindset for conscientiousness and greater goal progress at changing along conscientiousness. conscientiousness are more likely to make goal

during this stage of life, as well as its related

progress in conscientiousness change than

responsibilities, mean that being high on extra-

those lower on conscientiousness.

version and conscientious is more valuable than

hypotheses relating mindset and goal progress is that mindset could have been measured dif-

Future research

ferently in this study. Mindset was established along a spectrum as a continuous variable as

and employment of optimal measures for test-

ing both mindset and change along personality traits. Further research is also needed to ex-

could potentially have been more valid, would

plore the potential existence of an association

have been to ascribe mindset in a dichotomous,

between mindset for the other Big Five traits

categorical fashion like Dweck (1995) typically

(agreeableness, openness to experience, and

does, with individuals labelled as possessing

neuroticism) and personality change like the relation that tends to exist between mindset and

Finally, another plausible explanation for mindset not negatively related to goal progress

various forms of personal development.

Conclusion

is that mindsets do not aid goal progress in personality change along the Big Five traits, or at growth-oriented mindset in the context of extra-

least for extraversion and conscientiousness.

version and conscientiousness change goals. cept of mindset, or implicit self-theories, in the

entiousness was not related to goal progress of

context of conscientiousness and extraversion change goals to examine its potential impact on

for extraversion was not related to goal prog-

were that a growth mindset for extraversion and Issue X | December 2020

PSI

ness was positively related to goal progress at

stracts International. (10784185)

of goal setting and Dweckian mindset variables edge of the association between mindset and for extraversion, as well as growth mindset for conscientiousness, holding no statistical sig-

, 86648668. fying Pathways between Gender, Mindset, and Motivation. (5), 976-990.

these traits does not support the literature on from two perspectives. 285.

, 267-

linked to self-enhancement of various aspects of the self as well as other positive outcomes.

Living Environment. 63-73.

(1),

sonality change goal progress, as well as the

tation intentions and effective goal pursuit. (1), 186-199.

methods through which these variables act, is needed.

Effects and Processes. , 69-119.

References self-theories, responses to learning setbacks, and learning outcomes in doctoral study. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from UMI Dissertation Services. (3100537) (4), 10091024.

and controlled motivational regulations for multiple ipants analyses. (1), 565-601. Beliefs about personality change and continuity. (8), 1621-1631. Hudson, N. W., Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional Personali-

Study and an Intervention. 246-263.

(1), -

Interventions.

(3), 490-507. Hudson, N. W., Roberts, B. W. (2014). Goals to change ty traits, daily behavior, and goals to change oneself. , 68-83. John, O. P. (1989, November). Big Five prototypes for the adjective check list using observer data. In O. P.

(3), 317-338. pression, and Suicidal Ideation? (Doctoral disserta-

current research. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Society for Multivariate Experimental McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Psychology, Honolulu, HI.

Policy Recommendations. (6), 721-726.

Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits -

studies.

(1), 1-25.

Motivation, and Goal Progress. (5), 1201-30.

on goal progress, relationship quality, and subjective well-being. (12), 1609-1620.

(4), 313-336.

change in young adults. , 31-43.

mindset intervention for adolescent anxiety and depres-

(2), 160-170.

ing the boundaries of Factor V. , 251-272. (2), 175-215. Individual Differences in Social Behavior (pp. 257-273).

correlates of personality change goals. , 10-16.

mindset of anxiety buffers the link between stressful life events and psychological distress and coping strategies. , 2326. Conceptual and Empirical Review. (1), 1-36. Implementation intentions and health behaviors. In M. Press.

trait-goal concordance on goal progress. .

(3), 531-43.

Intrinsic Motivation.

(2), 20.

beliefs about intelligence can create a preference for

ic Mindset with Reading Outcomes for Elementary School Students. (5), 376-391. icism, Goal Motivation, and Goal Progress. (7), 826-840. Issue X | December 2020

trolled Reasons for Goals as Predictors of Effort and (5), 546-557.

(12), 1319. tion, effort and progress in the transition to university. (4), 591-604.

PSI Selves. (4), 572-584. Schneider B., Hinojosa C., … Dweck C. S. (2016). Using design thinking to improve psychological intervention to high school. (3), 374-391.

Appendix

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

The Relationship between BPA, Male Sexual Dysfunction, and Other Pathology Marina Nysten

PSI Journal

Introduction “Plastics workers risk impotence, ejaculation es the results of a peer-reviewed study that ex-

article provides a concise overview of the study that allows the layperson to understand the ticles like these allow society to stay educated

cinogen and endocrine disruptor compound. (Li,

and issues. Furthermore, the pop science arti-

cle, “Plastics workers risk impotence, ejacula-

risk of Self-Reported Male Sexual Dysfunction,

biological mechanisms, provides an accurate overview of the research from Occupational Self-Reported Male Sexual Dysfunction. Fur-

Common household products such as baby bottles, plastic containers, lining of food and bever-

sexual dysfunction to encompass other pathologies, including female reproductive dysfunction,

exemplifying its prevalence in everyday life. Six -

insulin resistance, abnormal fetal development, and resistance to chemotherapy treatments.

aging every year, and therefore its effect on the

Comparison of Pop Science and Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles tween the popular science and journal articles -

is the lack of biological explanation in the for-

plains the results of the study, which, in short, Issue X | December 2020

PSI

states the results of the study without explaining

transmitted through food in consumers. In fact, exposure resulted in between a three and sev-

food products contribute to over 90% of human

en-fold increase in male sexual dysfunction. products via temperature and pH changes, in the pop science article, but they are in the

ductive system operates an endocrine cascade

foods with a high acid content such as toma-

of hormones beginning in the hypothalamus and

to sauce contain some of the highest levels of

ending in the gonads – called the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. LH stimulates Leydig

cells of the testes to produce testosterone – an body. Since this journal article was published in 2009), which is a substance that blocks the ef-

2009, there have been countless strides of new

fects of neurotransmitters or receptors (Neave,

research focusing on not just male sexual dysfunction, but on other pathology as well.

erectile function, and orgasmic function in males (Li, et al., 2009). Furthermore, the inhibition of

An Integrated Review of Current BPA Research ductive physiology is also negatively impacted

In neither the popular science nor the effects of the compound, which are the changes manufacturing polymers such as polycarbonate

sion rather than that of the genes themselves. -

tional cohort study in question was conducted in Chinese factories where workers were exposed

analysis of genes relating to oogenesis, or the maturation of eggs in the ovaries. Many genes

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

relating to oogenesis were examined, and one

fasting plasma glucose, and fasting serum

example is the fshr gene – follicle-stimulating

insulin

concentration.

terms

insulin

resistance, subjects with the highest urinary FSH is released by the anterior pituitary followtarget tissues of FSH, a glycoprotein hormone. In women, FSH binds to their receptors in the ovaries to stimulate estrogen production (Neave,

resistance. One explanation of this link is that

2008). Downregulation of these hormone receptors would decrease sex hormone production,

transcription factors, which leads to increased

which in turn decreases sexual and reproduc-

adipocyte differentiation (Wang, et al., 2012).

tive behaviours. Shockingly, the study found sexual function, but also homeostasis of cellular in the most severe downregulation, suggesting -

nutrition in the body. Recent

research

also

investigated

the

tions impact fshr and oocyte maturation genes outcomes. Pregnant females and developing fetuses are at heightened risk of consuming are environmentally ubiquitous.

disruptor, it is no surprise that recent research

cross the placenta into the developing fetus. When fetuses are exposed in utero, they are

with insulin resistance and obesity. Beta cells in

at risk of developing organizational changes –

the pancreas secrete insulin – a hormone used to maintain cellular nutrition. Insulin resistance

in the Journal of Perinatology describes the

is a condition in which the body is no longer

results of many studies on the link between

responsive to its own insulin. Symptoms include excessive thirst, weakness, blurred vision,

low

birthweight,

decreased

fetal

survival,

neuropathy, and excessive urination (Neave,

reproductive tract anomalies, and metabolic stored in fat tissue and can be easily mobilized

and obesity. Results showed that subjects breast milk 60% of women subjects, which puts many infants at risk for physiological defects Issue X | December 2020

PSI once they begin breast-feeding (Ranjit, Siefert,

treatment, as well as the growing list of its adverse effects on human health.

disease in the body, but it also creates resistance

Conclusion In summary, the pop science article, “Plastics lacks explanation of the biological mechanisms and the risk of Self-Reported Male Sexual Dys-

cells in resisting chemotherapy medications

function. However, it does provide an accurate

such as doxorubicin, cisplatin, and vinblastine.

overview of the experimental procedure and reto an average of four-fold increased risk of male viewed journal article explains this phenomenon -

and

ceptors, which decreases testosterone produc-

as small as the 1 nM range; this is troubling as

the pop science article provided an appropriate

cytotoxicity.

Doxorubicin,

cisplatin,

human exposure levels range from 0.5 to 40 nM receptors. Unfortunately, lack of detail and incorrect information represent common trends in media today.

sexual dysfunction to encompass many other as more than an endocrine disruptor and is catalyzing its damaging effects in other ways.

and reproductive dysfunction, insulin resistance and obesity, abnormal fetal development, and

chemoresistance by preventing apoptosis of

resistance of chemotherapy treatments. Endo-

cancer cells by altering antiapoptotic proteins

crine disruptors, in general, are proven to have a plethora of adverse effects on health. Humans ingest them via consumer products like plastic packaging. Pollution containing them is emptied

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

into natural water bodies that act as drinking human health. , 364(1526), 2079–2096.

plants, and crops. Endocrine disruptors, associremains, the world is waking up to what could

generational genome changes, devastation of ecosystems, and health emergencies. Continued research into these harmful substances is vital in order to further understand the extent of potential damage they contain. References , 13(4), -

Positive and –Negative Breast Cancer Cells.

10.1289/ehp.11788 Dysfunction.

, 25(2), 519–527.

Neave, N. (2008). Hormones and Behaviour. Cambridge, Parker, W. (2016, July 3). Plastics workers risk impo-

directions for future research.

Santangeli, S., Maradonna, F., Gioacchini, G., CobelIssue X | December 2020

Perceived Cognitive Deficits Pathways in Individuals with Persistent Musculoskeletal Pain Maïté Skowronski

PSI Journal and those who return to work following the initial

known as post-whiplash syndrome, is character-

ized by persistent neck complaints, sometimes

in conjunction to cognitive complaints (Buitenhu-

tween occupational disability and pain severity

It is a chronic disorder resulting from enduring

in rehabilitation interventions, reduction in pain

symptoms following strain of the neck due to

severity rarely accounts for more than 10% of

an incident in which the head and the neck are

variance in occupational outcomes, seldom pre-

vulnerable to quick changes in velocity (Croft,

dicting likelihood of return to work (Buitenhuis et al., 2009).

from physical pains and headaches, to cognitive and psychological disturbances (Sandmark,

lematic recovery following whiplash injury. Per-

individuals with whiplash injuries tend to fully recover, an alarming 15-25% of them remain permanently work-disabled (Carroll et al., 2008;

strong implications in day to day functioning (Sul-

Côté et al., 1976). Numerous investigators have examined the

Sullivan et al. (2002) reported that a measure

factors that distinguish between individuals who will, and will not, recover from whiplash injury.

correlated with a measure of disability in a sam-

For individuals with persistent pain conditions,

ple of individuals who had sustained whiplash

the role of pain severity is often deemed a deter-

injuries. Similarly, Buitenhuis et al. (2009) report-

minant of occupational disability (Buitenhuis et

ed that concentration complaints were found to

al., 2009). Other studies, however, did not seem there is available research supporting the corbetween individuals who remain work-disabled 68

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

and work disability, the processes through which

Methods Sample characteristics

have yet to be investigated. One possibility which may explain is the path-

the majority (60%) male, between the ages of 28

impact on disability is the role of expectancies. It

was 47 years old with a standard deviation of

has been shown that pain expectancies are sig-

11.19 years. Information about the occupational

of pain, thus suggesting that it may be a facilita-

Labourers and tradesmen accounted for 50%

tor in the processing of pain-related information

of the sample, with 90% of overall respondents having completed high school education.

2018). Given these results, it is possible that

Participants included consecutive referrals

expectancies may also affect occupational demands for those suffering from chronic pain. In addition to expectancies, the role of

participants were receiving treatment for a musculoskeletal injury. Primary injury sites included back (40%), neck (40%), and upper

the relationship between chronic pain and work

extremities (20%). Participants

were

asked

provide

demographic information and complete selfdaily activities despite any pain or discomfort 2010). It is thus possible that individuals with

report measures of occupational demand, affected their lives as well as their expected

chronic pain who suffer from lower levels of perincluded measures of cervical and back ranges from occupational demands.

of motion. Of 60 respondents in the sample, demo-

better examine the relation between perceived

graphic information is missing for around 18.3% of participants, however we were still able to

occupational demand in individuals with persistent musculoskeletal pain - particularly, which

gather information regarding the measures observed in the questionnaires. Mean comparisons between participants were conducted for

disability.

Issue X | December 2020

PSI

Measures Participants were asked to report their clinical-estimated ability to meet occupational

things, at present, despite the pain. Scores

demands associated with their pre-injury em-

can range from 0 to 60 in which higher scores

ployment ranging from 0 (unable to perform occupational tasks) to 5 (able to perform tasks

studies have used the PSEQ as a measure of

more than 4 hours per day). conditions, supporting its validity and reliability was used as a self-report measure of cognitive

(Nicholas, 2007).

dysfunction. On this measure, respondents are asked to assess several domains of cognitive functioning including attention, retrospective

future of their health condition. Patients were re-

memory, prospective memory, and planning

quired to identify, on a scale from 0-100%, how

and organization. Scores can range between 0

they thought their condition might change over

and 80, with higher scores representing more

the next three months. Higher scores represent

conducted using the PDQ, thus supporting its reliability and validity as a measure of perceived

thus look at how optimistic the person is regarding whether they might fully be rehabilitated in three months time (e.g., “How likely is it that

(SF-MPQ) was used as a measure of pain severity. On this measure, respondents are asked to report the severity of pain they experience at

within the next three months you will be able to stand for 30 minutes without being limited by pain?”). We used three measures from this

the moment for each word in a list of 15 pain words. Scores can range between 0 and 45, where higher scores represent more severe pain. Numerous studies have supported the reliability and validity of the SF-MPQ as a measure of pain severity in individuals with musculoskel-

the next three months your injury/illness will be completely healed?” (HealedExp); (2) “How likely is it that within the next three months you will have returned to full time work?” (WorkExp); (3) “How likely is it that within the next three months your pain will have completely disappeared?”

etal conditions (Melzack, 1987).

(PainExp). Previous research has used similar measures of pain expectancies to analyze their -

dents are expected to rate, on a scale from 0 70

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Data Analysis

69.4% were men, and 30.6% were women. Par-

IBM SPSS Statistics version 26 was used for

ticipants ranged from 28 to 70 years of age (M

all statistical analyses. Means, ranges and standard deviations were computed for de-

tradesmen or labourers. No gender differences

mographic information including age, weight,

were observed in preliminary analyses.

height. Multiple regression was used to predict the value of occupational demand based on the

measured variables and occupational demand

scales and measures mentioned above. In order

in the sample. Occupational demand ratings

to determine which factors are the main pathimpact on work disability, we initially controlled

model, and included them only in the second model. Table 1.

ysis was then performed to determine which factors were occupational demands ratings, tial analysis controlled for PDQ scores, including only PSEQ, WorkExp, and PainExp. Self-ef-

p < 0.05), followed by work ex-

Results Participant characteristics Participant demographic characteristics are in the sample, there is missing information for 11 participants, however for the remaining 49, Issue X | December 2020

higher unstandardized B - suggesting that for every change in rating in occupational demand, work expectancy score changed by 1.504. In this analysis, pain expectancy scores were

PSI In the second multiple regression model,

cant SF-MPQ scores occurred as a result of the small sample size used in this study.

as a potential determinant of occupational de-

ties reported by individuals who have suffered from whiplash often include concentration dif(Radanov, Di Stefano, Schnidrig, Sturzenegger, the side effects of prescribed medications and ties (Smed, 2009). Nevertheless, it is important

and work expectancies are important pathways

ing. In fact, some studies suggest that despite

pact on work disability in individuals with per-

subjective symptoms, neuropsychological test

sistent musculoskeletal pain.

results of whiplash patients were all within normal range - implying that cognitive complaints

Discussion search investigating how psychological factors

could not be attributed to cerebral damage caused by the accident (Sturzenegger et al.,

contribute to occupational demand hardships in ings suggest that the main pathways through

cy on tests of divided attention (Radanov et al., 1999). Other studies have found no evidence of a relationship between indexes of neural dys-

expectancies - particularly through work-related previous research on the role of expectancies

function and cognitive test performance (Radanin Lithuania - a country with no preconceived notions of chronic pain resulting from whiplash

al., 2018). SF-MPQ scores of pain severity were not included in the multiple regression models, as previous research on the correlation between

- suggested that cultural and psychosocial factors were important in revealing persistent pain conditions after injury, as symptoms were brief,

pain severity ratings for chronic pain and work were often inconclusive (Côté et al., 2001; 72

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

ings have opened the door to further research

into the importance of psychosocial factors in understanding heightened work disability in individuals with persistent pain conditions. Several limitations must be considered in the tioned above, the sample size was limited to 60

the study design was correlational assumptions regarding causality remain ambiguous. It is also

important to note that only subjective self-report measures were used in the study, meaning that

References

it may not accurately illustrate the relationship -

disability. , 546-551.

a larger sample size and objective indexes of

tive Cohort Study.

(3), 262-267.

would allow for better understanding of the relation to disability. It is possible that through more in-depth research on the subject patients suffering from chronic pain and its hardships -

cies and Pain Facilitatory Processes.

mcgill.ca/10.1002/ejp.1348 Carroll, L.J., Holm, L.W., Hogg-Johnson, S., Côté, P., Course and Prognostic Factors for Neck Pain in Whip-

ized care, in addition to the rehabilitative care (1), 83-92.

completely eliminating the burden of psychoso-

cial factors in disability is improbable, reducing the degree of disability experienced remains a possibility.

Synthesize the Literature.

, 445-458.

Côté, P., van der Velde, G., Cassidy, J.D., Carroll, L.J., -

Statement of Contribution

Issue X | December 2020

PSI

org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.1997.tb00072.x Sturzenegger, M., Radanov, B.P., Winter, P., Simko, M.,

Development and Validation of a Daily Pain Catastrophizing Scale.

j.1600-0404.2007.00939.x

Post-traumatic stress disorder screening test performance in civilian primary care. (6), 615-624. (9), 606-

sure. 613.

vey of Multiple Sclerosis. Part 1. Perceived Cognitive Problems and Compensatory Strategy Use. , 99-105. tional Distress and Disability Following Whiplash Injury. (3), 120-126.

naire.

, 191-197. -

demic Press, 153-172.

Development and Validation. (3), 249-261. Swinkels-Meewisse, E.J.C.M., Swinkels, R., Verbeek, -

Back Pain.

(2), 123-163.

(1),29-36.

Obelieniene, D., Schrader, H., Bovim, G., Miseviciene, I., Controlled Inception Cohort Study.

, 279-283. -

Appendix Table 2.

neur. 1993.00540010081022

Neuropsychological and Neuroimaging Findings in Patients With Late Whiplash Syndrome. (4), 485-489. (3), 131pubmed/8602474 Individuals Following Whiplash Injury. , 220-229.

continued on next page

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Table 2.

Table 3.

Issue X | December 2020

Language Processing Versus Symbol Processing: An Experiment on Short-Term Memory Xinyi Zhang

PSI Journal

Living in this world as humans, we, and solely

a logographic writing system (Perfetti, 2003). For logographic languages, orthography usual-

language. Language is not simply a communi-

ly directly encodes semantic information rather

cation tool but also an extremely powerful ability

than encoding the phonetic information about

that allows us to express ourselves. Language,

the word as in alphabetic languages. However,

on the surface, may seem arbitrary and mean-

Chinese is a language that can be coded in two

ingless, but the sensorimotor experiences that

we associate with units of language and syntactic rules give language meanings. How humans

whether language-processing in Chinese mainly

process language has long been an intensively studied topic in psycholinguistics.

What kind of linguistic information do we

guage-processing in Chinese relies mainly on

process? When we listen, it is represented as

orthography, and more research has supported

auditory information through sounds; when we read, it is represented as visual information through orthography. While the International

1999). When we process information, one crucial component is short-term memory. In 1966, Ster-

variation of sounds, the variations in writing

nberg studied the retrieval process of short-term

systems are more complex. In total, there are

memory using digits and proposed the serial ex-

haustive model of short-term memory retrieval

phabetically, syllabically, and logographically.

(Sternberg, 1966). He argued that short-term

memory retrieval was carried out by item-to-

tem, most of them are alphabetic (e.g., English,

item comparisons between memorized items

French), yet there are also a few that are syllab-

particularly important, many experiments later

ited number of languages like Chinese, which

have found results that were inconsistent with

is still used today by a huge population, utilize

it, and new models have been proposed to ad-

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

be used for the language group and the symrows and Okada showed that the scanning of

use a serial exhaustive model, while the symbol

semantic and formal information was not serial

group will use a parallel self-terminating model.

1973). In the parallel self-terminating model,

Methods

all items in the remembered list are compared with the probe at the same time, and a positive (LG) consisted of a male native Chinese speakanother model called global familiarity, in which the recognition of a probe is based on a global

er, and the symbol group (SG) consists of a female Russian-French-English trilingual who has

sense of similarity between the probe and the representation of all memory set items (Donkin

In the current study, we will examine the

have a corrected-to-normal vision and no di-

optimal lighting.

differences between retrieving meaningful infor-

mation versus pure symbolic and semantically

uninterpretable information from short-term clude the search model that the participants utilize, reaction time, and accuracy. Chinese characters are used as search stimuli because they produce two types of information. When Chinese speakers memorize a list of Chinese characters,

ulus materials in the experiment were Chinese characters. Importantly, the characters were randomly generated, and none of the stimuli could be semantically interpreted as a word. In other words, they were simply combinations of Chinese characters, the combinations of char-

they remember them both semantically and phonetically (language group). While for people with no previous knowledge of Chinese, they rely only on the shape of the characters, which are just meaningless symbols (symbol group). It is hypothesized that Chinese speakers will have

responses and reaction times of the participants were recorded by PsychoPy 3 automatically, and the data were stored and analyzed by Microsoft Excel.

a better performance on the short-term memo-

Our experiment consisted of one warm-up

ry task than non-Chinese speakers in terms of

session and three test blocks. On each trial,

accuracy and reaction time. Furthermore, we

participants were asked to memorize a list of

hypothesize that different search models will Issue X | December 2020

PSI 2 summarizes the composition of probes for lists of three and four characters were present-

each block with example probes.

ed in the second and third blocks, respectively.

Results Overall, as is shown in Fig. 1, the reaction times in each trial were presented simultaneously in-

stead of serially. For example, for a memo-stimcharacters were presented on the screen at the same time. 500 ms after each stimulus to

Meanwhile, the distribution of reaction times is more spread out in the symbol group than in

be memorized, a probe stimulus appeared, and participants had to make a judgment on whether the probe was a member of the corresponding memo-stimuli. Participants were asked to press the key “y” if the probe matched one charac-

response accuracy of the language group is higher than the symbol group, and the response accuracy is negatively correlated with the length of memo-stimuli for the symbol group.

ter of the memo-stimuli and to press “n” if not.

Linear regression models were used to in-

Participants were instructed to make an action

vestigate the relationship between the length of

as quickly as possible while maintaining a high

memo-stimuli and reaction time for both nega-

accuracy rate. Note that the probe was on the

tive and positive probes (Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5).

screen until a judgment was made in this ex-

els do not explain the relationship between the

eliminate the possibility that participants forgot

length of the memo-stimuli and reaction time.

what the probe was. position of a positive probe in a memo-stimuli shown the memo-stimuli (bigram, trigram, and

sequence and reaction time, analyses of linear regression were conducted for both groups

presentation time of stimuli varied between

sion lines and R-squared values of different

nese characters hard to process. Each block of the experiment consisted of positive probes, which matched any of the characters of the memo-stimuli, and negative probes

blocks are shaded in the corresponding colors. In the language group, the linear models have R-squared values of 0.29 for the bigram, 0.15 for the trigram, and 0.065 for the quadrigram, with a decrease in slope (0.114, 0.048, 0.014). In the symbol group, the linear models have

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

R-squared values of 0.45 for the bigram, 0.55

atively large, and strong negative linear relation-

for the trigram, and 0.31 for the quadrigram, with

ships between reaction times and the sequence

a relatively stable slope (approximately -0.22). serial search model mixed with the global famil-

Discussion

iarity model.

Between the language group and the symbol group, the language group had a better performance in the short-term memory task than the symbol group in both accuracy and reaction time, and this supports the hypothesis. However,

strategies for the task, these rather unexpected results became explainable. In the symbol group, the participant reported that her strate-

when we plotted the length of the memo-stimuli characters and remember them. It was a large

cant differences in reaction times between the positive and negative probes in either the language or the symbol group, we argue that the

memory. Since she went through the characters serially, it makes sense that the reaction time is the shortest if the probe appeared at the end of the memo-stimuli sequence.

short-term memory search was exhaustive and

However, what remains a mystery is why

global. It seems that the global familiarity model

the length of the memo-stimuli has no effect on reaction time. Even though the global famil-

However, when we examine in detail whether reaction time is affected by the position of the positive probe in the memo-stimuli sequences,

iarity model can describe the big picture, it is still counterintuitive. Furthermore, how do we account for the effect of sequence on reaction

some interesting patterns showed up. In the language group, it seems that there was a weak

reported that they scanned the list in serial or-

serial search for bigrams because the reaction times for probes targeting the second character acter. It appears that there was a mix of serial search and global search, and the percentage of serial search decreased with the increase of the length of the memo-stimuli. Interestingly, this was not the case for the symbol group. In the symbol group, the R-squared values are relIssue X | December 2020

group reported that he repeated the characters silently and had to rely on the phonological information to make the judgment. Is it possible that memo-stimuli were perceived as one stimulus with several subunits, as the characters of memo-stimuli were presented all at once? We hypothesize the participants used a mix of the two models, and the models can be hierarchi-

PSI and reaction time is trivial, but it reveals somefamiliarity model. Why would a mix of models

thing crucial about our mind and how it process

be used? It seems that each model has its

information - it is much easier to manipulate in-

advantages and disadvantages in information

formation that can be processed into fewer bits

processing, and the model that can be used to

of information. When it comes to a logographic language like Chinese, the semantics of a sen-

main model in a given scenario.

sorimotor experience is assigned to the sound or shape of the characters. If the sound and

be a confound for the symbol group as the par-

shape of a character match with a known one,

ticipant remembered the physical features of the

the character becomes semantically interpretable and acoustically and visually represent-

might be a confound as well for the language

able. Using the phonetic information, one could represent a complex character in one phonetic

the complexity of the characters and the word

syllable.

frequency are controlled for further investiga-

It is also important to note that our sample

tions on this topic. Finally, as the sample size

size is very small, and our results might be af-

of our study is very small, some results might

fected by several confounds, for example, the

be produced by chance. However, since the re-

complexity of the characters and the frequency

sults of this pilot experiment are quite intriguing,

of the characters in daily use. Several possible

future investigations with a larger experimental

follow-up experiments have been mentioned

power should be conducted using the same ex-

above in the discussion. In addition to controlling

perimental paradigm.

the possible confounds and increasing the sample size for this current experiment, several

Conclusion Our study has shown that the short-term memory retrieval of Chinese characters is not serial.

questions might be interesting to explore in the future. For example, what are the advantages and disadvantages of different search models? How does the complexity of the characters af-

compatible model in this study, yet a hypothesis of a mix of models has been made after further investigation on the effect of sequence on reaction time.

mance? In our study, the Chinses participant could keep the memo-stimuli in his short-term memory since he verbally rehearsed the sounds of the characters. What will happen if he is test-

better performance on the short-term memory

ed on a negative probe that has the same sound

task than non-Chinese speakers in accuracy

as one of the characters in the Memo-stimuli?

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

how information retrieval in human languages

0236-8

works in general. It helps us understand information processing in humans in a broader sense, learning, automatic attending and a general theory.

and processed has a practical application for guage processing. References mantic and formal information.

Sternberg, S. (1966). High-speed scanning in human memory. science.153.3736.652 thography, and semantic activation in reading chinese. (4), 579-606.

sponse time distribution models.

Appendix

Issue X | December 2020

PSI

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

The Effects of Fat-Shaming Tweets on Attentional Biases and Emotional Reactivity Alexandra M. Mactavish

PSI Journal

Abstract Existing literature demonstrates that individuals whose self-worth is contingent on thinness show an attentional bias toward social rejection when cued with failure words within that domain (i.e. obese). In addition, there is evidence that fat-shaming messages in the media affect implicit anti-fat attitudes. However, the effects of exposure to fat-shaming on cued attentional biases are unknown. We recruited 278 women measuring their self-esteem and self-worth contingencies. Participants were then randomly assigned to

they completed body/weight satisfaction items, responded to a body image threatening vignette, and

suggesting that participants in the fat-shaming condition who scored higher on thinness contingency also fat-shaming content does have an effect on attentional biases, and that thinness-contingent self-esteem contributes to negative affect and body dissatisfaction when reminded of failure in this domain.

Introduction

dissatisfaction, and negative emotionality, as measured by a cued dot-probe task and self-

ideal for women has negative consequences

report questionnaires.

satisfaction and self-regard (Becker, Burwell,

Insecurity Body image insecurity is a highly prevalent phenomenon that especially affects women; as body weight is seen as integral to the female identity (Swami et al., 2010; Clabaugh, given that the lifetime prevalence of eating

tested the effects of exposure to fat-shaming

Issue X | December 2020

disorder symptoms is 11.5% among women

PSI culture and mass media emphasize thinness as

associated with a greater drive for thinness, and higher levels of perfectionism, all of which

body dissatisfaction in women, but not men

are correlates of eating disturbances (Custers

messages about weight can have a detrimental

in general predicts body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviours (Howard, Heron,

et al., 2002). Pro-thin and anti-fat messages are often internalized and can have rapid effects on self-regard and implicit attitudes. For

exposure to “thinspiration” images on social

example, exposure to fashion magazines that

media is associated with frequent comparison of

contain strong anti-fat messages

physical appearance and greater eating disorder

is related

to internalization of the thin ideal and body Implicit

attitudes

are

evaluations

and

disordered eating attitudes and behaviours were

biases that occur automatically (Ravary et al.,

adopted by girls in Fiji after only three years of

2019). Research has shown that individuals

exposure to television with pro-thin messages

hold implicit anti-fat attitudes, which can be

(Becker et al., 2002). It is clear that pro-thin and anti-fat messages in the media have rapid and contribute to body image insecurity. In our modern era of increased social media body image insecurity are becoming even more

evidence that fat-shaming female celebrities in

apparent . With thousands of pro-eating disorder

the media increases implicit anti-fat attitudes

images shared daily on Instagram Snapchat,

in the general population (Ravary et al., 2019).

social media platforms, the effects of pro-thin

a “copycat” effect, whereby exposure to fat-

and anti-fat messages are affecting women

shaming messages increases internalization fat messages in the media have an effect on

is associated with negative outcomes for nonvulnerabilities, and implicit processes. 2009). Pro-eating disorder website viewing is 84

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

Self-Worth Contingency Domains and Social Rejection Bias

preferentially process rejection cues in a social

Self-worth contingency domains are domains in which failures and successes have an impact

fails in a self-worth contingency domain, their self-esteem plummets and they expect to be

2001), for example thinness and appearance are

rejected, causing them to preferentially process

examples of self-worth contingency domains. to our study, as we looked at the effects of cueing approval from others, academic competence, competition,

appearance,

family

support,

being rejected.

Body Image and Attentional Biases -

contingency domains can cause psychological vulnerabilities, as self-esteem is dependent upon success in a self-valued domain (Crocker, 2002). For example, individuals with a thinness

tially process certain types of information over information results from underlying maladaptive schemas associated with shape, weight, and the -

self-worth contingency domain will show a decrease in self-esteem in response to failure in this domain (i.e., seeing oneself as obese). Body image-related contingency, such as thinness, is also predictive of body shape anxiety, and psychological dysfunction, regardless of body mass index (Clabaugh et al., 2008). Self-worth that is contingent on appearance and thinness can, therefore, contribute to negative outcomes such as eating disorders and body image-related

Self-worth contingency domains affect

self-

with social rejection; they operate under the belief

lated words compared to neutral or thin-related words (Gao et al., 2011). Weight dissatisfaction is also associated with delayed disengagement from fat and thin images, in women with low to medium body mass indexes (Gao et al., 2013). effect on cognition and attention, but also, alters what women attend to and process. Research suggests that individuals whose self-esteem

contingent

appearance

display a social rejection bias when cued with

“If I fail to be thin, then I will be rejected” (Baldwin as an “if-then contingency,” which results in a social rejection bias, which is Issue X | December 2020

the tendency to

is a measure of attentional bias in which pairs of faces are presented together on a screen in 85

PSI neutral-neutral, smile-neutral, or frown-neutral

is important to study the effects of having an attentional bias towards rejection, as these

of the two faces, and participants are asked to

cognitive processes contribute to psychological

indicate the direction of the arrow using the up

vulnerabilities and lower self-esteem.

and down keys on the keyboard. Individuals who demonstrate a social rejection bias will have

Present Study

faster reaction times to valid trials (in which the

It is known that exposure to fat-shaming

probe replaces the frowning face) than invalid trials (in which the probe replaces the neutral

bias. It is also known that cuing failure in a selfworth contingency domain, elicits attentional

captured by the rejecting face and they will

biases in individuals whose self-esteem is

already be attending to the respective side of the what is unknown, is the effects of exposure to probe task begins with a cue word appearing on

fat-shaming messages on attentional biases.

the screen before the presentation of the faces. If the cue word is related to failure in a self-

fat and pro-thin messages may be internalized,

worth contingency domain, the participant will

altering cognitive processes and increasing

show an attentional bias towards the rejecting

body dissatisfaction.

of failure in the appearance domain, a result of being cued with the word obese, causes individuals to preferentially attend to rejection cues.

the effects on attentional bias of reading fattask. We hypothesized that individuals in the experimental

(fat-shaming)

condition

would

Negative attentional biases such as the

show greater obese-cued social rejection bias

social rejection bias could be mechanism that

compared to individuals in the control condition, who were exposed to elder-shaming content.

biases make negative social experiences more

Since it is known that exposure to fat-shaming

salient,and individuals are more likely to attend

messages increase implicit anti-fat bias, we expected this exposure to also have an effect on attentional biases (Ravary et al., 2019). We also hypothesized that individuals in the fat-shaming condition who scored higher on thinness

processing negative information may perpetuate

contingency items would show a greater obesecued social rejection bias than individuals who

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

scored lower on thinness contingency items.

condition. Individuals with a history of eating disorders, anxiety, and/or depression were

esteem is dependent upon thinness would be more strongly impacted by reminders of thinness

from a larger study to be published elsewhere.

failure (i.e. obesity) and therefore show greater

Measures

attentional biases towards rejection, especially

. Partic-

after being exposed to fat-shaming content in

ipants completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem

the experimental condition.

Questionnaire, a ten-item measure of positive

Our second aim was to determine the body

dissatisfaction

and

negative

affect.

and negative feelings and ideas about the self Items are answered using a four-point Likert

We hypothesized that individuals in the fatgreater

body dissatisfaction and negative affect than

ly-worded items were reversed, and the scores

individuals in the elder-shaming condition. We

were added together for a single measure.

shaming

condition

would

report

also hypothesized that individuals who scored higher on thinness contingency items would

internal consistency for the Rosenberg Self-Es-

remember a greater proportion of the fatParticipants lower on thinness contingency items. Individuals

completed academic competence and virtue

tend to preferentially process schema-congruent

items from the Contingencies of Self-Worth

information; therefore, we expected the fatpersonal value of the self-worth contingency domains. Items were answered on a

seven-

Hollon, 1990). competence domain score was calculated by

Methods Participants

which was a reversed negatively phrased item.

We recruited 278 women from the United via the participant recruitment service Mturk. condition and 134 participants in the control Issue X | December 2020

PSI domain score indicates greater value placed

task was completed on a computer. Participants were asked to sit 60 centimeters (or 24 inches)

internal consistency for the virtue and academic

from their computer screen. Each trial began with a cue word (obese, thin, moral, or immoral),

respectively.

which appeared in the middle of the screen

Embedded in the Contingencies of SelfWorth items were thinness contingency items

replaced by pairs of faces in neutral-neutral, neutral-smile, or neutral-frown combinations.

myself”, “When I feel that my body is thinner, I

screen for 500ms, were 4.5cm wide and 4.5cm

feel better about myself”, “My sense of self-worth

high and were 11.4cm apart at their centers. For each pair, the emotional face appeared in

“my self-esteem is unrelated to how I feel about

an equal number of trials on either side of the

the thinness of my body”. Internal consistency

screen. Participants were asked to indicate the direction of an arrow probe replacing one of the two faces using the up or down arrow keys

0.88. Participants in the experimental and each appeared on the screen for 7 seconds. Both conditions were shown 3 sarcastic, 3 neutral, and

participants pressed the up or down arrow keys. cue, face pairs, and validity. Figure 2 provides an example of a cued dot-probe task trial. Participants responded to Female celebrities mentioned in the fat-shaming

items related to state academics/career, body, weight, and morality satisfaction using a sliding

events had the greatest impact on increased implicit anti-fat biases (Ravary et al., 2019). and weight satisfaction items were combined were used in this study. Proportion of target . Participants read a story intended to provoke body image anxiety wherein they tried on a bathing suit that was too small for them, 88

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

in front of their friends who were all thin and

Results Pre-Measures

would feel if they were in this situation on three

Self-esteem was found to be correlated with

sliding scales of 0-100, ranging from relaxed to ashamed. Responses were combined into a global measure of negative affect. Participants were also asked to select, from several options, what they would likely do in this situation, such

of women. Self-esteem was found to be most strongly correlated with thinness contingency, as compared to academic or virtue contingency.

as “suggest another activity to my friends” or items collapsed across conditions

vignette can be found in the appendix.

Effects of Condition

Procedure Participants were asked to provide demographic Self-Esteem Questionnaire, as well as the thinness, academics, and virtue Contingencies randomly

assigned

experimental

We hypothesized participants in the fat-shaming condition who scored higher on thinness contingency to show a greater social rejection bias than participants who scored lower on

(fat-

shaming) or control (elder-shaming) conditions. Participants were asked to read and remember

effect of condition with thinness contingency

were then redirected to the cued dot-probe task. Following the dot-probe task, participants completed the satisfaction items, and read and to report their height and weight. Participants were then asked to recall the content of the

and provided with some background literature on the effects of fat-shaming on implicit attitudes

condition and thinness contingency on total regression model, we entered the main effect

of thinness contingency (centered), and the two-way interaction between condition and

and how the dot-probe task measures attentional biases. Issue X | December 2020

PSI the interaction effect indicated that participants high on thinness contingency showed a greater

downstream measures.

total rejection bias in the experimental (fatshaming) condition than in the control (elder-

Discussion

shaming) condition. Participants low on thinness

With the emphasis Western culture places on thinness as the ideal for women, and given that

interaction is displayed in Figure 3. affects women, it is not surprising that thinness contingency, we conducted linear regressions

contingency was highly correlated with self-

with condition and virtue or academic contingency

esteem for the women in this study (Cash, 2012;

condition and academic contingency on total

was also found to be closely related to emotional vulnerability and body dissatisfaction, which may indicate that it is the value that women place on

virtue contingency on total rejection bias was

thinness that is contributing to their increased body image insecurity and dissatisfaction. When an individual is threatened in a domain

thinness contingency on total rejection bias was

they strongly value, such as thinness, they will report greater negative affect and domain-

Downstream Measures main effect of condition on proportion of target experimental (fat-shaming) condition recalled

related dissatisfaction. Women internalize the themselves when they are threatened, such as Reid, 2009). It was found that exposure to fat-shaming

more salient or impactful than the elder-shaming

cued dot-probe task for participants who are high on thinness contingency in the experimental that when an individual whose self-esteem is dependent upon thinness is exposed to fatshaming content, they will automatically attend

condition on any of the downstream measures. 90

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

to the women in this study than elder-shaming which has found that reminding individuals of

content, likely as a result of the participants being

domain-relevant failure elicits a social rejection supports previous research which explains Baldwin, 2018). However, this effect was not

that individuals tend to preferentially process

found with academic or virtue contingency,

schema-congruent information. Weight-related information is more relevant to young women than elder-related information, so it is more

of an “if…then contingency”, the women in the experimental condition expected to be rejected if they failed in their thinness domain (i.e., being

Hollon, 1990).

fat), and preferentially attended to rejecting fat-shaming messages on social media platforms may be contributing to attentional biases among women, and their expectations that they will be be rejected by others. concern, as there is an increasing prevalence of the control (elder-shaming) condition showed

pro-thin and anti-fat messages on social media,

an inverse pattern. In the control condition,

meaning women may continue to be exposed

participants

contingency

to and internalize these messages, worsening

showed greater total rejection bias than those

their insecurity and altering attentional biases

low

thinness

who scored higher on thinness contingency. It is possible that women in this condition whose

We failed to support our hypothesis that

self-esteem was not dependent on thinness,

participants in the fat-shaming condition will

but instead on other contingencies such as

show a greater obese-cued rejection bias than

age, were cued to attend to rejection cues by

participants in the control condition. It is possible

unclear, as our study did not include a no-threat

made redundant when all participants were

control condition.

cued with obese in the cued dot-probe task.

Participants in the experimental condition

Since both conditions were exposed to thinness failure by being cued with obese, the effects of

individuals in the control condition recalled of

exposure to fat-shaming may have been lost.

imply that fat-shaming content is more salient

to support our hypothesis that individuals in

Issue X | December 2020

PSI the fat-shaming condition would report greater

content, had an effect on self-reported negative affect and body dissatisfaction for the women in

participants were cued with thinness failure, which may have triggered their body insecurity

this study. It may also be informative to look at the effects of exposure to pro-thin and anti-fat

exposure.

images on attentional biases in a cued dotprobe task, as there is an increasing prevalence

Limitations and Future Directions

of these images appearing on platforms such as

suggest directions for future research. Firstly, body

satisfaction,

weight

satisfaction

and

Conclusion

exposure and the cued dot-probe task. For the

effect of condition and thinness contingency

same reason as above, being cued with obese

on total rejection bias, where participants high on thinness contingency showed a greater total rejection bias after being exposed to

Future researchers are encouraged to measure

fat-shaming

content

the

experimental

condition, as compared to participants low on exposure but before the cued dot-probe task, in

thinness contingency. We also found thinness

order to see if exposure to fat-shaming or elder-

contingency to be highly correlated with self-

shaming messages had different effects on

esteem, body dissatisfaction, and negative

these measures, especially for individuals high

affect in response to threat. Finally, we found

on thinness contingency.

that participants recalled a greater proportion

Secondly, we did not control for previous exposure to fat-shaming messages on social be more salient than elder-shaming content. that participants may have been recently exposed to fat-shaming, and that the effects of

on thinness can have negative effects on body satisfaction and affect. It is also implicated

dissatisfaction were diminished.

that with exposure to fat-shaming content,

Future researchers are encouraged to include

thinness-contingent individuals will internalize

a no-threat control condition. It is possible that

these messages and automatically expect to

exposure to messages that are threatening

be rejected through an “if-then contingency”

towards female celebrities, regardless of the 92

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

in media presentation of fat-shaming content, and the knowledge that body image is integral to the female identity, it is important to study

doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894 worth.

the effects of exposure to these messages on -

self-esteem and interpersonal relationships may

org/10.1007/s00431-015-2487-7

Clabaugh et al., 2008).

graders.

(3),

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fects of body mass index and weight dissatisfaction on attention towards body shape photographs. im.2012.12.005

then” contingencies of interpersonal acceptance. (6), 1130–

Chen, H. (2011). Biases in orienting and mainte-

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PSI Appendix

nurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143916 cidence, and natural course of anorexia and bulimia nervosa among adolescents and young adults. (8), 903–918.

J. (2007). Body image and explicit and implicit anti-fat comparisons. org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.06.001 tors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. sbp.2003.31.3.215 it anti-fat attitudes.

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McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal

This is a valid trial, as the probe replaces the frowning face.

thinness contingency on total rejection bias, t(274)= 1.682, p= 0.094.

Issue X | December 2020

PSI

“Imagine you are in a car with four of your friends. It’s your birthday and they want to surprise you, so they don’t tell you the destination. At some point, you realize that they are taking you to the water park. You tell them that you don’t have a bathing suit, but they say not to worry because they packed an extra one for you. As you’re approaching the water park, you the bathing suit they brought for you. The friends you are with are all in really good shape and are much thinner than you. You wonder if it is even possible for you properly. Your mind starts racing and you begin considering if there is a way that you can get

out of putting this bathing suit on. At the same time, you don’t want to disappoint your friends by suggesting another activity because you know they have gone to great lengths to prepare this surprise for you. Finally, you arrive to the water park. Once in the changing rooms, you take the bathing suit they packed for you out of the bag. You can already tell that it looks much smaller than any bathing suit you own. friends you don’t want to wear it, so you reluctantly struggle to put to get the bathing suit on, you look at your body in the mirror

too small and tight. You suddenly feel really nervous to leave the changing room. You overhear your friends on the other side of the door, complimenting each other on their nice bathing suits imagine how good your thin friends must look in a bathing suit. You’ve taken so much time to put this bathing suit on that your friends start pressuring you to come out so that you can start having fun on all the cool rides at up the courage to come out of the changing room and face your friends.”

McGill Undergraduate Psychology Journal