Ancient Egypt
History and Culture
Map • Centered around the Nile
Geography • The Nile River Valley: – the only source of water – annual flooding from snow melt and rains in southern mountains – farmlands were covered for months – deposits of rich soil and nutrients – the silt or “black land” – vast areas of desert “red land” – farmers dug canals from the river to irrigate during growing season
Geography – deserts isolated Egyptians from other peoples – April to July extremely hot weather – the Nile rises from June to Oct – highest mid-July to mid-Oct – the Nile rises from June to Oct • highest mid-July to mid-Oct – floods 20 inches below or above ‘normal’ levels were catastrophic – fished year round
Geography – cattle grazed near the river when it was low, moved when high – cultivated barley, emmer wheat, beans, chickpeas, flax – river and delta (lotus flower - symbol regeneration of life) – Nile was the highway for travel and trade (until 19th cen.) – Cataracts, or steep rapids divide Egypt from the rest of the Nile
Map
Geography • Upper and Lower Egypt: – the Nile flows from the south to the Mediterranean – Upper Egypt is higher in elevation, although in the south – Lower Egypt is lower in elevation, although in the north – Lower Egypt is dominated by the delta region – Upper Egypt has a more mild climate, more rainfall – different dialects in Upper and Lower Egypt – King Menes (3100BC) united according to legend – Narmer Plate suggests King Narmer unified
History • Predynastic Period (late 6th-late 4th millennium B.C. – early agricultural communities to urban settlements – Upper similar to North African cultures – Lower more similar to western Asiatic
• Protodynastic Period (ca. 3300Ð3100 B.C.) – Lower Egypt increasingly influenced by Upper Egyptian culture, through trade, also cultural influences also from western Asia – unified gradually with the spread of a uniform material culture and a series of conflicts – Beginning of hieroglyphic writing – Few names of kings (Dynasty 0) known
History • ARCHAIC PERIOD (ca. 3100-2650 B.C.) – Dynasty 1and 2 – Egypt unified under the rule of one pharaoh (mythical name: Menes; historical figures: Narmer and Aha). – Capital at Memphis – mud-brick burial monuments of kings at Abydos – large tombs of officials at Saqqara – Trade with Canaan and Nubia • military raids into Nubia
Narmer Plate
History • Old Kingdom: 2575-2130 BC – Pharaohs ruled, viziers gave advice – Great Pyramids built
• First Intermediate Period: 2130-1938 BC – Disunity, chaos
• Middle Kingdom: 1938-1630 BC – Nile was not as predictable, farming harder – Rebellions and corruption common – Occupied parts of Nubia/Kush, increased contact and trade w/Mediterranean world
History • Second Intermediate Period: 1630-1539 BC – Hyskos invasions, adoption of Egyptian lifestyle
• New Kingdom: 1539-1075 BC – – – –
Empire streches from Syria to Tygris/Euphrates rivers Increased contact w/outside world Bury pharaohs in the Valley of the Kings Hatshepsut – female pharaoh 1472 BC • Not coregent, dressed as a man; gave power to stepson
– Amenhotep IV becomes Akhenaten, Armana Period 1380 BC – Rule of Ramses II 1279BC • Conquered Nubia – rich in gold, ivory, cattle, slaves
History • Third Intermediate Period: 1075-712 BC – North controlled by Pharoah, south by preist of Amun – Lybians settled in delta area, conflicts with Assyrians
• Late Period: 712-332 BC – Rule under the Nubians – Rule under the Assyrians – placed an Egyptian Pharaoh on throne – Rule under Persians
• Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt: 332 BC–395 BC – Rule under Alexander the Great – Rule under the Ptolemaic dynasties – Cleopatra and Ptolemy – Rule under the Romans – Caesar made a province
History • OLD KINGDOM (ca. 2650-2150 B.C.) – Dynasty 3; King Djoser’s step pyramid – Dynasty 4; Pyramids of Snefru, Meidum, Dahshur. Pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure built at Giza; The sphinx – Dynasty 5; Mastaba tombs for royal officials at Saqqara and Giza decorated with reliefs depicting scenes from daily life; Kings build pyramids (at Abusir) and sun temples; trade with the Levant (Byblos) in sea-going ships.
History – Dynasty 6; Pyramids of kings at Saqqara; burial chambers inscribed with spells (“pyramid texts”)
• FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 2150Ð2040 B.C.) – Dynasty 7 to early Dynasty 11; Weakening of central government, climatic change to more arid environment, Food shortages, rovinces struggle individually. Herakleopolis Magna in the north and Thebes in the south emerge as main centers of power.
History • MIDDLE KINGDOM (ca. 2040Ð1640 B.C.) – Late Dynasty 11; King Mentuhotep II of Upper Egypt reunites the country with capital at Thebes, resume monumental building projects – Dynasty 12; One of the great periods of Egyptian art and literature (“portraits” of kings and texts such as “The Story of Sinuhe”, “The Eloquent Peasant”, “wisdom texts”, etc.), first king, relocates capital to the north at El Lisht, lower Nubia conquered, important gods - Osiris and Amun, trade with Minoan Crete.
History – Dynasty 13; continues simialary to dynasty 12, position of kings weakened by very short reigns, Asiatic foreigners settle in eastern delta, trade with Canaan, Nubian forts are abandoned after middle of the dynasty. – Dynasty 14; local rulers in the delta rule at same time as rulers of late Dynasty 13.
History • SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 16401550 B.C.) – Dynasties 15 and 16; Western Asiatic kings gain power over most of Egypt, called “chiefs of foreign lands” (Hyksos), adopt the Egyptian title of pharaoh, usurp earlier monuments, and make contacts with the kingdom of Kerma in Nubia. – Dynasty 17; Ruling dynasty of Thebes at same time as Hyksos, acknowledge them as their overlords, but King Kamose starts movement to expel the Hyksos, Egyptian military power is based on horse-drawn chariots.
History • NEW KINGDOM (ca. 1550-1070 B.C.) – Dynasty 18; King Ahmose reconquers Memphis and destroys Avaris ending the Hyksos rule; Nubia becomes a colony; Hatshepsut, female pharoah, sponsors fine works of art and architecture; Egypt becomes an empire controlling large parts of the Near East as well as Nubia,time of a luxurious royal court • In the Amarna period Akhenaten and Nefertiti worship the Aten (light), distinctive art is created and literature reflects spoken language • Tutankhamun restores worship of traditional gods, no royal heir. Haremhab becomes the last king, names Ramesses I, first ruler of Dynasty 19.
History – Dynasty 19; Great era of temple building; Campaigns in the Near East against the Hittites; peace treaty made with Hittites in reign of Ramesses II. – Dynasty 20; Ramesses III repels the “sea peoples”; political decline and economic difficulties;Traditional time of the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt.
History • THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (ca. 1070Ð712 B.C.) – Dynasty 21; Egypt divided again - one dynasty rules in Nile Delta, sharing power with high priests of Amun at Thebes. – Dynasty 22-24; Egypt gradually further divided; Egypt’s international power wanes, loses control of Nubia; Private tombs more modest; high artistic quality maintained most notably in decoration of coffins and in metal casting and inlay.
History • LATE PERIOD (7th-4th century B.C.) – Dynasty 25; rulers from Nubia, revives Egyptian art and architecture: great funeral “palaces” of high officials in Thebes; individualized images of high officials and Kushite kings; Assyrians invade ending Kushite control of Egypt – Dynasty 26; Assyrians withdraw. Kings from the delta rule Egypt; Greek settlements grow in significance; role of Greek mercenaries in king’s army crucial; Important period of art: classicism and archaism.
History – Dynasty 27; Persians invade and rule Egypt – Dynasty 28-30; last native rulers repel Persians; Dynasty 30 is brief (380Ð343 B.C.) but important period for Egyptian assertion of identity; ‘Egyptian” architecture and art basic concepts established for centuries to come; Persians invade again in 343 B.C., initiating the Second Persian Period (sometimes called Dynasty 31).
History • PTOLEMAIC PERIOD (332Ð30 B.C.) – In 332 B.C. Egypt is conquered by Alexander the Great; upon his death, Greek general Ptolemy and his descendants rule; Important temples are built completely in Egyptian style
History • ROMAN PERIOD (30 B.C.Ð4th century A.D.) – Last Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII, and Antony defeated by Augustus Caesar in 30 B.C. Egypt conquered by Rome – Last great phase of temple building under Augustus; under rule of Roman emperors temples are still enlarged and decorated in Egyptian style, other art in Greco-Roman style – Last hieroglyphic inscription A.D. 394 at Philae sanctuary of Isis near Aswan
Gods Anubis: The jackal god of the dead Presides over weighing of the heart Mummified Osiris
Hathor: (Hat-Heru)
Mistress of heaven Cow-headed goddess Depicted with head or horns of cow
Horus: (Heru) God of the sky Depicted with head of a falcon Son of Osiris and Isis Protector of the reigning Pharaoh
Isis: (Aset) The ‘throne’ of Egypt Depicted with the hieroglyph ‘throne’ Wife of Osiris, mother of Horus
Gods Ma’at: Goddess of truth Personification of justice and purity Crowned with the feather of justice
Osiris: (Asar) King of the dead God of vegetation and regeneration Depicted as a mummy Judge in the Double Hall of Ma’at
Ra: (Re) Father of the gods God of the sun Depicted as a falcon with the sun as a crown
Gods Seth: (Set) God of Chaos and destruction Depicted as ‘aardvark’ headed god Brother to Osiris
Thoth: (Tahauti) The great measurer Moon god of wisdom and writing Depicted as ‘ibis’ headed god Often has scroll and pen Records all that happens
Gods
Symbols White Crown: This crown was worn by the Pharaohs and gods of Upper Egypt before the two lands were unified. Red Crown: This crown was worn by the Pharaohs and gods up Lower Egypt before the two lands were unified. Double Crown: Once Egypt was united under one Pharaoh they wore the double crown of upper and lower Egypt, combing the white and red crowns. Blue Crown: Later Pharaohs are also seen wearing the blue crown. It is typically associated with warefare.
Symbols Ankh: In the shape of a mirror or a knot, the ankh is a symbol of life. It was often carried by deities or people in a funeral procession, or offered to the king as the breath of life. Cartouche: A cartouche is an elliptical outline representing a length of rope that encloses the names of royal persons in hieroglyphs. It symbolized the pharaoh's status as ruler of all that the sun encircled. Crook and Flail: The crook and flail are two of the most prominent items in the royal regalia. Kings held them across their chest. The crook, in the shape of a shepherd's staff, is a scepter symbolizing government and that may be related to the concept of a good shepherd leading his flock.
Symbols Nemes: The head cloth pulled tight across the forehead and tied at the back, with two flaps hanging on the sides. Cobra (uraeus) and vulture heads were worn on the forehead. Gold: The Egyptian symbol for gold is a collar with beads along the lower edge. Gold has long been associated with the gods and royalty. This imperishable metal reflects the brilliance of the sun and the hope of eternal life. Lotus: The blue lotus was a symbol of the sun god and the pharaohs. The lotus thus became a symbol of rebirth, the renewal of life and the promise of everlasting life. Scarab: This beetle would lay it’s eggs in a ball of dung and roll it, which came to be associated with the sun being rolled across the sky. It represents the rising sun god, and the pharaohs.
Symbols Scepters: The was, a symbol of power and dominion, has a straight shaft, a crooked handle in the shape of an animal head and a forked base. The sekhem symbolizes divine power and has a straight shaft with an enlarged cylindrical end. Shen: The circular ring of shen represents the concept of eternity, having no beginning and no end. It is associated with the solar disk, the serpent that bites it’s tail, and divine birds are often seen carrying it. Uraeus: The rearing cobra was a symbol of Lower Egypt. It is a symbol of royal protection as it wards off the enemies of the royals and guides the way to the fields of eternal peace. Vulture: A symbol for Upper Egypt, Pharaohs wore a vulture on their head as a sign of royal protection.
Art • Balance and Symmetry: – – – – – – –
balanced forms and compositions clear outlines simplified shapes flat areas of color create order and clarity reflected permanent aspects of life, formal images people of less importance might be seen in an active state – scenes were arranged in horizontal rows called registers
Art • Measured Proportions: – artists used horizontal and vertical guidelines – proportions related to width of the palm – entire figure is 18 palms high (feet to hairline) – face is 2 palms high – shoulders are 16 palms from the bottom of image – elbows are aligned at 12 palms from the base – knees are drawn at 6 palms from the base
Art • Scale and stance: – size indicates relative importance – women keep their legs together – men’s legs are apart – shoulders are seen from the front – the torso and hips are seen in ¾ view – legs and arms are in profile – head is shown in profile – the eyes are shown to the front
Proportions • During most of Egypt history the proportions of the human figure were related to the width of the palm of the hand. The entire figure from feet to hairline is eighteen palms high (the top of the head not included); the face is two palms high. The shoulders are aligned at 16 palms from the base of the figure, the elbows align at 12 palms from the base and the knees at 6.
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The following are commonly used poses and gestures: – worshiping both arms extended forward with hands upraised – presenting, offering both arms extended forward with an object held in one or both palms – ready to receive offerings seated with one or both arms resting on one’s lap, palms down – summoning one arm extended forward with the palm open – protecting both arms extended out to the sides with the palms facing forward – rejoicing both arms extended out to the sides with palms turned away from the body – praising crouched on one knee, one arm raised and the other held against the chest with clenched fist – mourning arms raised with palms turned toward the face
Osiris Myth • Background: – Osiris and Set are brothers – Osiris becomes a great king and Set becomes jealous
• The Plot – Osiris has left Egypt to civilize other countries, Isis rules in his name while he’s gone – Set obtains measurements of his body – Set has a beautiful box made, with jewels and inlays – Osiris returns and attends a party Set throws – Set offers the beautiful box to whoever it fits – Osiris gets in, and Set nails the box (coffin) shut and throws it into the river
Osiris Myth • Isis grieves for Osiris: – Isis discovers what has happens and grieves – The coffin washed ashore in Byblos and a tamarisk tree encloses it within it’s trunk, growing huge – The king of Byblos cut the tree and used it in his palace – Isis hears about the tree, and travels to Byblos – Isis befriends the maidservants of the palace and becomes the nurse of one of the princes – Isis reveals herself and asks for the trunk and the coffin of Osiris
Osiris Myth • Isis returns to Egypt – She puts breaths life back into Osiris and conceives Horus – Set discovers this and steals the body while Isis is away – Set cuts the body into 14 pieces and scatters them through out Egypt (14 cities and temples were founded) – Isis returns, and goes to collect the parts of Osiris – Anubis takes the body and embalms it, wrapping it up (the first mummy)
• The revenge of Horus – Horus has grown to adulthood and seeks to avenge his father – Horus defeats Set and unifies Egypt
The Body and Death • The Body – Khet or Iru: form or appearance – the body in life – Khat: the body after death, corpse – Sah: the mummified body
• Parts of a person – Ka: the spirit or essence of a person, the double of the person – Ba: an individual’s distinctive manifestation – the non-physical attributes – Akh: fully resurrected and glorified form of the deceased in the afterlife – Name: "living" part, assigned at birth – Shadow: “living” part, has power and is capable of moving at great speed
• Life – Ka comes into existence at birth, serving as the double of the person – The ka is sustained through food and drink – The name of a person is assigned at birth and allows the individual to enter into existence
The Body and Death • Death – The dead travels to the hall of Maat – The heart (conscious) is weighed against the feather of Maat – If worthy, the dead meets Osiris and enters into The Fields of Peace, if unsuccessful they are devoured by the demon Ammut – The Ka is separated from the body and returns to the creator, living on after the body dies – The goal of the deceased is to rejoin the ka each day in order to live again – Food offerings kept the Ka alive, by absorbing the spirit of the food – The Ba rejoins the mummy and receive the power of rebirth each day, making the person an ‘effective being’
Book of the Dead • Background: – 1st day after death, the soul travels to the afterlife for judgment – the mummification process takes over 70 days – this time is used to finish up tombs, ect – Reu nu pert em hru or chapters coming forth by day was placed in most tombs by 1600 BC – varying qualities – could commission a nice one, or buy one ‘off the rack’ – not a bound book, but papyrus
Book of the Dead – ‘deceased’s guidebook to a happy afterlife’ – included passwords, clues, revealed routes so dead could find their way, answer questions, and navigate hazards
• Funeral Procession: – hired mourners, patting dirt on their heads – cow & calf for funeral feast – offering of food and drink for the ka – gathering of grave goods
Book of the Dead • Grave Goods: – – – – –
home furnishings – tables, chairs, etc funerary boat jewelry and amulets Shabtis – servants for the afterlife canopic jars
• Opening of the Eyes and Mouth: – restores mummy’s ability to see, eat, and breathe – mummy can recite spells and give commands
Book of the Dead • Judgment in the Hall of Double Ma’at: – – – –
Anubis at the Scales Ammut ready to eat the impure Thoth recording the findings feather of Ma’at on scale, Ma’at on top
• The Fields of Peace: – – – – – –
like Egypt, but better can become a khu can eat and drink can plow and reap the harvest can have relationships never in a state of servitude, always in power
Book of the Dead
The Art of Mummification • Overview: – entire process took over 70 days from beginning to end – priests had a very extensive knowledge of the human body – it wasn’t until the mid 1300 AD that autopsies became respectable
• Process: – first step is to remove the organs that decayed rapidly – the brain was removed by pulling pieces out through the nose – the heart was left in the body because it was believed to be the center of a person’s intelligence
The Art of Mummification • Canopic Jars: – the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver were preserved separately from the body – the four sons of Horus protected the organs – DUAMUTEF was the jackal headed god who protected the stomach – HAPY was the baboon headed god who protected the lungs – IMSETY was the human headed god who protected the liver – QEBEHSENUEF was the falcon headed god who protected the intestines
The Art of Mummification • Moisture Removal: – the body would be washed in a solution of natron – a naturally occurring salt – after the organs were removed, the body was dried with clean natron, filling the hollow body cavities – the drying of the body would take 35-40 days
• Prepping the Body: – after the body was dried, the natron would be replaced with fresh natron bags, soaked linen, and aromatic spices – the skull was also stuffed with linen – false eyes would be added (original eyes had sunk) – make-up would make the corpse look more life-like
The Art of Mummification • Wrapping the Body: – hundreds of yards of long, thin linen were used to wrap the body – fingers and toes would be wrapped individually, then as a foot/hand – amulets would be added between the wrappings for protection – the mummy was coated with warm resin several times – a final cloth was used to wrap the body as a whole – the wrapping process took about 15 days
Hieroglyphs • Scared writing: – – – –
Used to record information and administer the kingdom Called the writing of the gods, associated with Thoth Used to carve inscriptions on temples Lost literacy and the Rosetta Stone – 19th Cent. Jean Champollion – Written in horizontal lines or columns
Rosetta Stone
Hieroglyphs – Generally read from right to left – based on the orientation of human and animal figures (they face the beginning of the text) – Writing had ‘magical powers’ – wrote the name of the deceased on tombs and carvings so the gods would hear the prayers – Removing the name of a pharaoh was to forget them (as with Tutankhamen and Hatshepsut)
Daily Life: Trades and Crafts • Clay pots and baskets – – – –
mud from the Nile used to cook food containers for grains, water, wine, beer, flour, oils baskets were made from reeds or leaves of date palms
• Artisans: – – – –
superior to common laborers learned trade from ‘master’ did not typically sign pieces exceptional ability was rewarded through increased status
Daily Life: Trades and Crafts • Carpenters: – products include: roofing beams, furniture, statues – tools: saws, axes, chisels, adzes, wooden mallets, stone polishers, and bow drills – wood was scare and imported
• Stonemasons and Sculptors: – had to adhere to strict stylistic rules – stone was shaped and smoothed by masons using stone hammers – for bas-reliefs draftsmen outline images on the stone before a team of sculptors began carving then with copper chisels – stone vessels were made by shaping the stone with abrasives such as quartz sand – interiors were carved out using a crank-shaped drill
Daily Life: Trades and Crafts • Bead Making: – used semi-precious stones – drilled hole in bead after shaping
• Brick makers and potters: – used iqdou or Nile mud – brick makers mixed mud with sand – bricks were slapped into wooden molds and dried in the sun – potters mixed mug, cow dung, water and straw – exterior of vessels were covered with a red slip before firing
Daily Life: Trades and Crafts • Merchants and trade: – good years meant trading excess grain – barter system economy – stone weights were used to determine grain value
• Mistress of the House: – – – – – – – –
women could earn wages women could own property and employ workers main role was within the family equal with men before the law (could sue for damages or divorce) weaving perfume making baking needlework
Daily Life: Trades and Crafts • Transportation: – – – – – – – – –
the Nile was the ‘highway’ that joined the country didn’t travel by land until the 19th century watercraft had a high stern and bow by the New Kingdom, boats had cabins at both ends skiffs were made of papyrus reeds that were tied together wooden boats had square sails and oars boats could move easily along the Nile up to the 1st cataract wheel was likely introduced by the Hyksos copied horse-drawn chariots (used by royals only or for warfare)
Daily Life: Food • Flooding: – – – – – –
the river rises starting in July the low-lying plains are flooded on either side of the Nile the flood deposited soil rich in nutrients the river rose 27 feet on average 8 feet higher and villages flooded 8 feet lower meant too little soil, nutrients, and moisture
• Farming: – the flood plains supported a rich variety of plants and animals – most people were farmers – when the flood waters receded, farmers blocked canals used for irrigation – they used a shaduf to get more water from the Nile (this was a bucket on a pulley system)
Daily Life: Food • Animals: – livestock supplied meat, milk, hides and dung (for cooking fuel) – draft animals were used for farming – herdsmen and shepherds lived semi-nomadic pasturing their animals
• Food Staples: – principle crops were barley and emmer – main staples were beer and bread (barley bread was eaten or soaked in water and fermented for the beer) – grew a large variety of vegetables and fruits – fishing and domesticated animals (pigs, sheep, goats) supplemented the diet
Daily Life: Food • Hunting and Fishing: – Pharaohs and nobles went on hunting, fishing, and fowling expeditions – recreation and ritual significance – hunting showed the physical prowess of the Pharaoh – fishing allowed the poor to substitute for meat with they could not otherwise afford
Monumental Architecture • Mastabas – built on the west side of the Nile – burial chamber down a steep shaft below a flat surfaced stone building – filled with the luxuries of life
• Step Pyramid of Djoser (3rd Dynasty) – designed by Imhotep – the first Mastaba was square, not rectangular – Mastabas were stacked on top of each other, creating a step – 6 tiers in total
Evolution of pyramids
Monumental Architecture • Pyramids of Giza (3rd and 4th Dynasties) – the Great Pyramid of Khufu – Pyramids of Kafhre and Menkaura
• Bent Pyramid (4th Dynasty) – changes in angle from 52° to 43.5° – has two entrances – two chambers
Monumental Architecture
• Sphinx (4th Dynasty) – roughly 4,640 years old – originally commissioned by Kahpre – body 150 ft long (paws 50 ft long, head 30x14 ft) – paint residue suggests it was originally painted – the nose was shot off by Turkish target practice – beard has worn away – has been buried by the sand several times – erosion on the body has given the stone a wavy effect
Monumental Architecture • Valley of the Kings (New Kingdom) – on the west side of the Nile (the land of the dead) – tombs of kings, queens, and nobles – cut into the limestone of dried river bed – tombs were filled with luxuries of life – tomb of King Tutankhamen – discovered intact in 1922
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten • Rule: – 18th dynasty, ruled from 1352-1336 BC – Wives – Nefertiti, Merytaten, Kiya, Mekytaten, Ankhesenpaaten – Son/Nephew – Tutankhamen – Co-regent – Smenkhare? – coincides with disappearance of Nefertiti theory that Nefertiti was elevated as a Pharaoh with Akhenaten
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten • Reforms: – 16/17th year of rule – changes name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten – Priests of Amon-Re were powerful – Raise worship of the Aten – the disk of the sun – Movement of the capital to new site “untainted by other gods” Akhetaten (modern el-Amarna) – Reverts temples in Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis to the power of the throne, removes priest’s power – New form of worship – only Pharaoh and royal family can worship directly, the people worship through them – New temple style – an open area with a platform that Akhenaten would worship from, and the people would worship Akhenaten to worship the Aten
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten • Art Reform of the Amarna Period: – Replaced traditional idealized human form – Head is elongated and the body has excessive adiposity (wide hips, thin waist, almost womanish figure) – Emergence of ‘daily’ art of the royal family – Theories of deformity: hyperpituitary gland, growth dysfunction – Religious ideals – the pharaoh as the mother and father
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten • Removal from history: – Young Tutankhamen rises to throne – Strong aristocracy influences return to traditional religion – City of Akhetaten is deserted – people left in droves – Removal of name from temples – Turning of blocks with his name – Either left off ‘king lists’ or left as ‘he was a bad king’