ARCHITECTURAL AND CLIMATICAD APTATION OF JAPANESE RESIDENTIAL HOUSE BUILT IN OCCUPATION PERIOD IN TA by msc.exhibition2019

ARCHITECTURAL

AND CLIMATICAD APTATION OF

JAPANESE RESIDENTIAL HOUSE BUILT IN OCCUPATION PERIOD IN TAIPEI

Tingyu yu September 2019

University of Westminster, College of Design, Creative and Digital Industries School of of Architecture and Cities MSc Architecture and Environmental Design 2018/19 Sem 2&3 Thesis Project Module

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

TAIPEI KYOTO

Acknowledgements

This thesis would not completed without the suggestion, guidance, criticism and support of tutors, colleagues, family and friends. I wish to acknowledge the help of many in supporting this work. First of all, I thank Dr. Rosa Schiano Phan and Dr. Joana Carla Soares Gonรงalves for encouraging and guiding us with their extensive knowledge. In addition, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Benson Lau for being my tutor. When I encountered difficulties in the thesis, he always gave me a lot of feedback, not only providing professional advice but also helping me to establish logic and attitude towards research. Whether it is in substance or spiritual help, it really helps me greatly and benefit me a lot. His assistance and understanding of the literature work, the site investigation and the insights of environmental design laid a solid foundation for this research.

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I am very grateful for the advices from Amedeo Scofone, Mehrdad Borna , Juan Vallejo, and Kartik Rajput during the semester by delivering the considerable feedback and technical tutorial. Moreover, I sincerely thank Professor Lucky Tsaih, Professor Wei-Hwa Chiang and Professor Huey-Jiun Wang for giving me the advice about the literature work and the choice of site. Many individuals went to great lengths to allow me access and analyze Japanese residential houses. I should like to express my thanks to the staff members of Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian. In particular, Xin-qi Yang and Fang-ting Zhang helped me understand the current situation of the Japanese houses when I was unable to visit the site in person. In addition, the building drawings and photos are provided unselfishly. I am also indebted to my fellow architecture master students, Chia-fen Lee and Chia-yuan Chuo for helping me to do field research and measurement without my personal presence. Last but not the least, I want to thank all my friends and my family for spiritual support, encouragement and ideas that allow me to complete the study. I also want to thank all those who once helped this thesis.

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

TAIPEI KYOTO

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

Abstract Traditional buildings in various regions will produce different and unique architectural forms environmental design strategies under different climatic conditions. The colonized countries are left with the characteristic buildings of the colonial countries, but these buildings differed from the original traditional buildings due to the geographical and climatic diversity. Taiwan was colonized by Japan from 1895 to 1945. During the period of being colonized, in addition to public buildings such as government offices, banks or retail, Japan built a considerable amount of residential in Taiwan. Taipei is the capital of Taiwan and has preserved many Japanese residential in the colonial period. This study is a research-based thesis that investigates the adaptability of these Japanese-style residential buildings to the challenging architecture and the environmental conditions in Taipei. The humid subtropical climate is the climate characteristic of Taiwan. The city is characterized by relatively high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. This research will discuss the microclimate and cultural aspects of Japanese residential in Taipei and highlight the indoor comfort experience. Considering the actual environmental performance of Japanese residential, the fieldwork research will also be collected through the analysis of the architectural type and history between original traditional Japanese houses in Kyoto, which is used to be the capital city of Japan, and the Japanese houses in Taipei during the Japanese colonial period.

In addition, the purpose of this thesis is to understand the human comfort of Japanese environmental design strategies without mechanical ventilation, and the environmental adaptability of Japanese houses since the 1930s. To achieve this purpose, two Japanese residential houses in Taipei will be used for experimental work. The adaptability of Japanese traditional houses to the climate of Taipei will be analysed in depth. Through a variety of analysis to understand the environmental design approach suitable for Taiwan can be applied to existing architectural design. The research findings reveal that the solar control from well shaded building envelope, stack ventilation through floor plenum, selective cross ventilation and night cooling, and well managed aperture schedule control along with highly insulated construction with thermal mass can significantly lengthen the free running period throughout the year and enhance human comfort in contemporary residential buildings in Taiwan.

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Context 1.3 Hypothesis 1.4 Methodology 1.5 Summary of the results 1.6 Structure

2 historical background and literature review 2.1 Japanese occupation period

2.2 Observation on the characteristics of Japanese traditional residential houses

3 Context 3.1 Climate in Taipei and Kyoto 3.2 Traditional Japanese residential houses in Taiwan 3.3 Case study and selection criteria

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2.1.1 The development and characteristics of Japanese residential houses in Taiwan 2.1.2 Japanese official dormitory in Taiwan

3.3.1 Qingtian 76 3.3.2 Hehe Qingtian 3.3.3 Context differences between the 1930s and now

4 Japanese residential houses under observation 4.1 Limitations of the research 4.2 Monitoring equipment for quantitative analysis 4.3 Architectural language in Japanese residential houses 4.3.1 Building envelope of Japanese residential in Taiwan 4.3.2 Spatial sequence of Japanese residential in Taiwan

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5 Analytical analysis 5.1 Scope 5.2 Indoor comfort

6 Conclusion

5.2.1 Visual comfort of Japanese residential in Taiwan 5.2.2 Thermal comfort of Japanese residential in Taiwan

Bibliography Appendix

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

TAIPEI KYOTO

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

FIGURES AND TABLES Figure 2.1 The illustration of the Battle of Seonghwan. ( 成歓の戦い ) It was the first major land battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. (Source: By Toshikata Mizuno - Boston Museum of Art, Public Domain, https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1071988)

Figure 2.2 Raised foundation and ventilation window of Japanese residential (Qingtian 76) Figure 2.3 Engawa in Japanese residential house (Hehe Qingtian)

Figure 2.4 Genkan in Japanese residential house (Qingtian 76)

Figure 2.5 Tokonoma and tokowaki in Zashiki in Kyoto (Source: WU,Y.Y.) Figure 2.6 Shōji in Japanese residential house (Hehe Qingtian)

Figure 2.7 Traditional sliding doors in Japanese residential house (Source: Hehe Qingtian) Figure 2.8 The flexibility of space conversion (Source: Hehe Qingtian) Figure 2.9 Ranma in Japanese residential house (Qingtian 76) Figure 2.10 Permutations of Tatami Figure 2.11 Japanese courtyard in Kyoto. (Source: Toshiyuki Yano)

Figure 2.12 The courtyard in Qingtian 76 (Source: 休日行旅 ) Figure 3.1 East Asia map of Koppen climate classification

Figure 3.2 Monthly average climate data of Kyoto in 1960s (obtain from meteonorm, 2019) Figure 3.3 Wind rose of Kyoto Figure 3.4 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - 1960s (obtain from meteonorm, 2019) Figure 3.5 Wind rose of Taipei

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Figure 3.6 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - now (obtain from meteonorm, 2019) Figure 3.7 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - 2050 (obtain from meteonorm, 2019)

Figure 3.8 Sun path diagram of Kyoto (left) and Taipei (right) Figure 3.9 Tainan Criminal Affairs Office Dormitory (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.10 Wagoya and Yogoya structure (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 ) Figure 3.11 Traditional Japanese residential house https://bosidolot.com/2018/12/14/20-gorgeousjapanese-home-exterior-design-ideas-for-cozyliving-stay/traditional-japanese-exterior-housedesign-6/#dsgn Figure 3.12 Brick elevated foundation traditional Japanese residential house in Taiwan (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.13 Bay window of Japanese dormitory in Qidong Street, Taipei (Source: Taipei Film Commission) Figure 3.14 Ventilation window design in Japanese dormitory in Jiali District, Tainan (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 ) Figure 3.15 Ventilation window design in Yilan (left) and Tainan. (right) (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行) Figure 3.16 The octagonal window of a Japanese dormitory in Jinan Road, Taiwan. (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.17 Different types of Shitamiita in Japan, and the bottom diagram shows the Shitamiita with steel plate (green colour) in Taiwan. (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 ) Figure 3.18 Former Residence of Tzuchiu Kuo in Hualien, Taiwan. (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 ) Figure 3.19 The distribution of Japanese dormitories. Figure 3.20 Analyzed rooms in Qingtian 76 Figure 3.21 Layout of Qingtian 76

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Figure 3.22 Context differences of Qingtian 76

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Figure 3.23 Context differences of Hehe Qingtian Figure 3.24 Analyzed rooms in Hehe Qingtian

Figure 3.25 Layout of Hehe Qingtian

Figure 4.1 Instruments for measurements

Figure 4.2 Improved tile advertising during the Japanese occupation period (Source: Taiwan Architecture Association)

Figure 4.3 Shitamiita (right) and Komai kabe (left) Figure 4.4 Ventilation window at the elevated foundation in Hehe Qingtian which was not refurbished (Source: Department of Cultural Affairs, Taipei City Government)

Figure 4.5 Ventilation window and plants in Hehe Qingtian Figure 4.6 ShĹ?ji in the engawa in Hehe Qingtian Figure 4.7 Frosted window in the engawa in Qingtian 76 Figure 4.8 Louvre on the frosted window in Qingtian 76 Figure 4.9 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s (summer)

Figure 4.10 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Qingtian 76 in 2019 (summer) Figure 4.11 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s (summer)

Figure 4.12 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Hehe Qingtian in 2019 (summer) Figure 4.13 Thermal images of Qingtian 76

Figure 4.14 Thermal images of Hehe Qingtian

Figure 4.15 The route in Qingtian 76

Figure 4.16 The route in Hehe Qingtian Figure 4.17 The visibility graph of Qingtian 76 Figure 4.18 Illuminance of the route in Qingtian 76

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Figure 4.19 The visibility graph of Hehe Qingtian

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Figure 4.20 Illuminance of the route in Hehe Qingtian Figure 5.1 Daylight factor of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s

Figure 5.2 Daylight factor of Qingtian 76 in 2019 Figure 5.3 Comparisons of DF - Qingtian 76

Figure 5.4 Comparisons of UR - Qingtian 76 Figure 5.5 Daylight factor of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s Figure 5.6 Daylight factor of Hehe Qingtian in 2019 Figure 5.7 Comparisons of DF - Hehe Qingtian

Figure 5.8 Comparisons of UR - Hehe Qingtian Figure 5.9 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s Figure 5.10 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Qingtian 76 in 2019 Figure 5.11 Comparisons of UDI - Qingtian 76

Figure 5.12 Comparisons of UDI>50% area Qingtian 76 Figure 5.13 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s Figure 5.14 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Hehe Qingtian in 2019 Figure 5.15 Comparisons of UDI - Hehe Qingtian

Figure 5.16 Comparisons of UDI>50% area Hehe Qingtian Figure 5.17 Solar angle in Qingtian 76 Figure 5.18 Zashiki in the 1930s - Qingtian 76 (Taipei)

Figure 5.19 Zashiki in the 1930s - Qingtian 76 (Kyoto) Figure 5.20 Zashiki in 2019 - Qingtian 76

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Figure 5.21 Position of datalogger in zashiki Figure 5.22 Datalogger measurement in zashiki Qingtian 76

Figure 5.23 Datalogger measurement of Qingtian 76 in zashiki (one day) Figure 5.24 Datalogger measurement of Hehe Qingtian in zashiki (one day) Figure 5.25 Datalogger measurement in zashiki Hehe Qingtian

Figure 5.26 Environmental strategy of aperture schedule Figure 5.27 Zashiki with wall changed

Figure 5.28 Zashiki with roof changed Figure 5.29 Winter scenario - Qingtian 76 Figure 5.30 Winter scenario - Hehe Qingtian Figure 5.31 Zashiki with natural ventilation

Figure 5.32 Zashiki with shading extended and aperture schedule changed Figure 5.33 Environmental design strategies in Taiwan

Figure 6.1 Environmental design strategies in Taiwan (sketch)

Table 2.1 The distribution of senior officers residential and technical officers residential. Table 2.2 Residence Hall of Senior Officers Types Table 3.1 Sun angle of Kyoto (left) and Taipei (right) Table 5.1 Advantages and limitation of traditional materials in Taiwan and Japan

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

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1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background â&#x20AC;&#x153;The key question is this: climate change is now widely accepted as being a reality, so, is it a natural process in a sequence of climate changes that have occurred over the paleoclimatic record or is it being driven by humans? If we hold to the former view then all we can hope for is to adapt as best we can to the climate disruption. On the other hand, if we accept that it is largely human induced, then it follows that we ought to be able to do something about it.â&#x20AC;? (Smith, 2005) The rapid pace of climate change is beyond imagination, and humans have done a series of actions to survive on the planet. The issue of sustainable design began to be valued and regulated by governments of countries. Environmental issues such as global warming, the phenomenon of the baby, and the urban heat island effect are also major concerns for monuments and building preservation. Whether the building can adapt to the environmental changes and temperature rise after years of construction is worth exploring, especially old residential houses that have been living for a long time. Traditional architecture takes into account the style of a region. The preserved character of traditional architecture creates a sense of continuity and connection to the past, which helps the region maintain its traditional and historical sense. Beginning to expand colonies around the world and to try to trade with Eastern countries, the ancient civilizations of the East have been shrouded in the influence of Western imperialism or colonialism. As the last country to become a new imperialism, Japan is also one of the few countries in Asia that had a colony at the time. Taiwan and Penghu, a region that was colonized by Japan for 50 years. In 1894, a war in the Korean Peninsula, Liaodong, Shandong Peninsula and the Yellow Sea was called First Sino-Japanese War. The Qing dynasty was defeated and signed the "Malaysia Treaty" with Japan in 1895 to cede Taiwan and Penghu to Japan. Based on the needs of Japanese colonial rule, Taiwan gained a certain degree of modernization in infrastructure, educational facilities, public health, agriculture, and industry during the Japanese occupation period, but was Japaneseized in foreign economic relations.

In the 50 years of the Japanese occupation, the Japanese government has planned to improve the urban environment in Taiwan and built dozens of towns targeting modernization. Although in the construction of these cities and buildings, the Japanese adopted the prototype of the Western countries or its derivative, but in the sense, it goes far beyond the real construction. They have an impact on the future development of cities and buildings in Taiwan. The construction of the Japanese occupation period also includes infrastructure such as housing, and the dormitory of officials and teachers or professors is the main subject of this thesis. Taipei and Kyoto were the capitals and major political centers of the time, hence the two sites will serve as a city to study the climate adaptability of architecture. Taipei is classified in region Cfa which is humid subtropical climate according to the Koppen classification. The difference in climate humidity and winter temperature between both cities is significant. This study aims to explore the climate adaptability of Japanese residential to Taiwan and the environmental approach to adapt to the climate.

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1.2 Context On August 6 and August 9, 1945, the US military dropped atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. In the same year, Japan announced its surrender, which also symbolized the end of the World War II. After the Japanese government announced its surrender, the Korean peninsula, Vietnam, and Taiwan, which used to be regarded as important jurisdictions by Japan, also announced the termination of their relationship. The Japanese government, including officials and professors, returned to Japan after surrendering in Japan. After the Recession of Taiwan, a amount of public constructions were continued to be used, but some of the dormitories face abandonment. The "Old Houses Cultural Project" is an old houses restoration campaign that the Department of Cultural Affairs, Taipei City Government began planning and promoting in 2012. "These old houses are not of the historical level, but they are quite large and quite common. They are scattered in the streets and lanes of Taipei. It is a common memories of Taipei people." Wu Hanzhong, a member of the Old House Cultural Project, said that most of the property rights of these houses are public departments such as the State-owned Property Department, Bank of Taiwan, Taiwan Railways Administration, and Taiwan Power Company.

However, the inability to repair caused damage to the building, and the natural disasters such as typhoons or earthquakes accelerated the destruction, which invisibly became an ugly urban landscape.Under the promotion and subsidies of the government, many Japanese residences have been re-used and refurbished into commercial or exhibition spaces. Therefore, this thesis explores the function, use, climate adaptation and architectural performance as a residential building from Japan to Taiwan through existing Japanese residential houses in Taipei. As mentioned, a considerable number of Japanese residential houses in Taiwan were refurbished as commercial spaces such as restaurants, cafes or exhibition spaces. Since the purpose of this thesis is to study the architectural performance of the building as a residential, commercial use will not be considered. However, Japanese construction was preserved in commercial space, the number of people is usually limited in order to maintain its architectural quality. Changes in the property of space impose limitations on field work, hence digital simulations will become the primary practices of analysis with measured data and business hours will not be taken into account due to the use of mechanical ventilation.

1.3 Hypothesis In different regions, due to the diversity of cultural heritage, different architectures will be constructed, and the styles, materials, and layout will be greatly different. The traditional houses that were introduced during the Japanese occupation period were inhabited by the Japanese who came to Taiwan for work or life. Not only humans, but also the buildings need to adapt to the local climate and environment.

In the traditional architecture with the spirit of Japanese culture, different design strategies were added or changed to achieve human comfort. Due to different solar angles between seasons, the roof angle and dimensions were designed to block direct sunlight in summer and reduce heat gain on facade. In addition, the free layout offers more advantages of natural ventilation.

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

1.4 Methodology This study uses digital analysis to confirm the evidence provided by the literature review in order to achieve convincing results for architectural design caused by climate differences in Taipei and Kyoto. In order to validate the hypotheses mentioned, this study outlines the history of Japan and Taiwan, the cultural reflections of Japan on traditional architecture and the architectural changes that have been introduced to Taiwan. This research was supported by a series of precedents that support the hypothesis. For the field research, the Japanese dormitory in Taipei, Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian were selected as research objects. Taipei was the administrative center of the Japanese occupation period, and the number of officials and professors' quarters was also considerable. Since Qingtian Street was located in the university school district (Daan district now), the professors at that time invested in building their own houses to form a community. The area where high intellectuals gather and the houses they design are worth exploring the adaptability of Japanese houses to the environment and climate.

Fieldwork is carried out by preliminary physical surveys conducted in Japanese residential in Taipei based on dry bulb temperature (DBT), relative humidity (RH), illuminance and spatial sequence.Monitoring equipment are installed to conduct extensive research on the performance of Japanese residential houses in Taipei. The dataloggers were installed in seven indoor spaces and an outdoor courtyard, and the data loggers were used to record data for two weeks respectively. The data collected from the field work is used to process architectural environment in digital software such as Ladybug and honeybee plugins and TAS. Field work was carried out for one month from May to June. Short-term on-site research does not fully represent the architectural performance of the whole year, hence the performance of Japanese residential is speculated by software analysis. The study reviewed the environmental strategies in Taipei through an optimization of indoor comfort.

1.5 Summary of the results The purpose of this thesis is to study the architectural design changes and performance of Japanese residential houses in Taipei and to determine the environmental approach by which they achieved indoor human comfort. This will help to make new recommendations to designers during the design of wet subtropical climate homes. Learning through historic architectural performance will help to present new suggestions to architects in the residential design of wet subtropical climate. Field investigations have shown that the temperature of the roof is higher than other surface temperatures, and the results of digital analysis of solar radiation can be used to understand the importance of roofing materials, i.e. shading systems.

In addition, in the data logger measurements, it is shown that the indoor temperature is lower than the outdoor temperature in a specific few hours. In the case of closing the window, the hot air can be prevented from entering. It is presumed that the control of aperture schedule in different seasons can achieve natural ventilation and increase the free running time of the building.

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1.6 Structure The three main sections will be shown in this study: ・Literature Review ・Site investigation ・Digital Analysis Literature review is related to the background and changes in research work, hence it is divided into two parts. Chapter 2 includes the historical background between Taiwan and Japan, the development of Japanese architecture in Taiwan during the Japanese occupation period, as well as the design, culture and spirit of traditional Japanese residential houses. The differences between the climate in Kyoto and Taipei that lead to different environmental strategies are illustrated in Chapter 3. In addition, the main research object is to introduce two Japanese residential houses in Taipei, Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian. The history and layout of the two Japanese buildings will be explained, and the surrounding environment will change from the Japanese occupation period to the present.

The second part is the major study of the Japanese residential houses. Field research and related digital studies including the spot measurements and data logger measurements are discussed in Chapter 4 to understand the architectural performance of Japanese houses. Analytical analysis is demonstrated in Chapter 5, which deals with the analysis and prediction of long-term thermal comfort performance in the Japanese residential. Environmental strategies that are favorable to the climate in Taiwan are defined through the optimization of building models.

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HISTORY BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2 HISTORY BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Japanese occupation period In 1894, a war which broke out in the Korean Peninsula, Liaodong, Shandong Peninsula and the Yellow Sea called First Sino-Japanese War. The cause of the war was the sovereignty struggle between China and Japan for the Korean peninsula. The Qing Empire was defeated and signed the "Treaty of Shimonoseki" (Treaty of Bakan) with Japan in 1895, and Taiwan and Penghu were ceded to Japan.

Figure 2.1 The illustration of the Battle of Seonghwan. ( 成歓の戦い ) It was the first major land battle of the First SinoJapanese War. (Source: Toshikata Mizuno - Boston Museum of Art, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=1071988)

During the Meiji Restoration, Japan not only learned various political and legal systems from the West, but also learned a series of new urban and architectural concepts and techniques. Japan introduced the Western concept into Taiwan, on the other hand, a sense of political authority of constructions was created through the Western styles that are more majestic than traditional Taiwanese architecture. As a result, almost all government-related institutions in Taiwan during the Japanese occupation period adopted the Western style, while the urban planning basically in accordance with the Western cities. Therefore, in the architectural style of the Japanese occupation period, there were Western historical styles and Japanese styles derived from Japanese traditions. In addition to both, there was a combination of Western historical styles and traditional styles. The buildings in the Japanese occupation period were divided into government offices, school institutions, commercial buildings, religious buildings, and residential houses. This thesis focuses on residential houses during the Japanese occupation period.

2.1.1 The development and characteristics of Japanese residential houses in Taiwan Japan occupied Taiwan in 1945, and Taiwan was Japan's first overseas colony. For the Japanese, it is the best place to show the power of the country and also a test place for policy. At the beginning of the Japanese occupation period, the Japanese were unfamiliar with the local brick and clay houses. Therefore, a large amount of Japanese local residential were introduced into Taiwan, and eventually they were not able to compete with the local climate, earthquakes and pests. The policy and system were greatly changed in 1898 (Meiji 31) after Goto Shinpei served as the civil affairs chief. In 1900, the Taiwan residential building rules were enacted to establish residential scales, floor heights, and materials. After the amendments of the decree in 1907, the significant impacts on residential in Taiwan are as follows: ・It is required to have a floor height of at least 60 cm and a ventilation window (hole) for ventilation and cleaning. It has affected the characteristics of the raised floor of Japanese houses in Taiwan.

Figure 2.2 Raised foundation and ventilation window of Japanese residential (Qingtian 76)

・The height of the ceiling and residential should be kept above 360cm. ・Encourage the construction of foundations with stone or brick. (see Figure 2.) ・Lighting, drainage and sanitation need to be taken seriously.

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2.1.2 Japanese official dormitory in Taiwan There are a considerable number of Japanese-style residences in Taiwan that are occupied by officials or faculty. Taiwan Governorgeneral's Office enacted a decree on the design and construction of official dormitories. The regulations enacted in 1905 specify the type of rating for official residential standards. Table 2.1 shows the residential level and area of the official residences between senior officers and technical officers. (Kuo, 2003) In addition, the residence halls of senior officers are divided into four different types of residences by occupational position. (Xianji, 2007) From thenceforth, the high raised floor in Shoin-zukuri residences has become the standard design of Japanese houses in Taiwan. Shitami and black roof tiles are prominent features of building facade. Because of the natural disasters such as termites, typhoons, and earthquakes in Taiwan, the impact of these disasters on buildings was improved by Japan. In the experiment and research of technicians, the most influential termite issue for wooden buildings is to use cement or bricks at the foundation of the residential to alleviate the problem.In addition, the Japanese like to live in a space with a large window opening. However, since the large opening space is easy to introduce too much sunlight, which causes the glare issue, the indoor comfort is increased by widening the engawa and emphasizing ventilation.

Adjusting architectural design to adapt to the climate in Taiwan can be seen as a localization with its particularity and importance. Through the preserved Japanese residences in Taiwan, not only the evolution of technology can be seen, but also the innovative designs under cultural and environmental differences.

Table 2.1 The distribution of senior officers residential and technical officers residential.

Table 2.2 Residence Hall of Senior Officers Types

2.2 Observation on the characteristics of Japanese traditional residential houses The Japanese people have respect for nature and the simple cultural spirit, which makes them have the admiration and persistence of nature for the traditional architecture such as residential houses, shrines, monasteries and castles. This feature has enabled Japan to maintain its distinctive characteristics while constantly importing foreign cultures. The loyalty and integration of nature is its consistent pursuit of residential architecture. (RCC Group, 2015) esidential architecture. (RCC Group, 2015) The first significant feature of Japanese traditional residential buildings is the one-room design, which is the freedom of space layout. The structure of a Japanese houses is simple.

It consists of only three parts: the floor, the columns and the roof. It can be said that there are basically no walls, all open, and naturally constructed as if they had only one indoor space. In this situation, the change of internal space, the connection between internal and external space is completed by a series of transitional spaces. The transition space has certain necessity in Japanese architecture mainly due to its function. Japanese traditional houses have their internal order, such as an altar at home and an alcove decorated with artwork, which allows the Japanese to perform activities in the inner dwelling with the characteristics of activities in the outer space.

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These characteristics make the activities of the Japanese in the internal space with the characteristics of activities carried out in the external space. Architecture space, such as indoors or courtyards, has certain functional requirements. However, if the psychological feelings of people are taken as the main subject, the function of some spaces is rather vague. For example, the front yard at the entrance can be used as the outer space of the house, but as far as the entire site is concerned, it becomes its internal space. In terms of function, it is not only used as a place to enjoy flowers or relax, but also as a transition space to welcome guests. The transition space reflects the concept of internal and external space of traditional Japanese houses, and fully satisfies the needs of varied modern life. It is one of the main elements of Japanese residences, and it is also an organic connection to strengthen the indoor and outdoor space to avoid chaos. The transitional space affects people's emotions and achieves a space of spiritual pleasure and natural transformation from space to space. Engawa is the most typical transitional space in traditional houses in southern Japan. It refers to a part of the corridor around the building that raises the foundation. The width is about 0.35m-0.5m, which is similar to the winding corridor in Chinese architecture. From the perspective of architecture, most of Japan's buildings originate from residential buildings and should have various characteristics such as connection between indoor and outdoor. In the style of Japanese architecture that is peaceful, beautiful, and simple, the "Engawa" plays a decisive role. In addition to details, decoration and materials, Japanese houses is largely based on the “shoe-free space” called “Tatami”. This interesting space dominates the orientation and mobility of indoor and outdoor space. Through the observation of the engawa, it can also be seen that the traditional Japanese residential houses are basically an open configuration. Although the form and space are simple, the role of the transformation of the indoor and outdoor space can be seen as the essence of the spatial connection. Considering that it may be wet by rain, some traditional houses use a modern material such as glass to seal the engawa. Moreover, the materials used are natural materials such as bamboo and wood. When the weather is hot, it can be seen the sweaty footprint on the engawa. During the movement from interior to the engawa, the feeling of the person in the process will be different.

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If the sliding door is opened, the outdoor scenery will be seen through the corridor. In terms of human psychological feelings, this visual movement can be seen as the feeling of the Japanese pursuing a space of penetration and extension.

Figure 2.3 Engawa in Japanese residential house (Hehe Qingtian)

Genkan is the typical transitional space with the most Japanese national characteristics. Genkan in the traditional Japanese houses refers to the place where the shoes, caps and coats are taken from the outside into the house. Japanese traditional residential styles are endless, and the layout of the space are different as well, but there is no such thing as a house without a genkan. In the past, genkan was used as a symbol of authority and status, and its spatial change was also different with the status of the owner. Genkan provided a good display for the diversity and change of the residential houses. The design of the genkan is closely related to the Japanese lifestyle. People need to take off their shoes when they enter the house. They cannot bring the outdoor dirt into the room, and they pay attention to the cleanliness of the floor. The formation of this space is directly related to the Japanese's emphasis on self-cleanness and the purity of the soul. Genkan is composed of front yard, a semi-outdoor eaves and a drawing room at the entrance. It can be seen that the genkan is not a single space, but a series of ordered spaces. (see Figure 2.4) Entrance to the house from outside must pass through the genka, and the host will stand in the genkan to welcome the guests.

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In terms of functions, the clothes of guests, such as bags, shoes and umbrellas, can be placed in the cabinets in the genkan, and the guests can take things when they leave. The Japanese habit of paying attention to etiquette is fully demonstrated in this characteristic space of the genkan.

Figure 2.4 Genkan in Japanese residential house (Qingtian 76)

Also known as tokonoma, Zashiki is the most advanced and paramount space in the home, serving as the main bedroom or a place to receive important guests. Some Japanese houses have extra space to form a room called Tsuginoma, which is also known as the anteroom or adjoining/ next room. It is usually located next to zashiki and is often used as a bedroom. It is located in the deepest part of the home and faces the courtyard, engawa is on its outside. Not only is the daylight and ventilation well, but it is also located in the best position of the site and the view of courtyard can be directly seen. In Japanese dormitories in Taiwan, zashiki is often used as a place for activities and a bedroom for homeowners. In addition to the above functions, it is also used as a general living room or dining space in a space-limited residential. It is the main room with the most functions and activities in a Japanese house. Zashiki has a certain composition and design, including tokonoma, tokowaki, syoin, and the floor is composed of tatami. In Japanese residences, zashiki has become a feature of Japanese residences. Its attention to materials and style have shown the taste and demeanor, and the spirit of Japanese residences. Tokonoma usually occupies 180 cm in length and 90 cm in depth, which is the size of one tatami;

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tokowaki also maintains the same dimension on the other side. Tokonoma will be designed on the side close to engawa and the courtyard, while tokowaki is on the inside, designed according to the orientation of the zashiki. There are several statements about the origin of tokonoma, including the paintings of Buddha and Chinese treasures, as well as the space that represents the nobles. Either way, it means its nobleness in the zashiki. After the development of Zen and Japanese tea ceremony, the decoration and hospitality of tokonoma have been strengthened. In Japanese houses, flowers and scroll painting are used to match the theme, and the furnishings are changed according to different seasons. In addition, the constituent elements of tokowaki are chigaidana, tenbukuro, jibukuro, and chinkiguri. The chigaidana, which is the shelfs designed to be different in height at the tokowaki and diverse collections are displayed. Tenbukuro and jibukuro are cabinets for storage. There is an upright wood column called tokobashira between tokonoma and tokowaki. The materials will use the rare or ancient wood to express the elegance and taste of the house owner. Chinkiguri is a 40 to 60 cm hole at the tokowaki behind the tokobashira for the purpose of daylighting.

Figure 2.5 Tokonoma and tokowaki in Zashiki in Kyoto (Source: WU,Y.Y.)

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In the hot and humid environment of southern Japan, traditional houses are equipped with Japanese-style wooden doors and windows. Shōji is a door, window or room divider consisting of a translucent paper called washi (Japanese paper) on wooden frame that holds the lattice of wood or bamboo together. This way the interior can naturally ventilated. The light leaves a projection on the wall, and this feeling can even be touched. Due to the transparency of the shovel, the penetration between the inner and outer spaces is transformed through it, and the expression of the space is extremely diverse. It is precisely because of the shōji, light-transparent but opaque building components that cultivate the aesthetics of the Japanese. The sliding door is divided into shōji and fusuma, which are light-transparent and opaque sliding doors, and the tracks above and below the doors are called kamoi and shikii, collectively called tatagu. Shōji represents the boundary between indoor and outdoor; while fusuma represents the separation of different spaces in the room. (see Figure 2.6) The space in Japanese residences is characterized by the flexibility of space conversion. After the fusuma is removed, the space can be enlarged to be used for different purposes. (see Figure 2.7) Ranma is a woodcarving decoration above Kamoi, often patterned with flowers and birds. The original function is to achieve natural ventilation and daylighting between the two rooms when the fusuma is closed, but with the popularity of air conditioning, the ranma is either blocked or removed. (see Figure 2.8 & 2.9)

Figure 2.6 Shōji in Japanese residential house (Hehe Qingtian)

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Figure 2.7 Traditional sliding doors in Japanese residential house (Source: Hehe Qingtian)

Figure 2.8 The flexibility of space conversion (Source: Hehe Qingtian)

Figure 2.9 Ranma in Japanese residential house (Qingtian 76)

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In Japanese-style residences, tatami is very distinctive. It can be said that the mention of tatami will naturally associate with the Japanese residential culture. The Japanese have a culture of sitting on the floor. Therefore, when the western living style was introduced to Japan, it had a great impact on the Japanese living space. The use of chairs in the residential houses or the preservation of the original way of living caused controversy. However, for not only a representative of Japanese living space, but also a microcosm of Japanese living habits. Since the tatami room is not suitable for wearing shoes, it is necessary to take off the shoes at the genkan. The Japanese people’s daily life is on the tatami floor, so the concept of cleanness is also affected by this lifestyle. In addition, the furniture design is also designed to fit on the tatami floor. The term tatami is derived from the verb tatamu ( 畳む ), meaning to fold or pile. Its size is about 180cm * 90cm. The material of tatami is straw (soft rush straw or rice straw), and the advantage is that it can be used as insulation and is more suitable for Japanese. Due to the humid climate in Taiwan, tatami is not easy to preserve. The size of tatami traditionally differs between regions in Japan: (Wikipedia, 2019)

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The courtyard is the essence of traditional oriental architecture. The inner courtyard is an indispensable part of the Japanese houses and is always connected to the residential design. In the courtyards of southern Japan, the plants and flowers planted are different from those in the northern area. In a sense, the inner courtyard should be the design category of the outer space, but for the "joined space" of the entire building and site, it should also have the nature of the interior space. Therefore, the inner courtyard is a transition space connecting the indoor space and the outside of the site. The flowers and trees in the inner courtyard of the southern Japanese houses are mostly dark green and trimmed neatly. Under the influence of Zen1 and Japanese tea ceremony 2, try to avoid gorgeous colors and objects, especially flowers and trees with bright colours are rarely used. Japanese courtyard is characterized by a small area but exquisite and unique location. In the Japanese residences’ courtyard in Taiwan, in addition to the traditional Japanese landscape, it can also be seen the use of local tree species like coconut palm, Chinese Banyan, Osmanthus fragrans and bamboo. (see Figure 2.) 25

Figure 2.11 Japanese courtyard in Kyoto. (Source: Toshiyuki Yano) Figure 2.10 Permutations of Tatami

・Kyoto: 0.955 m by 1.91 m, called Kyōma ( 京間 ) tatami ・Nagoya: 0.91 m by 1.82 m, called Ainoma ( 合の間 , lit. "in-between" size) tatami ・Tokyo: 0.88 m by 1.76 m, called Edoma ( 江戸間 ) or Kantōma ( 関東間 ) tatami

Figure 2.12 The courtyard in Qingtian 76 (Source: 休日行旅 )

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The second feature is its perfect application and love for natural materials, especially wood. Japanese houses are almost all wood structures, from elevated foundation to facade, doors and windows, and roof trusses are made of wood. Japanese construction materials pay great attention to the characteristics of materials, emphasize their natural characteristics, appreciate a simple and pure beauty, and are unique in the exploration of spirituality in nature and in the performance of material properties. This feature reflects the Japanese's pursuit of the beauty of nature. In the Japanese residences, the original materials, texture, and color of the materials are fully utilized. There are many kinds of ancient houses in Japan, such as the Shinden zukuri3 for the noble residents, Shoin-zukuri4 developed by the samurai residences, and the tea room dedicated to the Japanese tea ceremony. No matter which type of residences, it shows the distinctive national aesthetic characteristics, which is mainly reflected in the small space of the architecture, but its design is meticulous, simple and humane, and the naturalness of materials and structure is fully presented. The ancient culture of Japan is practically the culture of wood and paper, and the paper itself is made of wood. Compared with the majestic and solemn characteristics embodied in Western architecture with stone as the main building material, the Japanese classical architecture with wood structure as the main material shows the transparent and natural Zen aesthetic. The third is the concise decoration. The beauty of a Japanese house gives a very concise feeling. The beauty of the building is mainly coordinated and complete in proportion to the whole, rather than by decoration. Therefore, the natural form of the building material is maintained, and the material parts are not painted to maintain the original colour and texture. This is in contrast to the colourful and meticulously crafted ornaments in traditional Chinese architecture. The house has a geometric module that shows the spirit of Japanese rigorous and responsible. The Japanese are more eager to adapt and reconcile. Since plants do not survive in an individual way, they can only survive by adapting to species. Therefore, Japanese architecture must coordinate with other buildings around it and coexist with the environment. The interior of Japanese houses is rarely decorated. The distinctive features of the interior are clear lines. The dark blue border of tatami outlines the geometric shape of the floor.

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The columns and beams that reveal the wood texture are also straight lines. Curves are rarely used in space division, and there are few decorative patterns on the shĹ?ji. This makes the house look elegant and pure with a geometric pattern. The final feature of Japanese houses is that the concept of Zen has penetrated into the architectural design and is reflected in many aspects. The aesthetics of Zen have a far-reaching and wide-ranging influence on Japan, especially in residential buildings. Both ancient and modern Zen aesthetics have been shown to the fullest. The aesthetics of this kind of architecture is also concentrated in nature, simplicity, and silence. The simple structure and interior furnishings of Japanese-style residences are in line with this argument. The emptiness is created by the Japanese nation under the influence of its inherent natural conditions, natural views, and Zen. The ancient Japanese people who are natural, simple and industrious advocate nature, are good at using natural materials, and are faithful to the nature of materials. Abandon the gorgeous and bright materials piled up, intricately decorated and artificial traces. Moreover, the internal space and external space of residential buildings are deliberately blurred to give a harmonious integration of the building itself and the environment, and to create a sense of integration between human and nature. The concept of arbitrariness is one of the basic ideas of Zen as well. The flexible Japanese residential houses allow for a wide variety of space possibilities by using only simple open and close sliding doors (shĹ?ji) as the boundaries of space to reflect the arbitrariness of Japanese life philosophy.

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27 1

Zen is the Japanese variant of Chan Buddhism, a Mahayana school that strongly emphasizes dhyana, the meditative training of awareness and equanimity. This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one's true nature, or the emptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to a liberated way of living. (Wikipedia, 2019) 2

Tea ceremony (chadō/ 茶道 / さどう , ちゃどう ), originated in China, and later spread to Japan. It is a traditional Japanese art that promotes leisure activities to the level of spiritual consciousness and becomes a unique traditional etiquette. Japanese tea ceremony is a tea service for guests, originating from China. It is a ritual of tea, which the Japanese call chanoyu ( 茶湯、茶の湯 ) Tea gatherings are classified as an informal tea gathering chakai ( 茶会 , tea gathering) and a formal tea gathering chaji ( 茶事 , tea event). (Wikipedia, 2019) 3

Shinden-zukuri ( 寝殿造 ) refers to the style of domestic architecture developed for palatial or aristocratic mansions built in Heian-kyō ( 平安京 , today's Kyoto) in the Heian period (794–1185), especially in 10th century Japan. (Wikipedia, 2019) 4

Shoin-zukuri ( 書院造 ) is a style of Japanese residential architecture used in the mansions of the military, temple guest halls, and Zen abbot's quarters of the Azuchi– Momoyama (1568–1600) and Edo periods (1600–1868). It forms the basis of today's traditional-style Japanese house. Characteristics of the shoin-zukuri development were the incorporation of square posts and floors completely covered with tatami.

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3 CONTEXT Taipei is the capital of Taiwan and the largest metropolitan area as well. As chapter 2, in 1895, the Qing dynasty 5 was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War 6, and Taiwan and Penghu were ceded to Japan. Taipei City is regarded as the political center of Japan's administration. The terrain of Taipei is a basin. Located in the northern part of Taiwan, the Taipei Basin is a flat alluvial plain. The east and south sides of the basin are the Western Foothills, the Tatun volcano group in the north and the Linkou table land in the west. (Teng, 2006) Kyoto is one of the oldest cities in Japan. After the capital was built in 794, it has maintained its status as a capital for thousands of years. Although the royal family decided to move the capital from Kyoto to Tokyo after the Meiji Restoration, many significant ceremonies were held in Kyoto. Therefore, the climate data of Kyoto during the Japanese occupation period is used as an example to compare with Taipei. Most of urban areas in Kyoto are located within the Kyoto Basin, which has created an environment in Kyoto that is surrounded by mountains in addition to the south side. Surrounded by sloping mountains, the Kyoto Basin is an inland basin formed by active faults. The terrain and altitude lead to hot summers and cold winters. Both cities are basins and surrounded by mountains. According to the Koppen classification, Kyoto and Taipei are both classified in region Cfa which is humid subtropical climate. (see Figure 3.1)

The Japanese occupation period was from 1895 to 1945, and the complete climate data can only be traced back to the 1960s, which is a relatively inaccurate part of this research. However, according to Lu et al (2012), during the period from 1911 to 2009, the temperature in Taipei increased by 1.4 °C, and the rate of warming is equivalent to an increase of 0.14 ° C every 10 years. It can be inferred that the temperature variation from Japanese occupation period (1895-1945) to the 1960s is not significant. Figure 3.2 shows the climate of Kyoto in 1960s, the average summer temperature is in the comfort zone, however, the low temperature in winter is below the comfort zone. During the winter which is from December to March, the average DBT is around 3 -7°C, and during summer from June to September, the average DBT is around 22 -27°C. Influenced by the garden city movement 7 at the time, the courtyard is an indispensable outdoor space in Japanese residences. Regarding the courtyard, the mild typical temperatures in mid-seasons (average DBT is from 7.6-27.8°C) throughout the year render the courtyard habitable in case wind blockers and appropriate clothing are used. The average temperature in winter (4.4°C in January) may needs to prevent heat loss issue. The monthly average relative humidity is considerably even through the year, featuring values between 69.4% from April to August and 70.9% from November to January. The annual rainfall is 1586 mm total with 143 rainy days and more than 59mm rainfall per month. Continued rainfall, which accounts for nearly 40% of the year, may adversely affect the occupancy of the courtyard. In winter, the wind direction is northwest (NW), and the average wind speed is 1.58 m/s. (see Figure 3.3)

Monthly Average Climate Data

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CONTEXT

3.1 Climate in Taipei and Kyoto

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Figure 3.1 East Asia map of Koppen climate classification

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ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 80% acceptability ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 90% acceptability

Figure 3.2 Monthly average climate data of Kyoto - 1960s (obtain from meteonorm, 2019)

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Figure 3.3 Wind rose of Kyoto (1960s)

Figure 3.5 Wind rose of Taipei (1960s)

Figure 3.4 illustrates the monthly average climate data for Taipei in the 1960s. The summer in Taipei is hot and uncomfortable; however, it is windy and partly cloudy in winter and humid throughout the year. During winters from December to March, the average DBT is around 15-17°C, and during summer from June to September, the average DBT is around 2528°C. The annual average temperature ranges from 15.55°C to 28.37°C, except for the slight sweltering discomfort in summer. Compared with Kyoto, the temperature changes throughout the year are relatively stable. The monthly average relative humidity is considerably even through the year, featuring values between 88.3% from April to August and 84.7% from November to January. The difference in relative humidity between the two cities can be up to 20%, which affects the thermal comfort of the indoor space, and may not be conducive to evaporative heat dissipation during the summer. Furthermore, the annual rainfall is 1721 mm total with 155 rainy days and more than 59mm rainfall per month. Continued rainfall may adversely affect the occupancy and activities of the courtyard. In summer, the wind direction is south-west (SW), and the average wind speed is 5.03 m/s. It can be seen that the average wind velocity in Taipei is significantly higher than in Kyoto. (see Figure 3.5)

According to current climate data from Taipei, the average DBT in winter from December to March is 16-19 °C, which is 1 °C higher than in the 1960s. Summer DBT (27-29°C) is 2°C higher from June to September. The phenomenon of higher temperatures in summer may be caused by climate change and the urban heat island effect in the cities. The annual average relative humidity was 75.83%, which was 10.94% lower than the 86.77% in the 1960s. Although the relative humidity reduction can increase the indoor comfort, it still may cause overheating issue in summer due to the overall temperature rises. In terms of horizontal global radiation, the values have not increased from the past to the present, and the annual monthly average is 3.69 kW/m2. The annual precipitation increased from 1721.2 mm in the 1960s to 2228.1 mm. The increase in rainfall may affect outdoor activities in the courtyard. The annual average wind speed decreased by 2.71 to 2.32m/s compared to the 1960s. (see Figure 3.6)

5 The last dynasty in Chinese history. 6 A war was initiated by Japan on the Korean Peninsula, Liaodong, Shandong Peninsula and the Yellow Sea in 1894. 7

It is an urban planning concept initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom to encircle human communities in areas of fields or gardens to balance the proportion of residential, industrial and agricultural areas.

Monthly Average Climate Data

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ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 80% acceptability ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 90% acceptability

Figure 3.4 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - 1960s (obtain from meteonorm, 2019)

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ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 80% acceptability ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 90% acceptability

Figure 3.6 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - now (obtain from meteonorm, 2019)

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2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

CONTEXT

For the future scenario A2 of 2050 (IPCC, 2000), the DBT will increase slightly and the peak day will be from 35.8 to 36°C in summer. The temperature difference between now and 2050 scenario is not significant. The increase of average wind speed from 2.32m/s to 5.02m/ s. The annual precipitation also decreased from 2228.1 mm to 1700.5 mm. In the future we have to expect lower precipitation, which means more extreme weather conditions. (see Figure 3.7)

From the above climatic data and analysis, it can be seen that although both cities are basins and are classified in same region Cfa, there are significant differences in winter dry bulb temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity. Furthermore, the angle and temperature of the sun also cause different performances due to the geographical location. Figure 3.8 and table 3.1 demonstrate the sun path diagram and sun angle of Taipei and Kyoto. The sun angle in Taipei is higher than Kyoto, and the temperature as well. This may lead to the issue of overheating in summer in Taipei. High temperature not only affects outdoor activities, but also reduces indoor comfort.

Monthly Average Climate Data

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ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 80% acceptability ASHRAE-55 Adpative Comfort 90% acceptability

Figure 3.7 Monthly average climate data of Taipei - 2050 (obtain from meteonorm, 2019)

Table 3.1 Sun angle of Kyoto (left) and Taipei (right) Summer solstice

Equinox

Winter solstice

61° 73° 38°

44° 53° 26°

25° 29° 8°

Figure 3.8 Sun path diagram of Kyoto (left) and Taipei (right)

9:00 12:00 15:00

Summer solstice

Equinox

Winter solstice

50° 88° 49°

39° 65° 41°

25° 42° 24°

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3.2 Traditional Japanese residential houses in Taiwan Differences in design strategies can be caused by climate discrepancy or cultural differences between Kyoto and Taipei. When the Japanese introduced traditional architecture to Taiwan, the environmental design strategies were changed to adapt to the climate in Taiwan. Yoshihiro (2019), a Japanese architect who recorded Japanese traditional architecture in Taiwan and described some differences in design from Japan. Regarding environmental design, Taiwanese Japanese architecture with different characteristics from Japan will be demonstrate: Semi-detached Giyōfū architecture are often seen in Taiwan. (see Figure 3.9) Most of these houses are Japanese style (Japonesque) and the Giyōfū architecture for residences is rare in Japan, but these residences can be seen in cities such as Tainan, Pingtung and Hualien in Taiwan.

Figure 3.10 Wagoya and Yogoya structure (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.11 Traditional Japanese residential house

Figure 3.9 Tainan Criminal Affairs Office Dormitory (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Yogoya is a type of traditional roof structure which usually designed in Western-style buildings. It is generally used in large-scale buildings in Japan, however, it is seen in smallscale houses as well in Taiwan. Yogoya type is superior in structure to Wagoya type, but the material processing at the edge is troublesome. From the popularity and popularity of Yogoya structure in Taiwan, it can be known that the circulation system that can be easily solved at the time of processing has been perfected in the early days of the Japanese occupation period, and this kind of reasonable design ideas have also spread throughout the island. Figure 3.11 shows the facade of a traditional Japanese residential house. The elevated foundation is an important feature of Japanese houses and the construction materials are usually made of wood or stone.

Wood construction buildings in Japan generally have a height of 45 cm from the ground level to the floor level. However, Taiwan has increased the height to approximately 60 cm. In this hot and humid climate, termite insect pests are a serious issue. Therefore, the design of the raised floor to ensure ventilation and durability has developed this elevated foundation. As wood is easily damaged by moisture or insects in Taiwan, some Japanese-style buildings in Taiwan have changed material that is replaced by local material, which is brick, to become the foundation material of the building. (see Figure 3.12)

Giyōfū architecture ( 擬洋風建築 Giyōfū-kenchiku, "pseudo-Western-style architecture") was a style of Japanese architecture which outwardly resembled Western-style construction but relied on traditional Japanese techniques. It flourished during the early Meiji period, and disappeared as knowledge of Western techniques became more widespread.

CONTEXT

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Figure 3.12 Brick elevated foundation traditional Japanese residential house in Taiwan (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

The bay window designed at the corner is a distinctive feature of Giyōfū architecture9 in Taiwan. In order to ensure the good daylight, the bay windows have developed with the window sills for the function of the storage and which makes the room visually spacious. To achieve this window design, the courtyard becomes an indispensable outdoor space and was required to have a wider land area. The idea is from Sir Ebenezer Howard's garden city movement, which is specified by the dimension of the residential courtyard. During the Taishō era10, a certain level of upper-class residences ensured ample land area and large bay windows, which also led to popularity and became a feature of Japanese residential houses in Taiwan.

Figure 3.14 Ventilation window design in Japanese dormitory in Jiali District, Tainan, Taiwan (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.15 Ventilation window design in Yilan (above) and Tainan. (below) (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.13 Bay window of Japanese dormitory in Qidong Street, Taipei (Source: Taipei Film Commission)

The ventilation window in the shaded area right under the bay window (see Figure 3.14) or beneath the roof (see Figure 3.15) not only for ventilation, but also for the better stack effect. This design is extremely rare in Japan.

Giyōfū architecture (Japanese: ぎようふうけんちく ) is a building that appeared in Japan in the early Meiji era. This building has a shape from a Western building, but at the same time it blends Western and Japanese styles, sometimes with Chinese style. 10 Taishō era ( 大正 ) is a period in the history of Japan dating from 30 July 1912 to 25 December 1926, coinciding with the reign of the Emperor Taishō. 11

A hip-and-gable roof construction ( 入母屋 . 歇山造 ), or a building with this roof construction in Japan. A gable type roof has a ridge and gable pediments on the upper part and a hipped roof on the four sides on the lower part. This roof style was introduced from China at the same time as Buddhism in the mid 6c. (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System, 2001)

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In Japan, Irimoya-zukuri roof11 is different from Tsumairi-zukuri roof12 and Yosemune-zukuri roof 13. Irimoya-zukuri roof usually will not be used in the design of the Western-style house. However, the frequency of use in the Westernstyle house in Taiwan is high and the ratio of the roof is different from that in Japan. The roof angle and the depth of the eaves are similar to those of traditional houses in Laos or Thailand. In addition, round windows or octagonal windows will also be designed in the Westernstyle house in Japan, but it can be seen more frequently in Taiwan. Such windows are often designed in some small-scale wooden train stations or main entrances of residential to express status or leave a strong impression.

The characteristics of Japanese architecture in Taiwan that different from Japanese traditional architectural design are listed in the above narrative. These designs, which are rarely seen in Japan, are functional designs developed in response to the distinctive climate of Taiwan. In fact, modern architecture in Japan was also the effect of climate adaptation, such as balcony and colonial styles were popular in Japan that were influenced by Asia, Africa and the United States. Architecture based on colonial country architecture, which were built due to different material and climate adaptations, were prominently displayed in Taiwan. It has been seen that many Japanese architectures have become local attractions or have been renovated into restaurants, cafes or tea houses to continue the life of the buildings.

33 Figure 3.16 The octagonal window of a Japanese dormitory in Jinan Road, Taiwan. (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Different from the Japanese design (see Figure 3.17),the method of covering the edge of the Nankin shitami 14 with the steel plate is designed in the Japanese residential houses in Taiwan to prevent rain erosion. (see Figure 3.18) 12

Tsumairi or Tsumairi-zukuri ( 妻入 . 妻入造 ) is a Japanese traditional architectural structure where the building has its main entrance on one or both of the gabled sides ( 妻 tsuma). The kasuga-zukuri, taisha-zukuri, and sumiyoshi-zukuri Shinto architectural styles all belong to this type. 13

Figure 3.17 Different types of Shitamiita in Japan, and the bottom diagram shows the Shitamiita with steel plate (green colour) in Taiwan (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

Figure 3.18 Former Residential of Tzuchiu Kuo in Hualien, Taiwan. (Source: 台灣日式建築紀行 )

The roof descends from the ridge munagi 棟木 , in four directions: the front and back are trapezoidal in shape, and the ends are triangular. Hence there are four corner descending ridges. The hipped roof was thought to mark a building of less importance than a gabled roof kirizuma yane 切妻屋根 . In China, it was used for the most prestigious buildings, unlike Japan which preferred the hip-andgable roof irimoya yane 入母屋屋根 , for its most important buildings. Yosemune-zukuri is used for vernacular dwellings minka 民家 , as well as for temples or shrines. Roofing materials include tiles, shingles, thatch, copper sheeting etc. (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System, 2001) 14

Shitamiita ( 下見板したみ - いた ) is the layers of the wooden board which are overlapped and are placed on the main structure such as columns and beams in accordance with the drainage direction to constitute the external wall.

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CONTEXT

3.3 Case study and selection criteria As mentioned, Japan has done a lot of construction in Taiwan, including public institutions and residences, and dormitories for professors and officials. This research will explore the Japanese residential for professors in Taipei for fieldwork and analysis. Taipei was chosen as the site for this study because of the ruling policy of the Qing Dynasty during the Japanese occupation period, which used Taipei as its capital. Many major constructions have been established in Taipei, including the presidential palace, the highest level of educational institution, and many other important institutions. At that time, the construction of the residences was provided to Japanese officers and professors. Japanese residences around Taiwan University in Daan District were selected, and most of the houses were funded by professors at the time.

Figure 3.19 illustrates the shows the distribution of Japanese dormitories in Zhongzheng District, Zhongshan District and Da'an District, Taipei. (Graduate institute of building & planning, 2014) In addition, many of these Japanese dormitories which retained from the past to the present have been damaged and broken. In order to preserve the historical buildings, the method of refurbishing them into commercial spaces like restaurants, cafes or exhibition spaces is becoming more and more popular. The two squares of deep red in last diagram will be the case studies of measurement and analysis of this thesis called Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian. They were respectively refurbished into a restaurant and a tea house.

Japanese residential houses Analysed residential

Qingtian 76 Hehe Qingtian

Figure 3.19 The distribution of Japanese dormitories.

3.3.1 Qingtian 76 Qingtian 76 covers an area of approximately 680 m2, which was built in 1931 by Professor Adachi 15 . From 1945 to 2007, Professor Ma, Ting Ying H. 16 , a scholar at National Taiwan University, lived in this dormitory. In addition, in 1947, Bangyuan Qi, who came to Taiwan from Shanghai and served as a teaching assistant at the National Taiwan University Department of Foreign Languages, once lived here. On May 2, 2006, Qingtian 76 was announced by the Taipei City Government and officially became a city monument designated. It was named "National Taiwan University Japanese Dormitory - Former Residential of Ma, Ting Ying H." In 2010, Golden seeds Education Organisation officially took over the operation and maintenance of this dormitory.

It opened in June 2011 and was named "Qingtian 76" to open the public to visit, hold free guided tours, series of lectures, and provide catering services.

Adachi, Masashi was born in Hokkaido, Japan in 1897. He is academically committed to soil microbiology research and contributes to the development of sugar agriculture in Taiwan. 16

Ma Tingying was born in 1899 and is a famous geologist, paleontologist and marine geologist. He has been studying rigorously throughout his life, and his research work has spread all over the world.

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Figure 3.21 shows the layout of Qingtian 76. Basically, the layout and configuration have not been changed since the 1930s. In order to adapt to the climate in Taiwan and to take advantage of the space suitable for living in Japanese houses, and incorporate the advantages of Western-style architecture. The western style space includes the ousetsuma (drawing room), the dining room, and the study are all designed on the north side, which is the outer side; the space with Japanese style is on the south side. Although it has been through the years, it still retains the architectural features of both Western and Japanese style. A traditional Japanese house can be divided into public space, private space, service space and transition space. It can be seen that the public and private spaces are clearly separated in Qingtian 76. It can be classified as a middle corridor type from the layout of Qingtian 76. The corridor extending from the genkan connects to ousetsuma, which is the public space in the residential house to entertain guests, and is designed to provide the shortest path for guests next to the entrance. This is a Western-style room designed for the Westernization policy, and it also represents status for social activities. The path along the corridor is followed by syokudo (dining room), syosai (study), kodomo-beya (childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s room) and finally to zashiki. It can be seen that the sequence of spaces starting from the genkan to the zashiki is from public space to private space. The service space is usually designed in a location with poor conditions of the site, which is the west side in Taiwan. Especially in the afternoon, the solar radiation at west facade accumulated from the morning is very high and faces the direct sunlight. Therefore, in the west of the building design, it is regarded as the worst orientation in the site. In figure 3.21 can be seen the service spaces that related to water and fire including the benjyo (toilet), the jyocyushitsu (maidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s room), the daidokoro (kitchen), and the furo (bathroom) are designed in the west. The conservatory was originally used for rest or sunbathing, and now is a semi-outdoor dining space. The roof was made by transparent glass that allows sunlight to enter the space, and such a design method was novel at that time. The conservatory is connected to the kitchen space of the restaurant, which was a swimming pool in the 1930s and a translucent roof can be seen in the picture that was later built. In addition, the engawa faces the courtyard is the transition space between indoor and outdoor, which is an indispensable private leisure space for daily life.

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Analyzed room

Figure 3.20 Analyzed rooms in Qingtian 76

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CONTEXT

Built in 1931 SITE 681 m2 BUILDING 132.2 m2

Benjyo (Toilet)

Genkan (Entrance) b f

Jyocyushitsu (Maid's room) b

Daidokoro (Kitchen)

Furo (bathroom)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room

Syokudo (Dining room) c

Engawa (Corridor)

Conservatory c

Swimmin

The pool was re Ma's family lived

d Figure 3.21 Layout of Qingtian 76

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Service space Transition space Multiple fuction space

m) 37 Syosai (Study)

ng pool

Kodomo-beya (Children's room)

Zashiki (Tatami room) g

Tsuginoma (anteroom)

emoved when d in the house.

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CONTEXT

1930s

2019

Figure 3.22 Context differences of Qingtian 76

1930s Figure 3.23 Context differences of Hehe Qingtian

2019

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3.3.2 Hehe Qingtian This old residential house which built in the 1930s has been listed as a historical building. The owner was a Japanese professor at the National Taiwan University and the first geography textbook editor in Taiwan called Sanji Ryujiro. After he and his family returned to Japan, the house was sold to Taiwan Electric Power Co., Ltd., and became the assets of Taiwan Power Company in 1946. At that time, many major national energy policies used this building as a secret conference space. After more than ten years of ruin, the tea house was awarded the tenancy qualification by the tea merchant "Baifu Tibetan Warehouse". After a year and a half of renovation, the tea culture space â&#x20AC;&#x153;Hehe Qingtianâ&#x20AC;? was reborn. (Chen, 2017) From the layout of Hehe Qingtian (see Figure 3.25), it can be seen as a bilateral corridor type which originated from the middle corridor type. The corridor is set on both sides, enclosing the rooms (usually the zashiki) in the middle for the purpose of ventilation. Similar to Qingtian 76, the genkan is directly connected to the ousetsuma where the guests are received, and the service space is designed on the west side. The zashiki faces the courtyard and is located on the south side, which is the best position in the site.

However, the biggest difference between the two cases is the configuration of the zashiki and tsuginoma, which affects the overall architectural experience. Hehe Qingtian is a traditional Japanese with open and free layout, and the zashiki can be seen when entering the entrance. Moreover, the function of engawa in Hehe Qingtian is not just corridor, it can also be a space depending on the needs of the user. In the floor plan, the overlap of the service space and the transition space can be seen. Zashiki was used as a place for negotiation and information exchange in the era of many wars. It can be seen that the importance of this space has now evolved into a space for receiving important guests, which can be seen in the layout of Hehe Qingtian. The guest reception area is not only the western-style ousetsuma, but also the zashiki. The zashiki in Qingtian 76 is located at the deepest position of the circulation to show its emphasis on privacy. The designers who can be seen in the two cases are different in the depth of the westernization. The house was abandoned and the courtyard was dilapidated at the time, and the process of repairing was carried out in an effort not to damage the original building and materials. Analyzed room

3.3.3 Context differences between the 1930s and 2019 Since the main purpose of this thesis is to explore the adaptability of Japanese residential houses to the environment and climate in Taipei, the architectural performance of both residential during the Japanese occupation period, which was the 1930s (the houses just constructed) and until now 2019, will be explored in later chapters. Figure 3.22 and 3.23 shows the surrounding buildings and environment of Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s and now. Since there is no definitive information for the surrounding buildings of the 1930s, the context now is used as a basis and the floor height are all set to one floor. Figure 3.24 Analyzed rooms in Hehe Qingtian

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Built in1930 SITE 468 m2 BUILDING 140 m2

Syos (Stud

Benjyo (Toilet)

Tsug (ant

Daidokoro (Kitchen) b

c Figure 3.25 Layout of Hehe Qingtian

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Service space Transition space Multiple fuction space

Genkan (Entrance)

sai dy)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room)

a d

ginoma teroom)

Zashiki (Tatami room)

Engawa (Corridor)

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4 Japanese residential houses under observation From Japanese architecture that have been introduced to communities that have been funded by scholars, the characteristics of Japanese residences form different architectural languages based on regions and cultures. As mentioned in Chapter 3, there are significant differences in the climate between Kyoto and Taipei. Therefore, Japanese architecture can be seen in some environmental practices designed to adapt to the climate in Taiwan. The performance resulting from these design strategies needs to be explored by simulation and analysis.

A number of researches has been conducted on the design, structure, or materials of Japanese residential in Taiwan, but the results of actual architectural performance are few. This prompted the author to study bioclimatic and social culture through case studies of Japanese houses.

4.1 Limitations of the research There were three main limitations with the research. ・The distance between the study location of the researcher and the case study site. Despite this, in May to June 2019, the author's colleagues were invited to visit Qingtian 76 and Hetian Qingtian for fieldwork, but due to limited time on site visits, she had to rely on information collected within a specific time frame. ・As Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian are refurbished as a restaurant and a teahouse respectively with the number of people controlled, the business hours are still busy. Fieldwork was a challenge due to commercial activities within the houses. The data loggers are placed in locations that are not accessible to costumers. This is done to avoid tampering and damage to the equipment.

・The data was recorded for two weeks in two cases, and the two-week study of the weather was neutral to warm days. According to the description of staff, air conditioners will be operated during business hours, which will limit the research on passive design. It is now used as a commercial space, but this study aims to explore the performance of functions as a residential. However, computer simulations can still be used to predict behavior and comfort in Japanese homes.

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4.2 Monitoring equipment for quantitative analysis Temperature is a physical quantity that indicates the degree of heat and cold. Air temperature is a measure of the heat or cold of the air. Temperature describes the kinetic energy or energy of motion of the gas that makes up the air. The rapid movement of gas molecules causes the temperature to rise. (Fondriest Environmental, 2010) However, the temperature is variable depending on factors such as humidity, air speed, solar radiation and sky coverage. Tinytag Ultra 2 (a) is a data logger can accurately and reliably monitor temperature, humidity, and other environmental parameters. It can be used both indoors and outdoors. The temperature of data logger ranging from -40 to +85°C using a built-in sensor. This accurate and reliable unit has a lightweight, splashproof design and is primarily suited to indoor monitoring. However, it can be used outdoors with appropriate protection.

Ambient weather WM-5 (b) is a vane anemometer and a thermo-hygrometer that allows temperature, relative humidity and wind speed to be measured according to a specific location. It can measure temperatures up to 40 ° C and wind speeds up to 40 m / s with an optimum wind speed accuracy of ± 3%. Extech EA33 (c) is a lux meter with wide measurement range to 99,990Fc (999,900 Lux) with resolution of 0.001Fc and 0.01Lux. FLIR C2 (d) is a full-featured, pocketsized thermal camera designed for a wide range of building and electrical/mechanical applications.

(a) Data logger

(b) vane anemometer + thermo-hygrometer

(d) Thermal camera

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4.3 Architectural language in Japanese residential houses This section deals with the cultural background and design techniques of Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian, and conducts research through architectural drawings and measured data. The main purpose of this analysis is to evaluate the performance of the space from the perspective of previous users.

4.3.1 Building envelope of Japanese residential in Taiwan Both Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian are based on shoin-zukuri style with designerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s insight which composed of black roof tiles and shitamiita from the envelope. The stacking method of the roof tiles is based on the wooden strips, and hang the tiles then fixed. In the use of materials, there are cement tiles in addition to clay tiles. Since the 1920s, cement tiles have been produced in large quantities in Japan and have affected the use of building materials in Taiwan. Many factories produced black tiles made by smoking or salt burning, while increasing fire and water resistance. The black tile also gives the impression and association that the roof tile of Japanese residential are black. The construction of the shitamiita is constructed by placing the entire strip horizontally and then overlapping. Its waterproof function together with the komai kabe of the bamboo-covered wall to construct the external wall. Komai kabe is a traditional wattle and daub wall made of coarse mud plaster and straw.

Figure 4.3 Shitamiita (right) and Komai kabe (left)

Figure 4.2 Improved tile advertising during the Japanese occupation period (Source: Taiwan Architecture Association)

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Both Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian use cement as material for the elevated foundation at the north side. It reflects the policy of promoting the use of termite resistant materials at that time. In addition, the ventilation windows are designed to protect against moisture. (see Figure 2.2 & 4.4) A large number of plants will be planted near the ventilation window to allow cool air to enter the room for better stack effect. (see Figure 4.5) However, the cultural background differences and ingenuity of the designer can be seen in many architectural details. In terms of the design of the windows, both of them have foreignstyle windows in the ousetsuma. Japanese shĹ?ji and fusuma can be seen in Hehe Qingtian on the engawa and other rooms (see Figure 4.6), but the window types of Qingtian 76 are mostly frosted glass. (see Figure 4.7)

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In addition, a layer of louvre can be seen on the exterior window of Qingtian 76, which is a design that traditional Japanese houses will not be seen. (see Figure 4.8) This architectural performance can be inferred to be related to the influence of the designer's experience in studying in Germany. The use of louvre blinds allows for more efficient light control to achieve good daylight indoor. Frosted window in Qingtian 76 and shoji in Hehe Qingtian are also designed to transmit and diffuse light.

Figure 4.4 Ventilation window at the elevated foundation in Hehe Qingtian which was not refurbished (Source: Department of Cultural Affairs, Taipei City Government)

Figure 4.5 Ventilation window and plants in Hehe Qingtian

Figure 4.6 ShĹ?ji in the engawa in Hehe Qingtian

Figure 4.7 Frosted window in the engawa in Qingtian 76

Figure 4.8 Louvre on the frosted window in Qingtian 76

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The design of the window and the roof shading (see Figure 4.8) can be seen as an environmental approach to adapting to the climate in Taipei at the time. In order to further verify that the environmental strategies on facade was adapted to the climate in Taipei to alleviate the summer overheating problem, the solar irradiation analysis of the facade was simulated. Figure 4.9 demonstrates whole year average hourly solar irradiation analysis on facade of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the summer overheating was not only at the period of Japanese occupation, but also the main problem in Taipei until now. Therefore, the solar irradiation in summer which is the worst case is displayed. The equinox and winter hourly solar irradiation result can be found in appendix. It can be seen that the value of solar radiation on the west facade in the 1930s is the highest compared to other orientation. However, most of the area average solar irradiation is between 105-120 Wh/m2, which is acceptable. The average hourly solar irradiation at east facade is lower than the west facade. For south and north facade, some areas of them even got 0 Wh/m2 in the summer. It can be speculated that the roof designed in response to the sun angle of Taiwan at that time achieved certain results in providing shade.

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Compared with the context in the 1930s, the surrounding buildings are now much higher and affect the average hourly solar radiation in 2019. (see Figure 4.10) As illustrated in figure 3.22, the west side of Qingtian 76 is now a sevenstory building, which in turn affects significantly the solar irradiation value of the west side. However, the value 0 Wh/m2 obtained on a large area in the west facade is not an unacceptable result. The west facade in Taiwan is prone to overheating issue in summer, and the occlusion of surrounding building has somewhat alleviated this problem. Through the results obtained in the 1930s and now, it can be found that the commonality of both is that the roof receives more than average 150 Wh/m2 throughout the year. Furthermore, in the east of the site, it is also a preserved Japanese residential house. In the case where the context has not changed, the difference in the facades of the two periods is not significant. This can be inferred that the Japanese design for Taiwan's climate and environment in the 1930s emphasized well shading and the importance of roofing material selection.

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EAST

47 WEST

SOUTH

NORTH

Figure 4.9 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s (summer)

Figure 4.10 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Qingtian 76 in 2019 (summer)

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Figure 4.11 shows whole year average hourly solar irradiation analysis on facade of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s. It can be seen that the design for the westward shade is more important than the Qingtian 76. The design of the double roof shading is placed, and the window opening is significantly less. Therefore, most of the hourly solar irradiation at the west facade was below 60 Wh/m2 in the summer. The most of east and south facades show that the range of hourly average solar irradiation is 60-90 Wh/m2.

However, the results illustrate that the average solar irradiation at the east and south facade in 2019 are extremely low in the summer due to the occlusion of the five-story building next to it. This can lead to important spaces like the engawa and the zashiki that cannot receive enough sunlight.

EAST

WEST

SOUTH

NORTH

Figure 4.11 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s (summer)

Figure 4.12 Average Hourly solar irradiation of Hehe Qingtian in 2019 (summer)

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For microclimate studies, thermal imaging is applied to investigate the surface temperature of Japanese houses and also helps to identify heat patterns immediately. Thermal imaging was surveyed at Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian on Aug 8 and Aug11. The weather of two measurement day were high humidity and high temperature. Although was business hours and the mechanical ventilation was in operation, some interesting phenomena still happened in these two Japanese residential houses. 8/8

27-32 Â°C Qingtian 76

8/11

29-35 Â°C Hehe Qingtian

(a)

(a) The floor of the engawa is made of wood. The raised floor allows air into the room with the highconductivity material to achieve indoor cooling.

(b) The wooden ceiling is used as a buffer between the wall and the roof.

(b)

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(d)

(e)

(f)

(d) Same as Qingtian 76, heat transfer can be slowed down when the roof is not exposed. (e) The surface temperature of the exposed roof was measured to be close to the outdoor temperature. (f) The outdoor temperature is 35 °C, but the surface temperature of the raised floor is approximately 8 °C lower than the outdoor. It can be concluded that good shading and ventilation can effectively reduce the temperature. Figure 4.14 Thermal images of Hehe Qingtian

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4.3.2 Spatial sequence of Japanese residential in Taiwan As mentioned in chapter 3, the performance of two Japanese residential houses differs according to the extent of westernization of the designers. The sequence and openness of space will vary according to the cogitation of the design. The route from the genkan to the zashiki was performed in Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian to map the performance of the residential houses. The main purpose of this walk is first of all a review of spatial distribution, followed by spatial sequences and changes in light along the path. The route along the genkan can be first connected to the ousetsuma, and then are the service spaces mentioned in the previous chapter. The experience of the space from the front yard to the semi-outdoor eaves and then into the genkan, that is, from the wide space into a more oppressive space and then enter the room that also represents a sign of space conversion. The entire circulation is a rightangled path, and is relatively narrow in the first half. The change of the ceiling height after passing through the entrance can be seen. The section and the picture can be seen by the height of the ceiling to form an invisible boundary separating the space of the entrance and the corridor. The corridor becomes more spacious after the corner, and the engawa is created to feel the space transparency in the Japanese residential. It can be seen through from indoors to outdoors. The most significant difference between Hehe Qingtian and Qingtian 76 lies in the transparency of space. As mentioned, Hehe Qingtian is a bilateral corridor type with a main space between the corridors for better cross ventilation. Therefore, the most important Zashiki and tsuginoma of the entire Japanese building can be seen when entering the house, which is significantly different from the configuration of the Qingtian 76. The transparency of the building space extends from the genkan, which is the traditional classic Japanese residential spatial configuration features. The commonality between two Japanese residential in the design of the ousetsuma is to keep the shortest circulation from the entrance, so they are all placed next to the genkan. The position of the ousetsuma is characterized by seemingly connecting to other rooms, but it can be seen as a separate and independent reception place. The configuration at the west side of Hehe Qingtian is similar to Qingtian 76, such as benjyo (toilet) and daidokoro. (kitchen) The corridor is also narrow

in the service space and gradually widens near the corner of engawa. However, the spatial sequence of the corridor is not as dramatic as the Qingtian 76 due to the transparency of the space.

Figure 4.15 The route in Qingtian 76

Figure 4.16 The route in Hehe Qingtian

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Light changes were studied in quantitative analysis of Japanese houses. In addition to this, the visibility value of the space is determined by the depth map to help understand the spatial design in Japanese residential. Spatial syntax is a set of techniques used to analyze spatial layouts and patterns of human activity in buildings and urban areas. It is also a series of theories that link space to society. (Space syntax, 2019) The association between spatial sequence arrangements and light poetry will also be discussed. The visibility graph shows the space of Qingtian 76. Depth maps are imported into the layout as blocks. It divides the layout into virtual meshes and then processes the created geometry for the visibility map. The visibility map provides visibility values for each block. In the visibility map, warmer colours indicate higher visibility and wider spatial transparency. It shows that the corner of the corridor has maximum visibility, and the sequence and transformation of the space can be seen. The low visibility from the entrance is related to the service space being designed to be westward, but the visibility increases with the change of the spatial sequence at the corner. The transparency of the Japanese spatial design features can be seen in the visibility graph in the engawa, which is also related to the illuminance measurements. Figure 4.18 shows the illuminance value of spot measurement. The illuminance value begins to rise after the corner of the corridor, which can be inferred that the illuminance performance is related to the arrangement of the spatial sequence.

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Figure 4.17 The visibility graph of Qingtian 76

Qingtian 76 Spot measurement 1 400

1 200

1 000

800

600

400

200

Genkan (Entrance)

Engawa (Corridor) 1

Engawa (Corridor) 2

Engawa (Corridor) 3

Engawa (Corridor) 4

Engawa (Corridor) 5

Illuminance (lux)

Figure 4.18 Illuminance of the route in Qingtian 76

Tatami room

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Figure 4.19 illustrates the visibility graph of Hehe Qingtian. The spatial transparency mentioned previously in Hehe Qingtian affects the visibility in completely different results than Qingtian 76. The view from the entrance is wide with high visibility. Due to the transparency of the space, high visibility is achieved at each corner. The spatial sequence is associated with the poetry of light can be seen in the illuminance measurement. The illuminance measured at the entrance is 173 lux, but the illuminance along the route to the service space is lower. With the same pattern as Qingtian 76, the illuminance measured at the corner of the corridor to the engawa began to increase to a maximum of 346 lux.

From the above analyses and measurements, it can be seen that the architectural design of the two Japanese residential houses lead to various feelings and spatial language differences. Different from the spatial syntax of low visibility in the Qingtian 76 from the beginning to the corner of the corridor was created to increase the visibility, Hehe Qingtian was created and emphasized that the transparency of the space is accompanied by high visibility of the corners. In terms of the use of space, the traditional shĹ?ji and fusuma in Hehe Qingtian can achieve more flexible space usage while increasing diversity in visibility and indoor lighting.

Figure 4.19 The visibility graph of Hehe Qingtian

Qingtian Hehe Illuminance 400

3 50

3 00

250

200

150

100

genk an

Engawa (Corridor) 1

Engawa (Corridor) 2

Engawa (Corridor) 3

Engawa (Corridor) 4

Engawa (Corridor) 5

Engawa (Corridor) 6

Engawa (Corridor) 7

Figure 4.20 Illuminance of the route in Hehe Qingtian

Zashiki (Tatami room)

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ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS

5 ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS Field work includes transient data by spot measurement as well as long-term recorded data. There is a major time limit for field work, and the data logger measurement takes a month to spend two weeks in two Japanese houses. Digital simulations were therefore conducted to further extend the study throughout the year. The software used in this chapter of the study is as follows: ・Rhino (Grasshopper: Ladybug and honeybee plugin) Grasshopper is a graphical algorithm editor that is tightly integrated with 3D modeling tools in Rhino. Weather files generated by Meteonorm were added to the grasshopper to obtain weather data for Taipei. Ladybug allows you to import and analyze standard weather data in Grasshopper; charts such as the Sun Path and Wind Rose can be drawn.

In addition, radiation analysis, shadow studies and view analysis can also be performed. Honeybee connects Grasshopper3D to proven simulation engines such as EnergyPlus, Radiance, Daysim and OpenStudio for building energy, comfort, daylighting and lighting simulation. (Roudsari, 2019) Ladybug and honeybee plugin will be used for indoor daylight analysis and will be shown in later sections. ・TAS Tas Engineering can be used to predict thermal comfort throughout the year while taking into account the effects of thermal mass and temperature. The indoor comfort throughout the year of Japanese residential houses will be explored and analyzed. ・OptiVent 2.0 OptiVent 2.0 is a simple natural ventilation steady state tool. The tool was developed to expand the general airflow strategy that can be clearly assessed and will be used to explore the cross ventilation in Japanese residential houses.

5.1 Scope The scope of this part of the study is the exploration of Qingtian 76 and Hehe Qingtian indoor visual and thermal comfort. Each software has certain limitations, so in order to get more comprehensive results, the software and fieldwork measurements are used in parallel to infer the results.

5.2 Indoor comfort With the development of the economy and the improvement of people's living standards, the requirements for indoor environmental quality and thermal comfort of the living room have increased as well. People pay more attention to the indoor thermal environment that affect the comfort of the human body. The control of indoor comfort demand on the cold and hot feeling by the human body to the environment. As a guideline for control, many scholars have explored and proposed comfort criteria. In the era of rapid development of mechanical ventilation systems, system control is mature.

The development of controllers has evolved from the most typical thermostatic control to innovative control methods, all of which aim to achieve indoor comfort and save energy. However, the comfort simulations in this section are aimed at the free running of entire building throughout the year. In addition, the adaptability of Japanese residential to the climate in Taiwan will be demonstrated in later chapters, including the previous chapters that Japanese environmental design strategies in Taiwan will also be explored.

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5.2.1 Visual comfort of Japanese residential in Taiwan The visual comfort indoor neither inhibits nor obstructs visual ability, so people can enjoy freely in rooms. If the lighting of the space is inappropriate or inappropriate, it will affect the visual system as well as health and personal well-being (sensory system). It can cause eye irritation, fatigue and headaches. A good visual comfort indoor requires a large amount of useful daylight; on the other hand, poor visual comfort provides insufficient light or excessive light, which necessitates frequent use of artificial lights or glare issue. ă&#x192;ťDaylight factor Daylight factor (DF) is the amount of illumination available indoors relative to the illumination present outdoors at the same time under overcast skies (NBI, 2018). It is defined as: DF = (Ei / Eo) x 100% Ei = illuminance due to daylight at a point on the indoors working plane, Eo = simultaneous outdoor illuminance on a horizontal plane from an unobstructed hemisphere of overcast sky (Wikipedia, 2017). According to CIBSE Lighting Guide 10 (CIBSE, 2017), which broadly bands average daylight factors into the following categories: <2 Not adequately lit-artificial lighting is required 2 - 5 Adequately lit but artificial lighting may be needed >5 Well lit, artificial lighting generally not required, except at dawn and dusk but glare and solar gain may cause problems The daylight factor analysis of an area usually returned values over 10 adjacent to the window, 5 in the rest of the wider floor area near the window, and 0-2 in the rest of the space. Regarding to indoor average daylight factor, it will be compared with the results of Qingtian 76 analysis between the 1930s and now. In addition to the conservatory, the daylight factor in the 1930s of other rooms is 2-5% which is a good balance between lighting and thermal aspects. It can be seen that rooms with multiple windows or high window-to-wall ratio will get higher daylight factor value. Due to the translucent glass roof of the conservatory, the conservatory and engawa (corridor) at south may appears strongly daylit and glare issue. Especially the conservatory, the potential for thermal problems may happen due to overheating in summer and heat loss in winter.

2.7%

4.2%

4% 3.2% 3.6% 5% 28%

Figure 5.1 Daylight factor of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s

55 1.8%

3.1% 2.1%

2.7% 3.8% 23.2%

Figure 5.2 Daylight factor of Qingtian 76 in 2019

Figure 5.2 shows the average daylight factor of Qingtian 76 in 2019, it can be seen that the overall average daylight factor results of 2019 are lower than that of the 1930s. The results in the jyocyushitsu (maid's room) and the conservatory were significant, with 2.2% and 4.8% respectively due to changes of the context. (see Figure 5.3) Regarding to the uniformity ratio between the 1930s and now in figure 5.4, it can be seen that the indoor daylight distribution in 2019 is better than that of the 1930s.

ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS

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2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

The high uniformity ratio in the jyocyushitsu and syosai (study) is due to the context differences of the north and west side as well. Although the result of daylight factor was lower than the 1930s in 2019, the distribution of daylight was more uniform. Combined with the results of the solar irradiation analysis, it can be inferred that the Japanese were designing windows and shading devices to consider the needs of each rooms and orientation, while ensuring the good daylight indoor.

3.3%

4.4% 4.8% 3.4%

2.7% 6.3%

Average Daylight Factor of 1930s & NOW 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6

Figure 5.5 Daylight factor of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s

4 2 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Maid's room

Drawing room

Engawa (Corridor) DF 1930s (%)

Conservatory

Study room

Tatami room

DF now (%)

Figure 5.3 Comparisons of DF - Qingtian 76 2.8%

Uniformity ratio of 1930s & now 0.5

0.45

3.3% 3.7%

0.4

2.8%

0.35

0.3

0.25

2.9%

2.5%

0.2

0.15

0.1

3.9%

0.05

Genkan (Entrance)

Maid's room

Drawing room

Engawa (Corridor)

Uniformity ratio 1930s

Conservatory

Study room

Tatami room

Uniformity ratio now

Figure 5.4 Comparisons of UR - Qingtian 76

Without the Western-style conservatory, the difference in daylight factor between the rooms in Hehe Qingtian is more stable than Qingtian 76. (see Figure 5.7) Same as Qingtian 76, the development around the site caused the daylight factor to decrease in the ousetsuma (drawing room) and the engawa due to the obstruction of the context. However, the daylight factor of all rooms in the 1930s and now were higher than 2% which is predominantly daylit appearance, but supplementary artificial lighting may be needed. Moreover, it is known that the important spaces mentioned in the previous chapters such as genkan, tsuginoma (anteroom), and zashiki reach uniformity ratio of 0.4%.

Figure 5.6 Daylight factor of Hehe Qingtian in 2019 N

TAIPEI KYOTO

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

Average Daylight Factor of 1930s & NOW 8

89.2%

81%

Genkan (Entrance)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room)

Syosai (Study)

Tatami room DF 1930s (%)

Tsuginoma (Anteroom)

Zashiki (Tatami room)

88% 86.4%

Engawa (Corridor)

DF now (%)

85.7%

77.2%

Figure 5.7 Comparisons of DF - Hehe Qingtian Uniformity ratio of 1930s & now 0.5

7.3%

0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15

Figure 5.9 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s

0.1 0.05 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room)

Syosai (Study)

Tatami room

Uniformity ratio 1930s

Tsuginoma (Anteroom)

Zashiki (Tatami room)

Engawa (Corridor)

Uniformity ratio now

Figure 5.8 Comparisons of UR - Hehe Qingtian

91.5%

82.6%

83.2% 90%

ă&#x192;ťUseful Daylight Illuminance Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) is the percentage of the floor area that meets the UDI criteria (100 to 2000 lux) at least 50% of the occupied time. (Reinhart, 2002) The occupancy period considered in the UDI study is from 8 am to 5 pm. Figure 5.9 and 5.10 show the UDI of Qingtian 76 in the 1930s and 2019. It can be seen from the results that effective daylight can be obtained in the rooms except the conservatory. Low useful daylight illuminance may be considered to be below 100 lux or above 2000 lux, which may cause glare issue. Although the UDI of rooms in 2019 were not significantly different from the 1930s (see Figure 5.11), the UDI of the rooms near the window were low. Percentage of the area with UDI values higher than 50% in the 1930s and 2019 is demonstrated in figure 5.12. In addition to the conservatory, other rooms are in compliance with UDI criteria.

77.6%

65.4%

5.3%

Figure 5.10 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Qingtian 76 in 2019 N

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

Useful Daylight Illuminance Comparison 100 90 80

82.8% 93.5% 87.2%

70 60 50

86.3%

40 30

ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS

20 10 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Maid's room

Drawing room

Engawa (Corridor)

UDI 1930s Taipei

Conservatory

Study room

Tatami room

87.3%

79.7%

UDI Now Taipei

84%

Figure 5.11 Comparisons of UDI - Qingtian 76

Comparison of UDI > 50% area in the 1930s & now 100 90 80 70 60

Figure 5.13 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s

50 40 30 20 10 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Maid's room

Drawing room

Engawa (Corridor)

UDI >50% (1930s)

Conservatory

Study room

Tatami room

UDI >50% (now)

Figure 5.12 Comparisons of UDI>50% area - Qingtian 76

79.7% 88.8% 82.8% 69.1% 88.7%

87.3% 47.8%

The useful daylight illuminance of engawa in 2019 is lower than 50% which is not meet the criteria. As mentioned, the fivestory building on the east and south of the site reduces the chance of getting daylight in the rooms. Similar proportions of results can be seen in the daylight distribution chart, and it is a pity that important spaces are blocked from view and sky. Since the free layout features of Japan can be explored in Qingtian Hehe, the seven analyzed indoor spaces are presumed to be specific openings to achieve the above results. The actual space usage in the indoor spaces according to the needs of the occupants to achieve various daylight and cross ventilation.

Figure 5.14 Useful Daylight Illuminance of Hehe Qingtian in 2019

TAIPEI KYOTO

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

Figure 5.17 demonstrates the solar angle at 12:00 in different seasons which is the hottest and worst case of a day. It can be seen that the roof designed by the Japanese blocks the summer sunlight at noon and allows the equinox and the winter solstice sunlight into the engawa. This shows the design ingenuity at the time, blocking direct sunlight while maintaining sufficient daylight indoors.

Useful Daylight Illuminance Comparison 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room)

Syosai (Study)

Tatami room UDI 1930s Taipei

Tsuginoma (Anteroom)

Zashiki (Tatami room)

Engawa (Corridor)

UDI Now Taipei

Figure 5.15 Comparisons of UDI - Hehe Qingtian

Comparison of UDI > 50% area in the 1930s & now 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Genkan (Entrance)

Ousetsuma (Drawing room)

Syosai ( Study)

Tatami room UDI >50% (1930s)

Tsuginoma (Anteroom)

Zashiki (Tatami room)

Engawa (Corridor)

UDI >50% (now)

Figure 5.16 Comparisons of UDI>50% area - Hehe Qingtian

12:00 Summer solstice 88° Equinox 65° Winter solstice 42°

Figure 5.17 Solar angle in Qingtian 76

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

2018/19 THESIS PROJECT

ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS

5.2.2 Thermal comfort of Japanese residential in Taiwan Thermal comfort is a statement of satisfaction with the thermal environment. Because of the great physical and psychological changes between people, it is difficult to satisfy everyone in space. The environmental conditions required for comfort are different for everyone. However, the necessary statistics are provided through extensive experimental and field data to determine the conditions by which a particular percentage of occupants will feel comfortable. According to the thermal environmental conditions in the space developed by ASHRAE Standard 55 (2004), six main factors must be addressed. In some cases, many other secondary factors can affect comfort. The six main factors are listed: 1. Metabolic rate 2. Clothing insulation 3. Air temperature 4. Radiant temperature 5. Air speed 6. Humidity All six of these factors may change over time. However, this standard only addresses thermal comfort in steady state, and people may not find comfortable conditions immediately if they encounter different environmental conditions before entering the space. The effects of previous exposures or activities may affect comfort perception for approximately one hour. The purpose of this section is to understand the thermal comfort of Japanese residential houses in the 1930s and to explore the adaptability of Japanese environmental strategies to the climate in Taipei. In addition, optimize the architectural performance through different scenarios to comprehend the most significant and suitable environmental design for Taipei. Seven indoor spaces in both residential will be simulated by TAS for thermal comfort. However, for a more accurate analysis, the zashiki will be displayed because it is the most representative space for the longest occupied period of a day in a Japanese house. ・Thermal comfort for base case scenario The floor area of zashiki in Qingtian 76 is 23.1m2 and four people are assumed to occupy the space. The different inputs that will be provided for the model in the TAS simulation. In terms of materials, Japanese traditional roof tiles and facades will be provided and displayed in the appendix.

In addition, the windows of Qingtian 76 are set as a single-layer glass with light transmittance 0.87. Since there are four people occupying the master bedroom, the air required by each person is 10 l/s. Therefore, the air changes per hour is 1.6 ach, and this is the minimum requirement. It was assumed in the simulation of all scenarios that there was no mechanical ventilation. The inflitration of the building will increase over time. The values in the 1930s, 2019 and 2050 will be different, and they are respectively assumed to be 0.85 ach, 1.3 ach, and 1.5 ach, which is from a medium construction to a loose construction. The heat gain from human is 1.7 W/m2, and from equipment is 2.8 W/m2. The occupancy schedule is occupied at night (9 pm to 8am) in weekdays and occupied all day in weekend, and the aperture schedule is fully opened during the daytime and half opened at night. Figure 5.18 illustrates the external temperature and resultant temperature in zashiki in the 1930s. According to the environmental protection administration (2005) in Taiwan, the indoor temperature should be maintained from 15 to 28°C. Therefore, in order to effectively inspect the building performance, this temperature range will be used as a comfort zone and applied in different scenarios. The results show that 64% of the year is in the comfort zone, and summer overheating issue can be seen. Tatami room - Taipei 1930s 40

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun External DBT (°C)

Jul

Aug

Tatami room Resultant Temp (°C)

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Comfort zone

Figure 5.18 Zashiki in the 1930s - Qingtian 76 (Taipei)

Tatami room - Kyoto 1930s 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun External DBT (°C)

Jul

Aug

Tatami room Resultant Temp (°C)

Sep

Oct

Nov

Comfort zone

Figure 5.19 Zashiki in the 1930s - Qingtian 76 (Kyoto)

Dec

TAIPEI KYOTO

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER

In order to examine its environment and climate adaptability, the climate of Kyoto in the 1930s which obtained from meteonorm was analyzed without changes of internal condition to see the performance of the house. (see Figure 5.19) Assuming that the building is in Kyoto, 43% of the year is in the comfort zone which is less than the result in Taipei. The summer overheating problem is not as serious as in Taipei, but the heating system is needed in winter. It can be considered that the changes in the environmental strategies done by the Japanese in Taiwan have a certain extent of influence. Figure 5.20 shows the thermal comfort performance of zashiki in Qingtian 76 for 2019 with the change of context and the climate data obtained from meteonorm were applied in model. The result illustrates 57% within the comfort zone throughout the year, and the same as 2050. The reduction in the percentage of the comfort zone is presumed to be related to climate change and the heat island effect in the city. Tatami room - Taipei now 40

1. Aperture schedule control 2. Insulation of building envelope 3. Well shaded design 4. Natural ventilation These strategies will be analyzed as different scenarios. In order to understand the temperature between indoor and outdoor, datalogger measurement was analyzed. Figure 5.22 illustrates the datalogger measurement in zashiki for two weeks and the instrument position is shown as a red dot in figure 5.21. Since Qingtian 76 is refurbished as a restaurant now, the air conditioning is turned on during the business hours which is from 11:30 to 21:00. According to the staff of Qingtian 76, windows are closed all day because of the operation for mechanical ventilation. Therefore, the data of business hours will not be considered in this study. Relative humidity and internal temperature are controlled during business hours and inversely proportional to outdoor temperature. It can be seen that the outdoor temperature dropped to approach the indoor temperature at night.

Datalogger position

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun External DBT (Â°C)

Jul

Aug

Tatami room Resultant Temp (Â°C)

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Comfort zone

Figure 5.20 Zashiki in 2019 - Qingtian 76

For the base case scenario of Hehe Qingtian in the 1930s is similar to Qingtian 76 which is 64% throughout the year is in the comfort zone. However, in the 1930s, the indoor comfort performance of the residential in Kyoto was 43% of the year, and it has once again proved that Japanese environmental design in Taiwan is effective for thermal comfort indoor. In addition, the annual comfort of 2019 dropped to 60%, which is related to the temperature rise caused by global warming. The annual thermal comfort is better than the Qingtian 76 is presumably due to the surrounding environment and the cross ventilation of the zashiki. The result shows that the thermal comfort will be 63% in 2050, and it is speculated that the increase in wind velocity (see Figure 3.7) in the future is beneficial for indoor ventilation. The base case scenario model of 2019 will be optimized with different strategies to examine the vital environmental design for Taiwan. The methods to improve the indoor comfort are as following:

Figure 5.21 Position of datalogger in zashiki

MSc ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

32°C

28°C

31°C

33°C

28°C

26°C

27°C

31°C

32°C

26°C

24°C

Tatami room RH (%)

Tatami room DBT (°C)

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