bfm-3A978-4-431-54111-0-2F1

Water Civilization

Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research Series Editor Prof. Marcus Nüsser South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg, Germany Editorial Board Prof. Eckart Ehlers, University of Bonn, Germany Prof. Harjit Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Prof. Hermann Kreutzmann, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Prof. Ken Hewitt, Waterloo University, Canada Prof. Urs Wiesmann, University of Bern, Switzerland Prof. Sarah J. Halvorson, University of Montana, USA Dr. Daanish Mustafa, King’s College London, UK Aims and Scope The series aims at fostering the discussion on the complex relationships between physical landscapes, natural resources, and their modification by human land use in various environments of Asia. It is widely acknowledged that human-environmentinteractions become increasingly important in area studies and development research, taking into account regional differences as well as bio-physical, socioeconomic and cultural particularities.

The book series seeks to explore theoretic and conceptual reflection on dynamic human-environment systems applying advanced methodology and innovative research perspectives. The main themes of the series cover urban and rural landscapes in Asia. Examples include topics such as land and forest degradation, glaciers in Asia, mountain environments, dams in Asia, medical geography, vulnerability and mitigation strategies, natural hazards and risk management concepts, environmental change, impacts studies and consequences for local communities. The relevant themes of the series are mainly focused on geographical research perspectives of area studies, however there is scope for interdisciplinary contributions.

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8560

Yoshinori Yasuda Editor

Water Civilization From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations

Editor Yoshinori Yasuda Graduate School of Environmental Studies Tohoku University, Aramaki Aobaku 980-8599 Sendai Japan

ISSN 1879-7180 ISSN 1879-7199 (electronic) ISBN 978-4-431-54110-3 ISBN 978-4-431-54111-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54111-0 Springer Tokyo Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948625 © Springer Japan 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Cover image: Nomads near Nanga Parbat, 1995. Copyright © Marcus Nüsser (used with permission) Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

(Photograph by Takeshi Takeda)

To Dr. Bjรถrn E. Berglund, Professor Emeritus of Lund University, Sweden.

Dr. Berglund played a significant role in the advancement of palaeoenvironmental and palaeoecological studies of Holocene Europe. He also contributed greatly to the field of environmental history in Monsoon Asia by encouraging studies by Asian researchers. I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Berglund for his long-term support and dedicate this book to him.

Yoshinori Yasuda

Preface

The Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indus Valley, and Yellow River civilizations, four of the great ancient civilizations, all rose in the middle to lower reaches of great rivers on the Eurasian continent. The Mesopotamian Civilization developed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Egyptian Civilization along the Nile River, the Indus Valley Civilization along the Indus River, and the Yellow River Civilization along the Yellow River. What these birthplaces of ancient civilizations had in common were that they were situated in dry to semi-arid climates having annual rainfall of 500 mm or less, and that they were inhabited by people who mainly sustained themselves by pastoral farming and cultivation of wheat, barley, and millet.

Figure 1, adapted from Yoshino (1999), shows a climate zone map indicating the climate divisions of Eurasia together with the birthplaces of ancient civilizations.

The climate zone of the Eurasian continent can be largely divided into monsoon Asia, Arid Asia, Atlantic Asia, and Boreal Asia. One can see from this map that the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, and Yellow River civilizations rose in the basins of great rivers that flow through wet/dry climate transitional zones found between the arid continental climate and the humid Asian monsoon region or the Atlantic side of Eurasia. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which gave rise to the Mesopotamian Civilization, flow in the region where wet Atlantic Asia comes into contact with Arid Asia. The Indus Valley, the cradle of the Indus Civilization, flows in the boundary zone between wet Monsoon Asia and Arid Asia. The Yellow River Civilization rose in the boundary between Arid Asia and Monsoon Asia. The Nile River, which nurtured the Egyptian Civilization, flows through the middle of a desert; thus, its river banks also may be considered a wet/dry transitional zone. This transitional zone between the wet and dry regions may be regarded as the climate factor that gave rise to these four great ancient civilizations.

On the other hand, Monsoon Asia is characterized by its hot and humid climate.

It encompasses the following regions: India, Southeast Asia, South China, and the Pacific coastal regions including Japan, Taiwan, and several islands in the western Pacific Ocean. In this wet Monsoon Asia, there are several great rivers, for example, the Ganges, Yangtze, and Mekong. However, until recently, it was concluded that vii

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Northern Asia

Atlantic Ocean Asia

Mesopotamian Civilization

Dry Asia

Egyptian Civilization

Indus River Civilization

Tibet, Himalaya

Yellow River Civilization Yangtze River Civilization

Ganga Valley Civilization Arabian Sea Dry Africa

Bay of Bengal

Monsoon Asia

south western monsoon

Atlantic Ocean Asia

racial migration of nomads and stock farmers maritime trading route

Dry Asia Northern Asia

Pacific Ocean Mekong River Civilization

Fig. 1 The relationship between climate divisions of the Eurasian continent and the ancient civilizations and migration of people in the inland Eurasian continent (Yasuda 2002a)

the ancient civilizations had not developed along these great rivers. According to conventionally accepted theories, ancient civilizations were not considered to have risen or developed in the middle to lower basins along the great rivers that flow through wet Monsoon Asia.

Summer corresponds to the rainy season in Monsoon Asia. Thus, summer crops such as rice, foxtail millet, and broomcorn millet are representative crops of Monsoon Asia. In contrast, in Atlantic Asia, where winter is the rainy season, the representative crops are winter crops, such as wheat and barley.

Three of the four great ancient civilizations—the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, and Egyptian—appeared about 5700 cal. year bp. Why had these great ancient civilizations developed in the wet/dry transitional zones about 5700 cal. year bp? Arid Asia was originally home to the pastoralists while the river basins were home to the wheat/barley- and-millet-cultivating agricultural people. Then, a climate aridification event that intensified around 5700 cal. year bp forced the pastoralists to take refuge en masse along the great rivers.

Butzar (1964) opened a new scientific field of environmental archaeology and discussed the origin of urban settlements in the Near East in relation to the environmental background, especially climate change. Following his suggestion, Yasuda (1991, 2000, 2002a) and Yasuda et al. (2000) previously pointed out that a major aridification event in 5700 cal. year bp triggered the birth of urban civilizations by forcing pastoralists to move in large numbers to the great river basins, thereby causing a population explosion and a fusion of the pastoralist and agriculturist cultures.

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The Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, and Egyptian civilizations appeared about 5700 years ago. In contrast, the Yellow River Civilization began to develop along the banks of the Yellow River around 4200 cal. year bp, approximately 1500 years later. Another notable difference of the Yellow River Civilization is that it is the only one that developed above latitude 35° N. The Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Indus Valley civilizations all had flourished in river valleys below latitude 35° N. What were the factors involved for the late development and northerly location of the Yellow River Civilization compared with the other three?

Scholars who hold a monothetic view on the origin of civilizations attribute the above difference to the time it required for the light of civilization to spread from Mesopotamia eastward to the Yellow River basin. According to their claim, civilization had first risen in the Mesopotamian region, then spread to the Nile and Indus basins, and finally reached eastern Asia, where it led to the rise of the Yellow River Civilization. Our findings now suggest that, such a monothetic view of the origin of civilizations has to be fundamentally overhauled. Many ancient civilizations had developed independently and indigenously, adapting to various local environments in various parts of the world.

The four great ancient civilizations had been “wheat/barley/millet-cultivating pastoral civilizations” created by the integration of pastoral and agricultural people.

Indeed, the universal principles of civilization manifested in these four great ancient civilizations show characteristics of a pastoral culture, for example: trade networks, development of metal weapons for self-defense, sophisticated jewelry, the presence of a king to govern the clan, and mythological beliefs associated with subduing nature. So, there is no doubt that pastoralists had played an important role in the birth of the four great ancient civilizations.

However, a significant period of time had to pass before these pastoralists were able to penetrate deep into the wet regions of Monsoon Asia, as they were blocked by dense forests and vast marshlands that made travel on horseback difficult.

Furthermore, the pastoralists were faced with endemic diseases unique to wet regions, such as malaria, that were unknown to them. Therefore, it has been previously believed that the light of civilization would not have easily reached the great river basins such as the Ganges, Yangtze, and Mekong located deep within Monsoon Asia, and that they must have remained in a primitive, barbaric state for an extensive period of time.

It has been discovered that a completely different type of ancient civilization existed within Monsoon Asia. The Yangtze River Civilization and the Khmer Civilization were both created by people subsisting on rice farming and fishing (rice-cultivating piscatory civilizations), and are the representative examples of a water civilization.

Several researchers having excellent foresight poured their energy into archaeological studies of Monsoon Asia. Ian Glover devoted his energy for more than 50 years to the study of archaeology in Southeast Asia (Glover and Bellwood 2004; Bellina et al. 2010). Charles Higham studied the origin of rice agriculture in the Yangtze River Valley (Higham 1995) and the Bronze Age in southern China, especially Yunnan Province, in relation to Southeast Asia (Higham 1996). He published

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highly acclaimed books that established the history and archaeology of Southeast Asia (Higham 2002) and were an important milestone in the study of the origin of rice agriculture in southern China and Southeast Asia (Higham 1996). Higham (2004) divided the history of Southeast Asia into four major phases: (1) the hunterand-gatherer phase, (2) the expansion of rice cultivation in the third millennium bc, (3) the emergence of copper and tin between 1500 and 1000 bc, and (4) the appearance of iron implements, 500 bc. This division of the history of Southeast Asia will become an important timetable for future studies.

An important insight into the study of the Indo-Pacific region was presented by Misra and Bellwood (1978) and Bellwood (1996). Mainly using linguistic studies, Bellwood (2004, 2006) outlined the migration of the Asian people showing the drastic movement of people from north to south in Neolithic Asia. Until Bellwood’s results were presented, people in Monsoon Asia believed that Asian people had not migrated as the Indo-European people had. Bellwood’s work opened the field for the study of the history of Monsoon Asia and Indo-Pacific peoples from the perspective of dynamic population movement.

W. Crawford also contributed greatly to the study of the origin of agriculture in East Asia, especially in Japan (Crawford et al. 1978, Crawford 2006). The author would like to express much respect to these great pioneering researchers who contributed immensely to the development of historical studies of Monsoon Asia and the Indo-Pacific region.

However, until recent decades, few Asian researchers except those from India have contributed any English publications related to the history of Monsoon Asia.

The author has been trying to open the door for the Asian people to describe their own history in English by themselves. The author edited a book, The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (Yasuda 2002a), which showed that the origin of pottery ascends to 17000 cal. year bp in Monsoon Asia and rice cultivation dates back to at least 10000 cal. year bp. Several Chinese and Japanese archaeologists contributed excellent chapters to this book. The author also published several books jointly with Chinese authorities. Yan and Yasuda (2000) described the origin of rice agriculture and the urbanization of the Yangtze River Valley, and Gao and Yasuda (2002) investigated the characteristics of Bronze Age culture in the Yangtze River Valley. He and Yasuda (2007) presented in the more than 1,000-page report the results of the excavation at the Chengtoushan site in Hunan Province, China.

The cosmology and mythology of the Yangtze River Civilization were reported in Yasuda (2002b) along with many valuable papers by Chinese authorities. Yasuda and Shinde’s (2004) discussion of the influence of the Indian Monsoon on the development of civilizations in Monsoon Asia included contributions by many Indian archaeologists.

In recent decades, a new movement appeared in Monsoon Asia: local archaeologists began to write intensively about their own history in English. The research report of the Cambodian-German joint excavation at the Prohear site was published and Cambodian authorities also contributed greatly to this English report (Reinecke et al.

2009). Dougald J.W. O’Reilly, who worked in many archaeological sites in Cambodia and Thailand, recently published an epoch-making book, Early Civilizations of

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Southeast Asia (O’Reilly 2007), reflecting the advancement of archaeological studies in the region.

Flenley and Yasuda (2008) suggested the existence of the Pan-Pacific “milkless civilization” that lacks sheep and goats. The people who lived in Southeast Asia and the Pan-Pacific region developed a milkless civilization. Instead of having livestock, they formed agricultural societies that relied on forest resources and marine products. As Yasuda (2001) pointed out previously, the relationship of the rice-cultivating piscatory people with the forest/water system is completely different from that of the wheat/barley/millet-cultivating pastoral people. Even the ethics and cosmology toward nature are different, so we have decided to call the Yangtze River Civilization and the Khmer Civilization “water civilizations,” mainly based on the cultivation of rice and the use of various marine and freshwater resources.

Scarborough (2003) described the power of a water civilization and pointed to the resemblance between the ethics to those of the civilizations in Maya and Monsoon Asia. Hassan (2011) edited a series of seven books related to the management of water in the history of civilization. According to him, the history of water is also a history of humankind. Juuti and Katko (2005) explained that water is the driving force of nature as well as cities in Europe.

Yuasa (2004) described the role of water in the history of civilization. Diamond (2005) pointed out that Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom declined because of the incomplete management of irrigation systems. As Yasuda (2001) mentioned before, Diamond also pointed that the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate and the emperor of the Inca Civilization protected the forest and succeeded in regeneration of forests.

Diamond says that in order to avoid the collapse of civilization, we should learn from past experience.

This book reports the environmental change and human adaptation in East and Southeast Asia mainly based on the latest results from the study of environmental archaeology conducted at the Chengtoushan site in Hunan Province, China, and Phum Snay and Angkor Thom in Cambodia, and aims to present the basic indications for the existence of the water civilization—a rice-cultivating piscatory civilization—in East Asia and Southeast Asia.

The author hopes that this small book will become a milestone in the discovery of the importance of the rice-cultivating piscatory civilization in Monsoon Asia by the Asian people themselves, and that it will be influential in nurturing future generations of Asian archeologists.

The history of Monsoon Asia should be written in English not only by non-Asian foreign researchers, but also by Asian people themselves, because they have lived in the region for a long time and should be naturally gifted in the awareness of their environment, cosmology, and the wisdom of the Asian people. I strongly believe that historical studies on the wisdom of the Monsoon Asian people in terms of the preservation of forests and water management systems will contribute to an understanding of the future crisis of water and humankind in the world.

Sendai, Japan

Yoshinori Yasuda

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References Bellina B, Bacus E, Pryce T, Christie J (eds) (2010) 50 Years of Archaelogy in Southeast Asia.

River Books, Bangkok Bellwood P (1996) The origins and spread of agriculture in the Indo-Pacific region: gradualism and diffusion or revolution and colonization? In: Harris D (ed) The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia. UCL Press, London, pp 465–498 Bellwood P (2004) The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia. In: Glover I, Bellwood P (eds) Southeast Asia. Routledge Curzon, London, pp 21–40 Bellwood P (2006) Asian farming diasporas? Agriculture, languages, and genes in China and Southeast Asia. In: Stark M. (ed) Archaeology of Asia. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, pp 96–118 Butzar KW (1964) Environment and archaeology. Methuen, London Crawford G (2006) East Asian plant domestication. In: Stark M (ed) Archaeology of Asia.

Blackwell Publishing, Malden, pp 76–95 Crawford G, William H, Yoshizaki M (1978) Implication of plant remains from Early Jomon, Hamanasuno site. Asian Perspect 19–1:145–155 Diamond J (2005) Collapse: how societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking Penguin, New York Flenley J, Yasuda Y (2008) Editorial: environmental variability and human adaptation in the Pacific rim and the sustainability of the islands. Quaternary Int 184:1–3 Gao C, Yasuda Y (eds) (2002) Study on the bronze culture of the Yangtze river valley. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese with English abstract) Hassan F (2011) Water history for our times, IHP Essay on water history. Vol. 2, UNESCO Publishing, Paris He J, Yasuda Y (eds) (2007) Chengtoushan in Lixian. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese) Higham C (1995) The transition to rice cultivation in Southeast Asia. In: Price T, Gebauer A (eds) Last hunters and first farmers. School of American Research Press, New Mexico, pp 127–155 Higham C (1996) The bronze age of Southeast Asia: from prehistory to history. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Higham C (2002) Early cultures of mainland Southeast Asia. River Books, Bangkok Higham C (2004) Mainland Southeast Asia from the neolithic to the iron age. In: Glover I, Bellwood P (eds) Southeast Asia. Routledge Curzon, London, pp 41–67 Juuti PS, Katko TS (eds) (2005) Water, time and European cities: history matters for the futures.

Temple University Press, Tampere Misra VN, Bellwood P (1978) Recent advances in Indo-Pacific prehistory. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi Reinecke A, Laychour V, Sonetra S (2009) The first age of Cambodia: excavation at Prohear. Bonn O’Reilly DJW (2007) Early civilizations of Southeast Asia. AltaMira Press, Plymouth Scarborough VL (2003) Flow of power ancient water system and landscape. A School of American Research Resident Scholar Book, New Mexico Yan W, Yasuda Y (eds) (2000) The origins of rice agriculture, pottery and cities. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese with English abstract) Yasuda Y (1991) Climatic changes at 5,000 years BP and the birth of ancient civilizations. Bull Middle Eastern Cult Center Japan IV, pp 203–218 Yasuda Y (ed) (2001) Forest and civilisation. Lustre Press and Roli Books, Delhi Yasuda Y (ed) (2002a) The origins of pottery and agriculture. Lustre Press and Roli Books, Delhi Yasuda Y (ed) (2002b) Myths and rituals of the Yangtze river civilization. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese with English abstract) Yasuda Y, Kitagawa H, Nakagawa T (2000) The earliest record of major anthropogenic deforestation in the Ghab Valley, northwest Syria. Quaternary Int 73/74:127–136 Yasuda Y, Shinde V (eds) (2004) Monsoon and civilization. Lustre Press and Roli Books, Delhi Yoshino M (1999) Environmental change and rice-producing societies in monsoon Asia: a review of studies and elucidation of problems. Geogr Rev Jpn 71:566–588 Yuasa T (2004) Water in the history of civilization. Shinhyoron, Tokyo (in Japanese)

Acknowledgments

From 1997 to 2001, China and Japan conducted collaborative research with the goals of resolving the nature of the Yangtze River Civilization at the Chengtoushan site in Hunan province, China. From 2006 to 2010, the Kingdom of Cambodia and Japan conducted collaborative research with the goal of resolving the nature of the Khmer Civilization at the Phum Snay site in Banteay Meanchey Province.

In April 1997, two directors of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, former director general Dr. Takeshi Umehara and director general Dr. Hayao Kawai and I visited Beijing to meet with Mr. Zhang Bai, deputy director of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, to request permission to launch a joint scientific project on the Yangtze River Civilization between Chinese and Japanese scholars. As a result, we were able to conduct a major scientific investigation on the rice-cultivating piscatory civilization in the middle Yangtze River basin.

It was decided that Hunan Province be selected as the main research region based on advice from Professor Yan Wenming of Beijing University and Dr. Takeshi Umehara. Hunan Province was the focus of the project and a plan was made jointly with the Hunan Institute of Archaeology and Cultural Relics to carry out an intensive environmental-archaeological investigation of the Liyang Plain and an archaeological excavation of the Chengtoushan site in Li County of Hunan.

In April 1998, we received the long-awaited letter from His Excellency Zhang Wenbin of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage in Beijing granting us special permission from the State Council of the People’s Republic of China for the project. In June of the same year, an agreement was finalized and signed for the joint scientific project between the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, China, and the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Japan. The Japanese team was mainly tasked with the environmental archaeological investigation and hightech archaeological surveys and analyses, while the Chinese team took charge of the archaeological excavations. The project was to last 3 years, from 1998 to 2000.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Professor Yan Wenming and Professor Gao Chongwen, Beijing University; Mr. Zhang Bai, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage; Mr. He Jiejun, Hunan Institute of Archaeology and Cultural Relics; and many other Chinese authorities who took part in realizing xiii

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this project. I am grateful to Dr. Takeshi Umehara for his valuable suggestions and introduction to the study of Yangtze River Civilization, and to Dr. Kazuo Inamori for his financial support and important advice regarding jade. Dr. Inamori established the jade project in his Kyocera Corporation and resolved the question of the production process for jade ornamentation and baked bricks.

The terms of agreement for the project state that the official excavation report must first be published in Chinese before any official reports can be published in English and Japanese. With the publication of the Chinese report (He and Yasuda 2007), we now are able to move forward with the publication in English.

In 2006, Japanese and Cambodian researchers began collaborative research into the Phum Snay site of Banteay Meanchey Province in the Kingdom of Cambodia.

An agreement was finalized and signed for the joint scientific project by His Excellency Chuch Phoeurn, secretary of state for the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, Cambodia, and the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. I am truly grateful for the warm assistance and cooperation by His Excellency Dr. Chuch Phoeurn and Mr. Heng Sophady, deputy director general of the Department of Cultural Heritage. The collaborative project would never have materialized without their help and generosity.

In Phnom Penh, I had the privilege of meeting and receiving helpful advice from many leading members of the Royal government of Cambodra, including deputy prime minister His Excellency Sok An, minister council of minister; Prince Sisowath Panara Sirivuth, former minister for the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; and His Excellency Veng Sereyvuth, minister for the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts. I also would like to acknowledge the considerable assistance and cooperation for the excavation and research activities at the Phum Snay site Provided from other officials at the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, including His Excellency Khim Sarith, secretary of state; Mr. Ok Sophon, former director general of Cultural Heritage; Mr. Khun Samen, former director of the National Museum of Cambodia; Mr. Ek Buntha, deputy director general for Technique for Culture; and Mr. Ouk Lay, deputy director of International Cultural Cooperation and ASEAN Affairs.

I am personally indebted to Under Secretary of State Sorasak Pan, Ministry of Commerce, and Under Secretary of State Tea Chup, Ministry of Environment, for their unending support in both their official and personal capacities. The project’s success also was made possible by the generous assistance provided by His Excellency Fumiaki Takahashi and His Excellency Katsuhiro Shinohara—the former Japanese ambassadors to the Kingdom of Cambodia.

With regard to the environmental archeological research at Angkor Thom, I am deeply grateful for the assistance offered by officials from the Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap, and from the Department of Monument and Archaeology, Dr. Ros Borath, director general; Mr. Mao Loa, director; and Mr. Say Sophearin. I would also like to thank Siem Reap Province Governor Sou Phirin and other members of the provincial government.

With their help and support, the collaborative project in Cambodia was managed smoothly. During the excavation of the Phum Snay site, I received a great deal of support from the officials of Banteay Meanchey Province—whose cooperation was

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Photograph: Yoshinori Yasuda at the Angkor Period ruins in Cambodia

instrumental in gaining the understanding of the local community that enabled us to work peacefully.

Just as with the Chinese collaborative project, the Japanese excavation team conducted archeological research using cutting-edge technology that had never been used before in Cambodia. These activities will no doubt have a historic impact on archeological excavations in the country from now on. I believe that we also made an immense contribution to nurturing future generations of Cambodian archeologists.

The looting at Phum Snay continued even as the collaborative project began, with the villagers looting goods and supplying them to the black market. However, after the collaborative research project, looting ceased completely. We established a small museum and eco-cultural center supported by Nippon Keidanren (Japan Business Federation) to exhibit the results of the excavation. After paving the road, the number of tourists to the museum and the excavation site increased. The young farmers who joined the archeological excavation became guides for this museum and now help preserve the cultural and natural heritage in Phum Snay.

Mr. Takeshi Takeda courteously consented to the use of the photographs in this report. I would like to express many thanks to Ms. Rieko Tsurudome, who translated most of the manuscripts from Japanese to English; Dr. Yoko Nojima, who

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worked as an associate editor to publish this book. I am also grateful to Ms. Julie Martin and Ms. Elizabeth Humphrey, who kindly edited English manuscripts, and Ms. Sahoko Aki, who drew excellent illustrations. Publishing this book would not have been possible without their help.

This is one of the fruits of the civilization research project at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Funding for this project was provided by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (for “High-resolution Reconstruction of Climate Change through the Studies of Varved Sediments and the Rise and Fall of Rice Farming and Fishing Civilizations”), by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (for “Pan-Pacific Environmental Changes and Civilizations” led by Kazuo Aoyama), by the Nippon Keidanren project (“The Creation of a Eco-Cultural Center, Cambodia”), and by the Tokyo Foundation Research Project (“Comparative Civilization”).

Sendai, Japan

Yoshinori Yasuda

Reference He J, Yasuda Y (eds) (2007) Chengtoushan in Lixian. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese)

Contents

Part I

Discovery of the Yangtze River Civilization

1

Discovery of the Yangtze River Civilization in China .........................

Yoshinori Yasuda

3

2

Decline of the Yangtze River Civilization .............................................

Yoshinori Yasuda

47

Part II 3

Origin and Development of the Khmer Civilization

Comparative Study of the Artifacts of Phum Snay Site and the Wat Bo Temple’s Pottery Collection Database .......................

Yozo Akayama

67

4

Survey and Excavation of Phum Snay in 2007–2010 ...........................

Yoshihito Miyatsuka and Yoshinori Yasuda

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5

Non-Ceramic Grave Goods of Phum Snay in the Context of Sociopolitical Development in Northwest Cambodia.......................................................................... 161 Yoko Nojima

6

Human Skeletal Remains Excavated from Phum Snay....................... 181 Takayuki Matsushita and Masami Matsushita

7

Zooarchaeology at Phum Snay, a Prehistoric Cemetery in Northwestern Cambodia .................................................................... 229 Vuthy Voeun

8

Chemical Composition and Lead Isotope Ratios of Bronze Artifacts Excavated in Cambodia and Thailand............................................................................................ 247 Yoshimitsu Hirao and Ji-Hyun Ro xvii

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Contents

Phum Snay and Its Significance in World History .............................. 313 Yoshinori Yasuda

Part III

Angkor’s Demise

10

Climate Deterioration and Angkor’s Demise ....................................... 331 Yoshinori Yasuda, Hiroo Nasu, Toshiyuki Fujiki, Kazuyoshi Yamada, Junko Kitagawa, Katsuya Gotanda, Shuichi Toyama, Mitsuru Okuno, and Yuichi Mori

11

Vegetation Change in the Area of Angkor Thom Based on Pollen Analysis of Moat Deposits ..................................................... 363 Toshiyuki Fujiki

12

Palaeoenvironment of the Areas Surrounding the Angkor Thom Moat Inferred from Entomological Analysis .................................................................................................... 383 Yuichi Mori

Part IV

Water Civilization

13

Reconstruction of an 8,000-year Environmental History on Pollen Records from Lake Buyan, Central Bali.............................................................................................. 407 Xun Li, Yoshinori Yasuda, Toshiyuki Fujiki, Makoto Okamura, Hiromi Matsuoka, Kazuyoshi Yamada, and John Flenley

14

The Great East Asian Fertile Triangle .................................................. 427 Yoshinori Yasuda

Epilogue ........................................................................................................... 459 Index ................................................................................................................. 465

Contributors

Editor Yoshinori Yasuda Born in 1946, Graduate, Graduate Course of the Faculty of Science, Tohoku University, Dr. of Science, Professor of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Professor Emeritus of the International Research Center for Japanese studies, A Member of the Swedish Academy of Science. e-mail: yasuda@nichibun.ac.jp Associate Editors Yoko Nojima International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan e-mail: yokonojima@gmail.com Rieko Tsurudome Faculty of Bioenvironmental Science, Kyoto Gakuen University, Kyoto, Japan e-mail: rieko-tsuru@nifty.com Authors Yozo Akayama Cultural Heritage Preservation Office, Shibukawa City Board of Education, Shibukawa, Japan e-mail: qbrhc461@ybb.ne.jp John Flenley Geography Programme, School of People, Environment and Planning, Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand e-mail: J.Flenley@massey.ac.nz Toshiyuki Fujiki AIG Collaborative Research Institute for International Study on Eruptive History and Informatics, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan e-mail: temgmu104@yahoo.co.jp

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Contributors

Katsuya Gotanda Faculty of Policy Informatics, Chiba University of Commerce, Chiba, Japan e-mail: gotanda@cuc.ac.jp Yoshimitsu Hirao Faculty of Humanities, Beppu University, Oita, Japan e-mail: yhirao@mc.beppu-u.ac.jp Junko Kitagawa International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan e-mail: junkokit@nichibun.ac.jp Xun Li Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, Lower Hutt, New Zealand e-mail: xunli65@gmail.com Hiromi Matsuoka Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan e-mail: matsuoka@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp Masami Matsushita The Doigahama Site Anthropological Museum, Yamaguchi, Japan e-mail: masamim10@jcom.home.ne.jp Takayuki Matsushita The Doigahama Site Anthropological Museum, Yamaguchi, Japan e-mail: matsu@jcom.home.ne.jp Yoshihito Miyatsuka Miyatsuka Institute of Archaeology, Sapporo, Japan e-mail: miya1017@msn.com Yuichi Mori Faculty of Pharmacy, Kinjo Gakuin University, Nagoya, Japan e-mail: y-mori@ccnetmie.ne.jp Hiroo Nasu Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate Univerisy for Advanced Studies, Hayama, Japan e-mail: nasu_hiroo@soken.ac.jp Yoko Nojima International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, Japan Makoto Okamura Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan e-mail: mako-ok@cc.kochi-u.ac.jp Mitsuru Okuno Department of Earth System Science, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan e-mail: okuno@fukuoka-u.ac.jp Ji-Hyun Ro Institute for Cultural Properties, Beppu University, Oita, Japan e-mail: komangnoji@yahoo.co.jp Ken-ichi Shinoda Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo, Japan e-mail: shinoda@kahaku.go.jp

Contributors

Yoshitsugu Shinozuka Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan e-mail: shino@ees.hokudai.ac.jp Shuichi Toyama Department of Literature, Kogakkan Univerisity, Ise, Japan e-mail: toyama@kogakkan-u.ac.jp Vuthy Voeun Laboratory of Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, Phnom Penh, Cambodia e-mail: vuthyvoeunkh@yahoo.com Kazuyoshi Yamada School of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Japan e-mail: kyamada@naruto-u.ac.jp Yoshinori Yasuda Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

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