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References Aloysius. Ci.: Natio11alism Withollt (/ Natio11 i11 l11dio. OUP . . Delhi 1997. Anderson Walter. K. and Damak. Shridhar D.: The Brotherhood in SaUi'o11: The Rashtri\'o S1I'o_l'al11sevakS(/IIXIi alld Hilldll Revivalism. Vistaar Puhlications. New Delhi. 1987. Bose. Sugata and .Iala I. Aycsha (cd): Natiollalism, Democracy and Developme11t: State and Politics ill l11dia.OUP. Delhi 1997. Chaltel:jcc PaItha: The Natio11 a11d Its Frogments. Ol JP. Delhi 1997.

88 I· .L: vuticnr: and Vu{//)/wl;,I'117 Since l 8(1 \/l'Ih and Rcalitv, (';lIl1hridgl' I nivcrsit , Press. 2"" lrlition. 1()l)2 . .lucrhgcnsmeycr. Mark: Religiol/s Ncuioualism Confronts The Secular St at«, OI'P. Delhi 199-L Kaviraj. sudipta (cd): Politic.\' in Indio, 01 P. Delhi 1997. Khilnani. Sunil : nil! Idea of India, I lamish Ilamiiton. l.ondon l lobxbuwm.

!'I'IJ!_[I"(//I/(:'('

1997.

1.arson. Gerald James: Indio's Agonv Over Religion, Ol :1'. 1klhi I ()()7

vl.rdun. I. '\.(ed): Religion in Illdiu.()l'P, Delhi 1997. "mIlII. Donald luucnc: Indio us LI .\('('I/I(//" Suu«. Princeton I

Press. Princeton. 196:1. Peter Vgall "der: Rei igio 1/.1 Muslims in india. Ol 'P. Iklhi 19%. 111\

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Reference t-;.~Irl

Marx .. 1 Contribution

f."CIIIIIIIIlI·

.\1('(

(hereafter

I'f".

1.;IICiI!!.CS

n! tln:

of Polilical

IlJ7())

\ll)~L'(I\\.

\'(11.1 (\I(l~L'l'\\.

.:!I: and K:lrI Marx. C'i//';IlIl. Pcrrv vudcrxon.

tlu: t.ritiqr«

III

Ih\'llIIlI/\1

'Preface."

19)-+). p.7'). Slalt' (I ondon.

IlO" I. pp. -+66 It vnd vlnrian S;I\\L'r. Marvisnt and th« VlIl \//011 of tti: .·IIWlh .l/ucie oj Prodr« tion (ThL' Hague. 1(77).

p..:!9

Ihid. pp. of.

: J.)

if~~

JJ'

'732 \;).;;J Collccted

0./" '260 J 'f1972 'J'J J) JJ' #. Travels in Indiaji')J} S ji/. .)J' (1007 '(;).;;J) 2 #. Storia 204 J (j.! J) Travcls in the ~I ~

'~I v/.JL .JoJ-!. _"?

-L '..::..:17 J 1J

Selected

J ~~

Voyagcs

·IS5.1cJy. 2 '~,

Corrcspondcnce

J.7.

'Lournal do

-4

Magar

MOf!ul Empire

(l;; if.)L : yZ.$>jJ.

'_:L"

..::..:C( J 1J ~ ?

-5

751,/ '1975 (-::- \-: bJ c..... f1975,vL 'MESC

'7- J'y ~ ,'i\'._f ~)

L~')J

''7-

vl,;:" 80

J '1853 cJy.

~;~'..::A j.~::

"_-;:ji' i L cJVJ-Vo.:.JJ.;I".

Jy.~

cJh-"'.)J

14 ',,::,,:VJ b5 JJ~ _'f

L?,A ~jf LIJ

.$>l~

~ cJVJ-Vo

~~; ~ uh~uj~L '-:"Y- L ).~ c..... ~;G:.;' ~J J.~ fl858 Jv

.JJ? ~

....'7- L11 (}Y

_,~.I(.;, ,-:"V Jif A Lon.! Canning's

Proclamation

.$>jJ.l#

u.)~:JP

and Land Tenure in India

103 Lly

v:~ ~~)

I)J

The First India War of Independence)J..:_,.rj

~ L L .::.~J..jl} i)'1163-161 V (~VLft';;.l ~

FIWI

AI)J.lJ.i

The Asiatic Mode

Production:

Sources, Development

Criuique ill the W ritings of Karl Marx (Assen, 1975),pp. 57-85 7.

K. Marx to F. Engels.

14 June

1853. MFSC.

pp. 791': K,

of British Rule in India' FIWI. pp. 361': K. Marx. Grundrisse (Harmondsworrh, 1(75). pp. 473. 4851' and 493: Capital. Vol. pp. 37St': Capital. Vol. III (Moscow, 1971). pp. 333 and 7861': and F. engles, Origin (1/ the F(/1IIil1·.Private Property (/11£1 the State (Moscow. I 96X). p. 156. Marx.

117

v 'JJI

'The Future

Results

,":",VLt' L vlJ ~L IJ~ ~LJiL..,.J~' k (1810 \:)...,;J) Report

-8

Historical Sketches of the South of India ~I

The Fifth

v:~ -V'J.? v: ~L .IJI

from the Select Committee

on. the Affairs

the East India Company

~Ly. J~I...fiIU/(YJ.lJI..:;..f'I.lJ L ~ l# ~

L.L; yj'. ~4.1: C -ki ~I

J.I~:)Jp' S J~ ...I' 55-53 If 1)~ jy". .1,1)1,.1).11) ~

-JJ.lJ{ J.I~

-S v: J;!,":",V~' 9.

I .. Kradcr. op.cit.. pp. .191'and 41.

10. Capital, Vol.IIl.pp. 7901'. II . Capital, Vol. I. pp. 3751'. 12. G.W.F.

Hegel, The Philmphl' ofHistorv

pp. 142. 161 and 163: M. Suer. op.cit.. the

inc, itahilit ,

condition

lor the

o l India« lormcr«

subjection pmgrL'ss.

(New York.

19441

pp. 26 and .101'. F(1 1\1 Europe

sec (,.\\1.1'. I lege

op.c it., p. 142: K. Marx .. lhc luturc Results of British Ru]

FIWI, pp. 33--10: and ]\.1. Sawer. op.cit.. p.L6. 13. F. l.ngcl» to K. Marx. 6 June 1853. MI:SC, p. 76. in India:

I-L

104 K. \lar". '1"11.: British Rule In 1IIlIi.l· '\e\\ York I)ail~ lribune. 25 June. IX:',. \\rillL'1I h~ vl.ux (Ill 10 June IX5~ reproduced

ill Fill'/. p. 1(1.

t irundrissc, pp. -t7~f:

I llgeb.

-uui-Duhrius:

('U/)/I/(t/.

(\1('''(11\\.

\'nl. I. p. 51-\,: and ! ()---1

2-l1).

j()

UHf

p. lq

'))1.LI[.. pp. -tX~'-\) I. \ l.mun "~I\\el, lip cu.. p. -tIl; and lrlun 1Ltbih .. \11 i v.uuuuu ion of WlIlldgei·.., lhcorv IIi' Oriental 1k..,plIti..,lll. (no/I/II I'\.e\\ Iklhi). (1. pp. 11ern vndcrson.

~-f-73. 1X.

R.S. Sharma. ·SI~Il!.L'Sill llll' I \ olurion ,Ii' Far" Indian Society' in Ci.!'. Sinhn (cd.). lilt' .\/(/11 utu] the Scientist

(Delhi. 1(171»). p 2():'. 1l). '\.and Kishorc Kumar. '1 h. draulic \l!.l"Icllllurl~ in Peninsular . India. t c. 300 n.t. III I,()() \ l r i.' I'mccl'dillgs of tlu: ln.tian llistor: (011.'-'1'('\\. I'O!) (D..:lhl. IIIXI). pp. 211-21-1. 20. R.C. Jain (cd.), \Ie( rilldlc' lI1C/(,1I1 lndi« (is Described bv Megas/helle.\" and Arriun ('\.L'\\ Delhi. 1')72). p. X6. I owe this reference 10Ill; colleague Dr. B.D. ('hatll)padh) aya. 21 . T. Ravchaudhuri and I. l lahih (cd.). ('u/JIhridge Economic l listorv oj" india (hcrcu Iter as CFlII: Cambridgc. 19X2). Vol. I. pp

-ll) ami 216. Ikm; Yuk and i\.('. 1~lIrnell. {loll")11 Johs(}11 (\ie\\

Iklhi,

I In!)), s. \. i'collah. B. D. Challopadhyaya, 'Irri~ali,)n in I arl; [\kdic\al Rajaslhan' .Iol/mol oj/he LCOIIOJlli,' lIlId Socilll lliS!OIT of Ihe OriclI/. V (II. I() (2 & .)), pp. 211X-31 (1: ami Irfall Ilabib, . Presidential Address' tn lhc seclil)1I Pll i\kdic\ al India, Proc('cdings oj/he Indiull Hi,I'!OfT ('ollgress, 1969 (Iklhi, 197() ).

v: Ii

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Ilarhans Mukhia. 'vVas I here leudulisrn in Indian l Iistor-, ': The Journal of Peas alit 5;tl/dies. \'ul. X( j). 19X I. n. 213.

26.

lima Chakravarti. 'Slmcry and Hondagc in Ancient India' (forthcoming)" Irfan Ilabih. 'The Peasant in India l Iistorv'. in Social C!Jange ;1/ lndii, ("S()cial Scientist Marx Centenary \ olumc". Vol. L I ri , audrum. 19X3). pp. '+01"and CEHr Vol. I. pp. ';;'+1. 174"77.2211. 2Â·f!i and 2-+7. 27. Charles Parain. 'The holution or .\gl"ll'Ltltm:tI l echniquc. Cambridge Economic Historv 01 Europe, \' (11. (Cambridge. 19(6). pp. l:nral1d I.+.;;r: \1:In: BliKh. French Rural Historv (London 197() ). p. 2:': (i. 'Duby , Rltro/ Ecouomv and COIIIl/1T I.if(' ill th: \Icd;c\'(// West (London, 19M{j. pp. 2.+1' and I.) I1n Whik .II',. \Iet/iew/ Tcc/1110/ogl' (/1/(/5'oc;u/('hallgc(I.()I1d()n. I()]'I. pp. -11-'+3 .und 53. 28, R, II. Iliiton. BOlld Men illude F!'ce (I oudon. 1I)],). p. 2X. 29, Harbans Mukhia. op.cit., pp. 27-l-77. 30.

R.S. Sharma. Light Oil Earlv Il/diUII Socic): and LC(}//()I/ll' (Bomba). 1966) pp. ()2 and 73: and Puspa Ni)ogi. Contributions /1' tlu: Ecol/O/Ilic l Iistorv of Northern lnclia (Calcutta. 1(62). p. 97 and n.

The Future Results of British Rille in India FlU' ( : I..I/.J~ J.J(

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Dilh.l:;h Singh. "lcnants. Sharecroppers and Agricultural Labourers in Eighteenth Ccmur, 1.astcm Rajasthan .1.,'/ "dies ill His/on'. Vol. I( 1).1979. p, ~9. :"I , llarbans Mukhia. 'Illegal l-xtortion« from Peasants. Artisans and Menials in l.ightccnth Ccnturv l-astem Rajasthan.' Indian Economic and Socia! Historv Review, Vol. l-l( 2). April-June 1977. pp 231--1:".

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References : I.

I'or the information used in this paragraph, I have relied on 111) wllcague M.D.N. Sahi's paper 'Early History of Agriculture in Pre- and Proto-Historic India', read at the Indian History Congress, Bodhgaya, 1981 (cyclostyIed). V. Gordon Childe, Man Makes Himself. London. 1948. p. 123.

155 The

40rf. Not all the evidence. special" such as inferences from art. can he beyond dispute. The simple esbon-dares (based Oil half-lire \)1" 5710

Threshold

of Ch ilization.

Ne\\

York.

1975.

pp.

years l are given III Bridget and Ra: moud Allchin. The Birth 01 Indian Ci, ilization. 19(JX. p. 140: and there arc useful discussion in D.P.Agar\\al and A. Ghosh (cds.]. Radio-carbon and Indian Archaeology. Bombay. 197:.. pp. 205-10. and in purtauax a. No. 7 ( 1(74). pp. 65-7:.. Calibration has resulted in pushing back the lower date of the culture and considerably lengthening its span. For the toy clay wheeled carts and bronze oxen round at the Indus sites. see Stuart Piggott. Pre-Historic India. 1950. pp. 176-77. The humped \1:\ (/ebul of the Indus culture was particularly suited for tractions: the hump made possible such an etfcctiv c harness. Kosambis objections in An Introduction to the Stud: Indian History. Bombay. 1956. pp. 63-67 \\ ere groundcd on the lack \)r positive c\ idcnce Ior jhc plough. and a conjectured sr.iall six of surplus owing to the presence 01" only two cities in contrast to Mesopotamia. There are some comments on the negative evidence in D.II. Gordon. The Pre-I listoric Background of Indian Culture. second edition. Bombay. 1%0. pp. 70-71. Indian Archaeology 1968-69-A Rex icw. New Delhi 1971. pp. 29-30. and Plate X XX IV. The ploughed lil'i,1 is described as 'pre-l larappau' since it is covered h:Harappan occupation strata. For wheat and barley, John Marshal. Mohcnjodaro and the Indus Civilization. London. 1931. pp. 586-X7. r : Watt says of the six-row barley that it is 'almost the (IIIi:cultivated li'OI11 (of harley) in India'. Sec Economic Products of India. [V. London. I X9(). p. 275. IiiI.' bordum adgarc and bcxatichaum arc identical \ uric: ilL'S (bUI see also S. Piggot. Prc-l listoric India. p. 15.')' lor other information on the crops. see Piggott. Pre-I lisioric India. and Sahi. "Farly History Agriculture'. Marshall. Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization. I. 1'1' :> 1-32. The variety of cotton \\as found to be 'closl'I\

156

9. 10.

1 1. 12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

related' to gossyplsan oreum and thus confirmed a finding. already made on botanical grounds. that this varriety was 'quite an ancient if not more ancient than any other cotton'. See G. Watt. Commercial Products of India. London. 1908, p. 577. Peasant. State and Society in Medieval South India. Delhi. 1980. The classical statement is in Marx. The British Rule in India' (1853). reprinted in Karl Marx and Frederick Ingels. On Colonialism. Moscow, n. d.. p. 33. See V. Gordon Chi Ide. What Happened in History. revised edition. 1954. p. 132. D. D.' Kosambi, Introduction. pp. 59-61. He possibly overstates there role of religion when he arggues that force (through bronze weaponry) was rendered superfluous by the solidifying role of religion. p. 59. R.E.M. Wheeler. 'Harappa 1946. the Defences and Cemetery 38'. Ancient India. No.3. January 1947. pp. 78-83; D. D. Kosambi, Introduction. pp. 66-90. One should always use the word .Aryan' with the reservations which Romila Thapar has so cogently urged in her Presidential Address to the Ancient India section of the Indian History Congress. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Varanai session (1969). pp. 1546. There can absolutely be no racial clements involved in it. On the absence of the horse in the Indus culture see Bridget and Raymond Allchi, Bi11h of Indian Civilization. p. 260. The Aryan success seems to parallel that or the Hyksos who overran Fg) pt with their chriots in the eighteenth century B.C. See Leonard Wooley. The Beginning of Civilization (UNESCO History or Mankind. 161. I, part 2). London .. 19()5. p. 190. The point is lightly touched upon by Sarva Daman Singh. Ancient Indian Warfare, with special reference to the Vedic period. l.cidcn 1965. p. 31. but is specially noted by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in his foreword to the book.

157 17.

18. 19.

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26.

27.

28.

R.S. Sharma. Sudrassn in Ancient India. Delhi. 195X. p. 26: see also his article "Conflict, Differentiation and Distribution in Rigvedic Society'. Indian Historical Review. IV ( I). pp. 1-12. B. S. K. Das. Economic History of Ancient India. Calcutta. 1937. pp. 28-29. See Das. Economic History. p. 32: and N. Bandyopadhyaya. Economic Life and Progress in Ancient India. Calcutta. 1965. pp. 130-31. The world held to mean rice is dhanah: see however. Kosambi, Introduction. p. 83. Kosambi. Introduction. pp. 70-71. Ibid .. p. 83. Bandyopadhyaya. Economic Life. 1. p. 125. Das. Economic History. pp. 25-26. See Dev Raj Chanana. Slavery in Ancient India. 196(). p. O. Kosambi, Introduction. pp. 92-93. Women slaves were particularly prized. Chanana. Slav ery. pp. 20-21: but this does not necessarily mean that they and their children could not be put to work for their masters. Stuart Piggot. Pre-Historic India. p. 228. It has not so far been found among the tools of the 'Copper Hoard' people. however. B. B. Lal, 'The Copper Hoard Culture of the Ganga Valley'. Antiquity. XLVI. pp. 282-87: R. C. Gaur. The Ochre-Coloured Pottery'. South Asian Archaeology. 1973. edited by van Lohuizen de Leeuw and Ulbagho 1974. pp.53-62. The dating is on the basis of thermoluminiscence: after the calibration of the carbondates of the Indus culture. the OCP culture can no longer be regarded as contemporanetous with it. excepting its last phase. See K.A. Chowdhury. Ancient Agriculture and Forestry in Northern India (a report on plant remains at Atranjihcra). Bombay. 1977. pp. 6-63: and Sahi. 'Larl) History of Agriculture'.

158 2ll.

30.

31.

32. 33. 3-l. 35. .,6. ,7.

.lX.

l-or an illuminating survey of the pre-history of iron. sec Leonard Woolley. The Beginnings of Civilization. pp. 277-X3. Dilip Chakrabarti. 'The Beginning of Iron in India'. Antiquity, L (Ill75). pp. 118-lll. His date is 800 BC for the upper Gangetic basin and 750 BC for 'Eastern India'. M.D.N. Sahi, however, argues for as early a period as the thirteenth century BC on the basis of the evidence from Eran-iancl Ahar in central India. Proceedings of the Indian llistory Congress. Bomba, (19XO). session pp. I ()-+-I I. lilt: precise lime limits 01 the P(iW culture arc difficult tIl set because otthc varied carbon-J-l dates at ell Ilcrcnt sites. B: B. l.al has summed up the evidence in a c.' closiyled monograph. 'The Painted Grey Ware Culture". i981. pp. 3'+-37 .. l-or the references to iron in the Atharvaveda see Bandyopadhyaya. Economic Life. I. pp. 158-60. A. synthesis of archaeological and literary materials is offered in R. S. Sharma, 'Class Formation and its Material Basis in the tipper Gangetic Basin', Indian Historical Review (lHR), II ( I). 1975. pp. 1- 13. See 13.13. l.al, 'Painted Grey Ware Culture', pp. 5-8. About 650 PGW sites are said to have been discovered. K.A Chowdhury, Ancient Agriculture, p. 63; Sahi, .Early History of Agriculture'. Kosambi. Introduction, p. 1-l4. Narendra Wagle, Society of the Time of the Buddha, Bombay. 1966, p. 151 . See references in Badhyopndyaya. l.conoinic Lite, I. pp. 1:'-1-3'+: Das. Economic History. pp. 90-91. Cambridge History of India. I. edited by E . .I. Rapson. Delhi reprint 1955. pp. 11'+-15. The presence of 'serfs' is doubted by R. S. Sharma. IHR, II ( I ). p. 8 . R. Fick. I'he Social Organization of North East India in Buddha's Time. English translation. Calcutta. 1920.243.+.+: and Atindra Nath Bose. Social and Rural Economy oj" Northern India. 600 Be-AD 200. Calcutta. 1970, pp. 62-93.

159 39.

40.

41. 42.

43.

44. 45.

46. 47. 48.

49.

See Sibesh Bhattacharya. 'Land System as Reflected in Kaudlyas Artthasastra. Indian' Economic and Social History Review (lESHR). XVI (1 ). pp. 85-95. U.N. Ghoshal. Contributions to the Hindu Revenue S~stem. Calctutta. 1929. pp. 29-31. 34: Kosambi, Introduction. p. 215. B.B. Lal, 'Painted Grey Ware Culture'. pp. 22-23. Bones of wild animals (stat. nilgai and even leopard). ev idently eaten. have been found at the PGW sites of Hastinapura and Attajikhera. ibid.. p. 17. One is reminded of Asoka s taste for peacocks and deer: her still ate their meat when the number of animals daily killed in his kichedn had been \ astly reduced (Rock Edict I). Kosambi, Introduction, pp. 121-23. For the Nisadas, see Vivakanand tha, 'From Tribe to Untouchable; the Case of Nisadas, Indian Society; Historical Probings. edited by R. S. Sharma and V.Jha. New Delhi. 1974. pp. 69-75. R. C. Majumdar (ed.). The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta. 1960. pp. 225. 237. 264. Fick. indeed. believed on the basis of the evidence of the Jatakas that the land \\ as 'mostly in the possession of Brahmanas' (Social Organisation, p. 241). See R. S. Sharma in IHR. II (1). pp. 8-9. The Laws of Manu. translated by G. Buhler. Oxford. 1886. pp. 420-21. B. B. Lal. 'Painted Grey Ware Culture', p. 13. A sickle and hoe-tip have been found at the PGW site of Jakhera (ibid .. p. 13); and this suggests a slight modification of the statement that- . iron agricultural implements' begin only with the NRP. R.S. Sharma. IHR. II (1). p. 2. Yet the large relative increase in the number of such implements beginning with remains a fact. What Happened in History. rev iscd edition. ]954. p. 183. The first depiction of a peasant in India. driving a plough with a pair of oxen. is in a Kusana frieze. Ad 200. reproduction in D.O. Kosambi, Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical Outline.

160

50. 51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56. 57.

London. 1965: plate 15. The picture 11UI\ well he PI' :1 twentieth century Indian peasant ploughing. Das. lconomic History. pp. 9:;-202. Four such a list se N.N. Kher. Agrarian and Fiscal l.conomy in the Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Age. Delhi. pp. 379-400. Some individual items on the list. such as maize. groundnut and chilli. arc however demonstrably erroneous Kautilya (Arthasastra, II:24) specifies the major crops sown for the spring and autumn harvests: see Arthasastra. translation b) Shamasastry. M) sore. 1956: pp. 127-31. For this second 'urban revolution'. see A. Ghosh. The City in Early Historical India. Simla. 1973: and R.S. Sharma's review in IHR. I( 1). pp. 9X- I03. Kosarnbi. Introduction. p. 130. One would wish for a I11mc explicit statement of this practice in \ icw of its importance. See accounts of Diodorus Siculus and Strabo. translations in R. C. Maj umdar (ed.), The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta. 1960 pp. 237. 264. 287 (note 20. It is possible that the 'land tribute' represents the kings traditional levy of one-sixth of the produce also laid down by Kautilya. R.S. Sharma. Sudras. pp. 146-49. See also Kosambi. Introduction. pp. 219-20. Sibesh Bhattacharya. Indian Economic and Social History Rex iev, (IESHR). XVI( 1). pp. 85-86 is right in pointing out that Kautilya does not recommend peasant ownership but Sharma. whom he criticizes on this score. seems quite well aware of the distinction between peasant cultivation and peasant ownership and alwo of the rather vague connotation of karshaka. which may mean peasant as well as agricultural labourer.But the Arthasastra in the present uses the term clearly enough in the sense of peasant cultivator. See Sharma. Sudras. pp. 230-31: also Journal of Bihar Research Society (IBRS). LXIV. III and IV. 1958. p. 8. Sharma. Sudras. p. 178.

167 pp. 32-33. The Chola inscriptions have Peringurimakkal, 'the great men of the assembly', Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society, p. 145. For the sabbas of the brahmana villages in the Chola kingdom, see Altekar, State and Government, pp. 23135, and .Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society, pp. 145ff. Kosambi in Introduction, pp. 301-10, has some channing pages on the brahmana village communities of Goa, a combination of recorded information (traced to the fourth century) and his own recollections. See also his Myth and Reality, Bombay, 1962, pp. 152-71; Baden-Powell, 'The Villages of Goa in the Early Sixteenth Century', Joumal of the Royal Asiatic Society (lRAS), 1900, pp. 261-91; and Moserrates description (1579), translated by Hosten, Journal of the (Royal) Asiatiac Society of Bengal (JASB), NS, XIII (1922), pp. 351-52,365. Kosambi, Introduction, pp. 227,253-54. Ibid .. p. 312. See B.N.S. Yadava, Society and Culture. p. 267. See Karashima, Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Taril Studies. p. 429, on the responsibility of the ur (assembly in non-brahmana villages) to pay tax (irai) on the village land .. Zia Barani, Tarikh-l-Firuz-Shahi, edited by Sayyied Ahmed Khan. W.N.Lees and Kabiruddin, Calcutta. 1860-62. p. 287 (henceforth referred to as 'Barani') U.N. Ghoshal, Contributions to the History of the Hindu Revenue System, second edition. Calcutta, 1972, pp . 275-77, 280, 283-86. 299. 307. 319. See however, D.N.Jha. Revenue System of Post-Manrya and Gupa Times. Calcutta, 1967. pp. 53-56. See W.H. Moreland. Agtarian System of Moslem India. Cambridge. 1929. pp. 5-6. U.N. Ghoshal. Hindu Revenue System. p. 71. Arthasastra, II: IS translated hy Shamasastry, Mysore, 1967. p. 99. Translations of the passages in Diodorus Siculus and Strabo are in R.C. Majumdar (ed.). Classical Accounts (I).

125.

126. 127. 128. 129.

130.

131.

132. 133. 134. 135.

168

136. 137. 1.18. 139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

of India. pp. 237. 264. There is some doubt as to whether Strabo means that the peasants paid or received onefourth of the produce. Diodorus is apparently unambiguous here. ibid. 287. n 20: but see U.N. Ghoshal. Hindu. Revenue System. pp. 224-29. See U.N. Ghoshal, Hindu Revenue System. p. 252; D.N . Jha. Revenue System. pp. 43-45. D.N. Jha in Land Revenue in India-Historical Studies. edited by R.S. Sharma. Delhi: 1971, p. 5. D. N. Jha. Revenue System. p. 43. Indian Feudalism, p. 265. For these taxes see Lallanji Gopal, Economic Life of Northern, India. 700-1200. Delhi. 1965. pp. 32-70. Subha itaratnakosa of Vidyakara, cited by Kosambi, Introduction, p. 268, and Sharma, Indian Feudalism. p. 267. Kosambi sets out his theory in Introduction. pp. 274fT. in two chapters: the description or 'Indian Feudalism' as compared with European is given on pp. 326-28. Allienation of tax rights by rulers led to 'feudalism from above', while in 'feudalism from below' a class of 'land owners developed within the village. between the state and the peasantry. to wield armed power' over the population. ibid.. p. 275. Sharma in his seminal work. Indian Feudalism, does not seem to consider the latter process as contributing to feudalism .. Sharma summarizes his conclusions on pp. 263-72. Sharma's own date (Indian Feudalism. p. 283). See Rushton Coulborns perceptive remarks (in spite of his excessively narrow view of feudalism) on the role of brahmanas in Comparative Studies in Society and History (CSSH), X (3). 1968. pp. 57-59. especially the note on p. 359. R.S. Sharma, IHR. I (I), p. 5; B.N.S. Yadava . .fHR. III (I). p. 44. The paucity of coins, as index of the decline, is also commented upon by Lallanji Gopal, Economic Life. pp. 215-21. See R,S. Sharma. Indian Feudalism. pp. 156-209; B.N.S. Yadava, Society arid Culture. pp. 136-63.

169 145. 146.

147. 148.

149.

150.

151. 152.

153.

V.R.R. Dikshitar, War in Ancient India. Madras; 1944. pp. 165-66. On the ineffectiveness of cavalry without and stirrup. see Sarva Daman Singh. Ancient Indian Warfare. pp, 69-71. The arrival of the saddle in the West is dated first century AD. but its spread was slow slow; Lynn White Jr, Medieval Technology, pp. 7-8. A saddle is probably show in a Khajuraho sculpture of the tenth century. Vidya Prakash, Khajuraho, Bombay. 1967, p. 38 and plate 47. On the stirrup. see Irfan Habib. 'Changes in Technology in Medieval India'. Studies in History. II ( 1). 1980, pp. 25-26. Chachanama, edited by Umar Daulpota .. Delhi, 1939. p. 169. The historical implications of the emergence of the Rajput horseman are missing in most discussions of the period, but Coulbom, almost by chance. draws a linguistic parallel between the rajaputra and the 'knight', CSSH, X (3), 1962, p. 369n. On the emergence of the Rajputs. see B.D. Chattopadhyaya, 'Origins of the Rajputs'. IHR, III (1), pp.59-82. On the groups of villages, many of which survive as traditior alterritorial division under different Raj put clans, see Irfan Habib, 'Distribution of Landed Property in Pre-British India', Enquiry, NS. II (3), 1965, p. 42. where other references will be found; pp. 59-108 of this volume, Barani, pp. 287-88, 291. I have tried to trace this transfermation (thirteenthfouteenth centuries) in The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. I, edited by T. Ray chaudhuri and Irfan Habib, Cambridge, 1982. pp. 54-60. The predominance of the Rajputs among the zamindar clans recorded against individual parganas in Akbar's empire with numbers of retainers (horse and foot) (Ain-IAkbari: Account of the Twelve Suhar) is proof enough of the 'Indian-feudal' roots of that class. Manu, X, 34; Buhler's translation. p. 410.

170 154.

155. 156.

157.

158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163.

R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, p. 298. Also see R.D. Banessi. The Palas of Bengal.. Reprint, Varanasi, 1973, pp.44-51. H. C. Ray, The Dynastic History of Northern India, I, Calcutta, 1931, p. 364. See Kosambi's general obseravation about 'Islamic raiders .... Breaking down hidebound custom in the adoption and transmission of new techniques', in Introduction, p. 370. The evidence is presented in my address, 'Technology and Society in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries', Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Varanasi, 1969, pp. 149-53, 161, to be read with the additions and revision made by me in 'Changes in Technology in Medieval India', Studies in History, II (1) (1980), pp. 18-20. In the latter paper (p. 19), I noted evidence for the potgarland in India from the sixth and seventh centuries. Lallanji Gopal brings together many passages bearing on the araghatta in his Aspects of History of Agriculture in Ancient India, Varanasi 1980, pp. 114-8; but his insistence that gearing is pre-medieval seems excessive pleading. Studies in History, II (1), p. 22. Ibid., pp. 23-24. Ibid., pp. 28-29. Silks other than mulberry, such as tasar and eri, have probably a much older history in India. Irfan Habib, 'Technology and Economy of Mughal India', IESHR, XVII (1), p. 3. Ibod., pp. 4-6. After a fairly sympathetic speculation on the caste system (even pointing to an Iranian parallel), Alberuni ' remarks: 'We Muslims, of course, stand entirely on the other side of the question, considering all men as equal, except in piety'; Alberuni's India, translated by Edward, C. Sachan, I, London, 1910, p. 100. Such counterposition of the theoretical equality in Islam and the caste system stands unique in medieval literature, and clearly Alberuni was by no means representing the general trend. To most Muslim writers (of whom Bareni,

171

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169.

170.

171.

author of the Tarikh-I-Firuz Shah. 1357. is the outstanding spokesman). a stable hierarchy was the most praiseworthy social idea. 'In our countries the people who are nomads of the

steppes are distinguished by names of different tribes: but here in (in Hindustan) people settled in the country and villages are distinguished by names of tribes.' Babur. Baburnama. Br. Mus. MS. Or 714f 410a: see A.S. Beveridge's translation. II. p. SIR. Kosambi would have appreciated this analogy with tribes. See Dl Ibbetson s remarks on the condition in western Punjab. 'where Islam has largely superseded Brahminism. Punjab Castes. Lahore. 1961. pp. 10-11. Chachanama. edited by U. Daudpota. pp. 214-16: these pages and also pp. 47-48 for the earlier disabilities. A later Governor reached Manu in insisting that the jatis should be accompanied by dogs. Balazuri. Futuh alBuldan, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India as Told byits Oun, Historians. I. London. 1867. p. 129. See also Manu. X. 51: Buhler's translation. p. 416. Col. James Skinner. Tashrib-ul-Aqwam (AD 1825). MS BR. Mus. Add. 27. 255. ff. 187a 188a. This work describes very accurately the castes and their traditions in the Haryana region at the time. See an important paper by Dharma Kumar, 'Caste and Landlessness in South India'. CSSH. IV (3) (1962). pp. 338-63: also her book. Land and Caste in South India. Cambridge. 1965. especially p. 161. Tarikh-I-Firuz-Shahi. p. 287. On balahar. see H.M. Elliot. Memoirs of the History. Folklore and Distribution of Race in the North-Western Provinces. II. edited by John Beames, London. 1869. p. 249: and Irfan Habib. Agrarian System of Mughal India. pp. 120-21. Hiroshi Fukazawa, .Rural Servants in the Eighteenth Century Maharashtrian -Village= Demiurgic or Jajmani System", Hitor subashi Journal of Economics (l-UE), XII (2). 1972. pp. 14-40. It is practically found almost whereve one looks. When the English temporarily took possession -of Broach

172 (Gujarat) in 1776. the Collector reported: 'That a certain proportion of the land of each village is regusitic to be set apart for the common services of the village is according to the custom of the country true.' Selections from the Letters .... In the Bombay Secretariat. Home Series. edited by G. W. Forrest. II. Bombay. 1887. p. 184. 172.

173.

I 7 -L

175.

176.

177.

In the confrontation of town and bedouin in Arabia. Islam was hostile to the bedouin. See the Quran. IX, 97. 98. See also Lokkegaar. Islamic Taxation in the Classic Period, Copenhagen. 1950, p. 32. E. Ashtor. A social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages, is a competent survey with useful references. A useful guide to conditions in the Islamic East is G. Le Strange's classic work. Lands of the Eastern Caliphate. Cambridge. 1905 (reprinted. 1(30). That the essential difference between the invader and defender was one between mounted archer and swordsman or lancer was ..first pointed out by Simon Digby. Horse and Elephant in the Delhi Sultanate, Oxford, 197 I. pp. 15tT. See also Irt~1I1Habib. Studies in History, II (I), pp. 25-27. Behind this need lay the hesitation of the Sultans in paying their own cavalry troopers by assignments of villages instead of in cash. See Barani, pp. 163-64. 2202 L 303, 324. 553; Afif, Tarikh-I-Firuz-Shahi, Bib. Ind. Calcutta. 1850. pp. 94-96. See V. Barthold, Iran, translated by G. K. Nariman, edited by I. H. Jhabavala, in Post humous Works of G.K. Nariman. Bombay. 1935. pp. 142-43. This immensely fruitful insight belongs to W.H. Moreland See his Agrarian System of Moslem India. especially pages 289-92. The system as it worked in the Delhi Sultanate is also discussed in Cambridge Economic History of India (CUB). I. pp. 68-75. For the Mughal empire, see my Agrarian System. pp. 257-97. and M. Athar Ali. The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, Bombay, 1966. p. 95.

173 178.

179.

180.

181. 182.

183. 184.

185.

186.

Introduction to a new edition of Elliot and Dowson. History of India as Told by its Own Historians. II. Aligarh. 1952, pp. 36-82. My own views are set out in 'Economic History of the Delhi Sultanate-An Interpretation'. IHR. IV pp. 28788. I have presented the evidence in IHR. IV (2). pp. 289tT. It is possible that there was a modest revival of commerce and towns before the Ghorian conquests to which Sharma draws atrension. Indian Feudalism. pp. 242-62. B.D. Chattopadhyaya. 'Trade and Urban Centuries in Early Medieval India'. IHR. I(2). pp. 2U319. even contests Sharma's thesis of the earlier urban decline: but it is difficult to evaluate the evidence be adduces. since it is not Shm:ma's position that the towns completely disappeared after the Guptas or that no new towns were founded at all. These cuestions may ultimately be resolved more precisely by archaeology; it would seem, however. that the thirteenth century does mark an immense extension of urban sites whose remains have survived. CEHL I. pp. 167-71. On this relationship, my own arguments is presented in .Potentialities of Capitalist Development in the Economy of Mughal India'. Enquiry, NS, III(3), pp. 156 (pp. 189-232 of this volume). especially pp. 22-36. For Alauddin Khalji' s measures, the basic source IS Barani, pp. 287-88. Moreland, Agrarian System of Moslem India, pp. 16-18. held that in its approximation to 'economic rent'. the tax was essentially Islamic in origin. while in its being fixed at a uniform share irrespective of crop. it had Hindu antecedents. For a clear-headed account of agrarian taxation under the Sultanate, see Moreland, Agrarian Systa, of Moslem India. pp. 21-65: I offer a description in CEHI. L pp. 6068. See Irfan Haib, Agrarian System, pp. 190-96, and the references given there. There has been much work since

en.

174

187.

188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193.

194. 195. 196. 197. 198.

199.

200.

then on revenue administration. but it has tended uniformly to confirm this finding. Harbans Mukhia seems to me to miss this point when he says 'that the Sultans in imposing their heavy land tax were merely following earlier precedents, Journal of Peasant Studies (JPS). VIII (3). 1981. p. 292. Barani. pp. 287. 288. 291-420. Irfan Habib. Agrarian System. p. 150 and n. Barani. p. 287. See Irfan Habib. Agrarian System, pp. 230-33. Insha-I-Mahru. edited by S.A. Rashid Lahore. 1965. pp.61-63. Irfan Habib, Agrarian Sytem. pp. 715-16. See also the seventeenth-century documents from Gujarat discussed by B.R: Grover in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Delhi session. 1961. pp. 152-55. See CEHI. I. p. 90. Irfan Habib, Agrarian System. pp. 322-23 .. Barani, pp. 287-88. 291. On the Khot. see IESHR. IV (3). pp. 212-13. Ibid .. p. 4'30. I omit giving detailed references here. because I have little substantial information to add to my description of zamindars in Agrarian System. pp. 136-89. See also an important paper by S. Nurual Hasan. "Zamindars under the Mughals' in Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History. edited by L.E. Frykenburg, London. 1969. A discussion of the zamindars share in the surplus occurs in my Agrarian System. pp. 144-54. Moosvi argues in favour of a higher share of the zamindar: IESHR. XI (3), pp. 359-74. He is correct even in saying that the pre-Islamic potentates were recognized as landowners. Rantas are found selling or mortgaging ther lands in two thirteenthcentury inscriptions from UP. The Jaunpur brik inscription of 1217 has been published by V.S. Agrawala in Journal of UP Historical Society (JUPHS). XVIII (l and 2). 1945, pp. 196-201; the Kasrak inscription of

t 75

201.

202. 203.

204.

205.

206.

207. 208.

1227 is being published by my colleague Dr. Pushpa Prasad, to whom I am indebted for the information. Risala Ahkam-l-Arazi, Aligarh MSS, Abdus Salam Arabiya 331-10 ff 4~v-62a, Lytton Arabiya Mazhab (2), 62 ff, 53v-62. For his biOgraphy (such as is known) see Abdul Hai Hassani, Nazhatu-Ikhawatir, VI, Hyderabad (Dn), 1376/1907, p. 278. Irfan Habib, Agrarian System, pp. 118, 141-44. As a result, Moreland (Agrarian System of Moslem India, pp, 122-23) was inclined to equate the Mughal zamindar with vassal chief only. See also P. Saran, The Provincial Governments of the Mughals (1526-1658), Allahabad, 1941, p. III and n., for a similar view, Shaikh Nasiruddin in . his conversations, Khairu-lMajalis, recorded '(c. 1354) by' Ha~id Qalandar, edited by K.A. Nizami, Aligarh, pp. 140,' 272. Land, being abundant, is not considered a requirement (CEHI, p. 48). Evidence, of such concessional rates from eastern Rajasthan is presented in Dilbagh Singh, 'Caste and the structure of Village in Eastern Rajasthan duringh the Eighteenth Century', IHR, II (2), pp. 299-311; by S.P. Gupta for the late seventeenth century in Proceedings of Indian History Congress, Aligarh session, 1975, pp. 23537; and by R.P.Rana, IESHR, XVIII (3 and 4), pp. 291, 326. The miras tetiUt~, of Maharashtra are of similar character, and such priviileged strata would be found practically everywhere. In northern India they are often called 'khwud-kasht' peasants. Original text of Todat Mal's memorandum, Akbarnama, Br. Mus..Add 27, 247, f 333b, where the great men are denounced as 'bastards and the headstrong': Abul Fazl, Aim-l-Akbari, I; edited by Blochmann, Bib Ind, p. 286; and Aurangzeb's farman to Rasikdas, Art VI, JASB, II, 1906, pp. 223-55. Barani, p. 2,87. Barani, pp. 305-6. See also Moreland, Agrarian Systemof Moslem India, pp. 37-38. Elsewhere, Barani himself says that the peasants under the same Sultan sold grain to merchants at fixed prices in order to pay the revenue, !

176

209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214.

215. 216. 2 17.

218.

219. 220. 221.

222. 223. 224.

which must then have been paid in cash (pp. 304-5. 3(7). Irfan Habib. Agrarian System. pp. 236-40. The detailed argument for this is a advanced by me in Enquiry. NS. III (3), pp. 32-36. S.N. Hasan. K.N. Hasan and S.P. Gupta. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Mysore session, 1966, pp. '249.263. Tables I and V. . See the data on agrarian usury in my article 'Usury in Medieval India', CSSH. VI (4), pp. 394路路98. Malikzana, Nigma-I-Munsbi (compiled 1684), Lucknow. 1884, p. 139. Chhatar Mal, Diwan-pasand, Br. Mus. Or, 201L ff 7b8a. The work was compiled some time' before 1824, in the Doab area. Khasra document discussed by S.P. Gupta, Medieval India - A Miscellany, IV, Bombay, pp. 168..,78. Evidence of Mughal documents on this is set out in Agrarian System, pp. 125-27. See Satish Chandra, 'Some Aspects of Indian Village Society in Northern India during the Eighteenth Century', IHR, 1(1),pp. 51-64. I am conscious that I see the effects commodity production on the village community rather differently from how these had seemed to me in Agrarian System, pp. 128-29. This is, perhaps, partly because my conception of the community has also changed since then. See Agrarian System, pp. 133-34. They are analysed and calendared in IESHR, IV (3), pp. 205-32; see especially pp. 211-17. Ibid.. pp. 路215-16. The Kachhis and Chamars are terned the 'ancient maliks' of the village in the document (No. 16路 of AD 1611). Presumably, they were simply its inhabitants, forced to 'sell' their village upon an inability to pay the revenue. See Agrarian System. pp. 100-10. Barani, pp. 472-73. Ibid.. pp. 479-80.

177 225. 226. 227. 228.

229. 230.

231. 232. 233.

234.

235.

236. 237. 238. 239.

Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri. edited by Saiyid Ahmad, Ghazipur and Aligarh, 1863-64. pp. 375-76 .. Insha-I Mahru, p. 75. . See Agrarian System. pp. 333-51. Ibid., pp. 339-42. The zamindar aspect of the Jat revolt is stressed by R.P. Rana in a very detailed and informative article based on the Amber records (now at the Rajasthan Archives. Bikaner): 'Agrarian Revolts in Northern India during the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Century', IESHR. XVIII (3 and 6). pp. 287-326. Saiyed Ghulam Ali Khan. Imadus Suadat, Naval Kishore, 1897. p. 55. See Satish Chandra. 'Social Background to the Rise of the Maratha Movement during the Seventeenth Century', IESHR, X (3) 197 (3). pp. 209-17. and P.V. Ranade .. Feudal Content of Maharashtra Dharma', IHR. I( 1). pp. 44-50. See also Agrarian System. pp. 349-50. Bhimsen, Nuskha-I Dilkusha, Br. Mus. Or 23, f 139 p-b. Mir Ghulam Ali Azad Bilgrami, Khizana-I Amira, Kanpur, 1871. p. 49. I form this impression from H. Fukazawa, 'Land and Peasants in the Eighteenth Century Maratha Kingdom'. H1E. VI(l). June 1965. The bold assertion that access to God could be acquired by men of such low birth is made in beautiful verses composed in Braj by Guru Arjun in the name of Dhanna Jat. where the names and occupations of some of the great preachers are given. Guru Granth Sahib. 1. Devanagari text Amritsar, 1951. pp. 487-88; see also p. 109. I have examined these verses in 'Evidence for Sixteenth Century Agrarian Conditions in the Guru Granth Sahib'. IESHR, I, 1964. \:'erses reproduced in Muzaffar Husain. NamaMuzaffari, I. Lucknow, 1917. p. 255. Maasir-I Alamgiri, Calcutta. 1870-73. pp. 115-16. Abul Fazi Mamuri, History of Aurangzebs Reign. Br Mus. Or 161. f 148b. Maasir-I Alamgiri. pp. 114-15.

178

2-1-0. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245.

Futuhat-I Alamgiri, Br. Mus. Add 23. 884. f 61 h. Dabistan-I Mazahib. edited b) Nazar Ashraf. Calcutta. 1809. p. 285. Muhammad Shaft Warid, Miratu-I Waridat.oBr. Mus. Add 6579, f 117b. Imadus Satadat, p. 71. Zafamama, composed AD 1706 (") . .lalandhar. 1959. One can see this even in Indu Bangas otherwise sympathetic description. Agrarian S) stem of the Sikhs. New Delhi. 1978.

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