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Decline
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the
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(Abridged
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23 George Allen & Unwin London, 1922, pp. 243-261
Jd
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A History
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History
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Aligarh 1952,pp. 43, 55, 61,62, 70.
Economic Essay
History in
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the
Delhi
In
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:~dlV
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An
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Historical
Review, IV, No.2, 1978,pp. 287-303. 230-229
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Reference 1. Sonia P. Seherr Thoss, "Design and color in Islamic Architecture," Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 1968, p.138. 2. M. Wali Ullah Khan, "Lahore and its Important Monuments," Anjum Press, Karachi, 1961, p.37. 3. S. M. Latif "Lahore its History, Architectural Remains and Antiquities," Lahore, New Imperial Press, 1892, reprint 1981, p. 393.
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References 1. T. H. Thornton, "Lahore: A Historical Note, Written in 1860," cited in Goulding, Old Lahore 114. 2. Latif, Lahore 27. 3. In the Mughal system of rank, Qasim Khan was thus obliged to provide 4000 soldiers to the emperor when needed and was granted, in tum, the revenue rights to support that number of soldiers and himself. 4. Chetan Singh, Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). 5. The most important accounts of Lahore by Europeans from this time period include Francis Bernier, Travels in the Mughal Empire: AD 1656-68, trans. Irving Brock, ed. Vincent A. Smith, 2nd ed. (Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1989); Jean de Thevenot, The Travels of Monsieur de Thevenot into the Levant, Part III, ed. Surendranath Sen (Delhi: National Archives of India, 1949); Sebastian Manrique, Travels of Sebastian Manrique, 1629-1643 trans. Charles Eckford Luard (Oxford: Halkyut Society, 1927); Richard Steel and John Crowther, "A Journal of the Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther," in Samuel Purchas, Pilgrimes (London, 1625) 519-24; and J.B. Tavernier, Travels in India, trans. V. Ball (London, 1889). 6. Cited in Thornton, "Lahore" 126. 7. Ranjit Singh has inspired more than a few impassioned . biographies. Two biographies which stand out among
79
others, for different reasons, are 1. S. Grewal's scholarly, Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University, 1982); and Khuswant Singh's more adventurous, Raojit Singh: Mabaraja of the Punjab, 17801839 (Bombay: George Allen and Unwin, 1962). 8. Chirstopher Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) 136. 9. Latif, Lahore 83. 10. See Thomas Metcalf, An Imperial Vision ch. 1. The first British history of India's monuments, a work that remained the standard work in the field for over fifty years after its publication, was James Fergusson's History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (London, 1876). Fergusson began writing his book in the early 1840s. Metcalf writes, "when [Fergusson] returned to England in 1842, after eight years in India, [he] set himself the task of bringing India's architectural history 'within the domain of science' on the basis of the discoveries of the preceding decades. An 'intelligible' account of the long centuries of Indian building was, so he conceived it, now within reach" 27. 11. Chishti, Tahqiqaat; Latif, Lahore. 12. Cited in Susan Stronge, "Arts of the Court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh," The Arts of the Sikh Kingdom, ed. Susan Stronge (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1999) 90. 13. For a discussion of the evolution of the concept that Sikhs and other groups within Punjab were "martial" races see Fox, Lions of the Punjab. 14. The British province of Punjab, as a political unit, was defmed geographically prior to European occupation of northern India. The Mughal emperor Akbar was perhaps the first to use the tern . : unjab" to refer to a province within his empire. In Akbar's court chronicles,
80
the Ain-I-Akbari, "Subah Lahor" (Lahore Province) and "Punjab' are used interchangeably to refer to a newly re-organized territorial unit that extended' from the Sutlej river in the east, to the Indus river in the west. See Abu al-Fazl, Ain-I-Akbari, ed. H. Blochmann, 2 vols. (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1972-77). Most historians have taken "Punjab" to mean "land of the five rivers," since the word is derived from two Persian roots: "panch", meaning five, and "aab" meaning water. On the other hand, as Professor J.S. Grewal has pointed out, there are actually seven major rivers in the province, not five. There are, however, five doabs-the elongated triangle of land lying between two streams that conjoin-between these seven rivers. Thus, according to Grewal, .the term "Punjab" is more likely to have referred to the "land of five doabs" at the time of its coining by Akbar, who indeed named all five of the doabs during his reign. Personal communication with J. S. Grewal in Chandigarh, India, July 1998. 15. M. Mufakharul Islam, Irrigation, Agriculture and the Raj: Punjab, 1887-1947 (Delhi: Manohar, 1997) 13. 16. Gilmartin, Empire and Islam 9. 17. Gilmartin, Empire and Islam 18-19. 18. The classic contemporary statement is found in C. L. Tupper, Punjab Customary Law, 3 vols. (Calcutta, 1881). Tupper first codified a system of tribal customary law that would be used to adjudicate all noncivil cases in the province. The justification for designating ''tribes'' as the fundamental unit of society is given its fullest articulation in this work. More recent works which treat the same issue include Richard Fox, Kin, Clan, Raja and Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), and Fox, Lions of the Punjab. 19. Gilmartin, Empire and Islam chs. 1 and 2. 20. Lepel Griffen, The Rajas of Punjab (Lahore, 1870). This work was subsequently revised and published as
81
Lepel Griffen, The Punjab Chiefs (Lahore, 1890); and Charles Massey, Chiefs and Families of Note in the Punjab (Lahore, 1890). 21. Cited in W. L. Conran and H. D. Craik, The Punjab Chiefs, revised ed. (1909; Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993) i. 22. Conran and Craik, The Punjab Chiefs ii. 23. Conran and Craik, The Punjab Chiefs iii. 24. Bayly, Empire and Information 20. 25. Bayly, Empire and Information 21. 26. Bayly, Empire and Information 24. 27. Bayly, Empire and Information 25. 28. Bayly, Empire and Information 25. 29. Bayly, Empire and Information 25. 30. Bayly, Empire and Information 25. 31. In the Punjab, Aroras and Khatris were the dominant merchant castes. They were also prominent in Mughal, Sikh, and British governments as clerks, scholars and lower-level administrative' personnel. Richard Fox writes that Aroras and Khatris "made up less than five percent of the Punjab's male population in 1891," and that "their literacy rate in 1891 was seven times higher than the average for all castes." Fox, Lions of the Punjab 126. For a discussion of this scholarlymillieu in the north Indian community see David Leyveld,Aligarh's First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) especially ch. 2. 32. Information on this work has been taken from Bhagat Singh, "Ali-ud-Din Mufti," The Punjab Past and Present 26.2 (1992): 36-53; and Gurbux Singh, "Society in the Punjab Under Ranjit Singh, Mufti Ali Ud Din's Analysis," Proceedings from the Punjab History Conference, Tenth Session (Patiala: Publication Bureau Punjabi University, 1976) 130-138.
82
33. Information on this unpublished work is drawn from Fauja Singh, "Two Contemporary Urdu Accounts of Mid-19th Century Punjab", Proceedings from the Punjab History Conference, Ninth Session (Patiala: Publication Bureau Punjabi University, 1975) 128-132. 34. Singh, "Two Contemporary Accounts" 130. 35. Michael M. Chamberlain, Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval, Damascus, 1190-1350 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 36. Chamberlain, Knowledge and Social Practice 150 37. Two early geners of Muslim historical writing that continued well into the nineteenth century are birographical dictionaries, and chronicles of the lives of saints, rulers, and other persons of note. The Sirat Rasul Allah, a biography of the Prophet written some 60 years after his death, is perhaps the earliest surviving biography in this tradition. See Ibn Ishaq; The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, trans. A Gullaume (1955; Karacgi: Oxford University Press, 1995). Brinkley Messick, a historian of modem Islamic historiographic practices, writes that "the initial impetus for such works [as chronicles and biographical dictionaries] was to know the men enabling the critical assessment fo the passage of authoritative knoweldge through time". In a context where the authority of a text was judged largely on the basis of the chain of transmission through which it was constituted, enunciating the links in that chain served to identify and ground, in part, the authority upon which a text was based. See Brinkley Messik, The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993) 128. 38. Bernard Lewis, "First-Person Narrative in the Middle East", Middle Eastern Lives: The Practice of Biography and Self-Narrative, ed. Martin Kramer (Syracuse:
83 Syracuse University Press) 20-34; and Barbara D. Metcalf, "Narrating Lives: A Mughal Empress, A French Nadob, A Nationalist Muslim Intellectual," Journal Asian Studies 54 (1995): 474-80. 39. An excellent compilation of essays on the role of adab (proper behaviour, comportment) in South Asia, including both historical and contemporary case studies, is found in Katherine P. Ewing, ed., Shariat ard Ambiguity in South Asian Islam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). 40. Delhi was part of Punjab Province until 1911, when it was transferred for administrative purposes to the United Provinces. 41. Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Asar-us-Sanadid (1846; Delhi: Central Book Depot, 1965). I will be using Nath's English translation of Khan's work. See Ram Natn, Monuments of Delhi (New Delhi: Ambika Publications, 1979). Sanadid is defined in PIaU's dictionary as boh "Princes, chiefs, lords, noblemen," and as "calamities, misfortunes, dangers, great or formidable events". J01m T. Platts, A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English (1911: Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1994) 746. 42. Nath, Monuments of Delhi v. 43. Bayly, Empire and Information 197.¡ 44. Nath, Monuments of Delhi xiv; English title and translation by Ram Nath. 45. Nath, Monuments of Delhi v, emphasis added. 46. Nath, Monuments of Delhi xiv. 47. Thomas Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) 85-86, and 149-150. 48. Nath, Monuments of Delhi vi. 49. Nath, Monuments of Delhi vii. 50. Chishti, Tahqiqaat 14, translation mine. 51. Indian National Archives, Home Department Proceedings, General, "Report on Vernaular Books t
84
Registered in the Punjab During the year 1867;" (henceforth "Vernacular Books, 1867"). 52. Messic, The Calligraphic State 125. While Messick studied Middle Eastern, not South Asian, traditions of historical writing, both areas shared a substantial corpus of Islamic texts, practices, and institutional frameworks for the production and disssemination of knowledge that make their comparison in the present context a meaningfulone. 53. Contemporary anthropologists, of course, also attribute more than arbitrary status to things like legends, hearsay, and oral testimony, even though they may often surround these forms of evidence with "statistical" or other "hard" forms of (sometimes unrelated) data. 54. This is much the same as initiatory formula used in the texts examined by Chamberlain and Messick. Messick writes that "in his history of Yemen. [1928] [... ] [the author] deploys a two-part 'organization' (tartib) described in his opening 'discourse' (al-khutba): 'The first part concerns the biography of the Prophet and [then] the imams of Yemen down to the time of the contemporary imam of this era:' the second is devoted to the geography of Yemen and its politics", Messick, The Calligraphic State 126. 55. Chishti, Tahqiqaat preface. lowe a debt of gratitude to the literary critic and poet Najm Hosain Syed for reading the introductory passage of this work with me in Lahore and discussing its broader implications. 56. A pir is thought to embody the barakat (charm) of the saint whose work they carried forth. 57. It is interesting to note that the Sikh court actually preferred to employ scholars who found themselves in straightened circumstances, often by having fallen out of afvor with the Mughal court. This was a strategy which partially insured that a certain distance was kept between Sikh chroniclers and the Mughal rulers whom the Sikhs were often at war with.
85
58. Chishti, Tahqiqaat intro. 59. Chishti, Tahqiqaat intro. 60. Chishti, Tahqiqaat intro. 61. Chishti, Tahqiqaat 888, translation mine. 62. Chisthi, Tahqiqaat 14. Coldstream's original comments were written in Urdu, the translation is mine. 63. Quote attributed to Thomas H. Dyer in Latif, Lahore frontispeice. 64. Latif, Lahore vii, emphasis added. 65. Latif's approach can thus be seen as compatible with the privileging of knwoledge gained first-hand through the senses, particularly sight. 66. Latif, Lahore 261. 67. Latif, Lahore ix-x. 68. Latif, Lahore v. 69. Latif, Lahore iii. 70. Latif, Lahore xii-xiii. 71. Cited in Thornton, "Lahore" 126. 72. "Venacular Books, 1867". 73. Latif, Lahore 158. 74. Latif, Lahore 158. 75. Latif, Lahore 267. 76. Harjot Oberoi, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sik.i Tradition (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997) 156. Katherine Ewing has recently documented how durabl e the tradition of shrine patronage for medicinal purposes still is in present-day- Lahore. See Katherine P. Ewing, Arguing Sainthood: Modernity, Psychoanalysis, and Islam (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997). 77. Latif, Lahore 164. 78. Nagi, Ancient Lahore 110-111. 79. Latif, Lahore 297. 80. Nagi, Ancient Lahore111. 81. Latif, Lahore 170.
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the European and North American cities from these models. 2. A natural area
In
an ecological unit serving as the
habitat of a differentiated group and becoming identified with the character and quality of its inhabitants, e.g., and Italian neighbourhood, slum, wholesale district, etc. For a description of the concept of natural area see Gamilla Lambert and David Wier (eds.), Cities in Modem Britain (Glasgow: Fontana, 1975), pp. 37-38. 3. Janet Abu-Lughod, "Developments in North African Urbanism:
The
Process
of
Declonization,"
in
Urbanization and Counter-Urbanization, ed. Brian J. Berry (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1976), p. 202. 4. Anthony D. King, Colonial Urban Development (London: Rout ledge and Kegan Paul, 1976), pp. 7-8. 5. Samuel V. Noe, "In search of 'the' traditional Islamic city: an analytical proposal with Lahore as a case example," Existics 280 (1980): 74. 6. Ibid., pp. 74-75. 7. Manhattan's residential density in 1960 was 172 persons per acre, and it has declined since then. New York 1960 density derived from Edgar M. Hoover and Raymond Vernon, Anatomy of a Metropolis (New York: Anchor Books, 1962), Table 24, p. 129.
118
8. Lahore
Urban
Development
and
Traffic
Study
(LUDTS), Final Report: Volume III. Walled City (Lahore: Lahore Development Authority, 1981), p. 29. 9. Ibid., p. 20. 10. Ibid., p. 29. 11. King, Colonial Urban Development, pp. 6-7. 12. Gerald Breese, Urbanization in Newly Developing Countries (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966), p. 65. 13. Lahore
Urban
Development
and
traffic
Study
(LUDTS), Final Report: Volume 1. Urban Planning (Lahore: Lahore Development Authority, 1981), p. 87 and p. 209, Table 27. 14. King. Colonial Urban Development, p. 97. 15. G. Rudduck, Urban Biographies (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission, 1965), p. 111. 16. Estimates of squatter population growth have been derived from data in Government of West Pakistan, Master Plan for Greater Lahore (Lahore: The Master Plan Projects Office, 1964), p. 55; and Mahmood Zaman, "Katchi Abadis: How did it all begin?" Viewpoint, October 19, 1980, p. 18. 17. Prior to the emergence of Katchi Abadis, the poor used to find a quarter (one-room house) in Ahatas or in tenements in the Walled City. Low-income rental housing almost disappointed with the escalation of property values.
119
18. M. A. Qadeer and A. Sattar Sikander, "Squatter Settlements: A functional view", in Proceedings of the National Seminar on Planning for Urban Development in the developing countries with special reference to Pakistan, ed. A. Sattar Sikander (Lahore: University of Engineering and Technology, 1978), Table 1,p. 173.
120
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